Chapter 8 Language and society

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language-and-society

8. Language and Society 8.1 the scope of sociolinguisticsLanguage is a social fact. Sociolinguistics is the subdiscipline of linguistics that studies language in social contexts. In view of language as a primary means of communication among individual speakers of a society, sociolinguists are concerned with the social significance of language variation and language use in different speech communitiesincluding regional, ethnic and social groups. Sociolinguists are also concerned with the impact of extralinguistic factors on language use, such as age, gender, profession, and social status.8.1.1 the relatedness between language and society1)social function of language:Apart from its function in communication, language is also used to establish and maintain social relationships;2)Language reveals the socialbackground of the speaker; 3)Language reflects the physicaland social environments of a society4)various social factorsdetermine the individual speaker’s use of language8.1.2 speech community and speech varietyvariety/variationspeech community: a group of people who form a community and share the same language or a particular variety of language.Speech variety (language variety): any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakers. Varieties of language can be classified in respect of their user and use. Socialinguists generally distinguish regional dialects, social dialects and register.8.2 varieties of language8.2.1 dialectal varieties regional dialect:linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region.(language variety according to the user)Although geographical barriers are the major source of regional variation of language, loyalty to one’s native speech and physical and psychological resistance to change are among other reasons of such variation.Linguistic variation may occur at all levels of language (phonological, lexical, morphological, syntactical, semantic), the most distinguishable linguisticfeature of a regional dialect is its accent.Y ou don’t know what you’re talking about (Scottish English: Ye dinnae ken whit yer haverin’ about)/ kœy 13na:u22tso35jat5ts‘a:n53 ŋο13/ (语概6)sociolet (social dialect): linguisitic variety characteristic of a particular social class. (p.115).U non-UHave a bath take a bath Bike, bicycle cycleLuncheon dinner Riding horse riding Sick illMad mental Looking-glass mirror Writing-paper note-paper Wireless radio Lavatory-paper toilet-paper Rich wealth Vegetables greens Pudding sweetScotch Scottish (encyc. P.39)fig.8.2.1: relation between social variation and regional variationheadache: skullhead, head-wark,head-warch, sore head, etc.8.2.2 language and social factors genderIn some languages such as English, German, French, and Russian, women are supposed to use more oftern:emotive adjectives and adverbs:super, lovely, terribly,aufullyexclamations: Goodness me, Oh,dear;intensifiers: so, such (It was so busy)expressions like: I’m afraid…I’m not sure…. Maybe I amwrong but…etc.abundant use of tags: the lessonis terribly interesting,isn’t it?strategies: women have been found to ask more questions, make more use of positive and encouraging ‘noises’, use wider intanational range and a more marked rhythmical stress, and make greater use of the pronouns you and we. They usually tend to use standard form of the languageon many occasions.By contrast, men are much more likely to interrupt, to dispute what has been said, to introduce more new topics and to make more declarations of fact or opinions. (encyc. P.21)agedevelopmental patterns in language acquisitionat phonological, lexical, syntactical, and semantic and pragmatic levels as well. Idiolect: personal dialect of an individual speaker thatcombines elements regarding regional, social, gender, an age variations. Personal variety of a dialectEthnic dialectAn ethnic dialect is a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences. Black English: an ethnic dialecte.g. (p.118)drop of final consonant; deletion of copula;double negationother syntactical features (hu,p. 202)8.2.3 registerlanguage variation according to use. That is, we typically use certain recognizable configurations of linguistic resources in certain contexts. There are three main dimensions (variables) of variation which characterize any register:what is being talked about (field of discourse), the people involved in the communication and the relationship between them(tenor of discourse) and how the language is functioning in the interaction (mode of discourse) (p.120)8.3 Standard dialectA particular variety of language which wins literary and cultural supremacy over the others and gains some kind of institutional support from government administration and news media, and also from individuals who write grammars and books on correct usage.Features of the standard dialect: (p. 123)8.4 Pidgin and CreolePidgin: a special language variety that mixes or blends languages, with a markedly reduced grammatical structure, lexicon and stylistic range, and a much narrower range of functions. It grows up among people to talk to each other, for trading and other reasons. It is the native language of no one.Most pidgins are based onEuropean languages –English, French, Spanish, Dutch, and Portuguese—reflecting the history of colonialismCreole is a pidgin language which has become the mother tongue of a speech community. The switch of pidgin involves a major expansion in the structural linguistic resources available, esp. in vocabulary, grammar, and style, which now have to cope with the everyday demands made upon a mother tongue by its speakers. Pidgins are by nature auxiliarylanguages, learned alongside vernacular languages which are much more developed in structure and use. Creoles, by contrast, are vernaculars in their own right.8.5 bilingualism and diglossia bilingualism: (p.124)diglossia: a language situation in which two markedly divergent varieties, each with it own set of social functions, coexist as standards throughout a community. One of these varieties is used in ordinary conversation; the otheris used for special purposes, primarily in formal speech and writing. It has become conventional in linguistic to refer to the former as ‘low’, and the latter as ‘high’。

语言学导论第八章

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Chapter 8 Language and Society
sociolinguistics社会语言学 --- the study of the relation between language and society
Preliminaries: 1.Find out the differences between male and female languages. 2.Try to discover the distinctions between the language of the younger generation and that of the older generation in China. 3.Think of some examples of code-mixing in the speech of Cantonese.
nguage and age c.jargon: doctor’s language lawyer’s language computational language (Part of a conversation between a judge and a sailor) … The judge: You mean you came into this court as a witness and don’t know what plaintiff means? … The sailor: You mean you came into the court and don’t know where abaft the binnacle is?
speech community言语社区 --- a group of people who have the opportunity to interact with each other and who share not just a single language with its related varieties but also attitudes toward linguistic norms

