语言学考试要点

语言学考试要点（考试重点整理）
1. What is linguistics? Lin guistics is
社会语言学； 心
理语言学；
应用语言学
Chapter 1 In troducti on
gen erally defi ned as the scie ntific study of Ian guage.
2. The scope of lin guistics:
(1 ). pho netics 语音学;phono logy 音位 学； morphology 形态学； syntax 句法学；
pragmatics 语用学
(2) . s ocioli nguistics psycholi nguistics applied lin guistics 3. Someimportant distinction
in linguistics (1) Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描述性与 规定性 ① I f a linguistics study aims to describe and an alyze the Ian guage people actually use, it is said to be descriptive;
② I f the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for ” correct and standard ”
behavior in using Ian guage, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be
prescriptive.
(2) S
ynchronic vs. diachr onic 共时性与
历时性
① A synchronic descripti on takes a
fixed in sta nt (usually, but not n
ecessarily, the prese nt) as its point of
observati on. Most
grammars are of this kind.
②Diachronic linguistics is the study of a Ianguage through the course of its history.
(2) Lan gue & parole 语言与会话
①Language refers to the abstract linguistic
system shared by all the members of a speech comm un ity.
② Parole refers to the realizati on of
Ian guage in actual use.
(4) Competenee and performanee 语言能力与语言运用
① A Ianguage user's unconscious
kno wledge about the system of rules is
called his lin guistic
compete nee.
② Performa nee refers to the actual
use of Ian guage in eon erete situati ons.
(5) speech and writi ng
语言与文字
Speech and writing are the two major media of comm uni cati on.
(6) traditi onal
grammar and moder n lin guistic 传统语法与现代语言学
4. Definition of Ianguage:
Lan guage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for huma n comm uni cati on.
Language is a system, i.e., elements of Ian guage are comb ined accordi ng to rules.
Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrin sic conn ecti on
betwee n a lin guistics symbol and what the
symbol sta nds.
Lan guage is vocal because the primary medium for all la nguages is sound.
The term “ human in the defi niti on is
mea nt to specify that Ian guage is huma n-specific.
5. Design features of Ianguage
6. (1) Arbitrari ness 任意性refers to
the forms of lin guistic sig ns bear no
n atural relati on ship to their meaning.
(so unds and meanin gs)
(2) Productivity(creativity) 能产性Language is productive in that it makes possible the con structi on and interpretation of new signals by its
users.
(3) duality 双重性The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of eleme nts of the sec on dary level and each
of the two levels has its own principles of orga ni zati on.
(4) displaceme nt 移位性Huma n Lan guages en able their users to symbolize objects,
events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of comm uni cati on.
(5) cultural tran smissi on 文化传承性
7. Fun cti ons of Ian guage
(1) refere ntial (to con vey message and
in formati on),
(2) poetic (to indulge in Ianguage for
its own sake),
(3) emotive (to express attitudes, feeli ngs and emoti on s),
(4) con ative (to persuade and in flue nce others through comma nds and requests),
(5) phatic (to establish comm union with others)
(6) metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanin gs).
①Informative( 信息功能): to give in formati on about facts. (ideati on al)
②Interpersonal( 人际功能): to establish and main tai n social status in a society.(age, sex, la nguage, backgro und,
acce nt, status)
③ Performative（施为功能）:Ianguage is used to do thi ngs, to perform certa in
actions. （name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare）
④ .Emotive/Expressive （情感功能）: to express feeli ngs and attitudes of the speaker.
⑤ Phatic communion（寒暄交流）:to use small and meanin gless expressi ons to establish a comfortable relati on ship or maintain social con tact betwee n people without any factual content. （health, weather）
⑥ Recreational function（娱乐）:the use of Ian guage for sheer joy. （lyrics, poetry）
⑦ Metalingual function（元语言功能）: to talk about Ian guage itself.
1. Phonetics （语音学）is the study of the phonic mediumof Ianguage; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world ' s Ianguages. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, tran smitted, and perceived.
2. Orthographic representation of speech sounds :
broad transcription （宽式标音）and narrow tran scripti on （严式标音）
A broad tran scripti on （宽式标音）is the tran scripti on with letter-symbols on ly.
A narrow tran scripti on （严式标音）is a tran scripti on with letter symbols together with diacritics.
3. Phono logy （音位学）i s the study of the sound patter ns and sound systems of
Ian guages.
4. The differences between phonetics and phonology:（语音的正字表征）
① Both are concerned with the sameaspect of Ianguage----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus. ② Phon etics is of gen eral n ature; it is
in terested in all the speech sounds used
in all huma n Ian guages; it aims to an swer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic
features they have, how they can be classified, etc. ③ Pho no logy aims to discover how speech sounds in a Ian guage
form patter ns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic comm uni cati on.
5. Phone （音素）,phoneme（音位）,allophone
（音位变体）
A phone---- a pho netic unit or segme nt.
The speech sounds we hear and produce duri ng lin guistic comm uni cati on are all pho nes.
