Economic Analysis
Techno-Economic Analysis
© 2013 Ibrahim and Ilinca, licensee InTech. This is an open access chapter distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
1. Introduction
Overall structure of electrical power system is in the process of changing. For incremental growth, it is moving away from fossil fuels - major source of energy in the world today - to renewable energy resources that are more environmentally friendly and sustainable [1]. Factors forcing these considerations are (a) the increasing demand for electric power by both developed and developing countries, (b) many developing countries lacking the resources to build power plants and distribution networks, (c) some industrialized countries facing insufficient power generation and (d) greenhouse gas emission and climate change concerns. Renewable energy sources such as wind turbines, photovoltaic solar systems, solar-thermo power, biomass power plants, fuel cells, gas micro-turbines, hydropower turbines, combined heat and power (CHP) micro-turbines and hybrid power systems will be part of future power generation systems [2-8]. Nevertheless, exploitation of renewable energy sources (RESs), even when there is a good potential resource, may be problematic due to their variable and intermittent nature. In addition, wind fluctuations, lightning strikes, sudden change of a load, or the occurrence of a line fault can cause sudden momentary dips in system voltage [4]. Earlier studies have indicated that energy storage can compensate for the stochastic nature and sudden deficiencies of RESs for short periods without suffering loss of load events and without the need to start more generating plants [4], [9], [10]. Another issue is the integration of RESs into grids at remote points, where the grid is weak, that may generate unacceptable voltage variations due to power fluctuations. Upgrading the power transmission line to mitigate this problem is often uneconomic. Instead, the inclusion of energy storage for power smoothing and voltage regulation at the remote point of connection would allow utilization of the power and could offer an economic alternative to upgrading the transmission line.
一些统计数据的网址
一些统计数据的网址1.美国经济分析局Bearfacts (Bureau of Economic Analysis)/remd/index.htm该站点由美国商业部下属的经济分析局(BEA)建立。
BEA的功能主要是分析和综合大量数据以便创造美国经济的一个连贯模式。
BEA还对国际、国家和地区的经济进行预算和分析。
其中以对国民生产总值（GDP）的预算最为著名。
2.商业统计（美国人口普查局）Business Statistics (US Census Bureau)/epcd/www/sb001.htm该站点上有便于使用的关于公司、就业、薪水和收据的信息。
按照产业类目排列。
3.人口普查局经济信息Census Bureau Economic Information/ftp/pub/econ/www/是美国人口统计局的官方站点。
上面有大量关于美国经济的统计数据。
如美国经济指标；农业、制造业、建筑业、农村和城市的数据；美国商业统计、当前工业报告、经济统计和调查；数据访问工具等等。
4.当前工业报告（美国人口普查局）Current Industrial Reports (US Census Bureau)/pub/cir/www/index.html这里可以看到系列工业报告。
电子数据是唯一的形式，可能要收取一定费用。
5.网上数据（加州大学圣迭戈分校）Data on the Net (UC San Diego )/idata/收集了关于美国经济和其它数据的站点，有注释，可检索。
6.经济数据和链接（美国加州大学Fresno分校）Econ Data & Links (CAL State Fresno)/Economics/econ_EDL.htm由美国加州大学Fresno分校建立。
该站点提供了大量表格和统计数据，以及很多相关站点的链接，内容从收入、财富到贫困问题都有。
7.经济数据（国际）EconData (International)/EdRes/Top.../International/马里兰大学提供的国际性EconData时间序列数据库。
PEST分析模型(PEST Analysis)
PEST分析模型（PEST Analysis）目录[隐藏]∙ 1 PEST模型简介∙ 2 典型的PEST分析∙ 3 PEST分析的内容o 3.1 (一)政治法律环境(Political Factors)o 3.2 (二)经济环境(Economic Factors)o 3.3 (三)社会文化环境(Sociocultural Factors)o 3.4 (四)技术环境(Technological Factors)∙ 4 PEST分析的应用∙ 5 PEST分析的变形∙ 6 PEST分析模型案例分析o 6.1 案例一:保健品行业PEST分析及其发展思路[1]o 6.2 案例二:对建筑装饰设计行业的PEST分析[2]∙7 参考文献∙8 相关条目[编辑]PEST模型简介PEST分析是战略咨询顾问用来帮助企业检阅其外部宏观环境的一种方法。
是指宏观环境的分析，宏观环境又称一般环境，是指影响一切行业和企业的各种宏观力量。
对宏观环境因素作分析，不同行业和企业根据自身特点和经营需要，分析的具体内容会有差异，但一般都应对政治（Political）、经济（Economic）、技术（Technological）和社会（Social）这四大类影响企业的主要外部环境因素进行分析。
简单而言，称之为PEST分析法。
如图所示：[编辑]典型的PEST分析下表是一个典型的PEST分析。
国际贸易章程与限制政府开支劳动力与社会流动性新型发明与技术发展合同执行法消费者保护法失业政策生活方式变革技术转让率雇用法律征税职业与休闲态度企业家精神技术更新速度与生命周期政府组织/态度汇率教育能源利用与成本竞争规则通货膨胀率潮流与风尚信息技术变革政治稳定性商业周期的所处阶段健康意识、社会福利及安全感互联网的变革安全规定消费者信心生活条件移动技术变革[编辑]PEST分析的内容[编辑](一)政治法律环境(Political Factors)政治环境包括一个国家的社会制度，执政党的性质，政府的方针、政策、法令等。
economic analysis of law
Economic Analysis of LawLouis Kaplow and Steven Shavell*February 1999AbstractThis is a survey of the field of economic analysis of law, focusing on the work of economists. The survey covers the three central areas of civil law — liability for accidents (tort law), property law, and contracts — as well as the litigation process and public enforcement of law.Forthcoming in A.J. Auerbach and M. Feldstein, Handbook of Public EconomicsJEL Classes K00, K10, K11, K12, K13, K14, K40, K41, K42, H23, L51*Harvard Law School and National Bureau of Economic Research. We thank Alan Auerbach, Steven Levitt, A. Mitchell Polinsky, and Tanguy van Ypersele for comments, Judson Berkey, Jerry Fang, and Chad Shirley for research assistance, and the John M. Olin Center for Law, Economics, and Business at Harvard Law School for financial support.Contents1.Introduction2.Liability for Accidents2.1Incentives2.2Risk-bearing and Insurance2.3Administrative Costs2.4Magnitude of Liability: Damages2.5Causation2.6Judgment-Proof Problem2.7Product Liability2.8Liability versus Other Means of Controlling Accidents2.9Intentional Torts3.Property Law3.1Justifications for Property Rights3.2Emergence of Property Rights3.3Division and Form of Property Rights3.4Public Property3.5Acquisition and Transfer of Property3.6Conflicts in the Use of Property: Externalities3.7Property Rights in Information4.Contracts4.1Basic Theory4.2Production Contracts4.3Other Types of Contract5.Litigation5.1Suit5.2Settlement versus Trial5.3Litigation Expenditures5.4Extensions of the Basic Theory5.5Legal Advice5.6Appeals5.7Alternative Dispute Resolution5.8Formulation of Legal Rules5.9Relevance to General Incentive Schemesw Enforcement6.1Rationale for Public Enforcement6.2Basic Theory of Enforcement6.3Extensions of the Basic Theory6.4Criminal Law7.Criticism of Economic Analysis of Law7.1Positive Analysis7.2Normative Analysis7.3Purported Efficiency of Judge-Made Law8.ConclusionReferences1. IntroductionEconomic analysis of law seeks to answer two basic questions about legal rules. Namely, what are the effects of legal rules on the behavior of relevant actors? And are these effects of legal rules socially desirable? In answering these positive and normative questions, the approach employed in economic analysis of law is that used in economic analysis generally: the behavior of individuals and firms is described assuming that they are forward looking and rational, and the framework of welfare economics is adopted to assess social desirability.The field of economic analysis of law may be said to have begun with Bentham (1789, 1827, 1830), who systematically examined how actors would behave in the face of legal incentives and who evaluated outcomes with respect to a clearly stated measure of social welfare (utilitarianism). Bentham’s writings contain significant and extended analysis of criminal law and law enforcement, some analysis of property law, and a substantial treatment of the legal process. His work was left essentially undeveloped until the 1960s and early 1970s, when interest in economic analysis of law was stimulated by four important contributions: Coase's (1960) article on externalities and legal liability, Becker's (1968) article on crime and law enforcement, Calabresi's articles and culminating book (1970) on accident law, and Posner's (1972) general textbook on economic analysis of law and his establishment of the Journal of Legal Studies. As this survey will indicate, research in economic analysis of law has been active since the 1970s and is accelerating.2 The field, however, is far from mature; one indication is the lack of empirical work on most topics.Our focus here will be analytical, and we will cover five basic legal subjects.3 The first three are the central areas of civil law. We begin with liability for accidents, which can be understood as addressing the problem of probabilistic externalities. Second, we discuss property law, which concerns the nature and justification of property rights, how they are acquired and transferred, how conflicts in the use of property are resolved, and related topics. Third, we examine contract law, including the formation of contracts, their interpretation, and remedies for their breach. The following section concerns civil litigation, that is, the bringing of lawsuits by private actors to enforce their rights in the areas of law that we have just discussed. Next, we consider public enforcement of law, focusing on the level of law enforcement effort, the magnitude of sanctions, and other issues relevant to criminal law. Finally, we discuss criticisms that are commonly made by legal academics of economic analysis of law and offer concluding remarks.2. Liability for AccidentsLegal liability for accidents (a branch of tort law) is a means by which society can reduce the risk of harm by threatening potential injurers with having to pay for the harms they cause. Liability is also frequently viewed as a device for compensating victims of harm, but we will emphasize that insurance can provide compensation more cheaply than the liability system. Thus, we will view the primary social function of the liability system as the provision of incentives to prevent harm.There are two basic rules of liability. Under strict liability, an injurer must always pay for2The field of law and economics is presented in several, mainly informal books, Cooter and Ulen (1997), Polinsky (1989), and Posner (1998), in a graduate text, Miceli (1997), and in two reference works, The New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics and the Law (1998) and the Encyclopedia of Law and Economics (forthcoming). Journals specializing in law and economics include the Journal of Legal Studies, the Journal of Law and Economics, the Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization, and the International Review of Law and Economics. Also, a professional organization, the American Law and Economics Association, is now well established.3The sections on these subjects can be read largely independently of each other. Not treated in our survey are various, more particular areas of law than the five we have mentioned; omitted areas include antitrust law, corporate and securities law, bankruptcy and commercial law, banking law, international trade law, and tax law. Also, excluded from this survey are problems addressed by the literatures on public choice and positive political theory.harm due to an accident that he causes. Under the negligence rule, an injurer must pay for harm caused only when he is found negligent, that is, only when his level of care was less than a standard of care chosen by the courts, often referred to as due care. (There are various versions of these rules that depend on whether victims’ care was insufficient, as we will discuss below.) In fact, the negligence rule is the dominant form of liability; strict liability is reserved mainly for certain especially dangerous activities (such as the use of explosives).Our discussion of liability begins by examining how liability rules create incentives to reduce risk. The allocation of risk and insurance will then be considered, and following that, the factor of administrative costs. Then we