Chapter 8 Language,Culture and Society

In both cases, it is important to add the cultural fact that the colours in question are present in the environment of all human communities. In addition to biological and cultural universals as factors leading to linguistic universals, there are what may be called functional universals, although it is possible to treat these as forming a subcategory of cultural universals. The structure of a language is shaped to a very significant extent by the functions which it performs in a particular culture and society. While certain widely differing cultures call upon their languages to fulfil divergent functions, there are also certain very basic functions which characterize all languages.
Where such functional universals exist, they may be seen as the natural consequence of biological and/or cultural universals, and they in turn lead naturally to linguistic universals. For example, it has been found that all (or almost all) languages distinguish grammatically between declarative, interrogative and imperative sentences. This linguistic universal is clearly motivated by a functional universal, i.e. speakers in all cultures have found it necessary to use language to make descriptions, to ask questions and to give orders. 8.1.2 Cultural and linguistic peculiarities Just as the combination of biological and cultural/functional universals tends to generate linguistic universals, so differences in one or more of these respects will give languages their unique grammatical and lexical structures.

Chapter_8_Language_and_society

2. The relatedness between language and society ① Language is used to communicate meaning, but also used to establish and maintain social relationships. ② Users of the same language may speak differently, because the kind of language each chooses is partly determined by his social background. ③ To some extent, language, especially its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. ④ Judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic.
④ Implementation (encourage use of the standard)
⑤ Acceptance (use the standard and regard it as the national language)
III. Social dialect (sociolect)
Regional dialect
Accent and dialect
Accent refers to a way of pronunciation which tells the listener something about the speaker‟s regional or social background. Dialect describes the combinational features of grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its accent. Speakers of different regional dialects of the same language have difficulty in communicating. One way out of the communication dilemma is language standardization known as language planning.

Chapter 8 Language and Society

Innatist, represented by Chomsky,claims that human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions such as walking.
Chapter 8 Language and Society
1. How is language related to society? [1] Language is used to establish and maintain social
relationships. Such as “Good morning!”, “Hi!”, “How’s your family?”, “Nice day today, isn’t it?” [2] the kind of language speakers chooses to use is in part determined by their social background. [3] the structure of lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society.
On the one hand, language as an integral part of human being, permeates his thinking and way of viewing the world, language both expresses and embodies cultural reality. On the other, language, as a product of culture, helps perpetuate the culture, and the changes in language uses reflect the cultural changes in return.

语导课chapter8

Mode of discourse It mainly refers to the means of communication. It is concerned with "how" communication is carried out.
Example: a lecture on biology in a technical college
③ Register: a speech variety (style) that is appropriate for different situations (e.g. formal vs. casual). Different registers may be thought of as different grammars within a single person's brain.
② Sociolect a language variety caused by different social conditions. It is spoken by a group that share social features such as occupation, age, class, race, etc.
Tenor of discourse It refers to the role of relationship in the situation in question: who the participants in the communication groups are and in what relationship they stand to each other. It answers the question of 'to whom' the speaker is communicating.