A phoneme---- is a pho no logical un it; it
is a unit of disti nctive value; an
abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is
represe nted by a certa in pho ne in
certa in pho netic con text
6. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair. （音位对立，互补分布，最小对立体）
7. Some rules of pho no logy （音位学规则）Sequential rules 序歹V 规贝V Assimilation
rule同化规则Deletion rule 省略规则
8. Suprasegmental features （超音段特征）：stress 重音，tone 音调，intonation 语调
9.
10.
Chapter 3 Morphology
1. Classification of words
（1）Variable vs. in variable words: 可变词类和不可变词类
Variable words: One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word rema ins con sta nt follow, follows, followi ng, followed; mat, mats
In variable words: those words such as
words since, when, seldom, through, hello . They do not have in flective endin gs.
(2) Grammatical words vs. lexical words: 语法词类和词汇词类
Grammatical
words: express grammatical
meanin gs, such as conj un cti ons,
prepositi ons, articles,
pronouns
Lexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substanee, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
(3) Closed-class words vs. open-class words:封闭词类和开放词类
Closed-class: a word whose membership
is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositi ons, conjun cti ons, articles, etc.
Open-class: A word whose
membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs
Grammatical---lexical
closed-class---ope n-class words
2. M）rphere（词素）:the minimal meaningful
un it of Ian guage.
3. Linguistics use the term morphology to
refer the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure.
4. Free morpheme & bound morpheme（自由语素和黏着语素）
A morpheme which can be a word by itself
is called a free morpheme; a morphemethat must be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.
5. The variant forms of a morphemeare called its allomorphs.（词素变体）
6. I nflectional affix & derivational
affix（屈折词缀和派生词缀）
7. Oompound: those words that consist of more tha n one free morphemes, the way to join
two separate words to produce a single form. In compounds, the lexical morphemes
can be of differe nt word classes.
8. Oompoundscan be further divided into two kin ds:
the endocentric compound （向心复合词）the exocentric compound（离心复合词）
9. Endocentric: one element serves as the
head, the relati on ship of “ a kind of ” ; eg self-c on trol: a kind of con trol armchair: a kind of chair
10. Exocentric: there is no head, so not a
rela ti on ship of “ a kind of somethi ng ” , eg scarecrow: not a kind of crow break neck: not a kind of n eck
11.
Chapter 4 Syn tax
1. What is Syntax （句法）？
Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways differe nt con stitue nts are comb ined to form senten ces. 句法就是研究
语言的不同成分组成句子的规则
2. Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kin ds:
relati ons of positi on 位置关系
替代关系 同现关系
3.
4.
5.
relati ons of substitutability relati
ons of co-occurre nee
Chapter 5 Sema ntics 1. What is Sema ntics?
Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and senten ces. 语义学是研 究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科
2. The con ceptualist view
① The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form
and what it refers to (i.e. between Ianguage and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are
lin ked through the mediati on of con cepts in the mind.
② This is illustrated by the classic
sema ntic
tria ngle or tria ngle of significanee suggested by Ogden and
Richard.
Thought/reference/c on cept
Symbol/form refere ncent
word/phrase/se ntence
③ The symbol or form refers to the
lin guistic eleme nts (words and phrases);The refere nt
refers to the object in the world of
experie nee;
Thought or refere nee refers to
con cept.
The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue
of the concept associated with the form of the
word in the minds of the speaker; and the
concept looked at from this point of view is the
mea ning of the word.
3. The con textualism
Mea ning should be studied in terms of
situati on, use, con text ——eleme
nts
closely lin ked with Ian guage behavior.
Two types of con texts are recog ni zed:
Situati onal con text: spatiotemporal
situati on
Lin guistic con text: the probability of
a word' s co-occurrenee or collocation.
4. Behaviorism
Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “ the situati on in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer ”. 5. Lexical meaning
Sense and refere nee are both concerned
with the study of word meaning. They are two
related but different aspects of meaning.
Sense---- is con cer ned with the in here nt
meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the
lin guistic form; it is abstract and
de-c on textualized. It is the aspect of
meaning dicti onary compilers are
in terested in.
Referenee----what a lin guistic form
refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relati on ship betwee n the
lin guistic eleme nt and the
non-li nguistic world of experie nee.
6. Major sense relati ons
(1)Synonymy 同义词
① Dialect synon ymy 方言同义词
② Stylistic synon ymy 文体同义词
③ Synon yms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning
④ Oollocati onal synon yms
⑤ Sema ntically differe nt synon yms
(2)An to nym 反义词
① Gradable anton yms 等级反义词
② Oomplementary antonyms 互补反义词
③ Relati onal opposites 关系反义词
(3)Polysemy 一词多义
(4)Hom on ymy同形异义词
(5)Hypo nymy上下义关系
① Superord in ate 上义词
② Wpon yms下义词
7. Comp onen tial an alysis 成分分析法------- a way of an alyze lexical meaning
It is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning comp onen ts, called sema ntic features.。