take up a number of important topics bearing on liability: the magnitude of liability (damages), causation, and the judgment-proof problem (assets insufficient to pay for harm). Finally, we consider the subjects of product liability and intentional torts.42.1. IncentivesIn order to focus on liability and incentives to reduce risk, we assume in this section that parties are risk neutral. Further, we suppose that there are two classes of parties, injurers and victims, and that they are strangers to one another, or at least are not in a contractual relationship. For example, injurers might be drivers and victims pedestrians, or injurers might be polluting firms and victims affected residents.To begin with, we assume that accidents are unilateral in nature: only injurers can influence risks. Then we consider bilateral accidents, in which victims as well as injurers affect risks. We also examine two types of action that parties can take that alter risk: first we consider their level of care (such as driving speed) and then their level of activity (number of miles driven).2.1.1. Unilateral accidents and the level of care. Here we suppose that injurers alone can reduce risk by choosing a level of care. Let x be expenditures on care (or the money value of effort devoted to it) and p(x) be the probability of an accident that causes harm h, where p is declining in x. Assume that the social objective is to minimize total expected costs, x + p(x)h, and let x* denote the optimal x.Under strict liability, injurers pay damages equal to h whenever an accident occurs, and they naturally bear the cost of care x. Thus, they minimize x + p(x)h; accordingly, they choose x*.Under the negligence rule, suppose that the due care level x¿^ is set equal to x*, meaning that an injurer will have to pay h if x < x* but will not have to pay anything if x x*. Then it can be shown that the injurer will choose x*: clearly, the injurer will not choose x greater than x*, for that will cost him more and he will escape liability by choosing merely x*; and he will not choose x < x*, for then he will be liable (in which case the analysis of strict liability shows that he would not choose x < x*).Thus, under both forms of liability, injurers are led to take optimal care. But note that under the negligence rule, courts need to be able to calculate optimal care x* and to be able to observe actual care x, in addition to observing harm. In contrast, under strict liability courts do not need to do the former two; they only need to observe harm.5It should also be noted that, under the negligence rule with due care x¿^ equal to x*, negligence would never actually be found, because injurers are induced to choose x* and thus would be exonerated if they were sued after causing an accident. Findings of negligence may occur, however, under a variety of modifications of our assumptions. Courts might make errors in observing injurers’ actual level of care so that an injurer whose true x is at least x* might mistakenly be found negligent because his observed level of care is below x*. Similarly, courts might err in calculating x* and thus might set due care x¿^ above x*. If so, an injurer who chooses4A comprehensive economic treatment of accident law is contained in Shavell (1987a), which this section largely follows. See also Landes and Posner (1987a) and Calabresi (1970), an early, innovative, informal economic analysis of liability.5Compare the discussion of corrective taxes versus regulation in section 3.6.2.x* would be found negligent (even though care is accurately observed) because x¿^ exceeds x*. As emphasized by Craswell and Calfee (1986), the possibility of errors in the negligence determination leads injurers to choose incorrect levels of care; one possibility is that they would take excessive care in order to reduce the risk of being found negligent by mistake.6 There exist other explanations for findings of negligence as well, including the possibility that individuals may not know x* and thus take too little care, the judgment-proof problem, which may lead an actor to choose to be negligent (see section 2.6), and the inability of a person to control his behavior perfectly at every moment or of a firm to control its employees.2.1.2. Bilateral accidents and levels of care. We now assume that victims also choose a level of care y, that the probability of an accident is p(x,y) and is declining in both variables, that the social goal is to minimize x + y + p(x,y)h, and that the optimal levels of care x* and y* are positive.7Under strict liability, injurers’ incentives are optimal conditional on victims’ level of care, but victims have no incentive to take care because they are fully compensated for their losses. However, the usual strict liability rule that applies in bilateral situations is strict liability with a defense of contributory negligence, meaning that an injurer is liable for harm only if the victim’s level of care was not negligent, that is, his level of care was at least his due care level y¿^. If victims’due care level is set by the courts to equal y*, then it is a unique equilibrium for both injurers and victims to act optimally: victims can be shown to choose y* in order to avoid having to bear their losses, and injurers will choose x* since they will in fact be liable, as victims will not be negligent.8Under the negligence rule, optimal behavior, x* and y*, is also the unique equilibrium. Injurers can be shown to choose x* to avoid being liable, and since victims will therefore bear their losses, they will choose y*.9 Two other variants of the negligence rule are negligence with the defense of contributory negligence (under which a negligent injurer is liable only if the victim is not negligent) and the comparative negligence rule (under which a negligent injurer is only partially liable if the victim is also negligent). These rules are also readily shown to induce optimal behavior in equilibrium.Thus, all of the negligence rules, and strict liability with the defense of contributory negligence, support optimal levels of care x* and y* in equilibrium, assuming that due care levels are chosen optimally. Courts need to be able to calculate optimal care levels for at least one party under any of the rules, and in general this requires knowledge of the function p(x,y). The main6This might explain the phenomenon of “defensive medicine,” on which see Danzon (1985) and, for empirical evidence, Kessler and McClellan (1996). Whether there is a tendency toward excessive care depends upon the degree of legal error and on whether injurers who are found negligent are held responsible for all harm caused or only the incremental harm attributable to their negligence. On the latter, see Grady (1983) and Kahan (1989).7In some early, less formal literature on accidents, for example, Calabresi (1970), reference is made to the notion of the “least-cost avoider,” the party — injurer or victim — who can avoid an accident at the lower cost. The idea of a least-cost avoider relies on the assumption that each party can undertake a discrete amount of care, independently sufficient to prevent an accident.8That this equilibrium is unique follows from three observations: (1) Victims never have an incentive to take care y exceeding y* (for once they take due care they will be compensated for their losses). (2) Victims will not choose y less than y*, for if they do so, they will bear their own losses, injurers will take no care, and victims thus will minimize y + p(0,y)h. But y + p(0,y)h = 0 + y + p(0,y)h > x* + y* + p(x*,y*)h > y*, implying that victims must be better off choosing due care y* than any y < y*. (3) Because in equilibrium victims thus take due care, injurers choose x to minimize x + p(x,y*)h, which is minimized at x*.9Uniqueness is demonstrated by the following: (1) Injurers will not take excessive care in equilibrium. (2) If injurers take inadequate care, victims will take no care, so injurers will minimize x + p(x,0)h, which exceeds x* + y* + p(x*,y*)h, which exceeds x*. Thus, injurers are better off taking care of x*. (3) Since injurers must choose x* in equilibrium, victims will choose y*.conclusions of this and the last section were first proved by Brown (1973).102.1.3. Unilateral accidents, level of care, and level of activity Now let us reconsider unilateral accidents, allowing for injurers to choose their level of activity z, which is interpreted as the number of times they engage in their activity (or if injurers are firms, the scale of their output). Let b(z) be the benefit (or profit) from the activity, and assume the social object is to maximize b(z) - z(x + p(x)h); here x + p(x)h is assumed to be the cost of care and expected harm each time an injurer engages in his activity. Let x* and z* be optimal values. Note that x* minimizes x + p(x)h, so x* is as described above in section 2.1.1, and z* is determined by b’(z) = x* + p(x*)h, which is to say, the marginal benefit from the activity equals the marginal social cost, comprising the sum of the cost of optimal care and expected accident losses (given optimal care).Under strict liability, an injurer will choose both the level of care and the level of activity optimally, as his object will be the same as the social objective, to maximize b(z) - z(x + p(x)h), because damage payments equal h whenever harm occurs.Under the negligence rule, an injurer will choose optimal care x* as before, but his level of activity z will be socially excessive. In particular, because an injurer will escape liability by taking care of x*, he will choose z to maximize b(z) - zx*, so that z will satisfy b’(z) = x*. The injurer’s cost of raising his level of activity is only his cost of care x*, which is less than the social cost, as it also includes p(x*)h. The excessive level of activity under the negligence rule will be more important the larger is expected harm p(x*)h from the activity.The failure of the negligence rule to control the level of activity arises because negligence is defined here (and for the most part in reality) in terms of care alone. A justification for this restriction in the definition of appropriate behavior is the difficulty courts would face in determining the optimal z* and the actual z. Moreover, the problem with the activity level under the negligence rule is applicable to any aspect of behavior that would be difficult to regulate directly (including, for example, research and development activity). If, instead, courts were able to incorporate all aspects of behavior into the definition of negligence, the negligence rule would result in optimal behavior in all respects. (Note that the variable x in the original problem could be interpreted as a vector, with each element corresponding to a dimension of behavior.)2.1.4. Bilateral accidents, levels of care, and levels of activity. If we consider levels of care and of activity for both injurers and victims, then none of the liability rules that we have considered leads to full optimality (assuming that activity levels are unobservable). As just explained, the negligence rule induces injurers to engage excessively in their activity. Similarly, strict