戴炜栋新编英语语言学判断正误题集

戴炜栋新编英语语言学判断正误题集Chapter I IntroductionT 1. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.F 2.Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.F 3. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.T 4. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.T 5. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.T 6. General linguistics, which relates itself to(in contrast to) the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.T 7. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.F 8. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences.T 9. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.F 10. Syntax(rules that govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in L) is different from morphology in that the former not only studies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.T 11. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics.F12. Both semantics(L is used to convey meaning- the study of meaning) and pragmatics( the study of meaning is conducted in the context of language use) study meanings.T 13. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.T 14.Social changes can often bring about language changes.T 15. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.F 16. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.T 17. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.F 18. A diachronic历时（it changes through time）study of language is the description of language at some point in time. Synchronic 共时F 19 Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the spoken language.F 20. The distinction between competence语言能力and performance语言运用was proposed by F. de Saussure. N. ChomskyChapter 2：Phonology1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese and English. (T)2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and they distinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution. （F）3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning. （F）4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not. （F）5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing. （T）6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed. （T）7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream of sounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph. （F）8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the throat, the mouth and the chest. （F）9. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing. （T）10. English consonants can be classified in terms of place of articulation and the part of the tongue that is raised the highest. （F）11. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types into which the consonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar. （F）12. Vowel sounds can be differentiated by a number of factors: the position of tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels. （T）13. According to the shape of the lips, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels and open vowels. （F）14. Any sound produced by a human being is a phoneme. （F）15. Phones are the sounds that can distinguish meaning. （F）16. Phonology is concerned with how the sounds can be classified into different categories. （F）17. A basic way to determine the phonemes of a language is to see if substituting one sound for another results in a change of meaning. （T）18. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two words are said to form a phonemic contrast. （F）19. The rules governing the phonological patterning are language specific. （T）20. Distinctive features of sound segments can be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.（T）Chapter 3：Morphology1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.（T）2.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language. （F）3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study of morphology.（T）4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.（T）5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.（T）6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.（T）7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.（T）8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.（F）9. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words.（F）10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.（T）Chapter 4： 1. Syntax is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of morphemes into words. （F）2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.（T）3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.（F）4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker are known as linguistic competence. （T）5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend. （T）6. In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other. （T）7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.（T）8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.（F）9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase. （F）10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.（T）11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.（F）12. A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.（T）13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.（T）14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.（T）Chapter 5 Semantics1. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American English but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or American English. （F）2. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. （F）3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations. （T）4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsic and inherent relation to the physical world of experience. （F）5. Contextualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. （T）6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. （T）7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components. （F）8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality. （T）9. “it is hot.” is a no-place predication because it contains no argument. （T）10. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analysis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. （T）Chapter 6：Pragmatics1.Both semantics and pragmatics study how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication（F）2.Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. （F）3.It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered. （T）4.What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. （T）5.The major difference between a sentence and an utterance is that a sentence is not uttered while an utterance is. （F）6.The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent. （F）7.The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable. （F）8.Utterances always take the form of complete sentences （F）9.Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle. （F）10.Speech act theory started in the late 50’s of the 20th century.（T）11.Austin made the distinction between a constative and a performative. （T）12.Perlocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.（F）Chapter 10&11：（Second）Language Acquisition1.L1 development and L2 development seem to involve the same processes. （F）2.The capacity to acquire one's first language is a fundamental human trait that all human beings are equally well possessed with. （T）3.All normal children have equal ability to acquire their first language. （T）4.Children follow a similar acquisition schedule of predictable stages along the route of language development across cultures, though there is an idiosyncratic variation in the amount of time that takes individuals to master different aspects of the grammar. （T）5.Humans can be said to be predisposed and biologically programmed to acquire at least one language.6.Some languages are inferior, or superior, to other languages. (T)nguage acquisition is primarily the acquisition of the vocabulary and the meaning of language. (F)8.Human beings are genetically predetermined to acquire language, this genetic predisposition is a sufficient condition for language development. (F)9.Children who grow up in culture where caretaker speech is absent acquire their native language more slowly than children who are exposed to caretaker speech. (F)10.In mother tongue acquisition, normal children are not necessarily equally successful. (F)11.For the vast majority of children, language development occurs spontaneously and require little conscious instruction on the part of adults. (T)12.The available evidence to date indicates that an explicit teaching of correct forms to young children plays a minor role at best. (T)13.Correction and reinforcement are not key factors in child language development as they were claimed to be. (T)14.Imitation, plays at best a very minor role in the child's mastery of language. (T)15.Observations of children in different language areas of the world reveal that the developmental stages are similar, possibly universal, whatever the nature of the input. (T)16.A child's babbling seems to depend on the presence of acoustic, auditory input. (F)17.In general, the two-word stage begins roughly in the second half of the child's first year. (F)18.Children's two-word expressions are absent of syntactic or morphological markers. (T)19.Children first acquire the sounds in all languages of the world, no matter what language they are exposed to, and in late stages acquire the more difficult sounds. (T)20. Language acquisition begins at about the same time as lateralization does and is normally complete, as far as the essentials are concerned, by the time that the process of lateralization comes to an end. (T)Chapter12：language & brain (Psycholinguistics)1.The linguistic ability of human beings depends primarily on the structure of the vocal cords. （F）2.Human beings are the only organisms in which one particular part of the left half of the brain is larger than the corresponding part of the right half. （T）3.The case of Phineas Gage suggests that if our language ability is located in the brain, it is clear that it is not situated right at the front. （T）4.In general, the right side of the brain controls voluntary movements of, and responds to signals from, the left side of the body, whereas the left side controls voluntary movements of, and responds to signals from, the right side of the body. （T）nguage functions are believed to be lateralized primarily in the left hemisphere of the brain. （T）6. The language we speak determines the way we perceive the world and therefore the nature of thought. （F）7. Human beings can not think without language, just as they can not speak without thinking. （F）8.If a language lacks a word, its speakers will not be able to grasp its concept. （F）9. Generally speaking, left hemisphere is responsible for language and speech, analytic reasoning, associative thought, etc., while the right hemisphere is responsible for perception of nonlinguistic sounds, holistic reasoning, recognition of musical melodies, etc. （T）10. Language by no means determines the ways we perceive the objective world, but by its convenience, availability, and habitual use, does influence the perceptions of human being. （T）Chapter 7：Language Change（Historical Linguistics）1.One of the tasks of the historical linguists is to explore methods to reconstruct linguistic history and establish the relationship between languages. （T）nguage change is a gradual and constant process, therefore often indiscernible to speakers of the same generation. （T）3.The history of the English language is divided into the periods of Old English, Middle English and Modern English. （T）4.Middle English began with the arrival of Anglo-Saxons, who invaded the British Isles from northern Europe. （F）5.In Old English, all the nouns are inflected to mark nominative, genitive, dative and accusative cases. （F）6.In Old English, the verb of a sentence often precedes the subject rather than follows it. （T）7.A direct consequence of the Renaissance Movement was the revival of French as a literary language. （F）8.In general, linguistic change in grammar is more noticeable than that in the sound system and the vocabulary of a language. （F）9.The sound changes include changes in vowel sounds, and in the loss, gain and movement of sounds. （T）10.The least widely-spread morphological changes in the historical development of English are the loss and addition of affixes. （F）11.In Old English, the morphosyntactic rule of adjective agreement stipulated that the endings of adjective must agree with the head noun in case, number and gender. （T）12.The word order of Modern English is more variable than that of Old English.（F）13.Derivation refers to the process by which new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words. （T）14.“Smog” is a word formed by the word-forming process called acronymy. （F）15.“fridge” is a word formed by abbreviation. （F）16.Modern linguists are able to provide a consistent account for the exact causes of all types of language change.（F）17.Sound assimilation may bring about the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence, as in the case of change of “Engla-land” to “England”. （T）18.Rule elaboration occurs when there is a need to reduce ambiguity and increase communicative clarity or expressiveness. （T）nguage change is always a change towards the simplification of language rules （F）20.The way children acquire the language is one of the causes for language change.（T）Chapter 8：Language and Society (Sociolinguistics)1. Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline of linguistics that studies social contexts. （F）2. Language as a means of social communication is a homogeneous system with a homogeneous group of speakers.（F）3. Language use varies from one speech community to another, from one regional group to another, from one social group to another, and even from one individual to another. （T）4. The goal of sociolinguistics is to explore the nature of language variation and language use amonga variety of speech communities and in different social situations. （T）5.The linguistic markers that characterize individual social groups may serve as social markers of group membership. （T）6. From the sociolinguistic perspective, the term “speech variety ” can not be used to refer to standard language, vernacular language, dialect or pidgin. （F）7.Functional speech varieties are known as regional dialects. （F）8. The most distinguishable linguistic feature of a regional dialect is its grammar and uses of vocabulary. （F）9.Geographical barriers are the only source of regional variation of language. （F）10. A person's social backgrounds do not exert a shaping influence on his choice of linguistic features. （F）11.Two speakers of the same language or dialect use their language or dialect in the same way. (F)12. Every speaker of a language is, in a stricter sense, a speaker of a distinct idiolect. (T)13. The standard language is a better language than nonstandard languages. (F)14. A lingua franca can only be used within a particular country for communication among groups of people with different linguistic backgrounds. (F)15.Pidgins are linguistically inferior to standard languages. （F）16. A pidgin usually reflects the influence of the higher, or dominant, language in its lexicon and that of the lower language in their phonology and occasionally syntax. （T）17.The major difference between a pidgin and a creole is that the former usually has its native speakers while the latter doesn't. （F）18.Bilingualism and diglossia mean the same thing. （F）19.The kind of name or term speakers use to call or refer to someone may indicate something of their social relationship to or personal feelings about that individual. （T）20.The use of euphemisms has the effect of removing derogatory overtones and the disassociative effect as such is usually long-lasting. （F）。

