语言学第六章chapter6
语言学chapter6syntax
语言学chapter6syntaxchapter 6Chapter Six: SyntaxAims:1. Familiarize students with different types of grammar.2. Generative grammar and phrase structure rules.I. DefinitionSyntax, derived originally from Greek, is made up of two morphemes: syn-(meaning together) and –tax (to arrange), hence the literal meaning “a setting out together” or “arrangement”. In linguistics, it refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.We have already considered two levels of description used in the study of language (phonetic and morphological). With these descriptions, we could characterize all the words/phrases of a language in terms of their phonetic and morphological make-up.However, we have not yet accounted for the fact that these words can only be combined in a limited number of patterns. We recognize that the phrase the lucky boys is a well-formed piece of English, but that the following two phrases are not at all well-formed.*boys the lucky *lucky boys theSo we need a way of describing the structure of phrases andsentences which will account for all of the grammatical sequences and rule out all the ungrammatical sequences. Providing such an account involves us in the study of grammar.II. Types of grammarl Traditional Grammar and the prescriptive approach: Grammar as ‘linguistic etiquette’, i.e. the identification of the best/proper structures to be used;l Structuralism and descriptive approach: Grammar as the study and analysis of the structures found in a language, with the aim of establishing a description of the grammar of a particular language.l Universal grammar and Generative approach: Grammar as a form of internal linguistic knowledge that operates in the appropriate production and comprehension of natural languages.2.1 Traditional GrammarTraditionally, a sentence is seen as a sequence of words. Whether a word can occupy a certain position in a sentence depends on its grammatical category rather than its meaning. Therefore, the study of sentence formation involves a great deal of the study of the word in terms of parts of speech, subject predicate, number, gender and case. etcThese categories can be discussed in isolation, but their role in describing language structure becomes clearer when we consider them is terms of agreement. For example, we say that the verb likes ‘agrees with’ the noun boy in the sentence The boy likes his dog. This agreement is partially based on the category of number, that is, whether the noun is singular or plural. It is also based on the category of person, which covers the distinctions of first person, second person and third person. The different forms of English pronouns are usually described in terms of person and number, in that we have firstperson singular (I), second person singular (you), third person singular (he, she, it), first person plural (we) and so on. So, in the sentence The boy likes his dog, we have a noun boy, which is third person singular, and the verb likes ‘agrees with” the noun.In addition, the form of the verb must also be described in terms of another category, that is of tense. In this case, the verb (likes) is in the present tense, which is distinguished from the past tense (liked). The sentence is also in the active voice, with the boy doing the liking. An alternative is the passive voice in which the liking is done to the boy, as in The boy is liked by his dog.Our final category is that of gender, which helps us describe the agreement between boy and his in our example sentence. In English, we have to describe this relationship in terms of natural gender, mainly derived from a biological distinction between male and female. The agreement between Boy and his is based on a distinction English makes between reference to male entities (he, his), female entities (she, her), and sexless entities, or animals when the sex of the animal is irrelevant (it its).Since traditional grammar is based on the rules of Latin, it is quite another thing to go on to claim that the structure of English sentences should be like the structure of sentences in Latin. Theview of grammar as a set of rules for the ‘proper’ use of a language may be best characterized as the prescriptive approach.2.2 StructuralismIt may be that using a well-established grammatical description of Latin is a useful guide for studying some languages (e.g. Italian or Spanish), is less useful for others (e.g. English), and may be absolutely misleading if you want to describe some non-Europe languages. This last point became clear to these linguists who wanted to describe the structure of North American Indian languages at the end of the nineteenth century. The categories and rules which were appropriate for Latin grammar just did not seem to fit the Indian languages encountered. As a consequence, throughout the present century, a rather different approach has been taken. Analysts collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language as it is used, not according to some view of how it should be used. This is called the descriptive approach and it is the basis of most modern attempts to characterize the structure of different languages.IC analysisLet’s take a look at the following sentence:The dog followed the boy.We can identify five words (constituents). How do those five constituents go together to form constituents at the phrase level?Structural linguists realize that a sentence does not only have a linear structure, consisting of individual words one after another in a line; they also have a hierarchical structure, made up of layers of word groups. So the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituent --- word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached is called IC analysis.So the above can be diagramed like:(((The) (dog)) ((followed) ((the) (boy)))). or more clearly in labeled tree diagram.2.3 Generative grammarSince the 1950s, particularly developing from the work of the American linguist Noam Chomsky, there have been attempts to produce a particular type of grammar which would have a very explicit system of rules specifying what combinations of basic elements would result in well-formed sentences. This explicit system of rules, it was proposed, would have much in common with the types of rules found in mathematics. This mathematical point of view helps to explain the meaning of the terms generative, which is used to describe this type of grammar. If you have an algebraic expression like 3x+2y, and you can give x and y the value of any whole number, then that simple algebraic expression can generate an endless set of values, by following the simple rules of arithmetic. Then there must be a set of explicit rules which yield those sentences. Such a set of explicit rules is a generative grammar.2.3.1 Some properties of the generative grammarA grammar of this type must have a number of properties, which can be described in the following terms.a. “all and only” criterion: The grammar will generate all the well-formed sentences of the language and fail to generate any ill-formed structures.b. It has limited number of rules, but it can generate an infinite number of well-formed structures.c. recursion: The rules can be applied more than once in generating a structure. Basically, the grammar will have to capture the fact that a sentence can have another sentence inside it, or a phrase can have another phrase of the same type inside it.e.g. This is the dog that chased the cat that killed the rat…The book was on the table near the window in the hallway beside the…2.3.2 Deep and surface structureThis grammar should also be capable of revealing the basis of two other phenomena: first, how some superficially distinct sentences are closely related, and second how some superficially similar sentences are in fact distinct.For example, Charlie broke the windowThe window was broken by Charlie.The difference between them (active vs. passive) is in their surface structure that is the syntactic form they take as actual English sentence. However, this difference in superficial form disguises the fact that the two sentences are very closely related even identical, at some less ‘superficial’ level. This other ‘un derlying’ level, where the basic components share by the two sentences would be represented, has been called their deep structure.In his book Syntactic Structure publish in 1957, Chomsky proposed a linguistic model consisting of three components:2.3.3Transformational rulesPhrase structure rules generate the deep structure of the sentence. The sentences we actually see and hear are the surface structures. From deep structure to surface it should undergo transformations. In the following examplesi. George helped Mary yesterday.ii. Yesterday George helped Mary.We can think of the yesterday element as having been ‘moved to the beginning of the sentence in ii. In order to do this, we need a set of rules which will change or move constituents in the structures derived from the phrase structure rules. these are called transformational rules. Essentially what they do is take a branch of the tree away from one part of the tree diagram, and attach it to a different part. Here is an example of a movement transformation.The rules would, of course, specify which constituents can be move, from where and to where.Let’s take a look at a verb-particle construction.i. Doobie picked up the magazine.ii. Doobie picked the magazine up.We intuitively recognize that these two sentences must come from a single underlying source. Let us propose a single tree diagram source which produces a string of elements. Like: NP Verb Particle NP Under circumstances like these, let us then propose the optional transformation called ‘Particle Movement’, which takes that description and yields the structural change to NP Verb NP Particle.By using this simple transformational rule, we have provided the means for explicitly relating the two structures in sentences i and ii above as ‘surface’ variations of a single underlying structure. It may not seem much, but this type of transformational analysis solved a number of tricky problems for previous syntactic descriptions.Exercises:0. In what ways are these expressions ambiguous?a. An American history teacher.b. Flying planes can be dangerous.c. The parents of the bride and the groom were waiting.1. Can you provide four ‘superficially distinct’ sentences which would each have the same ‘underlying’ structure as one of the following sentences?a. Lara was arrested by the police.b. She took her coat off.c. Someone stole my bicycle.d. I told him to turn down the volume.3. Which of the following expressions would be generated by this phrase structure rule: NP →Art (Adj) N ?a. a radiob. the rusty carc. a new studentd. the screwdriver4. Which of the following structures can be changed via the Particle Movement transformation?a. He put down his glass.b. She threw away her dress.c. he pulled off his shirt.d. They jumped in the pool.5. Please give tree diagrams of the following sentences.a. The boy helped George today.b. George saw the dog with Mary.c. The boy saw the man with the telescope.d. The very old teachers you met yesterday greatly fear the blackbirds.。
Chapter 6 语言学Language Processing in Mind-T
Chapter VI Language Processing in MindIntroductionWhy study language? LANGUAGE is a mirror of the mind in a deep and significant sense. It is a product of human intelligence, created anew in each individual by operations that lie far beyond the reach of will or consciousness. (Chomsky, Reflections on Language, 1975)Psycholinguistics is the study of “language and mind” , or to be more exact, can perhaps be glossed as the storage, comprehension, production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written). PSYCHOLINGUISTICS is concerned primarily with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures. Less modestly, it sometimes also produces findings, which make their own mark on linguistic research, leading to the modification of theoretical ideas.PSYCHOLOGY OF LANGUAG语言心理学deals with more general topics such as the extent to which language shapes thought,PSYCHOLOGY OF COMMUNICATION 交际心理学includes non-verbal communication such as gestures and facial expressions.A possible divide within psycholinguistics is of those who style themselves COGNITIVE PSYCHOLINGUISTS are concerned above all with making inferences about the content of the human mindEXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLINGUISTS are somewhat more concerned with empirical matters, such as speed of response to a particular word.In practice the two schools of thought often overlap, but extreme supporters of each way of thinking sometimes perceive the gap as being a large one.Major strands of psycholinguistic research:and acquisition language.Section one: Language ComprehensionQ1: What is language comprehension?Q2: What is mind? brain/thinking processQ3: How do you understand language?Language comprehension: How do people use their knowledge of language and how do they understand what they hear or read?(includes both text comprehension and speech comprehension, either of which involves several processes. It is important for the reader or listener to take account of the grammatical structure and the meaning of what is being presented. Meaning is extracted from text or speech by reliant what is presented to information stored in long-term memory. )1. Word recognition is the first step in understanding any message, which includes not only the recognition of meanings of the words, but also the information that determines the syntactic structure of the rest of the sentence.How do we recognize words?Cohort theory集群理论: hypothesizes that auditory word recognition begins with the formation of a group of words at the perception of the initial sound and proceeds sound by sound with the cohort of words decreasing as more sounds are perceived.Factors affect word recognition:Frequency effect频率效应:Recency effect 近期效应：Context 语境: semantic association network: which represents the relationships between various semantically related words.2. Lexical ambiguityTwo theories used to distinguish ambiguous words:a)All the meanings associated with the word are accessedAll meanings of ambiguous words are accessed and time has to be taken to decide among them.b)Only one meaning is accessed initiallyFrequency and context effects are important here.3. Syntactic processingPsycholinguists generally assume that the syntactic structure is built as soon as possible rather than waiting to see what the whole string of word is before deciding what structure it has.Sentence ambiguity may occur due toa)The ambifuity of individual words and the different possible ways that words canbe fit into phrasesb)The ambiguous catefory of some of the words in the sentenceGarden path花园小径：a phenomenon concerning certain ambiguous sentences. Garden path sentences are sentences that are initially interpreted with a different structure than they actually have.How do people decide which structure an ambiguous sentence has in sentence processing?Minimal attachment theory最小接触理论: an idea that people initially construct the simplest (or least complex) syntactic structure when interpreting the structure of sentences.Other analysis: such as the one based on pragmatic plausibility.4. Semantic and sentence memoryMemory representations are not syntactic under certain conditions (see the experiment P202, which indicate that the syntactic details of linguistic material are not usually stored for very long and that it is a representation of a sentence’s meaning which a subject has available in his memory under normal circumstances.) Assimilation theory: emphasis on the importance of background knowledge in “normal”situations where we might memorize linguistic material.5. Basic process in readinga)Eye movement: information is obtained from the text only during fixationsand not at all during saccades.