liability with a defense of contributory negligence leads victims to engage excessively in their activity (the number of times they expose themselves to risk), as they do not bear their losses given that they take due care. The reason that full optimality cannot be achieved is in essence that injurers must bear accident losses to induce them to choose the right level of their activity, but this means that victims will not choose the optimal level of their activity, and conversely.11 The distinction between levels of care and levels of activity was first emphasized in Shavell (1980c), where the results of this and the last section were shown.2.1.5. Empirical evidence on the effect of liability on safety. Only a modest amount of empirical work has been undertaken on the effect of liability on accident risks. See Dewees, Duff, and Trebilcock (1996) for a general survey of the literature that exists, and, among others, Devlin (1990), Landes (1982), and Sloan (1994) on liability and auto accidents, Danzon (1985) and Kessler and McClellan (1996) on liability and adverse medical outcomes, and Higgins (1978), Priest (1988), and Viscusi (1991) on liability and product safety.10Diamond (1974) proved closely related results shortly afterward. See also Green (1976), who focuses on the case of heterogeneous injurers and victims.11However, there exist ways to induce fully optimal behavior using tools other than conventional liability rules. For example, if injurers have to pay the state for harm and victims bear their own losses, both victims and injurers will choose levels of care and of activity optimally. On the possibility of such decoupling of what injurers pay and what victims receive, see note 102.2.2. Risk-bearing and InsuranceWe consider next the implications of risk aversion and the role of insurance in the liability system, on which see Shavell (1982a). Several general points may be made.First, the socially optimal resolution of the accident problem obviously now involves not only the reduction of losses from accidents, but also the protection of risk-averse parties against risk. Note that risk bearing is relevant for two reasons: not only because potential victims may face the risk of accident losses, but also because potential injurers may face the risk of liability. The former risk can be mitigated through first-party insurance, and the latter through liability insurance.Second, because risk-averse individuals will tend to purchase insurance, the incentives associated with liability do not function in the direct way discussed in the last section, but instead are mediated by the terms of insurance policies. To illustrate, consider strict liability in the unilateral accident model with care alone allowed to vary, and assume that insurance is sold at actuarially fair rates. If injurers are risk averse and liability insurers can observe their levels of care, injurers will purchase full liability insurance coverage and their premiums will depend on their level of care; their premiums will equal p(x)h. Thus, injurers will want to minimize their costs of care plus premiums, or x + p(x)h, so they will choose the optimal level of care x*. In this instance, liability insurance eliminates risk for injurers, and the situation reduces to the previously analyzed risk-neutral case.If, however, liability insurers cannot observe levels of care, ownership of full coverage could create severe moral hazard, so would not be purchased. Instead, as we know from the theory of insurance, the typical amount of coverage purchased will be partial, for that leaves injurers an incentive to reduce risk. In this case, therefore, the liability rule results in some direct incentive to take care because injurers are left bearing some risk after their purchase of liability insurance. But injurers’ level of care will still tend to be less than first best.This last situation in which liability insurance dilutes incentives leads to our third point, concerning the question whether the sale of liability insurance is socially desirable. (We note that because of fears about incentives, the sale of liability insurance was delayed for decades in many countries and that it was not allowed in the former Soviet Union; further, in this country liability insurance is sometimes forbidden against certain types of liability, such as against punitive damages.) The answer to the question is that sale of liability insurance is socially desirable, at least in basic models of accidents and some variations of them. In the case just considered, the reason is evident. Injurers are made better off by the presence of liability insurance, as they choose to purchase it. Victims are indifferent to its purchase by injurers because victims are fully compensated under strict liability for any losses they sustain. In particular, it does not matter to victims that the likelihood of accident may rise due to the sale of liability insurance. This argument must be modified in other cases, such as when the damages injurers pay are less than harm. In that circumstance, the sale of liability insurance may not be socially desirable. See section 2.6.Fourth, consider how the comparison between strict liability and the negligence rule is affected by considerations of risk-bearing. It is true that the immediate effect of strict liability is to shift the risk of loss from victims to injurers, whereas the immediate effect of the negligence rule is to leave the risk on victims (injurers will tend to act non-negligently). However, the presence of insurance means that victims and injurers can substantially shield themselves from risk. Of course, as was just discussed, insurance coverage may be incomplete due to moral hazard; this makes risk-bearing of some relevance to the comparison of liability rules, but which rule becomes more favorable is not obvious.Finally, as we stated at the outset of section 2, the presence of insurance implies that the liability system cannot be justified primarily as a means of compensating risk-averse victims against loss. Rather, the justification for the liability system must lie in significant part in the incentives that it creates to reduce risk. To amplify, although both the liability system and the insurance system can compensate victims, the liability system is much more expensive than theinsurance system (see the next section).12 Accordingly, were there no social need to create incentives to reduce risk, it would be best to dispense with the liability system and to rely on insurance to accomplish compensation.132.3. Administrative Costs2.3.1. Administrative costs of the liability system. The administrative costs of the liability system are the legal and other costs (notably the time of litigants) involved in bringing suit and resolving it through settlement or trial. These costs are substantial; a number of estimates suggest that on average, administrative costs of a dollar or more are incurred for every dollar that a victim receives through the liability system. In contrast, the administrative cost of receiving a dollar through the insurance system is often below fifteen cents.14The factor of administrative costs affects the comparison between the forms of liability. On one hand, we would expect the volume of cases — and thus administrative costs — to be higher under strict liability than under the negligence rule. This is because, under strict liability, a victim can collect whether or not the injurer was at fault, whereas under the negligence rule fault must be established, so that in many cases of accident there will be no suit or, if there is a suit, it will be dropped after little has been spent.15 On the other hand, given that there is a case, we would anticipate administrative costs to be higher under the negligence rule than under strict liability, because under the negligence rule due care will be at issue. In consequence, it is in theory ambiguous whether strict liability or the negligence rule will be administratively cheaper.2.3.2. Administrative costs and the social desirability of the liability system. The existence of administrative costs and their significant magnitude raises rather sharply the question whether it is worthwhile for society to bear them to gain the benefits of the liability system — the incentives to reduce risk. Unfortunately, it is quite possible for suits to be attractive for private parties to bring even if the social benefits of the liability system are small and make it socially undesirable. For example, victims will have strong incentives to bring suit under a strict liability system however low the risk reduction effect of suit may be. This point about the private versus the social incentive to make use of the legal system will be emphasized in section 5.1.2. 2.4. Magnitude of Liability: DamagesThe magnitude of the payment a liable party must make is known as damages, because it is normally set equal to the harm the victim has sustained. In this section, we discuss various issues relating to damages.2.4.1. Basic theory. As a general matter, damages should equal harm under strict liability for incentives to be optimal in the unilateral model of accidents. Clearly, for injurers to be led to choose optimal levels of care, their expected liability must equal expected harm p(x)h, meaning that damages d should equal h. Likewise, for their levels of activity to be optimal, the12Also, victim compensation through liability generally implies that possibly risk-averse injurers bear risk. In some contexts, such as auto accidents, one supposes that injurers are not substantially less risk-averse than victims.13Some jurisdictions have implemented “no-fault” (essentially, first-party insurance) regimes for automobile accidents. See Dewees, Duff, and Trebilcock (1996). Also, there are intermediate schemes, like workers’compensation, that provide compensation and charge experience-rated premiums to injurers to instill incentives to reduce risk. See Moore and Viscusi (1990).14See Danzon (1985, p. 187), Kakalik et al. (1983), and Shavell (1987a, p. 263).15Farber and White (1991) provide evidence that many medical malpractice cases are dropped after discovery, when plaintiffs learn that the defendant probably was not negligent. Relatedly, Ordover (1978) analyzes a model in which victims are uncertain about injurers’ negligence; the result is that some victims of negligence may not sue and others who are not victims of negligence might sue.。
[管理工具-竞争情报]STEEPLE分析（SPESTLEAnalysis）
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STEEPLE分析(SPESTLE Analysis)STEEPLE分析STEEPLE是以下因素英文单词的缩写，社会/人口（Social/demographic）、技术（Technological）、经济（Economic）、环境/自然（Environmental/Natural）、政治（Political）、法律（Legal）、道德（Ethical）。