自考本科英语语言学Chapter8LanguageAndSociety

Chapter 8 Language And Society1. Language is not only used to communicate meaning, but also used to establishand maintain social relationships.1. The relatedness between language and society2. The users of the same language in a sense all speak differently related to their语言和社会的关联social background.3. The structure of language vocabulary is different,reflects both the physical andsocial environments of a society.There are different words about snow in Eskimo.1.The scope of sociolinguistics 1. Speech community (linguistic community) : is widely used by sociolinguists to refer to社会语言学范围 2. Speech community and speech variety a community mainly based language. It’s generally defined as a group of people who言语社团和言语变体have the opportunity to interact with each other and there are exist various social groupsdefined not only by the speaker’s geographical background, but also by their educationalbackground, their occupation, gender, age, or ethnic affiliation.2. Speech variety, or language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech usedby a speaker or a group of speakers. Linguistic features of a speech variety can be foundat the lexical, the phonological, the morphological, or the syntactical level of the languageThree types of speech variety: regional dialects, sociolects and registers.3. Two approaches to sociolinguistic studies1 Regional dialect: is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region. (同一地理区域使用的)2.V arieties of language 2 sociolect: refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class. (特定社会阶层使用的)语言的各种变体 1. Dialectal varieties 3 language and gender.女性的语言比男性“更正确”原因在女性对自己身份更看重(more status-conscious)4 idiolect: is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender and age5 language and age6 ethnic dialect; is a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it’s mainly spoken by a lessprivileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination and segregation1. Field of discourse语场：指社会行为的类型，即正在进行的活动的领域和目的，包括谈话的主题。

语言学课件·Language&Society

A group of people who live together and share the same language A group of people who have opportunity to interact with each other and share not only the same language (also its related varieties) but also attitude towards linguistic norms A group of people for specific study purpose
•Speech variety:
Any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speaker. Speech variety can be found at the lexical, the phonological, the morphological and so on. Variety is considered more neutral. Sociolinguistic studies mainly focus on regional dialects, sociolects, and register. These items will be analyzed in detailed by our partner from Group ....
Determines
• Background
Reveals
Language Use
• Video Clips
User Vocabulary of language reflects both physical and social environment of a society;

Chapter 8 Language and Society

8.1.1 The relatedness between language and society
1. the definition of sociolinguistics
2. (optional) The inter-relationship between language and society: (1) Language is used to establish and maintain social relationships; (2) The language used by speakers is in part determined by their social backgrounds. And language reveals information about its speaker;
entirely social.
8.1.2 Speech community and speech variety 1. the definition of speech community 2. the definition of speech variety
8.1.3 Two approaches to sociolinguistic studies
1. macro-sociolinguistics vs. micro-sociolinguistics 2. (True or false) Macro-linguistics refers to a bird’s
eye view of the language used in society.
8.2.1 Dialectal varieties
5. The most striking difference in language use between

Language and Culture汇编

Language symbolizes cultural reality
E.g. the word “dog” ( It not only reflects people’s attitudes, beliefs and knowledge, but also embodies their cultural identity and background)
Content
dress culture, enterprise culture or food culture
Material: concrete, substantial and observable Spiritual: abstract, implicit and hidden
2. language and culture
7) Cultural-related idioms, proverbs and metaphor
1) Greetings and terms of address
1. How do you greet / address a stranger (25, female; 68, male) on the road? 2. How do you greet / address a neighbor (25, female; 68 male) of you?
Culture affects/ constrains language
(24 divisions of the solar year)
Language changes reflect cultural changes
--Online communication e.g. moving towards greater informality --Influence of science and technology e.g. computer-related words or expressions