(P204)b)The perceptual span感知时距：the range of letters from which usefulinformation is extracted.c)The immediacy assumption即时假定：A reader is supposed to carry out theprocesses required to understand each word and its relationship to previouswords in the sentence as soon as that word is encountered.Section Two Discourse话语/text语篇InterpretationQ1. What is schemata and reference drawing?Q2. What is text interpretation?Introduction:Discourse serves as a context, affecting sentence and word-level interpretation, tipping the interpretation of what would otherwise be ambiguous words or phrases in a certain direction.a)General context effects: occur all the time when our generalknowledge about the world influences language comprehension.b)Specific context effects: involve information obtained from earlierparts of a discourse.1.Schemata 图式and inference drawing推论Schemata: packets of stored knowledge, whicha)can vary considerably in the information they contain. from the verysimple to the very complexb)are frequently organized hierarchically; for example, in addition toa rather general restaurant schema or script, we probably also havemore specific restaurant schemata for different kinds ofrestaurant(e.g. fat-food places, up-market French restaurants, andson on).c)operate in a top-down or conceptually driven way to facilitateinterpretation of environmental stimuli.Inference drawing: Language comprehension frequently requires us to go far beyond the literal meanings of the sentences we read or her. Essential information is often only implied. So that it is necessary to draw inferences in order to understand fully what is intended.The inferences which people draw are stored in long-term memory along with information about the sentences actually presented (Bransford, Barclay. And Franks,1972)2.Story structure:Our comprehension of and memory for stories are highly “ selective”, inthe sense that we focus on the central theme of the story rather than onthe relatively unimportant details. According to Van Dijik and Kintsch(1983), a story is first of all processed so that the individual propositionsare extracted (theory of story processing). The propositions of a storyenter into a short-term working buffer of limited capacity. When thebuffer contains a number propositions, the reader or listener tries torelate them to each other in a coherent fashion . In general terms,subsequent ability to remember the propositions depends on the length oftime they spend in the working buffer. Those propositions which arehighly relevant to the main theme of a story tend to be stored for arelatively long time in the working buffer. Therefore, thematicinformation should be better remembered than non-thematic information.Section Three Language ProductionQ1. What is Language production?Q2. What are the means of Language production?Language production: is very definitely a goal-driven activity, in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends, influence people, convey information, and so on, which include two forms of production, namely, speech production and writing.1.speech productionAccording to Garrett (1976; 1984), there are altogether 5 different levels ofrepresentation involved in speaking a sentence, and they occur in the following sequence:1)The message-level representation2)The functional-level representation3)The positional-level representation4)The phonetic-level representation5)The articulatory-level representationErrors which may support that notion that speakers engage in reasonableelaborate planning before beginning to speak:Spoonererism首音互换/slip of the tongue舌头打滑): the initial letter orletters of two words are transposedAnticipation error预期错误: occur when a word is spoken earlier in thesentence than it should be: (the school is at school)Exchange error交换错误：two items within a sentence are swapped. (this isthe happiest life of my day).The following error prove the sequence of 2nd and 3rd proposed byGarrett:(speakers decide on the grammatical structure of a proposedutterance in the functional-level representation, and then select theappropriate words to fit into that structure in the subsequent position-levelrepresentation)Morpheme-exchange errors: in which roots or basic forms of two words areswitched leaving the grammatical structure unchanged. (He has alreadytrunked two packs)2.Written languageAccording to Hayes and Flower (1986), writing essentially consists of threeinter-related processes:1)The planning process2)The sentence generation process3)The revision processQ: What are the factors that influence or determine the quality of the writingplan? (relevant knowledge about the topic to be written about, strategicknowledge: knowledge of the methods used in construction a writing plan inorder to make it coherent and well-organized)Q: Who use the following writing strategies respectively, knowledge-tellingstrategy and knowledge-transforming strategy?knowledge-telling strategy: simply write down everything children can thinkof tht is relevant to a topic without organizing the information in any way(Scardamalia and Bereiter, 1987)knowledge-transforming strategy: involves focusing on potential problemswithin the planning process ( Are the main points arranged in the mostlogical order”)Here are some more examples of garden path sentences. Can you figure out what the structure of these sentences is?1.The boat floated downstream sank.2.While Mary was mending the sock fell off her lap.3.The daughter of the King’s son admires himself.。
《语言学》Chapter 6 Pragmatics习题兼答案
语言学Chapter 6 PRAGMATICS1. What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?答：Generally speaking, pragmatics is the study of meaning in the context. It studies meaning in a dynamic way and as a process. In order to have a successful communication, the speaker and hearer must take the context into their consideration so as to effect the right meaning and intention. The development and establishment pragmatics in 1960s and 1970s resulted mainly from the expansion of the study semantics. However, it is different from the traditional semantics. The major difference between them lies in that pragmatics studies meaning in a dynamic way, while semantics studies meaning in a static way. Pragmatics takes context into consideration while semantics does not. Pragmatics takes care of the aspect of meaning that is not accounted for by semantics.2. Why is the notion of context essential in the pragmatic study of linguistic communication? 答：The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer. Various continents of shared knowledge have been identified, e.g. knowledge of the language they use, knowledge of what has been said before, knowledge about the world in general, knowledge about the specific situation in which linguistic communication is taking place, and knowledge about each other. Context determines the speaker's use of language and also the heater's interpretation of what is said to him. Without such knowledge, linguistic communication would not be possible, and without considering such knowledge, linguistic communication cannot be satisfactorily accounted for in a pragmatic sense. Look at the following sentences:(1) How did it go?(2) It is cold in hem.(3) It was a hot Christmas day so we went down to the beach in the afternoon and had agood time swimming and surfing.Sentence (1) might be used in a conversation between two students talking about an examination, or two surgeons talking about an operation, or in some other contexts; (2) might be said by the speaker to ask the hearer to turn on the heater, or leave the place, or to put on more clothes, or to apologize for the poor condition of the room, depending on the situation of context; (3) makes sense only ii the hearer has the knowledge that Christmas falls in summer in the southern hemisphere.3. How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?答： A sentence is a grammatical concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied as the abstract, intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of predication. But if we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes an utterance, and it should be considered in the situation in which it is actually uttered (or used). So it is impossible to tell if “The dog is barking” is a sentence or an utterance. It can be either. It all depends on how we look at it and how we are going to analyze it. If we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self-contained unit in isolation from context, then we are treating it as asentence. If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance.Therefore, while the meaning of a sentence is abstract, and decontextualized, that of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The meaning of an utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. Now, take the sentence "My bag is heavy" as an example. Semantic analysis of the meaning of the sentence results in the one-place predication BAG (BEING HEA VY). Then a pragmatic analysis of the utterance meaning of the .sentence varies with the context in which it is uttered. For example, it could be uttered by a speaker as a straightforward statement, telling the hearer that his bag is heavy. It could also be intended by the speaker as an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him carry the bag. Another possibility is that the speaker is declining someone's request for help. All these are possible interpretations of the same utterance “M y bag is heavy”. How it is to be underst ood depends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.While most utterances take the form of grammatically complete sentences, some utterances do not, and some cannot even be restored to complete sentences.4. Try to think of contexts in which the following sentences can be used for other purposes than just stating facts:a) The room is messy.b) Oh, it is raining!c) The music of the movie is good.d) You have been keeping my notes for a whole week now.答：a) A father entered his son’s room and found it is very messy. Then when he said, “The room is messy,” he was blaming his son for not tidying it up.b) A son asked his father to play with him outside. So when the father said, “Oh, it’s raining”,he meant they couldn’t play outside.c) Two persons just watched a movie and had a discussion of it. One person sai d, “The story ofthe movie is very moving”, so wh en the other person sai d, “The music of the movie is good”, he me ant he didn't think the story of the movie was good.d) A person wanted his notes bac k, so when he said, “you ha ve been keeping my notes for awhole wee k now”, he was demanding the return of his notes.5. According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance. Give an example.答：According to Austin's new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. Let's look at an example:You have left the door wide open.The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of the wo rds “you”, “have”,“door”, “open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, i.e. asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker's message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.6. What are the five types of illocutionary speech acts Searle has specified? What is theillocutionary point of each type?答：(1) representatives: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true(2) directives: trying to get the hearer to do something(3) commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of action(4) expressives: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing(5) declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingThe illocutionary point of the representatives is to commit the speaker to something's being the case, to the truth of what has been said, in other words, when performing an illocutionary act of representative, the speaker is making a statement or giving a description which he himself believes to be true. Stating, believing, sweating, hypothesizing are among the most typical of the representatives.Directives ate attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do some- thing. Inviting, suggesting, requesting, advising, wanting, threatening and ordering are all specific instances of this class.Commissives are those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action, i.e. when speaking the speaker puts himself under a certain obligation. Promising, undertaking, vowing are the most typical ones.The illocutionary point of expressives is to express the psychological state specified in the utterance. The speaker is expressing his feelings or attitudes towards an existing state of affairs, e.g. apologizing, thanking, congratulating.The last class “declarations” has the characteristic that the successful performance of an act of this type brings about the correspondence between what is said and reality.7. What is indirect language use? How is it explained in the light of speech act theory?答：When someone is not saying I an explicit and straightforward manner what he means to say, rather he is trying to put across his message in an implicit, roundabout way, we can say he is using indirect language.Explanation (略) (见教材p.84-85)8. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how floutingthese maxims gives rise to conversational implicature?答：Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantity①Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of theexchange).②Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.(2) The maxim of quality①Do not say what you believe to be false.②Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.(3) The maxim of relationBe relevant.(4) The maxim of manner①Avoid obscurity of expression.②Avoid ambiguity.③Be brief (avoid unnecessary prolixity).④Be orderly.9. What is pragmatic failure? Try to find instances of pragmatic failure in the English usedby Chinese learners of English.答：The technical term for breakdowns in the course of communication is pragmatic failure.Pragmatic failure occurs when the speaker fails to use language effectively to achieve a specific communication purpose, or when the hearer fails to recognize the intention or the illocutionary force of the speaker’s utterance in the context of communication.Instances (略) (见教材p.89)。
语言学第六章chapter6
(use names of people to refer to things)
The key process here is called inference. An inference is any additional information used by the hearer to connect what is said to what must be meant.
Voltaire (Quoted, in Spanish, in Escandell 1993.) speaker’s meaning/language in use
A melamed [/mə‘lɑ:məd/，小学教师, Hebrew teacher] discovering that he had left his comfortable slippers back in the house, sent a student after them with a note for his wife.