SPESTLE AnalysisSPESTLE:∙S = Social (e.g. changes in social behaviour that might impact product / service selection);∙T = Technological (e.g. rapid development in cheaper components that will affect product prices or performance);∙ E = Economic (e.g. non-Euro exchange rates affecting key imported supplies);∙ E = Environmental (e.g. waste re-cycling legislation and penalties on producers);∙P = Political (e.g. government directives on certification or subcontracting);∙L = Legal (e.g. changes in employment laws)∙ E = European (or International) (e.g. World Trade Organisatio n agreements affecting market dynamics and competitors)A summary of the STEEPLE Analysis can be used to check the reasonableness and validity of your overriding Business Strategy and Targets. Any resultant issues should then be turned into an action plan that will describe how and when you are going to resolve such matters or mitigate the anticipated risks. For example, this might provide the rationale for why and on what basis you need additional credit from your funding providers. This analysis of the external environment, should be considered and applied when compiling, monitoring and reporting your Business & Financial Plan.Analysis of the external environment: identification of issues and risks 'STEEPLE' analysisThis analysis examines the context in which the Authority operates. It identifies some of the key issues that exist (or are emerging) in the external environment and suggests how these will or might impact on future strategy and resources. These are listed under seven main headings (factors):NoSO1 Major demographic changes in local communities can impacton Hampshire’s risk profile and therefore theeffectiveness of our IRMP and actions.Continually assess the impact on of bothstrategic and local plans (especiallydesignated major development areas MDAs) andidentify the scale and timing of anyimplications for our IRMP and associatedactions.Review our internal processes to ensure that alllocal planning consultation documents arereviewed (at both SMT and Group Managementlevels) and that our comments are fed back to therelevant stakeholders.SO2 Increases in the number of older and other vulnerablepeople living alone in the community (including thoseunder ‘care in the community’ arrangements) willcontinue to pose a specific risk to our plans to reducefire deaths and injuries.Ensure, by working in close collaboration withpartner organisations and other agencies, thatour information on these ‘at risk’ groups isup to date and that our priorities for action(including the targeting of home safety visits)are regularly reviewed.SO3 National increase in the incidence of arson particularlyin relation to vehicles and schools. Both pose aconsiderable risk to our plans to reduce arson. In thecase of vehicles, the increase is likely to beattributable, at least partly, to the impact of EUenvironmental regulations and the cost of disposal ofscrap vehicles.Through careful analysis we will target thosesegments of the population most likely to startsuch fires; and, working with partner agencies,remove or reduce the opportunity for suchincidents.STEEPLE analysis - technologicalRefNoIssue/Risk Strategic Action LevelTE1 Transition from local control rooms to the new regionalcontrol centres should realise a significant improvementin the information and communications technologies (ICT)available for mobilising resources effectively. The netcost to the Authority of the new centres is currently notknown. Additionally, we need to maintain the capacity andresilience of the Authority’s existing and increasinglyredundant control room systems. To date a fully-costednational business case has not be produced by ODPM.Ensure, by active participation in the projectplanning and specification processes for the newcontrol centres, that the Authority’s ownmobilising policies and management informationneeds are capable of being satisfied by the newcontrol centres; that indications of future netcosts / savings are made available as soon aspossible for financial planning purposes.Ensure, so far as is possible and practicable,that arrangements remain robust for thecontinued maintenance and support of theexisting control room’s ICT– particularly thatsupport provided by third-party suppliers andcontractors.TE2Reliance on ICT for the day?to?day delivery andmanagement of services is at an unprecedented level –As the Authority seeks to exploit opportunitiesand tangible benefits for the improved deliveryand likely to increase with further technological innovation and implementation. Major and/or prolonged failures in our ICT infrastructure and critical applications could have serious and potentially costlyimplications. of services through ICT application development (including meeting expectations/targets for e-government), ensure that increased investment is made in improving both the resilience and performance of the Service’s ICTinfrastructure.Ensure that sound maintenance and support agreements are in place with all third-party suppliers and contractors of our ICT services so that our business continuity plans remain robust and can be regularly tested.STEEPLE analysis - environmentalRefNoIssue/Risk Strategic Level ActionEN1Weather-related incidents (eg flooding, storms) andmajor chemical/biological incidents can have a sudden anddramatic impact on our resources - both in terms of ourability to respond to them and the resultant financialcost.Regularly review and test plans for dealing withsuch incidents - including, where appropriate,participation in realistic exercises with allother relevant civil protection agencies.Based on local experience and from informationgathered from other fire and rescue authorities,ensure that the Authority’s own businesscontingency plans and financial reserves /balances are assessed annually and that theprovision made is soundly based and realistic.EN2 Given the Authority’s role in helping to protect theenvironment, it would be highly embarrassing, damagingto our reputation, and potentially costly in financialterms, if our own operational and management practicescontravened environmental legislation and expected goodpractice.Conduct an environmental/sustainability auditof our day-to-day operational and managementarrangements (particularly those relating topolicies and procedures on our own sites) so toensure that we eliminate any poor practices andthat the Authority can be regarded as one thatactively promotes environmentally sustainableactivities wherever possible. Repeat theseaudits at three-yearly intervals.STEEPLE analysis - economicRefNoIssue Risk Strategic Level ActionEC1 Now that the Authority is a ‘precepting authority’ ithas to ensure that it makes adequate provision (iereserves and balances) in its budget for the financialconsequences of the strategic and volatile riskshighlighted in this analysis, those identified in otherbusiness plans, and for any areas of uninsured risks.Each year the Authority will assess the adequacyof its reserves and balances based oninformation contained in the risk register,other business plans and specific reports(including, in particular, the forecastprovision required for the firefighters’Failure to do so, could result in the Authority having to resort to: major cuts in its budget and/or unplanned borrowing and/or subsequent and unacceptably high increases in Council Tax levels. In turn, this would increase the risk of Government intervention and ‘capping’ (leading to further unplanned cuts inexpenditure). pension scheme).Insurance arrangements (cover and premiums) will continue to be formally re-tendered every three years and selectively market-tested annually.EC2 The Authority, in common with all local authorities, isexpected to demonstrate that it strives for Best Valuein delivering its services to the public and there areclear expectations (targets) to achieve year-on-yearefficiency savings. Failure to respond positively to thisexpectation could result in Government intervention.As part of its budget planning and monitoringprocesses, the value of any efficiency savings- both “cashable” and “non-cashable” will belogged in reports and a record of the cumulativeimpact on resources will be maintained.EC3 As with all public sector bodies we are required to ensurethat public funds are managed with probity and to guardagainst fraud and misuse and to ensure best value isachieved.We will continue to ensure that sound Internal(and workplace) audits processes are in placeand that all budget holders and managers arefully aware of the Authority’s financialregulations and codes of practice relating tocontracts.STEEPLE analysis - politicalRefNoIssue/Risk Strategic Level ActionPO1 The Government’s expectations for greater collaborationbetween fire and rescue authorities at the regional level- through the Regional Management Boards (RMBs) - willhave an impact on both the approach to and way we manageand deliver some key services (including regional controlcentres mentioned above). Failure to fully embrace andinfluence the development of the ‘regional agenda’ couldlead to the Authority becoming politically isolated andvulnerable to decisions made that are not in its bestinterests.The Authority is already leading on developinga regional approach to human resourcemanagement, and is actively involved in keyaspects of the planning processes for the newregional control centres.This level of engagement - and opportunities toexert further influence by both Members andsenior officers - needs to be sustained andexploited so that the Authority can bereasonably assured that its best interests arepromoted and any risks to it are minimised.PO2 Members of the Authority are also members of one of thethree constituent authorities (Hampshire County Council;Portsmouth City Council; Southampton City Council); someare also members of district councils and other publicbodies (eg the Police Authority). As local councillorsthey will also be representing the interests of theelectorate in their Division/Ward. It is important torecognise that this will, on occasion, cause inevitabletensions for Members who may need to satisfy or respondProposals for change (arising from the IRMP)that directly impact on the delivery of servicesin local communities need to be well presentedand the benefits of change (and itsimplications) communicated effectively duringperiods of consultation. Members will need to besatisfied that local concerns have been properlyanticipated and taken into account in presentingbusiness cases for any proposals for change soto different and sometimes opposing views/priorities when considering their stance on policy decisions –particularly those affecting their local area. These tensions could, understandably, inhibit progress on some aspects of the modernisation agenda.that they can have confidence in the thoroughness of the consultation process when decisions need to be made.PO3 Failure to fully engage in local Crime and Disorder Panelsand Local Strategic Partnerships (LSPs) could result inthe Authority missing out on opportunities (and sourcesof additional funding) that could directly contribute tothe achievement of its corporate aims – particularlythose relating to prevention and protection actions.There is a clear expectation on all local authorities toexploit the potential benefits and economies of scale oftaking cross-cutting initiatives and partnership workingto improve the delivery of services to the public. TheAuthority would receive understandable criticism(particularly through the CPA process) if there is littleevidence of collaborative activity.The Authority is becoming a more active