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版课后习题答案chapter8

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版课后习题答案chapter8Chapter 8 Language and Society1. How is language related to society?答：There are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society. One ofthem is that while language is principally used to communicate meaning, it is also used toestablish and maintain social relationships. This social function of language is embodied in the useof such utterances as “Good morning!”, “Hi!”, “How's you r family?”, “Nice day today, isn Another indication is that users of the same language in a sense all speak differently. The kind of language each of them chooses to use is in part determined by his social background. Andlanguage, in its turn, reveals information about its speaker. When we speak, we cannot avoidgiving clues to our listeners about ourselves.Then to some extent, language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both thephysical and the social environments of a society. For example while there is only one word inimo. This is a reflection of the need for the Eskimos toEnglish for “snow”, there are several in Eskmake distinctions between various kinds of snow in their snowy living environment.As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in whichit is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social. To a linguist, all language formsand accents are equally good as far as they can fulfill the communicative functions they areexpected to fulfill. Therefore, judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguisticvarieties are social rather than linguistic. A case in point is the use of the postvocalic [r]. While inEnglish accents without postvocalic [r] are considered to be more correct than accents with it, inNew York city, accents with postvocalic [r] enjoys more prestige and are considered more correctthan without it.2. Explain with an example that the evaluation of language is social rather than linguistic.答：The evaluation of language is social rather than linguistic. This is because every languageor language variety can express all ideas that its native speakers want to express. That is to say,language and language variety are equal in expressing meaning. For example, themuch-prejudiced Black English can be used by the black people to communicate with each otherwithout feeling any hindrance. But many other people think Black English is not pure Englishbecause it does not conform to their grammar and not adopted by educated people. As a result,many people feel shameful to use Black English. From this example we can know that theevaluation of language is social, not linguistic.3. What are the main social dialects discussed in this chapter? How do they jointly determineidiolect?答：The main social dialects discussed in this chapter are regional dialect, sociolect, gender andage. Idiolect is a personal dialect, of an individual speaker that combines elements regardingregional, social, gender, and age variations. These factors jointly determine the way he/she talks.While the language system provides all its users with the same set of potentials, the realization ofthese potentials is individualized by a number of social factors, resulting in idiolects.4. In what sense is the standard dialect a special variety of language?答：First of all, the standard dialect is based on a selected variety of the language, usually it isthe local speech of an area which is considered the nation's political and commercial center. Forexample, standard English developed out of the English dialects used in and around London asthey were modified over the centuries by speakers in the court, by scholars from universities andwriters. Gradually the English used by the upper classes in the capital city diverged markedly fromthe English used by other social groups and came to be regarded as the model for all those whowished to speak and write well.Second, the standard dialect is not dialect a child acquires naturally like his regionaldialect. It is a superimposed variety; it is a variety imposed from above over the range of regionaldialects. Some government agency writes grammar books and dictionaries to ‘fix’ this variety everyone agrees on what is correct usage of the language. So it has a widely accepted codifiedgrammar and vocabulary. Once codification takes place, it is necessary for an ambitious citizen tolearn to use the correct language and to avoid ‘incorrect’ language. Therefore, the standard diale is the variety which is taught and learnt in schools.Then the standard dialect has some special functions. Also designated as the official ornational language of a country, the standard dialect is used for such official purposes asgovernment documents, education, news reporting; it is the language used on any formaloccasions.5. What is register as used by Halliday? Illustrate it with an example of your own.答：According to Halliday, “Language v aries as its function varies; it differs in differentThe type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is asituations.”register. Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: field ofdiscourse, tenor of discourse, and mode of discourse.For example, a lecture on linguistics could be identified as Field: scientific (linguistic)Tenor: teacher — students (formal, polite)Mode: oral (academic lecturing)6. What linguistic features of Black English do you know? Do you think Black English is anillogical and inferior variety of English? Why (not)?答：(1) A prominent phonological feature of Black English is the simplification of consonantclusters at the end of a word. According to this consonant deletion rule, the final-position[men], desk [des], and toldconsonants are often deleted; thus “passed” is pronounced [pa:s], mend[t??l].A syntactic feature of Black English that has often been cited to show its illogicality is thedeletion of the link verb “be”. In Black English we frequently come across sentences without thecopula verb: “They mine”, “You crazy”, “Her hands cold”, and “That house big”. In fac verb deletion is not a unique feature of Black English; it is also found in some other dialects ofEnglish and in languages like Russian and Chinese. Another syntactic feature of Black Englishthat has been the target of attack is the use of double negation constructions, e.g.(8 — 2) He don't know nothing. (He doesn't know anything.)(8 — 3) I ain't afraid of no ghosts. (I'm not afraid of ghosts.)Some people consider these sentences illogical because they claim that two negatives makea positive. But in fact such double negative constructions were found in all dialects of English ofthe earlier periods.(2) (略)7. What peculiar features docs pidgin have?答：Pidgins arose from a blending of several languages such as Chinese dialects and English, African dialects and French, African dialects and Portuguese. Usually a European language serves as the basis of the pidgin in the sense that some of its grammar and vocabulary is derived from the European language used by traders and missionaries in order to communicate with peoples whose languages they did not know.Pidgins typically have a limited vocabulary and a very reduced grammatical structurevariety performs its characterized by the loss of inflections, gender end case, The “simplified”functions as trading and employment.8. How do bilingualism and diglossia differ, and what do they have in common?答：Bilingualism refers to the situation that in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs whenthe situation changes. But instead of two different languages, in a diglossic situation two varietiesof a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.The two languages of bilingualism and the two varieties of diglossia each has different roleto play as situation changes.。

语言学导论-第8章LanguageSociety

Language and society
Language and society
Sociolinguistics 社会语言学 to study the relation
between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures
I ain’t afraid of no ghosts.
Register
“Language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” (Halliday)
Register: the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation
same geographical region same regional dialect
speak differently
Features: phonetic features: -n’ -- -ing grammatical level: I can’t eat nothing. accent: Received Pronunciation (RP) 标准发音 (upper class speech, high-status marker)
icebox- fridge 火星文：符号、繁体字、日文、韩文、冷僻字或汉字拆分后的部分等
非正规化文字符号组合而成（似乱码或错字，不规范，字面无法了解）
偶口以跟你作朋友吗？ 3Q 你是我的好麻吉！私今天没事做。海皮，粉，河蟹，小盆友，……
Dialectal varieties