Pragmatics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those forms.
In this three-part distinction, only pragmatics allows humans into the analysis.
To study the meaning of such pieces of language in smaller contexts is called micropragmatics.
Chapter6pragmatics语言学整理的资料
Chapter 61.pragmatics:自测：Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent. (T/F)术语：pragmatics语用学解释：语用学处理的是语言的实际意义，是在应用中的意义，而不是固有的意义。
术语：Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication. 语用学是研究某一语言的言者是如何利用句子成功进行交际的。
解释：Pragmatic analysis of meaning is first and foremost concerned with the study of what is communicated by a speaker/writer and interpreted by a listener/reader. Analysis of intentional meaning necessarily involves the interpretation of what people do through language in a particular context. Intended meaning may or may not be explicitly expressed. Pragmatic analysis also explores how listeners/readers make inferences about what is communicated.语用学对意义的研究主要关注的是说者或作者要交流的是什么，听者或读者读到的是什么。
并且根据语境分析要表达的意义。
语言学6PPT课件
• Thus the plural morphophonemic rules apply to the plural morpheme specifically, not to all morphemes in English.
Chapter 6 The Sound Patterns of Language
Hale Waihona Puke honology vs. Phonetics
• The study of how speech sounds form patterns is phonology
• The study of speech sounds is called phonetics
Additional example
• The patterns of Plural morph II: house /haus/ thief / i:f/ belief/bili:f/ foot /fu:t/ passer-by/pas bai/
• Morpheme of past tense • The phonological presentation
The Pronunciation of Morphemes
• Plural form of English
how to pronounce the plural morpheme?
• Allomorphs of plural morpheme
• To define the distribution of allomorphs by minimal pair
• The science of phonetics attempts to describe all of the sounds used in all languages of the world.
语言学第六章 语用学
performed as a result of saying something: by saying X and doing Y, I did Z.
For example,“It is cold here.”
Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning the weather is clod in here;
Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hear to shut the window;
Its perlocutionary[pə:lɔ‘kju:ʃənəri] act can be the hearer’s shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the request.
----Analyze one more example: “You have left the door wide open.”
Note: Of the three acts, what speech act theory is most concerned with is the illocutionary act. It attempts to account for the ways by which speakers can mean more than what they say.
语言学教程Chapter 6. Language and Cognition
2. Recognition of words in print
1).Two questions in printed word recognition (1). Two different processes for…… A lexical route A non-lexical route Connectionist theories （连接主义模型理论） claim that…… (2). Quantitative analyses……
(1) Word recognition
Recognition of spoken words and words in print 1.recognition of spoken words 1)Features of speech could cause difficulty for listeners. (1). (2). (3).
Six research subjects within it
1)acquisition 2)comprehension 3)production 4)disorders 5)language and thought 6)neurocognition We will focus on the former three subjects, say, acquisition, comprehension and production.
The conceptual approach
Cognitive linguistics has addressed : 1) 2) 3) 4) Above all, it seeks to ascertain the global integrated system of conceptual structuring in language.
英语语言学笔记第六章
第六章语言的心理过程6.1 绪言为什么要研究语言？从某种更深刻更重要的意义上来说，语言是思维的镜子。
它是人类智慧的结晶，通过意志和意识觉察不到的一些机制在人类每一个体上重生。
（乔姆斯基，Reflections on Language，1975）"语言和思维"这项研究致力于构造思维中与语言相关部分的工作模型。
毫无疑问，思维的种种结构和关系是不可观察的，因而研究者们提出假设时总是根据一些零星的线索。
这也说明了为什么围绕这一论题几乎所有方面的争议都那么尖锐。
人们最经常给"语言和思维"这项研究贴上的标签是心理语言学--一个通常认为是正流行的术语，近年来该术语从某种意义上说被滥用了，我们会发现它几乎可以用于任一语言学论题。
"准确的"心理语言学也许可以注解为对利用任一媒介（口头的或书面的）进行的语言储存、理解、产生和习得过程的研究。
为什么要研究心理语言学？心理语言学首要关注的是调查语言结构的心理现实。
照实说，该学科通常也会产生一些对语言研究提出他们自己评论的发现，这些发现促进了理论体系的改进。
如果我们通过一个宽泛聚合体--认知心理学的视角来看心理语言学的任务，那么它将变得和对语言指令行为表征的研究相一致。
作为现代形态的心理学，它采用实验的方法论，坚持必须在实验条件下研究这些行为表征；通过近三十年左右始终追求这一目标、在精密实验方法指导下的心理语言学，我们看到这样做也是合理的。
区别心理语言学与语言心理学或许有助于我们的讨论。
后者处理诸如语言在多大范围内影响了思想之类更常见的论题；而且从交际心理学角度看，它还研究包括手势、面部表情等非言语交际。
在心理语言学内部，一个可能的区分是某些学者把自己称作"认知心理语言学家"，以与"实验心理语言学家"相对。
前者首要关注的是作出关于人类思维内容的推论，后者则更关心经验主义的事实、比如对一个特定单词的反应速度。
语言学导论第六章
pragmatics语用学 --- the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication
Preliminaries: 1. If you ask somebody “Can you open the door?” he answers “Yes” but does not actually do it, what would be your reaction? Why? 2. If you are going shopping with your friend and she says to you “the bag I‟m carrying is heavy”, what does she possibly mean?
Analyze the locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionaly acts contained in the following sentences: • A teacher entered the classroom and saw all the windows were closed. Then he said to his students, “It is hot here. ” • A little girl is visiting a doll store with her mum and she says to her mum, “Mummy, the doll is so cute. ”
• commissives承诺类: I will return the book to you next week without fail. I will never do it again. • expressives表达类: I‟m sorry to hear that. Thank you very much! Happy birthday! I‟m glad to see you again. • declarations宣告类: I now declare the ceremony close. You are fired.
(完整word版)语言学第六章之后
Chapter 6 Language and Cognitionl.语言与认知6.1. What is Cog nitio n 认知？а.Mental processes, information processing b.Mental process or faculty ofknowin g,i ncludi ng aware ness,percepti on, reas oning, and judgme nt.2. The formal approach:形式法structural patter ns, in cludi ng the study of morphological, syn tactic, and lexical structure.The psychological approach 心理法：Ianguage from the view of general systems ranging from percepti on, memory, atte nti on, and reas oning.The conceptual approach认知法：how Ianguage structures (processes& patterns) con ceptual content.6.2. Psycholi nguistics 心理语言学The study of the relati on ships betwee n lin guistic behavior and men tal activity.б.2.1 Language acquirement 语言习得① Holophrastic stage独词句阶段Twoword stage 双词句阶段Stage of three-word uttera nces 三词句阶段④ Flue ntgrammatical conv ersati on stage6.2.2 Lan guage comprehe nsior理解Mental lexicon (心智词库)：information about the properties of words, retrievable whe n un dersta nding Ian guage For example, we may use morphological rules to decomposea complex word like rewritable the first few times we encounter it and after several exposures we may store and access it as a unit or word. It means that freque ncy of exposure determ ines our ability to recall stored in sta nces Connectionism (连结主义)：readers use the same system of links between spelling un its and sound un its to gen erate the pronun ciatio ns of writte n words like tove and to access the pronun ciati ons of familiar words like stove, or words that are excepti ons to these patter ns, like love.Similarity and frequency play important roles in processing and comprehendingIan guage, with the no vel items being processed based on their similarity to the known onesWord recognition 单词识另廿:recognition of spoken words and printed ones.Cohort theory:集群模型Marsle n-Wilson & Welsh (1978)The first few pho nemes of a spoke n word activate a set of word can didates that are con siste nt with the in put. Eg. To an in structi on pick up the can dle ” liste ners sometimes gla nces first at a picture of a can dy.In teractive model:交互模型Higher process ing levels have a direct, -down” inftue nee on lower levels. Lexicalkno wledge can affect the percepti on of phon emes. eg.ln certa in cases, liste ners 'knowledge of words can lead to the inhibition of certain phonemes; in other cases, liste ners con ti nue to “ hear ” phon emes that have bee n removed from the speech sig nal and replaced by no ise. Race mode I竞争模型Pre-lexical route: computes phono logical in formati on from the acoustic sig nalLexical route: the phono logical in formatio n associated with a word becomes available whe n the word itself is accessed eg.l iste ners use phono tactic in formatio n such as the fact that initial /tl/ is illegal in English to help identify phonemes and word boun daries.Factors invo Ived in word recog niti on: ?Freque ncy effect: the ease with which a word is accesseddue to its more freque nt usage in the L.Recency effects: the ease with which a word is accessed due to its repeated occurre nee in the discourse or con text.Cotext: We recog nize a word more readily whe n the precedi ng words provide an appropriate con text for it.Lexical ambiguity 词法多义性eg.My friend drove me to the bank.Comprehe nsion of sen te nee句子的理解Serial models 串行模型:the sentence comprehension system continually and sequentially follows constraints of a Ianguage' grammar. Describe how the processor quickly constructs one or more representations of a sentence based on a restricted range of in formatio n that is guara nteed to be releva nt to its in terpretati on, primarily grammatical in formati on.Parallel models:并行模型emphasize that the comprehension system is sensitive to a vast range of in formati on, in clud ing grammatical, lexical, and con textual, as well as knowledge of the speaker/writer and of the world in general. Describe how theprocessor uses all releva nt in formati on to quickly evaluate the full range of possible in terpretati ons of a senten ce.Structural factors in comprehe nsio n 理解中的结构因素Comprehe nsion of writte nand spoken Ianguage can be difficult becauseit is not always easy to identify the constituents (phrases) of a sentence and the ways in which they relate to one another. Minimal attachment 最小配属:the“ structurally simp-etructuralsimplicity guides all initial analyses in sentence comprehension. Eg. The second wife will claim the in herita nee bel ongs to her.Garden path sentenee花园小径eg The horse raced past the barn fell. Fat people eat accumulates. Lexical factors in comprehe nsio n 词汇因素The human sentence processor is primarily guided by information about specific words that is stored in the lexic on. eg.The salesma n gla need at a/the customer with suspici on/ripped jea ns.Syntactic ambiguity 句法歧义Different possible ways in which words can be fit into phrases. Ambiguous category of some of the words in the senten ce. Eg. Joh n pain ted the car in the garage. Comprehension of text 语篇理解Resonance model:共振模型information in Iong-term memory is automaticallyactivated by the presenee of material that apparently bears a rough semantic relation to it.Discourse interpretation 语篇理解Schemata and drawing inferencesSchema图式a pre-existing knowledge structure in memory typically involving the no rmal expected patter ns of thin gs. eg.The customer en ters a restaura nt, looks for atable, decides where to sit, walks to the table …6.2.3. La nguage product ion 语言的生成(1) Access to words语言提取：步骤1.Conceptualization: what to express Word select ion: a competitive process 2.：select a word that corresp onds to the chose n concept. 3.:Morpho-phonological encoding: begins with the retrieval of all competitors.(2) Gen eratio n of sentence句子的生成1. Conceptual preparation®念准备:deciding what to say -a global plan is needed2. Word retrieval and applicati on of syn tactic kno wledge3. Processes of sentence gen erati on4. Functional planning: assigning grammatical functions Positional encoding: getting into positi ons foreach unit(3) Writte n Ian guage producti on:similar to those in the producti on of spoke n Ian guage. A major differe nt is that, once a syntactic lexicon unit and its morphological representation have been accessed, it is the orthographic rather tha n the phono logical form that must be retrieved and produced.6.3 Cognitive Linguistics 认知语言学Cognition is the way we think. Cognitive linguistics is the scientific study of therelatio n betwee n the way we com muni cate and the way we thi nk.6.3.1 Con strual and con strual operatio n识解及操作Construal 识解:the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in different ways(1) Attention / salience 注意力，突显:the operations grouped under salience have to do with our direct ion of atte ntio n towards someth ing that is salie nt to us. eg. We drove along the road.(2) Judgment / Comparison 判断，对比:the construal operations of it have to do with judging something by comparing it to something else. eg.There ' s a cat[figure] on the mat[gro und](3) . Perspective/ situatedness 视点，观察者位置:we view a scenein terms of our situatedness.It depends on two things : 1. Where we are situated in relation to the scene we ' re viewing. 