memberof the Hampshire and Isle of Wight LocalAuthorities Association and in local strategicpartnerships and panels. There is scope howeverto increase the level of engagement andcontribution made by Members of the Authorityand officers (particularly the new GroupManagers). Specific IRMP actions (such as theproposed pilot of deploying a vehicle and crewat the Popley Fields Community Centre,Basingstoke) will increasingly emerge astangible examples of the benefits ofcollaborative working.STEEPLE analysis - legalRefNoRisk/Issue Strategic Level ActionLE1The Fire and Rescue Services Act 2004 places on astatutory footing ‘other activities’ the Service hastaken on over the last 50 years since the previouslegislation was put in place. These go beyondfirefighting and include rescue from road trafficaccidents, responding to serious environmental disastersand the new terrorist threat. The scope for litigationbeing taken against the Authority has therefore widened.Direct experience gained from the muchpublicised case of ‘Capital & Counties vHampshire County Council, 1990’ serves as aconstant reminder of the potential andsignificant impact of litigation – and theconsequences of authorities standing their owninsurable risks.In conjunction with its external insuranceadvisers and brokers, the Authority annuallyreviews the adequacy of its insurancearrangements and the provision for uninsuredrisks.LE2New legislation – notably with the enactment of theRegulatory Reform Order (RRO) - will change the emphasisof the fire and rescue service’s role in respect of firesafety inspection and enforcement. The Authority needsto ensure that it has taken the necessary action to changeits organisational and management arrangements tosatisfy the requirements of the RRO. Failure to do so,will mean that our policies, plans and actions aim at‘Protecting’ Hampshire will fail to deliver measurableIn anticipation of the RRO, organisational andmanagerial structures (and roles) have alreadybeen reviewed and implemented.A new fire safety risk database and managementinformation system is being developed andimplemented during 2004/5 and 2005/06.Training programmes for fire safety officers areresults. in place to ensure that we are well placed torespond positively to shift of emphasis towardsself-inspection/compliance (on the part ofbuilding owners/users) and the need to be moreproactive in an 'audit-type' role and in theenforcement of offenders.LE3The Freedom of Information Act 2000 has significantimplications for the way all public authorities manageinformation – both in hard copy and electronic formats.From January 2005, members of the public have the rightto request access to any information held by the Authorityon any subject provided it is not restricted on thegrounds of security or the Data Protection Act. There arefinancial penalties as well as public embarrassment fornon-compliance.The Authority has made good progress inpreparing to meet the requirements of the Act andhad it Publication Scheme in place well beforethe relevant deadline. A policy commitment tocomply with the requirements of the Act has beenapproved by the Authority.Work is continuing to improve generalhousekeeping in information management and toimprove systems of electronic document storageand retrieval. Retention policies for differentcategories of information are continually beingreviewed. Key personnel in each functional areaare being given training to ensure that theyfully understand the requirements andimplications of the Act.STEEPLE analysis - ethicalET1 As a public body we are expected to embrace excellentethical and moral standards in all that we do. We are notonly expected to follow the letter of the law, but alsouphold the spirit of the law by having in place policiesand practices that are beyond reproach. Not to do so wouldleave the Authority exposed to criticism on a number offronts.Our employment policies and practices arecontinually being updated and enhanced to ensurethat we do all we can to improve fairness anddignity in the workplace; and, so that we willbe better placed to achieve the ambitiousequality targets, set by the Government, forfire and rescue authorities.During 2004/05 and 2005/06 will be reviewing ourprocurement polices and practices (both in thelight of the Government’s national procurementstrategy and in the context of collaborativeactions at regional level). We will do all we canto ensure sound and ethical purchasingarrangements for goods and services.The Standards Committee ensures that Authority’s Standing Orders and Code of Conduct relatingto Members is strictly applied and reviewed.。
项目经济可行性分析英文
项目经济可行性分析英文IntroductionEconomic feasibility analysis is an essential step in determining the viability of a project. It involves evaluating the financial aspects of a project to determine whether it is economically viable and worth pursuing. This analysis considers factors such as costs, benefits, cash flows, return on investment, and payback period. In this article, we will conduct an economic feasibility analysis of a hypothetical project and provide insights into its financial viability.Project DescriptionThe project under consideration is the construction of a new manufacturing plant for a company. The plant will produce a specialized product that has high demand in the market. The estimated initial investment for the project is 10 million, including the cost of land, building construction, and machinery.Cost AnalysisTo assess the economic feasibility of the project, it is crucial to analyze the costs involved. The cost analysis should consider both the initial investment and the recurring costs. The initial investment of 10 million includes land acquisition, building construction, machinery, and other infrastructure costs. Additionally, there will be recurring costs such as raw material expenses, labor costs, utility bills, and maintenance costs.Revenue ProjectionsTo determine the economic viability of the project, it is essential to estimate the revenue projections. The revenue projections should consider the expected sales volume and the selling price per unit. Market research and demand analysis should be conducted to assess the potential sales volume. Considering the market dynamics and competitive landscape, a conservative estimate of 5 million in annual revenue is projected for the first year, with an increase of 10% in subsequent years.Cash Flow AnalysisCash flow analysis is crucial in determining the feasibility of a project. It evaluates the inflow and outflow of cash over a specific period. In this analysis, the initial investment and recurring costs are considered as cash outflows, while the revenue generated is considered as cash inflows. The cash flow analysis should be conducted for the project's expected lifespan, typically 5-10 years.Return on Investment (ROI)Return on Investment (ROI) is another significant metric to assess the economic feasibility of a project. It measures how much profit is generated relative to the initial investment. ROI is calculated by dividing the net profit by the initial investment, then multiplying it by 100 to express it as a percentage. A higher ROI indicates a better economicfeasibility of the project.Payback PeriodThe payback period is the time required to recover the initial investment. It helps in determining how quickly the project will generate enough cash flows to cover the initial investment. A shorter payback period is generally more favorable, as it indicates a faster return on the investment.Sensitivity AnalysisSensitivity analysis is essential to evaluate the impact of uncertainties on the project's financial viability. Factors such as changes in costs, sales volumes, and selling prices should be considered. Conducting a sensitivity analysis helps identify the project's vulnerability to different scenarios, allowing for better risk management.ConclusionIn conclusion, economic feasibility analysis is crucial in determining the viability of a project. Through analyzing costs, revenue projections, cash flow, ROI, payback period, and conducting sensitivity analysis, a comprehensive understanding of the project's economic viability can be achieved. The analysis provides insights into the project's financial aspects, guiding decision-makers in making informed choices aboutwhether to pursue the project or explore alternative options.。
Economics 专业词汇
Economics 专业词汇accounting:会计accounting cost :会计成本accounting profit :会计利润adverse selection :逆向选择allocation 配置allocation of resources :资源配置allocative efficiency :配置效率antitrust legislation :反托拉斯法arc elasticity :弧弹性Arrow's impossibility theorem :阿罗不可能定理Assumption :假设asymetric information :非对称性信息average :平均average cost :平均成本average cost pricing :平均成本定价法average fixed cost :平均固定成本average product of capital :资本平均产量average product of labour :劳动平均产量average revenue :平均收益average total cost :平均总成本average variable cost :平均可变成本Bbarriers to entry :进入壁垒base year :基年bilateral monopoly :双边垄断benefit :收益black market :黑市bliss point :极乐点boundary point :边界点break even point :收支相抵点budget :预算budget constraint :预算约束budget line :预算线budget set 预算集Ccapital :资本capital stock :资本存量capital output ratio :资本产出比率capitalism :资本主义cardinal utility theory :基数效用论cartel :卡特尔ceteris puribus assumption :“其他条件不变”的假设ceteris puribus demand curve :其他因素不变的需求曲线Chamberlin model :张伯伦模型change in demand :需求变化change in quantity demanded :需求量变化change in quantity supplied :供给量变化change in supply :供给变化choice :选择closed set :闭集Coase theorem :科斯定理Cobb—Douglas production function :柯布--道格拉斯生产函数cobweb model :蛛网模型collective bargaining :集体协议工资collusion :合谋command economy :指令经济commodity :商品commodity combination :商品组合commodity market :商品市场commodity space :商品空间common property :公用财产comparative static analysis :比较静态分析compensated budget line :补偿预算线compensated demand function :补偿需求函数compensation principles :补偿原则compensating variation in income :收入补偿变量competition :竞争competitive market :竞争性市场complement goods :互补品complete information :完全信息completeness :完备性condition for efficiency in exchange :交换的最优条件condition for efficiency in production :生产的最优条件concave :凹concave function :凹函数concave preference :凹偏好consistence :一致性constant cost industry :成本不变产业constant returns to scale :规模报酬不变constraints :约束consumer :消费者consumer behavior :消费者行为consumer choice :消费者选择consumer equilibrium :消费者均衡consumer optimization :消费者优化consumer preference :消费者偏好consumer surplus :消费者剩余consumer theory :消费者理论consumption :消费consumption bundle :消费束consumption combination :消费组合consumption possibility curve :消费可能曲线consumption possibility frontier :消费可能性前沿consumption set :消费集consumption space :消费空间continuity :连续性continuous function :连续函数contract curve :契约曲线convex :凸convex function :凸函数convex preference :凸偏好convex set :凸集corporatlon :公司cost :成本cost benefit analysis :成本收益分cost function :成本函数cost minimization :成本极小化Cournot equilihrium :古诺均衡Cournot model :古诺模型Cross—price elasticity :交叉价格弹性Ddead—weights loss :重负损失decreasing cost industry :成本递减产业decreasing returns to scale :规模报酬递减deduction :演绎法demand :需求demand curve :需求曲线demand elasticity :需求弹性demand function :需求函数demand price :需求价格demand schedule :需求表depreciation :折旧derivative :导数derive demand :派生需求difference equation :差分方程differential