教案8_Chapter_VIII_Language_and_Society

教案8_Chapter_VIII_Language_and_SocietyChapter 8. Language & SocietyI. Teaching contentsIn this chapter the following items will be discussed:1.About the scope of sociolinguistics2.Varieties of languageDialectal varieties(方言变体)Register(语域)Degree of formality3. Standard dialect4. Pidgin and Creole (洋泾浜英语和克里奥耳语)5. Bilingualism and diglossia(双语和双言现象)II Teaching procedures1. Recommending some books & articles:[1] Fasold, R. 2000. The Sociolinguistics of Language.3rd ed. Foreign Language Teaching and Reach Press & Blackwell Publishers Ltd.[2] Wardhaugh, R. 2000. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. 3rd ed. Foreign Language T eaching and Research Press & Blackwell Publishers Ltd. [3] 白解红，性别语言文化与语用研究[M]，湖南：湖南教育出版社，2000 [4] 戴绍铭，文化语言学导论[M]，北京：语文出版社，1996[4] 林学增，中英文化习俗比较[M]，北京：外语教育与文化出版社，1999[5] 刘在良，语言中的性别歧视现象[J]，山东外语教学，996（3）[6] 刘建达，语言中的性别歧视与解放[J]，山东外语教育，1998（1）[7] 刘世生，周玉芳，汉英词汇反映的妇女社会地位变迁[J]，外语教学，2002（7）[8] 赵蓉晖，语言与社会性别——俄语研究的新方向[J]，外语研究，2002（4）[9] 吴长镛，姚竹云，汉语中的性别歧视[J]，修辞学习，2002（6）[10] 王牧群，英语中的性别歧视现象及其文化内涵[J]，北京第二外国语学院学报，2002（5）2. Presenting some questions:1).How is language related to society?2).What are the main social dialects ? How do they jointly determine idiolect?3). In what sense is the standard dialect a special variety of language?4).Illustrate with examples register used by Halliday?5). What peculiar features does pidgin have?6).What are the similarities and differences between bilingualism and diglossia?3. Detailed discussionAbout the scope of sociolinguistics1). What is sociolinguistics?Socialinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.What is speech community?(言语社区)A group of people who form a community, e.g. a village, a region, a nation, and who have at least one speech variety in common.2)What is speech variety?(言语变体)A term sometimes used instead of language, dialect, sociolect, pidgin, creole, etc. because it is considered more neutral than such terms. It may also be used for different varietiesof one language, e.g. American English, Australian English, Indian English.The Ambiguities and Obscurities of the Terms: Language & DialectHow many languages are there in the world?How many dialects are there in China?The Ambiguities and Obscurities of the Terms: Language & Dialect `Language‘ always the superordinate and `dialect' the subordinate terms. Language' as the superordinated term can be used without reference to dialects.`Dialect' is meaningless unless it is implied that it ―belongs‖ to a language. Hence every dialect is a language, but not every language is a dialect. About the Variety of language1). Varieties of language related to the user (dialectal varieties 方言变体)a. regional dialect (地域方言) : a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region. It is associated with separation caused by physical conditions.geographical barriers;lack of communication;loyalty to one‘s n ative speech;physical and psychological resistance to change.b. social-class dialect/ sociolect (社会方言) : a linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class. It is associated with separation brought about by different social conditions. Accent is an important marker of sociolect.c. language & genderGender: biological category;grammatical category;social category.The study of language and gender was initiated in 1975 by three books: Marry Ritchie Key, Male/Female Language Robin Lakoff, Language and Women’s PlaceBarrie Thorne and Nancy Henley (Eds.) Language and Sex: Difference and DominanceDo the men and women who speak a particular language use it in different ways?Lakoff (1973, pp.50-2) says that, in each of the following pairs, it is quite clear which utterance is used by females:1a. Oh dear, you‘ve put the peanut butter in the refrigerator again.1b. Shit, you‘ve put the peanut butter in the refrigerator again.2a. What a terrific idea!2b. What a divine idea!4. Women use ―empty‖ adjectives (adorable, charming, divine, nice).5.Women use tag questions more than men (e.g., ―The weather is really nice today, isn‘t it‖?)6.Women use question intonation in statements to express uncerta inty (―My name is Tammy?‖)7.Women speak in ―italics‖ (use intensifiers more than men;e.g., ―I feel so happy‖).8.Women use hedges more than men do (―It‘s kinda nice‖).9.Women use (hyper-)correct grammar.10.Women don‘t tell jokes.How different?1.In the area of phonologyIn Gros Ventre, an Amerindian language of the northeastUnited States, women have palatalized velar stops where men have palatalized dental stops, e.g., female kjatsa ?bread‘ and male djatsa.2.In the area of morphology and vocabularyLakoff (1973), claims that women use color words like mauve, beige, aquamarine, lavender, and magenta but most men do not. She also maintains that adjectives such as adorable, charming, divine, lovely and sweet are commonly used by women but only very rarely by men. Women are also said to have their own vocabulary for emphasizing certain effects on them, words and expressions such as so good, such fun, exquisite, precious, darling, and fantastic.3.In the area of certain grammatical mattersLakoff says that women may answer a question with a statement that employs the rising intonation pattern usually associated with a question rather than the falling intonation pattern associated with making a firm statement. Women often add tag questions to statements, e.g., ?They caugh t the robber last week, didn‘t they?‘4.Other gender-linked differencesWomen and men may have different paralinguistic(副语言) systems and move and gesture differently. The suggestion has been made that these often require women to appear to be submissive to men.Women are said not to employ the profanities (亵渎) and obscenities men use, or, if they do, use them in different circumstances or are judged differently for using them.Women are also sometimes required to be silent in situations in which men may speak.Why different?John Gray: ?Men are from Mars, women are from Venus.‘Many of the differences may result from different socialization practices (Philips, Steele, and Tanz, 1987) Some possible explanations1.The ‘status’ explanation–based on the link between prestigious language and social statusIn several places in her chapter on ?Status and standard/nonstandardla nguage‘, Key (1975) suggests that women use favored linguistic forms as a way of achieving status through the use of linguistic features which is denied them in other aspects of life.In his overview of linguistic sex differentiation, Trudgill (1983) provides a series of related explanations:The social position of women in our society has traditionally been less secure than that of men. It may be, therefore, that it has been more necessary for women to secure and signal their social status linguistically and in other ways, and they may for this reason be more aware of the importance of this type of signal.Men in our society have traditionally been rated socially by their occupation, their earning power, and perhaps by their abilities – in other words, by what they do. Until recently, however, this has been much more difficult for women, and indeed women continue to suffer discrimination against them in many occupations. It may be, therefore, that they have had to be rated instead, to a greater extent than men, on how they appear. Since they have not been rated, to the same extent that men have, by their occupation or by their occupational success, other signals of status, including speech, have been correspondingly more important.2.The ‘network’ explanation–based on Milroy‘s work onsocial networks, which showed that the least prestigious forms were used by the people who were most tightly integrated into the local working-class social networks.According to this view, the extent to which a person uses a low-status form reflects the strength of their ties to the local networks, and gender differences are relevant because men generally have higher network strength than women.3.The ‘sophistication’ explanation– based on the idea that the modern urban societies to which our generalization applies are organized hierarchically between two crude social stereotypes, the ?rough‘ and thesophisticated‘.Four other social stereotypes defined by social class and gender: amiddle-class man and woman, and a working-class man and woman. According to this view of society, social behavior should be expected to be polarized between two models defined by the ?rough‘ working class male and the ?sophisticated‘ middle-class female.Strategies suggested for avoiding the use of the generic masculine pronoun:1. Drop the masculine pronoun.The average student is worried about grades.(The average student is worried about his grades.)We will hire the best person regardless of sex.(We will hire the best-qualified person regardless of his sex.)2. Rewrite the sentence in the plural rather than the singular.Students can select their own topics.(Each student can select his own topic.)Students can select their own topics.(Each student can select his own topic.)3. Substitute the pronoun one or one‘s for he or his.One should do one‘s best.(Everyone should do his best.)4. Use he or she, his or her (in speech or writing ) or s/he (in writing).Each student will do better if he or she [s/he] has a voice in the decision. (Each student will do better if he has a voice in the decision.)5. Use their when the subject is an indefinite pronoun.When everyone contributes their own ideas, the discussion will be a success.(When everyone contributes his own ideas, the discussion will be a success.)6. Use the unmarked categoryactress---actor, hostess---host,waitress---waiter, stewardess---flight attendant.d. language & ageThe most striking difference is found at the lexical level.Causes (complex):changing society;different social attitude;different value judgemente. idiolect (个人语言): the language system of an individual as expressed by the way he or she speaks or writes within the overall system of a particular language.In its widest sense, someone‘s idiolect includes their way of communicating, for example, their choice of utterances and the way they interpret the utterances made by others. In narrower sense, an idiolect may include those features, either is speech orwriting, which distinguish one individual from others, such as voice quality, pitch, and speech tempoand rhythm.f. ethnic dialect (种族方言): a social dialect of a language that cuts across regional differences; it is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation.Features of Black English:Phonological feature:simplicity of consonant clusters.Syntactic feature: deletion of the link verb‖be‖;the use of double negation.They mine. You crazy.He don‘t know nothing.2). Register : varieties related to use. (语域)According to Hallida y, ―Language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.‖The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Three social variables that determine the register:Field of discourse( 语场): why; about what; non-technical; technical Tenor of discourse(语旨): to whomthe level of formalitythe level of technicalityMode of discourse(语式): how; speaking; writinglinguistic repertoire(语言变体库): the totality of linguistic varieties possessed by an individual.The language or language varieties that a person knows and uses within his or her speech community in everyday communication.一个人所掌握的、并且用于本人言语社团的日常交际中的语言或语言变体。