2. How the scene is arranged in relation to our situatednessMy bike is in front of the car.6.3.2 Categorization 范畴化The process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on com mon alities and differe nces.Three levels: basic level superordi nate level subord in ate level.6.3.3 Image Schema意象图式Johnson, Mark.An image-schema is a “ skeletal mental representation of a recurrent pattern of embodied (especially spatial or kin esthetic) experie nce.1. A cen ter-periphery schema 中心-边缘图式The structure of an apple2. A containment schema 容器图示huma n bodies as containers3. A Cycle schema 循环图示Days Weeks4. A Force schema 力图示Physical: Wind, Gravity5. A link schema 连接图式6. A part-whole schema 部分-整体图式7. A path schema 路径图式8. A scale schema标量图式9. A verticality schema 垂直图式634 Metaphor 隐喻George Lakoff and Mark Joh nsonMetaphors are actually cognitive tools that help us structure our thoughts and experiences in the world around us. Metaphor is a conceptual mapping, not a linguistic one, from one domain to another, not from a word to another.Target domain 目标域-what is actually being talked about.Source doma in 源域-the doma in used as a basis for un dersta nding targetEg Time is money. The target domain,time,is conceptualized in terms of the source doma in of mon ey.1. Ontological metaphors实体隐喻means that human experienceswith physical objects provide the basis for ways of viewing events,activities, emotions, ideas, etc., as entities and substances. Eg. Inflation is lowering our standard of living2. Structural Metaphor 结构隐喻Provides rich highly structured, clearly deli neated source domai n to structure target doma in. eg.He attacked every weak point in my argume nt.3. Orientational Metaphor 方位隐喻Gives a concept a spatial orientation eg MORE IS UPaddi ng more of a substa nee, and percei ving the level of the substa nee rise.6.3.5 Metonymy 转喻is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental access to the target within the same domain. idealized cognitive models (ICMs) by LakoffOn the basis of the ontological realms, we may distinguish three categories:the world of “ concepttie world of “ fornth” world of “ things ” and “ events ”(1) Whole ICM and its part(s)整体与部分间的转喻：(i) Thing-and-Part ICM 事物及部分转喻eg. America for “ United StatesSca’IeICM 标量转喻eg, How old are you? for “what is your(agj e?bnstitution ICM.构成转喻eg.: wood for “ forest (旳)Eve nt ICM.事件转喻Eg.Bill smokedmarijuana. (v) Category-and-Member ICM.范畴及范畴成员转喻Eg .the pill for“ birthcontrol pill ”(vi)Cateeond-Property ICM.范畴及属性转喻Eg. blacks for“ black people ” (vii) Reduction I压缩转喻eg.crudefor “crude oil ”⑵Parts of an ICM部分与部分间的转喻(i) Action ICM.行为转喻eg.o author anew book (ii) Perception ICM.知觉转喻eg.sight for “thing seen (iii) Causation ICM.因果转喻eg.slow road for “slow traffic resulting from the poor state of the road (iv)Production ICM.生产转喻eg.I ' ve got a Ford for “car ” (v) Control ICM 控制转喻eg.The Mercedes has arrived. (vi) PossessionICM 领属转喻eg.He married money for “ pers on with mon ey" (vii) containment ICM 容器转喻(viii)Location ICMs 地点转喻(ix)Sign and Referenee ICMs符号和指代转喻6.3.6 Blending Theory 整合理论I.Cross-Space Map p ing跨空间映射 2.Ge nericSpace 类属空间3.Blend 整合4.Emergent Structure®创结构Chapter 7 Language, Culture, and Society7.1 Lan guage and culture语言和文化7.1.1 How does lang uage relate to cultureIn 20th century, "culture" emerged as a concept central to anthropology(the study of huma nity ), en compass ing all huma n phe nomena that are not purely results of huma n gen eticsLon don School 伦敦学派：Mali no wski 马林诺夫斯基:The meaning of a word greatly depe nds upon its occurre nee in a give n con textEth no graphy of com muni cati on 交际民族学：l.speech com mun ity 言语社团2. situatio n, eve nt and act 场景，事件，行为3.SPEAKING(situatio n,participa nts,e nds,act,seque nce,key,i nstrume ntalities, no rms,ge nres) Speech community言语社团:a group of people who form a community, and share the same Ian guage or a particular variety of Ian guageTheory of the con text of situatio n情景语境理论J. R. Firth (1890-1960):A. The releva nt features of the participa nts, pers ons, pers on alities.1. The verbal 言语action of the participants2.The non-verbal action of the participa ntsB. The releva nt objects.C. The effects of the verbal acti on.“ who speaks what to whom and whe n and to what end ”Halliday: Study Ian guage from a social semiotic or in teract ional perspective Functional interpretation of grammar as a resource for meaning potential Linguistic model in the study of literature7.1.2 Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis 萨丕尔-沃尔夫假设:Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different Ianguages may probably express speakers ' unique ways of understanding the world.Linguistic determinism(语言决定论) Linguistic relativity (语言相对论)The stro ng versio n 强式说): The weak versi on (弱式说):7.1.3. Case studies个案研究Kaplan(1966): The structural organization of a text tends to be culturally specific. Nida(1998): Words are sometimes “ idiomgovettyed ” and “cultusaecific ”7.1.4 To which extent Do we need culture in our linguistic studyA study of linguistic issues in a cultural setting can greatly promote our understanding of motivatio n and directi on ality in lan guage cha nge.7.1.5 Culture in Language Teaching Classroon文化在语言学习中的重要作用:A. To get the students familiar with cultural differenee.B. To help the students tran sce nd their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture will.C. To emphasize the in separability of un dersta nding lan guage and un dersta nding culture through various classroom practices.7.2. Lan guage and Society7.2.1 How does language relate to society? Linguistics as a MONISTIC or AUTONOMOUS PURSUIT of an independent scienee —元性或自治性Linguistics as a DUALISTIC inquiry 二元性A situationally and socially variationist perspectiveA maxim in sociolinguistics: “ You are what 尔o即尔所言)”(WOMEN REGISTER女性语域LINGUISTIC SEXISM 语言性别歧视现象7.2.3 What should we know more about socioli nguistics 社会语言学的重要作用Sociolinguistics:社会语言学an interdisciplinary study of Ianguage use, attemptsto show the relati on ship betwee n Ian guage and society.7.2.4 What implicatio ns can we get from sociolin guistics ?社会语言学的重要启示:sociolinguistics' contributions: 1. Ithas contributed Jtg a change of emphasis in the content of Ian guage teachi ng. 2.…inno vati ons in materials and activities for the classroom. 3.…a fresh look at the nature of Ianguage development and use. 4.…a more fruitful research in this field.applied socioli nguistics 应用社会语言学In Ian guage classrooms In law courts In cli nic sett ings7.3 Cross-cultural Communi cati on 跨文化交际What should we know all about cross-cultural com muni cati on? I.Try to look at thi ngs from other persons point of view 2.Try to sense their feeling to a given issue3. Try to un dersta nd their way of knowing the world7.3.2 Case studies个案研究Whe n in Rome do as the Roma ns do Put yourself in other ' s shoes One culture ' s meat is anotherculture Honpotycand sincerity are key pointsto mutual un dersta nding.Chapter 8 Language in Use语言的使用What is pragmatics语用学? What' s the differenee between pragmatics and semantics 语义学？Pragmatics is the study of the use of Ian guage in com muni cati on, particularly the relati on ships betwee n senten ces and the con texts and situati ons in which they are used. Pragmatics includes the study of: (1) How the interpretation and use of utterances depe nds on kno wledge of the real world;(2)How speakers use and un dersta nd speech acts;(3) How the structure of senten ces is in flue need by the relati on ship betwee n the speaker and the hearer.Pragmatics is sometimes contrasted with semantics, which deals with meaning without refere nee to the users and com muni cative functions of senten ces.8.1 Speech act theory言语行为理论8.1.1 Performatives and con statives施为句和叙事句1. Performative: In speech act theory an uttera nee which performs an act, such as Watch out (= a warni ng).2. Con stative: An uttera nee which asserts somethi ng that is either true or force. E.g. Chicago is in the United States.3. Felicity eonditions of performatives 施为句的条件:(1) There must be a releva nt eonven ti onal procedure, and the releva nt participa nts and circumsta nces must be appropriate.(2) The procedure must be executed correctly and completely.(3) Very ofte n, the releva nt people must have the requisite thoughts, feeli ngs and in ten ti ons, and must follow it up with acti ons as specified.8.1.2 A theory of the illocutio nary act 会话含义理论1. What is a speech ac言语行为？A speech act is an uttera nee as a functional unit in com muni cati on. In speech act theory, uttera nces have two kinds of meaning.Propositional meaning (locutionary meaning)命题意义：This is the basic literal mea ning of the uttera nee which is conv eyed by the particular words and structures which the uttera nee contains. Illocutionary meaning (illocutionary force) 言外之意:This is the effect the utteranee or written text has on the reader or listener.A speech act which is performed in directly is sometimes known as an in direct speech act, such as the speech act of the requesti ng above. In direct speech acts are ofte n felt to be more polite ways of perform ing certa in kinds of speech act, such as requests and refusals.2. Locutionary act言内行为:A distinction is made by Austin in the theory of speech acts betwee n three differe nt types of acts invo Ived in or caused by the uttera nee of a senten ce. A locuti onary act is the say ing of someth ing which is meanin gful and can be un derstood.3. Illocutionary act 言外行为:An illocutionary act is using a sentence to perform a fun cti on.4. Perlocutionary act言后行为:A perlocutionary act is the results or effects that are produced by means of say ing someth ing.8.2 The theory of eon versati onal implicature 会话含义理论8.2.1 The cooperative prin ciple 合作原贝U1. Cooperative principle refers to the “ c-operation between speakers in using the maxims during the eonversation. There are four eonversational maxim会话准贝U :(1) The maxim of quantity 数量:a. Make your eon tributio n as in formative as required.b. Don' t make your eon tributi on more in formative tha n is required.(2) The maxim of quality 质量:Try to make your eontribution one that is true.a. Don' t say what you believe to be false.b. Don' t say that for which you lack adequate evide nee(3) The maxim of relati on 关系:Say things that are releva nt.(4) The maxim of manner方式:Be perspicuous.a. Avoid obscurity of expressi on.b. Avoid ambiguity.c. Be brief.d. Be orderly.2. Conversational implicature言外之意:The use of eonversational maxims to imply meaning during eonversation is called conversational implicature.8.2.2 Violation of the maxims 准则的违反1. Con versati onal implicature 言外之意In real com muni cati on, the in ten ti on of the speaker is ofte n not the literalmeaning of what he or she says. The real intention implied in the words is called conv ersatio nal implicature.r the speakers ' inten tio n through the words.8.2.3 Characteristics of implicature含义的特征：1. Calculability 可推导性2. Cancellability / defeasibility 可取消性3. Non-detachability 不可分离性4. Non-conventionality 非常规性8.3 Post-Gricean developme nts后格莱斯时期的发展8.3.1 Releva nee theory关联理论Every act of oste nsive com muni cati on com muni cates the presumpti on of its own optimal releva nee.8.3.2 The Q- and R-principles Q原则和R 原则The Q-pri nciple is in ten ded to inv oke the first maxim of Grice ' Quan tity, and the R-principle the relation maxim, but the new principles are more extensive than the Gricea n maxims.The definition of the Q-principle (hearer-based基于听话人)is:(1) Make your contribution sufficient 你的话要充分(cf. quantity);⑵ Say as much as you can (given Rt符合R 原则的前提下).The definition of the R-principle (speaker-based) is:(1) Make your con tributi on n ecessary (cf. Relati on, Quan tity-2, Mann er);(2) Say no more than you must (given Q)8.3.3 The Q-, I- and M-principles数量原则，信息量原则和方式原则Q-pri nciple:Speaker' maxim 准贝U: Do not provide a statement that is informationally weaker than your kno wledge of the world allows, uni ess provid ing a stron ger stateme nt would con trave ne the I-pri nciple.I-pri ncipleSpeaker' s maxim: the maxirhrainimization 最小化原贝USay as little as necessary, i.e. produce the minimal linguistic information sufficient to achieve your com muni cati onal en ds.Recipie nt ' s corollary: the en richme nt ruleAmplify the in formatio nal content of the speaker ' utiera nee, by fin di ng the most specific interpretation, up to what you judge to be the speaker -intended point. ' s m M-pri ncipleSpeaker' nsaxim: Do not use a prolix 冗长的，obscure模糊的or marked 显著的expressi on without reas on.Recipie nt ' s corollary: If the speaker used a prolixna r ked expressi on M, he did not mean the same as he would have, had he used the unmarked expression U - specifically he was trying to avoid the stereotypical associations and I-implicatures of U.Chapter 9 Language and Literature9.1 Theoretical background 概i术1. Style: Style refers to variation in a person ' speech or writing or a particular person ' s use of speech or writing at all times or to a way of speaking or writing at a particular period of time.2. Stylistics 文体学:According to H. G. Widdowson, stylistics is the study of literary discourse from a linguistic orientation. He treated literature