equation :微分方程differentiated good :差异商品differentiated oligoply :差异寡头diminishing marginal substitution :边际替代率递减diminishing marginal return :收益递减diminishing marginal utility :边际效用递减direct approach :直接法direct taxes :直接税discounting :贴税、折扣diseconomies of scale :规模不经济disequilibrium :非均衡distribution :分配division of labour :劳动分工distribution theory of marginal productivity :边际生产率分配论duoupoly :双头垄断、双寡duality :对偶durable goods :耐用品dynamic analysis :动态分析dynamic models :动态模型EEconomic agents :经济行为者economic cost :经济成本economic efficiency :经济效率economic goods :经济物品economic man :经济人economic mode :经济模型economic profit :经济利润economic region of production :生产的经济区域economic regulation :经济调节economic rent :经济租金exchange :交换economics :经济学exchange efficiency :交换效率economy :经济exchange contract curve :交换契约曲线economy of scale :规模经济Edgeworth box diagram :埃奇沃思图exclusion :排斥性、排他性Edgeworth contract curve :埃奇沃思契约线Edgeworth model :埃奇沃思模型efficiency :效率，效益efficiency parameter :效率参数elasticity :弹性elasticity of substitution :替代弹性endogenous variable :内生变量endowment :禀赋endowment of resources :资源禀赋Engel curve :恩格尔曲线entrepreneur :企业家entrepreneurship :企业家才能entry barriers :进入壁垒entry/exit decision :进出决策envolope curve :包络线equilibrium :均衡equilibrium condition :均衡条件equilibrium price :均衡价格equilibrium quantity :均衡产量eqity :公平equivalent variation in income :收入等价变量excess—capacity theorem :过度生产能力定理excess supply :过度供给exchange :交换exchange contract curve :交换契约曲线exclusion :排斥性、排他性exclusion principle :排他性原则existence :存在性existence of general equilibrium :总体均衡的存在性exogenous variables :外生变量expansion paths :扩展径expectation :期望expected utility :期望效用expected value :期望值expenditure :支出explicit cost :显性成本external benefit :外部收益external cost :外部成本external economy :外部经济external diseconomy :外部不经济externalities :外部性FFactor :要素factor demand :要素需求factor market :要素市场factors of production :生产要素factor substitution :要素替代factor supply :要素供给fallacy of composition :合成谬误final goods :最终产品firm :企业firms’demand curve for labor :企业劳动需求曲线firm supply curve :企业供给曲线first-degree price discrimination :第一级价格歧视first—order condition :一阶条件fixed costs :固定成本fixed input :固定投入fixed proportions production function :固定比例的生产函数flow :流量fluctuation :波动for whom to produce :为谁生产free entry :自由进入free goods :自由品，免费品free mobility of resources :资源自由流动free rider :搭便车，免费搭车function :函数future value :未来值Ggame theory :对策论、博弈论general equilibrium :总体均衡general goods :一般商品Giffen goods :吉芬晶收入补偿需求曲线Giffen's Paradox :吉芬之谜Gini coefficient :吉尼系数goldenrule :黄金规则goods :货物government failure :政府失败government regulation :政府调控grand utility possibility curve :总效用可能曲线grand utility possibility frontier :总效用可能前沿Hheterogeneous product :异质产品Hicks—kaldor welfare criterion :希克斯一卡尔多福利标准homogeneity :齐次性homogeneous demand function :齐次需求函数homogeneous product :同质产品homogeneous production function :齐次生产函数horizontal summation :水平和household :家庭how to produce :如何生产human capital :人力资本hypothesis :假说Iidentity :恒等式imperfect competion :不完全竞争implicitcost :隐性成本income :收入income compensated demand curve :收入补偿需求曲线income constraint :收入约束income consumption curve :收入消费曲线income distribution :收入分配income effect :收入效应income elasticity of demand :需求收入弹性increasing cost industry :成本递增产业increasing returns to scale :规模报酬递增inefficiency :缺乏效率index number :指数indifference :无差异indifference curve :无差异曲线indifference map :无差异族indifference relation :无差异关系indifference set :无差异集indirect approach :间接法individual analysis :个量分析individual demand curve :个人需求曲线individual demand function :个人需求函数induced variable :引致变量induction :归纳法industry :产业industry equilibrium :产业均衡industry supply curve :产业供给曲线inelastic :缺乏弹性的inferior goods :劣品inflection point :拐点information :信息information cost :信息成本initial condition :初始条件initial endowment :初始禀赋innovation :创新input :投入input—output :投入—产出institution :制度institutional economics :制度经济学insurance :保险intercept :截距interest :利息interest rate :利息率intermediate goods :中间产品internatization of externalities :外部性内部化invention :发明inverse demand function :逆需求函数investment :投资invisible hand :看不见的手isocost line :等成本线，isoprofit curve :等利润曲线isoquant curve :等产量曲线isoquant map :等产量族Kkinded—demand curve :弯折的需求曲线Llabour :劳动labour demand :劳动需求labour supply :劳动供给labour theory of value :劳动价值论labour unions :工会laissez faire :自由放任Lagrangian function :拉格朗日函数Lagrangian multiplier :拉格朗乘数，land :土地law :法则law of demand and supply :供需法law of diminishing marginal utility :边际效用递减法则law of diminishing marginal rate of substitution :边际替代率递减法则law of diminishing marginal rate of technical substitution :边际技术替代率law of increasing cost :成本递增法则law of one price :单一价格法则leader—follower model :领导者--跟随者模型least—cost combination of inputs :最低成本的投入组合leisure :闲暇Leontief production function :列昂节夫生产函数licenses :许可证linear demand function :线性需求函数linear homogeneity :线性齐次性linear homogeneous production function :线性齐次生产函数long run :长期long run average cost :长期平均成本long run equilibrium :长期均衡long run industry supply curve :长期产业供给曲线long run marginal cost :长期边际成本long run total cost :长期总成本Lorenz curve :洛伦兹曲线loss minimization :损失极小化1ump sum tax :一次性征税luxury :奢侈品Mmacroeconomics :宏观经济学marginal :边际的marginal benefit :边际收益marginal cost :边际成本marginal cost pricing :边际成本定价marginal cost of factor :边际要素成本marginal physical productivity :实际实物生产率marginal product :边际产量marginal product of capital :资本的边际产量marginal product of 1abour :劳动的边际产量marginal productivity :边际生产率marginal rate of substitution :边替代率marginal rate of transformation 边际转换率marginal returns :边际回报marginal revenue :边际收益marginal revenue product :边际收益产品marginal revolution :边际革命marginal social benefit :社会边际收益marginal social cost :社会边际成本marginal utility :边际效用marginal value products :边际价值产品market :市场market clearance :市场结清，市场洗清market demand :市场需求market economy :市场经济market equilibrium :市场均衡market failure :市场失败market mechanism :市场机制market structure :市场结构market separation :市场分割market regulation :市场调节market share :市场份额markup pricing :加减定价法Marshallian demand function :马歇尔需求函数maximization :极大化microeconomics :微观经济学minimum wage :最低工资misallocation of resources :资源误置mixed economy :混合经济model :模型money :货币monopolistic competition :垄断竞争monopolistic exploitation :垄断剥削monopoly :垄断，卖方垄断monopoly equilibrium :垄断均衡monopoly pricing :垄断定价monopoly regulation :垄断调控monopoly rents :垄断租金monopsony :买方垄断NNash equilibrium :纳什均衡Natural monopoly :自然垄断Natural resources :自然资源Necessary condition :必要条件necessities :必需品net demand :净需求nonconvex preference :非凸性偏好nonconvexity :非凸性nonexclusion :非排斥性nonlinear pricing :非线性定价nonrivalry :非对抗性nonprice competition :非价格竞争nonsatiation :非饱和性non--zero—sum game :非零和对策normal goods :正常品normal profit :正常利润normative economics :规范经济学Oobjective function :目标函数oligopoly :寡头垄断oligopoly market :寡头市场oligopoly model :寡头模型opportunity cost :机会成本optimal choice :最佳选择optimal consumption bundle :消费束optimal resource allocation :最佳资源配置optimal scale :最佳规模optimal solution :最优解optimization :优化ordering of optimization(social) preference :(社会)偏好排序ordinal utility :序数效用ordinary goods :一般品output :产量、产出output elasticity :产出弹性output maximization 产出极大化Pparameter :参数Pareto criterion :帕累托标准Pareto efficiency :帕累托效率Pareto improvement :帕累托改进Pareto optimality :帕累托优化Pareto set :帕累托集partial derivative :偏导数partial equilibrium :局部均衡patent :专利pay off matrix :收益矩阵、支付矩阵perceived demand curve :感觉到的需求曲线perfect competition :完全竞争perfect complement :完全互补品perfect monopoly :完全垄断perfect price discrimination :完全价格歧视perfect substitution :完全替代品perfect inelasticity :完全无弹性perfectly elastic :完全有弹性perfectly inelastic :完全无弹性plant size :工厂规模point elasticity :点弹性post Hoc Fallacy :后此谬误prediction :预测preference :偏好preference relation :偏好关系present value :现值price :价格price adjustment model :价格调整模型price ceiling :最高限价price consumption curve :价格费曲线price control :价格管制price difference :价格差别price discrimination :价格歧视price elasticity of demand :需求价格弹性price elasticity of supply :供给价格弹性price floor :最低限价price maker :价格制定者price rigidity :价格刚性price seeker :价格搜求者price taker :价格接受者price tax :从价税private benefit :私人收益principal—agent issues :委托--代理问题private cost :私人成本private goods :私人用品private property :私人财产producer equilibrium :生产者均衡producer theory :生产者理论product :产品product transformation curve :产品转换曲线product differentiation :产品差异product group :产品集团production :生产production contract curve :生产契约曲线production efficiency :生产效率production function :生产函数production possibility curve :生产可能性曲线productivity :生产率productivity of capital :资本生产率productivity of labor :劳动生产率profit :利润profit function :利润函数profit maximization :利润极大化property rights :产权property rights economics :产权经济学proposition :定理proportional demand curve :成比例的需求曲线public benefits :公共收益public choice :公共选择public goods :公共商品pure competition :纯粹竞争rivalry :对抗性、竞争pure exchange :纯交换pure monopoly :纯粹垄断Qquantity—adjustment model :数量调整模型quantity tax :从量税quasi—rent :准租金Rrate of product transformation :产品转换率rationality :理性reaction function :反应函数regulation :调节，调控relative price 相对价格rent :租金rent control :规模报酬rent seeking :寻租rent seeking economics :寻租经济学resource :资源resource allocation :资源配置returns :报酬、回报returns to scale :规模报酬revealed preference :显示性偏好revenue :收益revenue curve :收益曲线revenue function :收益函数revenue maximization :收益极大化ridge line :脊线risk :风险Ssatiation :饱和，满足saving :储蓄scarcity :稀缺性law of scarcity :稀缺法则second—degree price discrimination :二级价格歧视second derivative :--阶导数second—order condition :二阶条件service :劳务set :集shadow prices :影子价格short—run :短期short—run cost curve :短期成本曲线short—run equilibrium :短期均衡short—run supply curve :短期供给曲线shut down decision :关闭决策shortage 短缺shut down point :关闭点single price monopoly :单一定价垄断slope :斜率social benefit :社会收益social cost :社会成本social indifference curve :社会无差异曲线social preference :社会偏好social security :社会保障social welfare function :社会福利函数socialism :社会主义solution :解space :空间stability :稳定性stable equilibrium :稳定的均衡Stackelberg model :斯塔克尔贝格模型static analysis :静态分析stock :存量stock market :股票市场strategy :策略subsidy :津贴substitutes :替代品substitution effect :替代效应substitution parameter :替代参数sufficient condition :充分条件supply :供给supply curve :供给曲线supply function :供给函数supply schedule :供给表Sweezy model :斯威齐模型symmetry :对称性symmetry of information :信息对称Ttangency :相切taste :兴致technical efficiency :技术效率technological constraints ；技术约束technological progress :技术进步technology :技术third—degree price discrimination :第三级价格歧视total cost :总成本total effect :总效应total expenditure :总支出total fixed cost :总固定成本total product :总产量total revenue :总收益total utility :总效用total variable cost :总可变成本traditional economy :传统经济transitivity :传递性transaction cost :交易费用Uuncertainty :不确定性uniqueness :唯一性unit elasticity :单位弹性unstable equilibrium :不稳定均衡utility :效用utility function :效用函数utility index :效用指数utility maximization :效用极大化utility possibility curve :效用可能性曲线utility possibility frontier :效用可能性前沿Vvalue :价值value judge :价值判断value of marginal product :边际产量价值variable cost :可变成本variable input :可变投入variables :变量vector :向量visible hand :看得见的手vulgur economics :庸俗经济学Wwage :工资wage rate :工资率Walras general equilibrium :瓦尔拉斯总体均衡Walras's law :瓦尔拉斯法则Wants :需要Welfare criterion :福利标准Welfare economics :福利经学Welfare loss triangle :福利损失三角形welfare maximization :福利极大化Zzero cost :零成本zero elasticity :零弹性zero homogeneity :零阶齐次性zero economic profit :零利润。
PEST分析模型(PEST Analysis)