英语语言学第八章语言与社会

Register 语域
▪ Register, in a broader sense, according to Halliday, “language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.
▪ Tenor of discourse: the role of relationship in the situation in question: who are the participants in the communication and in what relationship they stand to each other. (customer-shop-assistant, teacherstudent, etc.)语旨
away, please? ▪ Formal: Visitors should go up the stairs at once. ▪ Frozen: Visitors would make their way at once to the
upper floor by way of the staircase.
▪ When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to have become a Creole.

新编简明英语语言学-Chapter-8-Language-and-society

新编简明英语语⾔学-Chapter-8-Language-and-society新编简明英语语⾔学-Chapter-8-Language-and-soc ietyChapter 8 Language and society语⾔和社会知识点：1.*Definition: sociolinguistics; regionaldialect; sociolect; idiolect; ReceivedPronunciation2.Relatedness between language and society3.*Varieties of language4.*Halliday’s register theory5.Degree of formality6.Standard Dialect7.# Pidgin and Creole8.*#Bilingualism vs. diglossia考核⽬标：识记：*Definition: sociolinguistics; regional dialect; sociolect; idiolect; Received Pronunciation领会：Relatedness between language and society; Varieties of language; Degree of formality; Degree of formality; Standard Dialect; Pidgin and Creole简单应⽤：Bilingualism vs. diglossia综合应⽤：Halliday’s register theory⼀、定义1.Sociolinguistics 社会语⾔学: is s the sub-field of linguistics that studies relation between language and society, between the ues of language and the social structures in which the users of lamguage live. 社会语⾔学是语⾔学中的⼀个次领域，它研究语⾔与社会的关系，以及语⾔的运⽤和语⾔使⽤者所在的社会结构之间的关系。