as discourse, thus adopting a linguistic approach. This brings literature and linguistics closer.9.2 Some gen eral features of the literary lang uag文学语言的一些普遍特征9.2.1Foregro unding and grammatical form前景化和语法格式1. Foregrounding前景化:Foreground refers to the part of a scene nearest to the viewer, or figuratively the most noticeable position. Foregrounding means to put someth ing or some one in the most esse ntial part of the descripti on or n arrati on, other than in a backgro und positi on.2. In literary texts, the grammatical system of the Ianguage is often exploited,experime nted with, or made to “ deviate from other, more everyday, forms of Ian guage,and as a result creates in terest ing new patter ns in form and in meaning.9.2.2 Literal la nguage and figurative Ian guage字面语言和比喻语言1. Literal language: The first meaning for a word that a dictionary definition gives is usually called literal mea ning.2. Figurative Ianguage: A. k. a. trope, which refers to Ianguage used in a figurative way for a rhetorical purpose.We can use some figures of speech such as simile, metaphor, metonymy,syn ecdoche, etc.Simile 明喻：a way of comparing one thing with another, of explaining what one thing is like by showing how it is similar to another thing, and it explicitly signals itself in a text, with the words as or like. Metaphor 暗喻：like a simile, also makes a comparison between two unlike elements; but unlike a simile, this comparison is implied rather than stated.Metonymy 转喻：means a change of nameSynecdoche提喻：is usually classed as a type of metonymy. It refers to using then ame of part of an object to talk about the whole thing, and vice versa.9.2.3 The an alysis of literary Ian guage文学语言的分析9.3 The Ian guage in poetry诗歌语言9.3.1 Sou nd patterni ng 语音模式9.3.2 Differe nt forms of sound patterni ng 不同形式的语音模式1. Rhyme 押韵(end rhyme): The last word of a line has the same final sounds as the last word of ano ther line, sometimes immediately above or below, sometimes one or more lines away (cVC).2. Alliteration 头韵:The initial consonants are identical in alliteration (Cvc).3. Ass onance 准押韵:Ass onance describes syllables with a com mon vowel (cVc).4. Consonance辅押韵:Syllables ending with the same consonants are described as hav ing consonance (cvC).5. Reverse rhyme 反韵:Reverse rhyme describes syllables shari ng the vowel andin itial consonant (CVc).6. Pararhyme 压畐寸韵: Where two syllables have the same initial and final consonan ts, but differe nt vowels, they pararhyme (CvC).7. Repetitio n 反复：A complete match of the syllable (CVC).9.3.3 Stress and metrical patterni ng重音和韵律模式1. lamb 抑扬格:An iambic foot contains two syllables, an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed one.2. Trochee扬抑格:A trochaic foot contains two syllables as well, but in this case, the stressed syllable comes first, followed by an un stressed syllable.3. Anapest抑抑扬格:An anapestic foot consists of three syllables; two unstressed syllables are followed by a stressed one.4. Dactyl 扬抑抑格:A dactylic foot is similar to anapest, except reversed —a stressed syllable is followed by two un stressed on es.5. Spondee扬扬格:A spondaic foot consists of two stressed syllables; lines of poetry rarely con sist only of spon dees.6. Pyrrhic 抑抑格:A pyrrhic foot consists of two unstressed syllables.7. Metrical patterning 韵律模式(2) Dimeter (3)Trimeter (4)Tetrameter (5)Pentameter (6) Hexameter (7)Heptameter (8)Octameter9.3.4 Conven ti onal forms of meter and sound传统的韵律模式和语音模式1. Couplets对句:Couplets are two lines of verse, usually connected by a rhyme.2. Quatra ins 四行诗:Stan zasof four lin es, known as quatra ins, are very com mon in En glish poetry.3. Blank verse 无韵诗:Blank verse consists of lines in iambic pentameter which do not rhyme.9.3.5The poetic fun cti ons of sound and mete 语音和韵律在诗歌中的功能：1. For aesthetic pleasure2. To conform to a conven tio n / style / form3. To express or inno vate with a form4. To dem on strate tech ni cal skill, and for in tellectual pleasure5. For emphasis or con trast6. Ono matopoeia 拟声现象9.3.6 How to an alyze poetry?如何分析诗1. Read a poem more tha n on ce.2. Keep a dictionary and use it. Other reference books will also be invaluable. A good book on mythology and a Bible.3. Read so as to hear the sounds of the words in your mind. Poetry is writte n to be heard: its meanings are con veyed through sound as well as through print. One should read a poem as slowly as he can. Lip readi ng is a good habit.4. Always pay careful attention to what the poem is saying. One should make an effort to follow the thought continuously and to grasp the full implications and suggesti ons.5. As aids to the un dersta nding of a poem, we may ask some questi ons about.(1) Who is the speaker and what kind of person is he?(2) To whom is he speaking? What kind of person is he?⑶ What is the occasion?(4) What is the sett ing in time (time of day, seas on, cen tury)?(5) What is the setting in place (in doors or out, city or country, nation)?(6) What is the central purpose of the poem?9.4 The lang uage in fiction 小说中的语言941 Ficti onal prose and point of view 小说与视角1. First-person narrator (I-narrator叙述者：The person who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world of the story, relat ing the story after the eve nt. I n this case, the critics call the n arrator a first-pers on n arrator or an l-n arrator because whe n the narrator refers to himself or herself in the story the first person pronoun “I i” used.2. Third-person narrator第三人称叙述者:If the narrator is not a character in the fictional world, he or she is usually called a third-person narrator, because reference to all the characters in the fictional world of the story will involve the use of the third-pers on pronouns, he, she, it or they.3. schema-orie nted Ian guag图式语言4. Deixis 指示功能:A term for a word or phrase which directly relates an utterance toa time, place, or a pers on.942 Speech and thought prese ntatio 言语和思维的表达1. Speech prese ntatior言语的表达：(1) Direct speech (DS)直接弓I语:A kind of speech presentation in which the character said in its fullest form.(2) In direct speech (IS)间接弓I语:A kind of speech prese ntati on in which the speaker ' s words are not reported as they were actually said.(3) Free in direct speech (FIS)自由间接引语:A further category which is an amalgam of direct and in direct speech features.(4) Narrator 'representation of speech acts (NRSA)叙述者对言语行为的表达：A mini malist kind of prese ntati on in which a part of passage can be see n as a summary of a Ion ger piece of discourse, and therefore eve n more back-gro un ded tha n in direct represe ntati on would be.(5) Narrator ' s representation of spe(NRS)叙述者对言语的表达：A possibility ofspeech presentation which is more minimalist than narrator ' s representation of speec acts, n amely a sentence which merely tells us the speech occurred, and which does not eve n specify the speech acts invo Ived.。
语言学第6章
Language Processingin Mind1. Introduction2. Language comprehension3. Discourse/text interpretation4 Language production5. Task6.1 IntroductionPsycholinguistics is primarily concerned with investigating the psychological reality of linguistic structures.Other definitions of Psycholinguistics:▪ a. Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship of “language and mind”.▪ b. Psycholinguistics “proper” can perhaps be glossed as the storage, comprehension, and production and acquisition of language in any medium (spoken or written)cf:a. Psychology of language deals with more generaltopics such as the extent to which languageshapes thought.b. Psychology of communication includes non-verbal communication such as gestures andfacial expressions.c. Cognitive psychologists are concerned withmaking inferences about the content of thehuman mind.d. Experimental psychologists is somewhat more concernedwith empirical matters, such as speed response to aparticular word.◆Evidencea. Psycholinguistics attracts supporters from both linguistics and psychology, though both of them have somewhat different approaches , esp. in methodology.Linguists are inclined to favor descriptions of spontaneous speech as their main source of evidencePsychologists more prefer experimental studies. b. Subjects of Psycholinguistic investigation are normal adults, children and aphasics patients ------people with speech disorders.Current issuesa. It is generally agreed that human language system is likely to be a “modular”, in the sense of being constituted out of a number of separate but interacting components. However, the point led to a major controversy concerning the integration of the modules.b. Another problem is the relationship between STRUCTURE and PROCESS, which can not reach agreement.c. Three major aspects of psycholinguistic research:COMPREHENSION Language:how do people use their knowledge of language, and how do they understand what they hear or understand?PRODUCTION language:how do they produce messages that others can understand in turn?ACQUISITION language:how language is represented in the mind and how language is acquired?6.2. Language comprehension●Word recognition:Word recognition is the initial step inunderstanding any message.●Factors affecting word recognition:a. Cohort theory hypothesizes that auditory word recognition begins with the formation of a group of words at the perception of the initial sound and proceeds sound by sound with the cohort of words decreasing as more sounds are perceived.b. Frequency effect, one of the most important factorsaffecting word recognition, studies how frequently the word is used in a given discourse or contextC. Recency effect, one of the factors affecting word recognition, describes the additional ease with which a word is accessed due to its repeated occurrence in the discourse or context.D.Context is another factor affecting word recognition. People recognize a word more readily when the preceding words provide an appropriate context for it.Syntactic processingfactors affecting the process of determining the structure of a sentencea.the ambiguity of individual words and the different possible ways that words can be fit into phrases.e.g.: The mother beat the his daughter with a play gun. ( prepositional phrase with a play gun used to modify daughter ; prepositional phrase with a play gun being the complement of the verb beat )b.the ambiguous category of some of the words in the sentencee.g.: the desert trains ( in different contexts, desert can serve as the subject of the verb trains or the modifier of the verb )C.garden path sentence, another factor affectingthe process of determining a sentence structure, are sentences that are initially interpreted with a different structure than they actually have. Forexample, reduced relative clauses often causesuch feeling of having been garden-pathed.e.g.: The horse raced past the barn fell ( thehorse that was raced past the barn fell )MINIMAL attachment theory, a way used when interpreting the structure of sentences, is theidea that people initially construct the simplest( or least complex ) syntactic structure.Basic processes in readingPerceptual span is the range of letters from which useful information is extracted, which varies depending on factors such as the size of the print, the complexity of the text, etc. and encompasses about three or four letters to the left of fixation and some fifteen letters to the right of fixation. Immediacy assumption means that the reader is supposed to carry out the processes required to understand each word and its relationship to previous words in the sentence as soon as that word is encountered.6.3.Discourse/text interpretationDiscourse serves as a context, affect sentence and word-level interpretation, tipping the interpretation of what would otherwise be ambiguous words or phrases in a certaindirection.General context effects means that our general knowledge about the world influences language comprehension, which occurs all the time, because a crucial aspect of language comprehension involves making use of any relevantgeneral knowledge that we possess..Specific context effects involve information obtained from earlier parts of a discourseSchemata and inference drawingThe origin of schemataThe concept of schema theory was put forward by Barlett in his writings. Barlett believed that our memory for discourse was not based on straight reproduction, but was constructive. The constructive process uses information frome experience related to the discourse at hand, to build a mental representation. He argued that , that past experience can not be an accumation of successive individuated events and experiences, it must be organized and manageable. (cited in Discourse Analysis written by Gillian Brown&George Yule )The definitions of