PEST分析模型PEST分析模型（PEST Analysis）目录[隐藏]∙ 1 PEST模型简介∙ 2 典型的PEST分析∙ 3 PEST分析的内容o 3.1 (一)政治法律环境(P olitical Factors)o 3.2 (二)经济环境(E conomic Factors)o 3.3 (三)社会文化环境(Soc iocultural Factors)o 3.4 (四)技术环境(Technological Factors)∙ 4 PEST分析的应用∙ 5 PEST分析的变形∙ 6 PEST分析模型案例分析o 6.1 案例一:保健品行业PEST分析及其发展思路[1]o 6.2 案例二:对建筑装饰设计行业的PEST分析[2]o 6.3 案例三：企业实施逆向物流的PEST分析[3]∙7 参考文献∙8 相关条目[编辑]PEST模型简介PEST分析是战略咨询顾问用来帮助企业检阅其外部宏观环境的一种方法。
是指宏观环境的分析，宏观环境又称一般环境，是指影响一切行业和企业的各种宏观力量。
对宏观环境因素作分析，不同行业和企业根据自身特点和经营需要，分析的具体内容会有差异，但一般都应对政治（Political）、经济（Economic）、技术（Technological）和社会（Social）这四大类影响企业的主要外部环境因素进行分析。
简单而言，称之为PEST分析法。
如图所示：[编辑]典型的PEST分析下表是一个典型的PEST分析。
[编辑]PEST分析的内容[编辑](一)政治法律环境(Political Factors)政治环境包括一个国家的社会制度，执政党的性质，政府的方针、政策、法令等。
不同的国家有着不同的社会性质，不同的社会制度对组织活动有着不同的限制和要求。
即使社会制度不变的同一国家，在不同时期，由于执政党的不同，其政府的方针特点、政策倾向对组织活动的态度和影响也是不断变化的。
重要的政治法律变量：∙执政党性质∙政治体制∙经济体制∙政府的管制∙税法的改变∙各种政治行动委员会∙专利数量∙专程法的修改∙环境保护法∙产业政策∙投资政策∙国防开支水平∙政府补贴水平∙反垄断法规∙与重要大国关系∙地区关系∙对政府进行抗议活动的数量、严重性及地点∙民众参与政治行为[编辑](二)经济环境(Economic Factors)经济环境主要包括宏观和微观两个方面的内容。
PEST分析模型(PESTAnalysis)
PEST分析模型（PEST Analysis）目录[隐藏]• 1 PEST模型简介• 2 典型的PEST分析• 3 PEST分析的内容o 3.1 (一)政治法律环境(Political Factors)o 3.2 (二)经济环境(Economic Factors)o 3.3 (三)社会文化环境(Sociocultural Factors)o 3.4 (四)技术环境(Technological Factors)• 4 PEST分析的应用• 5 PEST分析的变形• 6 PEST分析模型案例分析o 6.1 案例一:保健品行业PEST分析及其发展思路[1]o 6.2 案例二:对建筑装饰设计行业的PEST分析[2]•7 参考文献•8 相关条目[编辑]PEST模型简介PEST分析是战略咨询顾问用来帮助企业检阅其外部宏观环境的一种方法。
是指宏观环境的分析，宏观环境又称一般环境，是指影响一切行业和企业的各种宏观力量。
对宏观环境因素作分析，不同行业和企业根据自身特点和经营需要，分析的具体内容会有差异，但一般都应对政治（Political）、经济（Economic）、技术（Technological）和社会（Social）这四大类影响企业的主要外部环境因素进行分析。
简单而言，称之为PEST分析法。
如图所示：[编辑]典型的PEST分析下表是一个典型的PEST分析。
政治（包括法律）经济社会技术环保制度经济增长收入分布政府研究开支税收政策利率与货币政策人口统计、人口增长率与年龄分布产业技术关注[编辑]PEST分析的内容[编辑](一)政治法律环境(Political Factors)政治环境包括一个国家的社会制度，执政党的性质，政府的方针、政策、法令等。
不同的国家有着不同的社会性质，不同的社会制度对组织活动有着不同的限制和要求。
即使社会制度不变的同一国家，在不同时期，由于执政党的不同，其政府的方针特点、政策倾向对组织活动的态度和影响也是不断变化的。
EconomicAnalysisandPolicyJournal：杂志的经济分析与政策
9
Ontology of Properties
Haroske & Schrader, DP 2014 Paris
1
Ontology of Targets
Haroske & Schrader, DP 2014 Paris
1
Ontology of Targets
Haroske & Schrader, DP 2014 Paris
• Classification
• grouping of terms according properties
• Ontology
• formal, explicit specification of a conceptualization
Haroske & Schrader, DP 2014 Paris
A Reference Model Based Interface Terminology for Generic
Observations in Anatomic Pathology Structured Reports
G. Haroske, Dresden T.Schrader, Berlin
Background
Haroske & Schrader, DP 2014 Paris
1
Requirements for Terminologies
• comprehensive • scalable • expressing relationsDarstellbarkeit von Beziehungen
• easily adaptable to new medical developments
•Diameter of a lesion
PEST分析模型
PEST分析模型PEST分析模型（PEST Analysis）目录∙ 1 PEST模型简介∙ 2 (一) 政治法律环境（Political Factors）∙ 3 (二) 经济环境（Economic Factors）∙ 4 (三) 社会文化环境（Sociocultural Fators）∙ 5 (四) 技术环境（Technological Factors）∙ 6 相关条目PEST模型简介PEST分析是指宏观环境的分析，宏观环境又称一般环境，是指影响一切行业和企业的各种宏观力量。
对宏观环境因素作分析，不同行业和企业根据自身特点和经营需要，分析的具体内容会有差异，但一般都应对政治（Political）、经济（Economic）、技术（Technological）和社会（Social）这四大类影响企业的主要外部环境因素进行分析。
简单而言，称之为PEST分析法。
如图所示：(一) 政治法律环境（Political Factors）政治环境包括一个国家的社会制度，执政党的性质，政府的方针、政策、法令等。
不同的国家有着不同的社会性质，不同的社会制度对组织活动有着不同的限制和要求。
即使社会制度不变的同一国家，在不同时期，由于执政党的不同，其政府的方针特点、政策倾向对组织活动的态度和影响也是不断变化的。
重要的政治法律变量：执政党性质政治体制经济体制政府的管制税法的改变各种政治行动委员会专利数量专程法的修改环境保护法产业政策投资政策国防开支水平政府补贴水平反垄断法规与重要大国关系地区关系对政府进行抗议活动的数量、严重性及地点民众参与政治行为(二) 经济环境（Economic Factors）经济环境主要包括宏观和微观两个方面的内容。
宏观经济环境主要指一个国家的人口数量及其增长趋势，国民收入、国民生产总值及其变化情况以及通过这些指标能够反映的国民经济发展水平和发展速度。
微观经济环境主要指企业所在地区或所服务地区的消费者的收入水平、消费偏好、储蓄情况、就业程度等因素。
经济学英文实证论文
经济学英文实证论文Title: The Effects of Trade Liberalization on Economic Growth: An Empirical AnalysisAbstract:This paper examines the relationship between trade liberalization and economic growth using panel data from a sample of 50 countries over the period 2000-2020. We employ a fixed effects model to estimate the impact of trade liberalization on GDP per capita growth, controlling for other factors such as human capital, infrastructure, and institutions. Our results suggest that trade liberalization has a positive and statistically significant effect on economic growth, with a one percent increase in trade openness leading to a 0.5 percent increase in GDP per capita growth. The findings of this study have important implications for policymakers seeking to promote economic development through trade liberalization.Introduction:Trade liberalization has been a key policy tool for promoting economic growth and development in many countries around the world. By reducing trade barriers and increasing market access, countries can benefit from increased exports, foreign direct investment, and technological innovation. However, the relationship between trade liberalization and economic growth is complex and involves many factors that can influence outcomes. In this paper, we aim to empirically investigate the effects of trade liberalization on economic growth, taking into account other determinants of growth such as human capital, infrastructure, and institutions.Literature Review:The relationship between trade liberalization and economic growth has been extensively studied in the literature. While some studies find a positive impact of trade liberalization on growth (Dollar and Kraay, 2002; Rodriguez and Rodrik, 2001), others argue that the effects are more mixed and depend on the specific conditions of each country (Rodrik, 2002; Acemoglu et al., 2005). For example, Rodrik (2002) suggests that trade liberalization may have differential effects on growth depending on a country's level of human capital and institution quality. Similarly, Acemoglu et al. (2005) argue that the relationship between trade liberalization and growth depends on the presence of complementary policies and institutions that support trade openness.Methodology:We employ a fixed effects panel data model to estimate the impact of trade liberalization on economic growth. Our dependent variable is GDP per capita growth, while our main independent variable is an index of trade openness, constructed using data on trade as a percentage of GDP. We also include control variables for human capital (measured by the share of the population with secondary education), infrastructure (measured by the quality of roads and electricity access), and institutions (measured by the rule of law index).Results:Our results suggest that trade liberalization has a positive and statistically significant effect on economic growth, even after controlling for other determinants of growth. Specifically, we findthat a one percent increase in trade openness leads to a 0.5 percent increase in GDP per capita growth. Moreover, our results suggest that the effects of trade liberalization are stronger in countries with higher levels of human capital, better infrastructure, and stronger institutions.Conclusion:In conclusion, our study provides empirical evidence of the positive impact of trade liberalization on economic growth. Our results suggest that trade liberalization can be an effective policy tool for promoting growth, especially when accompanied by investments in human capital, infrastructure, and institutions. These findings have important implications for policymakers seeking to promote economic development through trade liberalization.。
economic analysis and policy分区
economic analysis and policy分区
"Economic analysis and policy" 分区则是指经济分析和政策研
究的领域。
这个领域涵盖了对各种经济问题进行分析和评估的方法，以及制定和实施经济政策的过程。
经济分析涉及对经济数据和理论的研究，以便理解和解释经济现象和趋势。
经济学家使用各种统计和经济模型，以量化和衡量经济活动和效果，从而提供政策制定者和决策者决策的依据。
在这个分区中，研究的主题可能涉及国内生产总值（GDP）、通货膨胀、失业率、收入分配、产业结构等。
而经济政策则是指制定和实施旨在影响经济运行和发展的政府政策。
这些政策可能涉及货币政策、财政政策、贸易政策、税收政策、产业政策等。
研究经济政策的目的是评估政策选择的影响和结果，以实现经济增长、稳定和公平。
经济分析和政策研究可以涉及各种问题和领域，例如经济增长、发展经济学、劳动经济学、环境经济学、国际贸易、金融市场、公共财政等。
这些研究领域是为了提供对经济现象和政策的深入理解，以及为政策制定者提供更好的政策建议和解决方案。
综上所述，经济分析和政策研究的分区涉及对经济现象和趋势进行分析和评估的方法，以及制定和实施经济政策的过程。
这个领域的研究意在为政策制定者提供决策的依据，并评估政策选择的影响和结果。
这个领域包括各种经济问题和领域，旨在提供对经济现象和政策的深入理解。
DLT5020-2007 水电工程可行性研究编写规程英文版
DLT5020-2007 水电工程可行性研究编写规程英文版Document Title: Guidelines for Writing Feasibility Study of Hydropower Engineering DLT5020-2007IntroductionThe feasibility study for hydropower engineering plays a crucial role in determining the viability of a project. It provides a comprehensive analysis of the project's potential, risks, and benefits. This document outlines the guidelines for writing the feasibility study in accordance with the DLT5020-2007 standards.ScopeThe guidelines cover all aspects of the feasibility study, including project background, objectives, methodology, analysis, findings, and recommendations. It sets out the requirements for conducting a thorough assessment of the project's technical, economic, environmental, and social feasibility.Structure1. Project Background- Provide an overview of the project, including its location, purpose, and objectives.2. Methodology- Describe the approach and methods used to gather data and analyze the project's feasibility.3. Technical Analysis- Assess the technical aspects of the project, such as design, construction, and operation.4. Economic Analysis- Evaluate the project's economic viability, including cost estimation, revenue projections, and financial analysis.5. Environmental Analysis- Consider the environmental impact of the project and propose mitigation measures.6. Social Analysis- Examine the social implications of the project on local communities and stakeholders.7. Findings- Summarize the key findings from the analysis and highlight the project's strengths and weaknesses.8. Recommendations- Provide recommendations based on the findings to support decision-making on the project.ConclusionWriting a feasibility study for hydropower engineering requires a systematic and comprehensive approach to assess the project's viability. By following the guidelines outlined in this document, project teams can ensure that the study meets the DLT5020-2007 standards and provides valuable insights for decision-makers.。
PESTEL analysis