新编简明英语语言学教程第二版课后习题答案

Chapter 8 Language and Society1. How is language related to society答： There are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society. One of them is that while language is principally used to communicate meaning, it is also used to establish and maintain social relationships. This social function of language is embodied in the use of such utterances as “Good morning!”, “Hi!”, “How's your family”, “Nice day today, isn't it”.Another indication is that users of the same language in a sense all speak differently. The kind of language each of them chooses to use is in part determined by his social background. And language, in its turn, reveals information about its speaker. When we speak, we cannot avoid giving clues to our listeners about ourselves.Then to some extent, language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. For example while there is only one word in English for “snow”, there are several in Eskimo. This is a reflection of the need for the Eskimos to make distinctions between various kinds of snow in their snowy living environment.As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, and the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social. To a linguist, all language forms and accents are equally good as far as they can fulfill the communicative functions they are expected to fulfill. Therefore, judgments concerning the correctness and purity of linguistic varieties are social rather than linguistic. A case in point is the use of the postvocalic [r]. While in English accents without postvocalic [r] are considered to be more correct than accents with it, in New York city, accents with postvocalic [r] enjoys more prestige and are considered more correct than without it.2. Explain with an example that the evaluation of language is social rather than linguistic.答： The evaluation of language is social rather than linguistic. This is because every language or language variety can express all ideas that its native speakers want to express. That is to say, language and language variety are equal in expressing meaning. For example, the much-prejudiced Black English can be used by the black people to communicate with each other without feeling any hindrance. But many other people think Black English is not pure English because it does not conform to their grammar and not adopted by educated people. As a result, many people feel shameful to use Black English. From this example we can know that the evaluation of language is social, not linguistic.3. What are the main social dialects discussed in this chapter How do they jointly determine idiolect答： The main social dialects discussed in this chapter are regional dialect, sociolect, gender and age. Idiolect is a personal dialect, of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender, and age variations. Thesefactors jointly determine the way he/she talks. While the language system provides all its users with the same set of potentials, the realization of these potentials is individualized by a number of social factors, resulting in idiolects.4. In what sense is the standard dialect a special variety of language答： First of all, the standard dialect is based on a selected variety of the language, usually it is the local speech of an area which is considered the nation's political and commercial center. For example, standard English developed out of the English dialects used in and around London as they were modified over the centuries by speakers in the court, by scholars from universities and writers. Gradually the English used by the upper classes in the capital city diverged markedly from the English used by other social groups and came to be regarded as the model for all those who wished to speak and write well.Second, the standard dialect is not dialect a child acquires naturally like his regional dialect. It is a superimposed variety; it is a variety imposed from above over the range of regional dialects. Some government agency writes grammar books and dictionaries to ‘fix’ this variety and everyone agrees on what is correct usage of the language. So it has a widely accepted codified grammar and vocabulary. Once codification takes place, it is necessary for an ambitious citizen to learn to use the correct language and to avoid ‘incorrect’ language. Therefore, the standard dialect is the variety which is taught and learnt in schools.Then the standard dialect has some special functions. Also designated as the official or national language of a country, the standard dialect is used for such official purposes as government documents, education, news reporting; it is the language used on any formal occasions.5. What is register as used by Halliday Illustrate it with an example of your own.答：According to Halliday, “Language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register. Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register: field of discourse, tenor of discourse, and mode of discourse.For example, a lecture on linguistics could be identified asField: scientific (linguistic)Tenor: teacher — students (formal, polite)Mode: oral (academic lecturing)6. What linguistic features of Black English do you know Do you think Black English is an illogical and inferior variety of English Why (not)答： (1) A prominent phonological feature of Black English is the simplification of consonant clusters at the end of a word. According to this consonant deletion rule, the final-position consonants are often deleted; thus “passed” is pronounced [pa:s], mend [men], desk [des], and told [tl].A syntactic feature of Black English that has often been cited to show itsillogicality is the deletion of the link verb “be”. In Black English we frequently come across sentences without the copula verb: “They mine”, “You crazy”, “Her hands cold”, and “That house big”. In fact, copula verb deletion is not a unique feature of Black English; it is also found in some other dialects of English and in languages like Russian and Chinese. Another syntactic feature of Black English that has been the target of attack is the use of double negation constructions, .(8 — 2) He don't know nothing. (He doesn't know anything.)(8 — 3) I ain't afraid of no ghosts. (I'm not afraid of ghosts.)Some people consider these sentences illogical because they claim that two negatives make a positive. But in fact such double negative constructions were found in all dialects of English of the earlier periods.(2) (略)7. What peculiar features docs pidgin have答： Pidgins arose from a blending of several languages such as Chinese dialects and English, African dialects and French, African dialects and Portuguese. Usually a European language serves as the basis of the pidgin in the sense that some of its grammar and vocabulary is derived from the European language used by traders and missionaries in order to communicate with peoples whose languages they did not know. Pidgins typically have a limited vocabulary and a very reduced grammatical structure characterized by the loss of inflections, gender end case, The “simplified” variety performs its functions as trading and employment.8. How do bilingualism and diglossia differ, and what do they have in common 答： Bilingualism refers to the situation that in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with each having a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes. But instead of two different languages, in a diglossic situation two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a definite role to play.The two languages of bilingualism and the two varieties of diglossia each has different role to play as situation changes.。

Chapter 8 Language and society

language-and-society

语言学导论第八章

Chapter 8 Language,Culture and Society

Chapter_8_Language_and_society

Chapter 8 Language and Society

语导课chapter8

戴炜栋新编英语语言学判断正误题集

自考本科英语语言学Chapter8LanguageAndSociety

语言学课件·Language&Society

Chapter 8 Language and Society

Language and Culture汇编

《新编简明英语语言学教程》第二版课后习题答案chapter8

语言学导论-第8章LanguageSociety

教案8_Chapter_VIII_Language_and_Society

英语语言学 第八章 语言与社会

新编简明英语语言学-Chapter-8-Language-and-society

新编简明英语语言学教程第二版课后习题答案

英语语言学第八章语言与社会