Schema:Schemata are …high-level complex ( and even conventional or habitual ) knowledge structures‟ (van Dijk, 1981:141) which functions as …ideational scaffolding‟ (Andersion, 1977 ) in the organization and interpretation of experience. In the strong view, schemata are considered to be deterministic, to predispose the experiencer to interpret his experience in a fixed way. (cited in Discourse Analysis written by Gillian Brown &George Yule )b. Schemata can be seen as the organizedbackground knowledge which leads us to expect or predict aspects in our interpretation ofdiscourse. (cited in Discourse Analysis written by Gillian Brown &George Yule )The characteristics of schemata:a.Schemata can vary considerably in theinformation they contain, from the very simple to the very complex.b.Schemata are frequently organized hierarchically.e.g.:worsening environment/ecological deterioration↓desertification↓sand storms / Yellow dust↓deforestation /vegetationc.Schemata operate in a top-down or conceptuallydriven way to facilitate interpretation onenvironmental stimuli.how to use schemata:a.the activation of schematab.the reconstruction of schemataspecific use of schemata: research on the use of schemata are found in reading comprehensionand listening comprehension and listeningcomprehension. Now research on the use ofschemata begins in writing.Story structureVan Dijk and Kintsch (1983 ) argued that, in understanding of the gist of MACROSTRUCTURE of a story, readers and listeners make extensive use of their general knowledge to work out the major theme of a story, which leads to the production of MACROPROPOSITIONS which are general propositions used to form an overall macrostructure of the story.6.4 Language production●Language production is definitely a goal-directed activity, in the sense that people speak and write in order to make friends, influence people, convey information and so on.Speech productionGarrett put forward five different levels of representation involved in speaking a sentence:a. the message-level representationb. the functional-level representationc. the positional-level representationthe phonetic-level representationthe articulatory-level representationcomment on the theory: the complex theory of speech production has not as yet been tested thoroughly. However, there is support for some of its major assumptions.some concepts related to the theory: Spoonerism ( Slip if the tongue ) refers to the initial letters or letters of two words are transposed. For example, sounds or words from the end of a sentence intrude into the early part of a sentence, then this provides evidence for the notion of forward planning.b.Anticipation error, errors demonstrating theexistence of forward planning, means that aword is spoken earlier than it should be.e.g.: ＊The school is at school. ( at the school)c.Exchange error, errors, two items within asentence are swapped.e.g.: ＊This is the happiest life of my day.(This is the happiest day of my life.)d.Morpheme-exchange errors, refers to thephenomenon that the roots of basic forms of two words are switched leaving the grammaticalstructure unchanged.b.Anticipation error, errors demonstrating theexistence of forward planning, means that aword is spoken earlier than it should be.e.g.: ＊The school is at school. ( at the school)c.Exchange error, errors, two items within asentence are swapped.e.g.: ＊This is the happiest life of my day.(This is the happiest day of my life.)d.Morpheme-exchange errors, refers to thephenomenon that the roots of basic forms of two words are switched leaving the grammaticalstructure unchanged.e.g. ＊He has already trunked two packs.(He has already packed two trunks. )Written languageWriting process proposed by Hayers ans Flowers (1986 ):First, the planning process, which involves producing ideas and arranging them into a writing plan appropriate to the writing.Second, the sentence generation process, which translates the writing plan into actual sentences that can be written down.Lastly, the revision process, which involves an evaluation of what has been written for so far.Strategic knowledge, less obvious factors determining the quality of the writing plan, is knowledge used in constructing a writing plan in order to make it coherent and well-organized.6.5 Task:Work in groups and discuss the following questions: Give a definition of Psycholinguistics in your own words?Please explain how to figure our the correct structure of garden path sentences with four or more sentences ?Could you explain how to use schemata in listening, speaking,reading and reading with examples?Please explain the basic process in reading with a short passage or short paragraph?Distinguish the following definitions with at least one examples: slip of the tongue, anticipation error, exchange error and morpheme-exchange errors?Think about the acquisition of second language acquisition or firstlanguage acquisition from the perspective of psycholinguistics?。
语言学chapter6
Chapter6•"Have you eaten yet?"it does not mean the speaker is interested in•the hearer's state of stomach and the former is not ready•to treat the latter to a big meal if he has not eaten•it serves, more often than not, as a kind of•greeting, or just saying something•for its own sake•It seems the case that once language is used, some extra meaning is produced beyond and under the literal meaningBirth to pragmatics•Since the early 1970s, a growing interest in pragmatics and pragmatic problems has been witnessed worldwide.•The international Journal of Pragmatics came into being in 1977, and the International Pragmatics Association (IPA) has been in existence since 1985.•All this has shown that a pragmatic turn in linguistics has started.•BABY & TODDLER SALE (Yule, 1985: 129).Your understanding•it is advertising clothes for themWhat can you get ?•Pragmatics：It is concerned with（1）how utterances have meanings, are understood or interpreted in context of situation•（2）how context influences the way people understand and interpret utterances,•（3）that is,' how language is actually used or understood in actual linguistic communication. •Pragmatics can be defined as the study of language in use,how speakers use the sentences of a language to effect successful communicationThe difference between grammatical analysis and pragmatic analysisHe studies linguistics•you can obey them to some extent and violate them to some extent. "He studies linguistics"; the -s is required by a rule .•Grammatical•studies look for rule swhile pragmatic studies look for principles•in grammar studies, we end up with products•while in pragmatics we always deal with processes.•I’m sorry I have an appointment already•…I have an tell the truth in very soft, gentle words.•In other words, after we have analyzed a sentence grammatically, our job is done;•in a pragmatic inquiry, we deal with an ever unfolding process---as the discourse goes on and on, the extra meaning of some words become clearer and clearer.Pragmatics VS. Semantics•What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered. If it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.Context•1.The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language.•2.It 'is generally considered as constituted by the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.Various components of shared knowledgeExamples•(6- 1) How did it go?•(6 - 2) It is cold in here.•(6- 3) It was a hot Christmas day so we went down to the beach in the afternoon and had a good time swimming and surfing.I’m your linguistic teacherMy bag is heavy.Semantic analysis•the meaning of the sentence results in the one-place predication•BAG (BEING HEA VY)Pragmatic analysis•could be uttered by a speaker as a straightforward statement, telling the hearer that his bag is heavy. •It could also be intended by the speaker as an indirect, polite request, asking the hearer to help him carry the bag.•Another possibility is that the speaker is declining someone's request for help. •Micropragmatics•Pragmatics•Macropragmatics•"1 was waiting for the bus, but he just drove by without stopping", though this he has no logical antecedent. But as we know a bus has a driver, it is easy to infer that he refers to the driver of the bus that I had been waiting for.So•language in smaller contexts is called micropragmatics.•Reference•(1) a: Where is the fresh salad sitting?•b: He's sitting by the door.•(2) a: Can I look at your Shakespeare?•b: Sure, it's on the shelf over there.••use names associated with things (salad) to refer to people and names of people (Shakespeare) to refer to things.•In pragmatics, the act by which a speaker or writer uses language to enable a hearer or reader to identify something is called reference.inference•An inference is any additional information used by the hearer to connect what is said to what must be meant. In example (2), the hearer has to infer that the name of the writer of a book can be used to identify a book by that writer. The key process here is called inference.•In pragmatics, the act by which a speaker or writer uses language to enable a hearer or reader to identify something is called reference.Deixis•In all languages there are many words and expressions whose reference depends entirely on the situational context of the utterance and can only be understood in light of these circumstances. •This aspect of pragmatics is called deixis, which means "pointing" via language. Any linguistic form used to do this "pointing" is called a deictic expression.for example,•there are some words that cannot be interpreted at all unless the context, especially the physical context of the speaker, is known. These are words like here, there, this,•that, now and then, as well as most pronouns, such as I, we, you, he, her and them.five types of deixis.•Person deixis: Any expression used to point to a person is an example of person deixis, for example, me, you, him and them.•tonight, last week and this year.•Space/spatial/place deixis: Words used to point to a location are examples of space deixis, for example, here, there and yonder.Discourse deixis:•Any expression used to refer to earlier or forthcoming segments of the discourse is an example of discourse deixis, for example, in the previous/next paragraph, or Have you heard this joke? •Since a discourse unfolds in time, it is natural to use temporal deictic terms (like next) to indicate the relation of the previous segment to the temporal location of the present utterance in the discourse. But spatial terms are also often employed, as in in this chapter.Social deixis:•honorifics (forms to show respect such as Professor Li) are often encountered in the languages of the world. They are often thought of as an aspect of person deixis, but although organized around the deictic center like space and time deixis, honorifics encode the speaker’s social relationship to another party, frequently but not always the addressee, on a dimension of rank.•Of course, there are other aspects of social deixis, for example, some linguistic expressions may be used to encode specific kinship relations (e.g. Li Jie [李姐] in Chinese).Anaphora•When we establish a referent and•subsequently refer to the same object,•We have a particular kind of referential•relationship. For example:•(4) A: Can I borrow your dictionary?•B: Yeah, it's on the table.•Here, the word it refers back to the word dictionary. The previous word dictionary is called the antecedent, a the second word it is called the anaphora or anaphoric expression.The process where a word or phrase refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation is called anaphora.indirect anaphora or bridging reference.•I walked into the room. The windows looked out to the bay.•The antecedent here is room, and the anaphor is windows. We would normally expect it to be used for a room. Obviously there is an inference involved here: If someone is talking about a room, he assumes that the room has windows. Those assumed windows are the inferred referents. So, such kind of anaphora is called indirect anaphora or bridging reference.Presupposition•When did you stop beating your wife?•there are at least two assumptions involved:•Here, the speaker assumes that you used to beat your wife, and that you no longer do so. Such assumptions by the speaker or writer are called presuppositions.built-in presuppositions•How often do you cheat in your examinations?•There is a presupposition that you do, in fact, cheat in examinations.•If you simply answer the How often part of the question e.g. by saying "Very seldom" , you are behaving as if the presupposition is right, that is, you admit that you have cheated in examinations. negating a sentence with a particular presupposition•How do we know that something is built into a sentence as presupposition? One of the tests used to check for the presuppositions underlying sentences involves negating a sentence with a particular presupposition and considering whether the presupposition remains true.For example, if someone says,•(8) I used to regret marrying her, but I don't regret marrying her now.•The presupposition "I married her" remains constant even though the verb regret has been negated. This is called the constancy under negation test for presupposition.presupposition triggers.•there are some expressions or constructions which can act as the sources of presuppositions. This kind of expressions or constructions are called presupposition triggers.An Example•You have left the door wide open.The locutionary act•performed by the speaker is his utterance of all the words "you", "have", " door", "open", etc. thus ex-pressing what the words literally mean.The illocutionary act•performed by the speaker is that by mak-ing such an utterance she has expressed her intention of speaking, i. e. asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context. The perlocutionary act•refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker's message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.Three acts•(i) Locutionary act: the act of saying, the literal meaning of the utterance;•(ii) Illocutionary act: the extra meaning of the utterance produced on the•basis of its literal meaning;•(iii) Perlocutionary act: the effect of the utterance on the hearer, depending•on specific circumstances.It's stuffy in here•. The Locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning "There isn't enough fresh air in here". The illocutionary act can be a request of the hearer to open the window.The perlocutionary act can be the hearer's opening the window or his refusal to do so. In fact, we might utter (17) to make a statement, a request, an explanation, or for some other communicative purposes. This is also generally known as the illocutionary force of the utterance. But how do people know which speech act is intended?•Husband: That's the phone.b. Wife: I’m in t he bathroomc. Husband: Okay.•This is an exchange between husband and wife when the telephone rings.•In (18a) the husband is not describing something---it is a thing that needs no description to his wife. In saying (18a), he is making a request of his wife to go and answer the phone.•In (18b), the wife is not describing her action either--- people do not usually need to assert that they are in the bathroom.•This analysis shows that this seemingly unconnected conversation is very coherent on a speech-act level (in b and c, each performs two speech acts), and•that in saying things people are in fact "doing" things.Searle's classification of speech acts•Representatives: those kinds of speech committed in various ways to the truth of a statement. Statements of fact, assertions, conclusions, and descriptions, as illustrated in (19), are all expels of the speaker representing the world as s/he believes it is:•(19) a. The earth is flat.• b. It was a warm sunny day.• c. Chomsky didn't write about music.•In using a representative, the speaker makes words fit the world (of belief). Of course, the degree of commitment varies from statement to statement.Directives•are attempts by the speaker to get the hearer to do something.Directives:•those kinds of speech acts that the speaker uses to get the hearer to do something. They express what the speaker wants.•(20) a. Give me a cup of coffee. Make it black.• b. Could you lend me a pen, please?•They are commands, orders, requests, suggestions, begging and pleading, in the order of decreasing illocutionary force, and as illustrated in (20), they can be positive or negative.•c. Don't touch that.•In using a directive, the speaker attempts to make the world fit the words (via the hearer).Commissives:•those kinds of speech acts that the speaker uses to commit himself to some future action. They express what the speaker intends. They are promises, threats, refusals, pledges, and as shown in (21), they can be performed by the speaker alone, or by the speaker as a member of a group.••In using a commissive, the speaker undertakes to make the world fit the words•(via the speaker).Expressives:•those utterances stating that the speaker expresses an attitude about the situation. They express psychological states and can be statements of pleasure, pain, likes, dislikes, joy, or sorrow.•(22) a. I'm really sorry!• b. Congratulations!• c. Oh, yes, great, mmm, ssahh!•(23) a. Priest: I now pronounce you husband and wife.• b. Referee: You're out!• c. Jury Foreman: We find the defendant guilty•(22) a. I'm really sorry!• b. Congratulations!• c. Oh, yes, great, mmm, ssahh!•As illustrated in (22), they can be caused by something•the speaker does or the hearer does, but they are about the speaker's experience.•In using an expressive, the speaker makes words fit the world (of feeling).Declarations:•those utterances that the speaker uses to change a situation. As the examples in (23) illustrate, the speaker has to have a special institutonal role, in a special context, in order to perform a declaration appropriately.•.•In using a declaration,•the speaker changes the world via words.Indirect speech acts•A different approach to distinguishing types of speech acts can be made on the basis of structure. A simple structural distinction between three general types of speech acts is provided, in English, by thethree basic sentences types.•As shown in (24), there is an easily recognized relationship between the three structural forms (declarative, interrogative, imperative) and the three general communicative functions (statement, question, command/request).•(24) a. declarative: You wear a seat belt. (statement)• b. interrogative: Do you wear a seat belt? (question)• c. imperative: Wear a seat belt! (command/request)•Whenever there is a direct relationship between a structure and a function, we have a direct speech act. However, this is not always the case. In fact, very often people seem to prefer not to be direct and explicit in the performance of speech acts.•For example, a declarative used to make a statement is a direct speech act, but a declarative used to make a request is an indirect speech act.•As illustrated in (25), the utterance in (25a) is a declarative. When it is used to make a statement, as paraphrased in (25b), it is functioning as a direct speech act. When it is used to make a command/request, as paraphrased in (25c), it is functioning as an indirect speech act.••(25) a. It's cold outside.• b. I hereby tell you about the weather.• c. I hereby request of you that you close the door.•One of the most common types of indirect speech act in English, as shown in (26), has the form of an interrogative, but is not typically used to ask questions, that is, we do not expect an answer, but we expect action.•The examples in (26) are normally understood as requests:•(26) a. Could you pass me the salt, please?• b. Would you open this for me?•Indeed, there is a typical pattern in English whereby asking a question about the hearer's assumed ability ("Can/Could you?") or future likelihood with regard to doing something ("Will/Would you?") normally accounts as a request to actually do something.••Requests are often performed indirectly. Their indirectness has certain characteristics that tend to group requests into the following types:••Group 1: Sentences concerning the hearer's ability to do something (some examples below are quoted from Searle):•(27) a. Can you pass the book over?• b. Could you type this paper for me?•Group 3: Sentences concerning the hearer's doing something:•(29) a. Would you kindly pick that up for me?• b. Wouldn't you turn the TV down a little?••Group 4: Sentences concerning the hearer's desire or willingness to do something•(30) a. Do you want to return these books for me now?• b. Would it be convenient for you to come over on Friday afternoon?• c. Would it be too much trouble for you to type the paper for me?••Group 5: Sentences concerning reasons for doing something:•(31) a. You should write to them every now and then.• b. Must you make that noise when you are reading?• c. You'd better book the tickets two weeks in advance.••Sometimes sentences are used that have more than one of these elements, with one inside another: •(32) Would it be too much trouble if I suggested that you could possibly return these books for me?•According to Grice, utterance interpretation is not a matter of decoding messages, but rather involves •(i) taking the meaning of the sentences together with contextual information,•(ii) using inference rules,•(iii) working out what the speaker means on the basis of the assumption that the utterance conforms to the maxims.•The main advantage of this approach from Grice's point of view is that it provides a pragmatic explanation for a wide range of phenomena, especially for conversational implicatures---a kind of extra meaning that is not literally contained in the utterance.•According to Grice, conversational implicatures can arise from either strictly and directly observing or deliberately and openly flouting the maxims, that is, speakers can produce implicatures in two ways: observance and non-observance of the maxims.••The least interesting case is when speakers directly observe the maxims so as to generate conversational implicatures.•(33) Husband: Where are the car keys?Wife: They're on the table in the hall.•The wife has answered clearly (Manner) and truthfully (Quality), has given just•the right amount of information (Quantity) and has directly addressed her husband's goal in asking the question (Relation). She has said precisely what she meant, no more and no less, and has generated her conversational implicature.•In this case, there is, in essence, no distinction to be made between what is said and what is implicated.•However, in actual speech communication, it is often the case that speakers cannot or do not observe the CP and its maxims. For example:•(34) He is a tiger.•(35) Tom has wooden ears.••Examples (34) is literally false, openly against the maxim of quality, for no human is a tiger. But the hearer still assumes that the speaker is being cooperative and then infers that he is trying to say something distinct from the literal meaning He can then work out that probably the speaker meant to say that “he has some characteristics of a tiger”.•Sentence (35) is obviously false (in most natural contexts) and the speaker in uttering it flouts the first maxim of quality: do not say what you believe to be false.•Hence, the hearer infers that the speaker meant something informative instead, for example, (36). Metaphors and irony are standard examples of the flouting of the maxim of quality.••(36) Tom does not appreciate classical music so we should not invite him to the concert.•In (37), B violates the maxim of quantity by providing less information than is required: •(37) A: Where does C live?•B: Somewhere in the South of France.•This violation can be explained by the adherence to the maxim of quality: Speaker B cannot truthfully provide more detailed information. Alternatively, in•some contexts, it can be explained as carrying an implicature that the speaker does not, for some reason or other, want to reveal C's precise location.•If the maxims are breached, the hearer infers that the speaker must have meant something else, that is, the speaker must have had some special reason for not observing the maxims.•In example (38), flouting the maxims also lead to implicatures.•(38) If he comes, he comes.••Sentence (38) is a tautology. It is uninformative by virtue of its semantic content. In uttering it the speaker flouts the first maxim of quantity: the contribution to conversation is not sufficiently informative. Assuming that the maxim of quantity is preserved after all, the hearer infers that the speaker meant something more informative, for example:•(39) You never know if he is going to turn up so there is no point worrying about it.•The utterances like "Girls are girls" and "War is war" are typically "informationless" but are in fact rich in meaning. To such things, the hearer would not say "Nonsense! I know girls are girls, not boys!"•He would infer from the specific context that the speaker probably means that girls are careful, and considerate or like to talk about shopping and fashion.•In addition, giving more information than required may also be taken as having other motives than the utterance suggests. For a man to introduce himself to a girl at a party by saying•(40) I'm Alex from Leeds, 26, unmarried.•would make the girl suspicious of his motive.••The maxims of relation and manner can also not be observed. For example:•(41) A: I'm out of petrol.•B: There is a garage round the corner.•(42) A: Shall we get something for the kids?•B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.•In (41), B would be infringing the maxim "Be relevant" unless he thinks, or thinks it possible, that the garage is open and has petrol for sale; so he implicates that the garage is, or at least may be open, etc.•And (42) can only be said when it is known to both A and B that B has no difficulty in pronouncing the word ice-cream. In that case, A will know that B spells the word out in order not to prompt the kids.Cooperative Principle---the Politeness Principle (PP).•In most cases, the indirectness is motivated by considerations of politeness. •Politeness is usually regarded by most pragmatists as a means or strategy which is used by a speaker to achieve various purposes, such as saving face, establishing and maintaining harmonious social relations in conversation.•Leech(1983b: 80) looks on politeness as crucial in accounting for "why people are often so indirect in conveying what they mean". He thus puts forward the Politeness Principle so as to "rescue the Cooperative Principle" in the sense that•politeness can satisfactorily explain exceptions to and apparent deviations from the CP.The six maxims of the PP:•Maxim of Tact (in directives and commissives)•(i) Minimize cost to other•(ii) Maximize benefit to otherMaxim of Generosity (in directives and commissives)•(i) Minimize benefit to self•(ii) Maximize cost to selfMaxim of Approbation (in expressives and assertives)•(i) Minimize dispraise of other•(ii) Maximize praise of otherMaxim of Modesty (in expressives and assertives)•(i) Minimize praise of self•(ii) Maximize dispraise of selfMaxim of Agreement (in assertives)•(i) Minimize disagreement between self and other•(ii) Maximize agreement between self and otherMaxim of Sympathy (in assertives)•(i) Minimize antipathy between self and other•(ii) Maximize sympathy between self•and other•Briefly, this principle requires speakers to "minimize the expression of impolite beliefs". These maxims can help to explain, among other things, why certain forms are more acceptable than others. In British culture, for example, the Politeness principle accounts for the use of "White lies" in conversation.•For instance, if someone invites another person to a party and that person wants to decline the invitation, rather than saying " No, I don't want to come" the person might pretend to have another engagement and say " Thank you but I’m going out that evening".•Of course, after repeated invitations which are repeatedly declined with statements like "I'm afraid I'm busy" or "1 have another engagement", the inviter will probably "get the message" and stop inviting.•White lies must of course be properly deceptive. Imagine someone who declined an invitation for dinner the following weekend by saying "1 think•I'm going to have a headache". In its transparency this "white lie" is a failure---•It breaks the Politeness Principle---and is perhaps even more impolite than a simple direct refusal.•Very often a superficial view is taken of politeness in spoken language---it is associated with being superficially "nice", and with formal, mechanical extras such as the words please, and thank you and the use of special constructions such as W ould you mind.., or could you.., or I wonder if you could... But politeness is a pervasive principle and also involves the content of conversation.•The Maxim of Approbation will explain why a compliment like "What a marllous meal you cooked!" is highly valued while "What an awful meal you cooked!" is not socially accepted. •Thus when criticism is inevitable, understatement is preferred as a show of reluctance to dispraise (Cf. "Her composition was not so good as it might have been").•The maxim of modesty accounts for the benign nature of utterances like "How stupid of me" and the offensive nature of "How clever of me! " Regulated by the maxim of agreement, people tend to exaggerate their common ground first, even when much difference is to follow:•(43) A: The book is very well written.•B: Yes, well written as a whole, but there are some rather boring patches, don't you think? •In the following example, notice how much effort speaker B puts into trying to hide the fact that speaker A thinks one thing (the female being discussed is "small") and he thinks the opposite.••(44) A: She's small, isn't she?•B: Well, she's sort of small, certainly not very large…, but actually…I would have to say that she is large rather than small.••If expressing disagreement is inevitable, then speakers attempt to soften it in various ways, by expressing regret at the disagreement (I'm sorry, but I can't agree with you"). Notice in this example, the use of the word can't.•This seems to imply that the speaker would like to agree. Speakers may even show reluctance to speak at all when they know they will be disagreeing---they use expressions such as well at the beginning of their utterances or they "hum and haw".•The Maxim of Sympathy has such a regulative force that we invariably interpret (46) as a congratulation and (47) as a condolence:•(46) I'm delighted to hear about your cat.•(Most likely the cat has just won a prize in the cat-show.)•(47) I'm terribly sorry to hear about your cat.•(Probably the cat has just died.)•It is argued that when the CP and PP are in contradiction, it is generally the•CP maxims that get sacrificed. When the truth cannot be told for politeness sake, a white lie may be offered.•In fact the PP is so powerful that people are often encouraged to violate its maxims in order to ensure a cooperatives discourse ("Don't be too modest. Tell us everything you've achieved." "If you find anything inadequate in the paper, don't hesitate to point it out").•Irony is a means to solve the conflict between the CP and PP---when the truth is too offensive to be told, an ironic utterance assumes a polite surface while an unpleasant true message underneath.。
语言学_Chapter 6_Pragmatics
对所使用语言的掌握 语言知识
对语言上文的了解 百科全书式的知识（常识）
语境
背景知识
语言外知识 情景知识
特定文化的社会规范 特定文化的会话规则 交际的时间、地点 交际的主题 交际的正式程度 交际参与者的相互关系
相互知识Biblioteka • 1. Situational context
• • • •
refers to the particular spatiotemporal situation in which an utterance occurs the place and time of the utterance, the speaker and the hearer, the actions they are performing at the time, the various objects and events existent in the situation.
performed via utterances • 3 simultaneous act in a speech act
6.2.1 Austin’s model: Speech Acts （言语 行为理论）
Austin (1962) distinguish two categories of utterances.
Annie: Cats were very happy today.
I think Annie means “Cats eat the cream.” What does Annie mean? Cats today were in high spirit.
Both are right. It is the difference between sentence meaning and utterance meaning!
英语语言学Chapter 6 The Sound Patterns of Languag
.
Syllables and Clusters
• Me, to, no have an onset and a nucleus, no coda
• Open syllables • Closed syllables: when coda is present • Up, cup, at or hat • Green (CCVC), eggs (VCC), and (VCC),
• Arabic does not have contrast btwn these two sounds
• Fan-van, bet-bat, site-side
.
Minimal Pairs and Sets
• When a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then we have a Minimal Set
differently • Thousands of physical different ways of
saying “Me”
.
Phonology
• Definition: essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language
.
Assimilation
• When two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or ‘copied’ by the other,
语言学课件Chapter 6 Pragmatics
e.g. My bag is heavy.
Semantic analysis: BAG ( BEING HEAVY)
Pragmatic analysis: a statement; an indirect, polite request; a refusal
Utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.
话语是句子意义与语境的结合，是句子意 义在特定语境中的具体化，体现了说话人 的意g is much richer than sentence meaning.
It varies with the context in which the sentence is used.
Context consists of the knowledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.
It includes the knowledge of the language they use, and the knowledge about the world, which can be subdivided into the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which communication is taking place.
1) The room is messy.
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Background 6.1.2 Definition
6.2 Micropragmatics
6.2.1 Reference（指称） 6.2.2 Dexis（指示） 6.2.3 Anaphora （照应） 6.2.4 Presupposition（预设）
In English, words like here, there, this, that, now, and then, as well as most pronouns, such as I, we, you, he, her, them.
(2) You’ll have to bring that back tomorrow, because they aren’t here now.
(3) A: Can I borrow your dictionary? B: Yeah, it’s on the table.
antecedent, anaphor or anaphoric expression.
indirect anaphor or bridging reference : (4) I walked into the room. The windows
（5）Susan’s sister bought two houses.
This sentence presupposes that Susan exists and that she has a sister.
In any language, there are some expressions or constructions which can act as the sources of presuppositions. This kind of expressions or constructions is called presupposition-triggers.
Syntax addresses the formal relations of signs to one another,
semantics the relation of signs to what they denote,
and pragmatics the relation of signs to their users and interpreters.
To study the meaning of such pieces of language in smaller contexts is called micropragmatics.
Phenomena such as reference, deixis, anaphora, and presupposition, are the topics in this field.
6.2.1 Reference
In the referential theory (naming theory), it is assumed that the words we use to identify things are in some direct relationship to those things:
Five types of deixis
1. Person deixis: me, you, him, them. 2. Time deixis: now, then, tonight, last week. 3. Space/spatial/place deixis: here, there, and
looked out to the bay.
6.2.4 Presupposition
Presupposition (预设): The information that a speaker assumes to be already known. (The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of Language, 1987)
The note reads: `Send me your slippers with this boy`.
When the student asked why he had written `your` slippers, the melamed answered: `Yold! [Fool!] If I wrote “my” slippers, she would read “my slippers and would send her slippers. What could I do with her slippers? So I wrote “your” slippers, she'll read “your slippers and send me mine.”
yonder. 4. Discourse deixis: temporal/spatial in the
previous/next paragraph, or Have you heard this joke? in this chapter. 5. Social deixis: honorifics (敬语, Professor Li); kinship relationship (Li Jie [李姐] in Chinese )
In pragmatics, the act by which a speaker or writer uses language to enable a hearer or reader to identify something is called reference.
6.2.2 Deixis
Voltaire (Quoted, in Spanish, in Escandell 1993.) speaker’s meaning/language in use
A melamed [/mə‘lɑ:məd/，小学教师, Hebrew teacher] discovering that he had left his comfortable slippers back in the house, sent a student after them with a note for his wife.
Pragmatics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those forms.
In this three-part distinction, only pragmatics allows humans into the analysis.
6.2.3 Anaphora
Anaphora (照应) is coreference of one expression with its antecedent. The antecedent provides the information necessary for the expression’s interpretation. This is often understood as an expression “referring” back to the antecedent.
Deixis (指示), which means “pointing” via language, the interpretation of many words and expressions by reference to the situational context of the utterance. Any linguistic form used to do this “pointing” is called a deictic expression,, Hebrew teacher] discovering that he had left his comfortable slippers back in the house, sent a student after them with a note for his wife.
(1) a: Can I look at your Shakespeare? b: Sure, it’s on the shelf over there.
(use names of people to refer to things)
The key process here is called inference. An inference is any additional information used by the hearer to connect what is said to what must be meant.
Definitions
1 “Pragmatics is the study of speaker’s meaning.”
2 “ Pragmatics is the study of contextual meaning”
3 “ Pragmatics is the study of how more gets communicated than is said”
The note reads: `Send me your slippers with this boy`.
When the student asked why he had written `your` slippers, the melamed answered: `Yold! [Fool!] If I wrote “my” slippers, she would read “my slippers and would send her slippers. What could I do with her slippers? So I wrote “your” slippers, she'll read “your slippers and send me mine.”