PEST analysisFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaPEST analysis stands for "P olitical, E conomic, S ocial, and T echnological analysis" and describesa framework of macro-environmental factors used in the environmental scanning componentof strategic management. Some analysts added L egal and rearranged the mnemonic toSLEPT;[1] inserting E nvironmental factors expanded it to PESTEL or PESTLE, which is popular in the United Kingdom.[2] The model has recently been further extended to STEEPLE and STEEPLED, adding Ethics and demographic factors. It is a part of the external analysis when conducting a strategic analysis or doing market research, and gives an overview of the differentmacroenvironmental factors that the company has to take into consideration. It is a useful strategic tool for understanding market growth or decline, business position, potential and direction foroperations. The growing importance of environmental or ecological factors in the first decade of the 21st century have given rise to green business an d encouraged widespread use of an updated version of the PEST framework. STEER analysis systematically considers Socio-cultural,Technological, Economic, Ecological, and Regulatory factors.∙∙∙∙∙∙[edit]CompositionPolitical factors are how and to what degree a government intervenes in the economy.Specifically, political factors include areas such as tax policy, labour law, environmentallaw, trade restrictions, tariffs, and political stability. Political factors may also include goods and services which the government wants to provide or be provided (merit goods) and those thatthe government does not want to be provided (demerit goods or merit bads). Furthermore,governments have great influence on the health, education, and infrastructure of a nation.▪Economic factors include economic growth, interest rates, exchange rates and the inflation rate. These factors have major impacts on how businesses operate and make decisions. For example, interest rates affect a firm's cost of capital and therefore to what extenta business grows and expands. Exchange rates affect the costs of exporting goods and thesupply and price of imported goods in an economy▪Social factors include the cultural aspects and include health consciousness, population growth rate, age distribution, career attitudes and emphasis on safety. Trends in social factors affect the demand for a company's products and how that company operates. For example, an aging population may imply a smaller and less-willing workforce (thus increasing the cost of labor). Furthermore, companies may change various management strategies to adapt to these social trends (such as recruiting older workers).▪Technological factors include technological aspects such as R&D activity, automation, technology incentives and the rate of technological change. They can determine barriers to entry, minimum efficient production level and influence outsourcing decisions. Furthermore, technological shifts can affect costs, quality, and lead to innovation.▪Environmental factors include ecological and environmental aspects such as weather, climate, and climate change, which may especially affect industries such as tourism, farming, and insurance. Furthermore, growing awareness of the potential impacts of climate change is affecting how companies operate and the products they offer, both creating new markets and diminishing or destroying existing ones.▪Legal factors include discrimination law, consumer law, antitrust law, employment law, and health and safety law. These factors can affect how a company operates, its costs, and the demand for its products.[edit]Applicability of the FactorsThe model's factors will vary in importance to a given company based on its industry and the goods it produces. For example, consumer and B2B companies tend to be more affected by the social factors, while a global defense contractor would tend to be more affected by politicalfactors.[3] Additionally, factors that are more likely to change in the future or more relevant to a given company will carry greater importance. For example, a company which has borrowed heavily will need to focus more on the economic factors (especially interest rates).[4]Furthermore, conglomerate companies who produce a wide range of products (such as Sony, Disney, or BP) may find it more useful to analyze one department of its company at a time with the PESTEL model, thus focusing on the specific factors relevant to that one department. A companymay also wish to divide factors into geographical relevance, such as local, national, and global (also known as LONGPESTEL).[edit]Use of PEST analysis with other modelsThe PEST factors, combined with external micro-environmental factors and internal drivers, can be classified as opportunities and threats in a SWOT analysis.[edit]See also▪Enterprise planning systems▪SWOT analysis[edit]References1. ^SLEPT analysis with example, The Times. Retrieved 2009-10-21.2. ^PESTLE analysis history and application, CIPD. Retrieved 2009-10-21.3. ^"PEST: Political, Economic, Social, and Technology Analysis". The Decision Group.Retrieved 2009-01-27.4. ^"PESTEL analysis of the macro-environment". Oxford University Press. 2007.Retrieved 2009-01-27.[edit]External links▪PEST analysis method and examples, ▪PESTLE analysis factsheet, Chartered Institute of Personnel and Development (CIPD)。
延迟退休经济学论文
延迟退休经济学论文Title: The Impact of Delayed Retirement on Economic Growth: An Economic AnalysisAbstract:As populations around the world continue to age, the issue of retirement and its implications on economic growth has become increasingly important. One proposed solution to address the challenges posed by an aging workforce is delayed retirement. This paper examines the potential effects of delaying retirement on economic growth, using economic theory and empirical evidence to explore the implications for individuals, companies, and national economies. By analyzing factors such as labor force participation rates, productivity levels, and savings patterns, we aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of the economic implications of delayed retirement.Introduction:The aging population is a growing concern in many countries, as demographic shifts lead to a shrinking workforce and increased strain on pension and healthcare systems. In response to these challenges, policymakers and researchers have proposed various strategies to extend the working lives of older individuals, with delayed retirement being one of the most prominent solutions. By allowing individuals to work longer before withdrawing from the labor market, delayed retirement aims to mitigate the economic consequences of a shrinking workforce and increased dependency ratio.While the benefits of delayed retirement are often framed in terms of individual financial security and social welfare, its potential impact on economic growth is less understood. This paper seeks to fill this gap by examining the economic implications of delayed retirement from a theoretical and empirical perspective. By analyzing factors such as labor force participation rates, productivity levels, and savings behavior, we aim to shed light on the potential effects of delayed retirement on economic growth.Literature Review:Previous research on delayed retirement has primarily focused on its implications for social security systems, individual income levels, and overall labor force participation rates. Many studies have found that delaying retirement can have positive effects on individual financial well-being, as it allows individuals to accumulate more savings and increases their social security benefits. However, the impact of delayed retirement on economic growth remains a topic of debate, with conflicting findings from empirical studies.Some researchers argue that delayed retirement can lead to increased labor force participation rates, higher productivity levels, and greater savings accumulation, all of which are expected to have a positive impact on economic growth. Others, however, point to potential negative consequences, such as reduced job opportunities for younger workers, increased healthcare costs for older individuals, and lower consumption levels due to delayed retirement. The conflicting findings highlight the need for a morecomprehensive analysis of the economic implications of delayed retirement.Methodology:To examine the economic impact of delayed retirement, we will use a combination of economic theory and empirical analysis. We will first develop a theoretical framework to understand the mechanisms through which delayed retirement may affect economic growth, drawing on concepts such as labor supply, productivity, and savings accumulation. We will then test our theoretical predictions using data from national surveys, labor market studies, and macroeconomic indicators to assess the relationship between delayed retirement and economic growth.Our analysis will focus on several key variables, including labor force participation rates among older individuals, productivity levels of older workers, and savings behavior before and after retirement. By comparing these variables across different countries and time periods, we aim to identify the factors that contribute to the economic implications of delayed retirement. We will also conduct regression analysis to quantify the impact of delayed retirement on economic growth, controlling for other factors that may influence the relationship.Results and Discussion:Our preliminary findings suggest that delayed retirement can have both positive and negative effects on economic growth, depending on the specific context and characteristics of the economy. On theone hand, delaying retirement may lead to higher labor force participation rates among older individuals, which can contribute to increased productivity levels and output growth. It may also result in greater savings accumulation, which can boost national savings rates and investment levels.On the other hand, delayed retirement may also have potential downsides, such as reduced job opportunities for younger workers, higher healthcare costs for older individuals, and lower consumption levels due to delayed retirement. These negative consequences could offset the positive effects of delayed retirement on economic growth, leading to a more nuanced picture of its overall impact.Policy Implications:Our findings have important implications for policymakers seeking to address the challenges posed by an aging population and shrinking workforce. While delayed retirement can offer benefits in terms of individual financial security and social welfare, its effects on economic growth are more complex and context-dependent. Policymakers should carefully consider the trade-offs involved in delaying retirement, taking into account factors such as labor market dynamics, productivity levels, and consumption patterns.To maximize the potential benefits of delayed retirement, policymakers may need to implement targeted interventions to address the potential negative consequences, such as promoting lifelong learning opportunities for older workers, encouragingintergenerational workforce participation, and improving healthcare services for older individuals. By adopting a holistic approach that considers the economic implications of delayed retirement, policymakers can develop more effective strategies to promote sustainable economic growth in the face of demographic challenges.Conclusion:In conclusion, delayed retirement has the potential to impact economic growth in various ways, depending on the specific context and characteristics of the economy. While it can offer benefits in terms of higher labor force participation rates, increased productivity levels, and greater savings accumulation, it may also pose challenges such as reduced job opportunities for younger workers, higher healthcare costs for older individuals, and lower consumption levels.Further research is needed to fully understand the economic implications of delayed retirement and develop evidence-based policy recommendations. By examining the relationship between delayed retirement and economic growth from a theoretical and empirical perspective, we can provide valuable insights into the complex dynamics of an aging workforce and inform policy decisions that promote sustainable economic development in the long run.。
计量经济学英文解释
计量经济学英文解释English:Econometrics is a branch of economics that applies statistical methods and mathematical models to analyze and quantify the relationships between economic variables. It aims to provide empirical evidence and test economic theories by using real-world data. By employing various econometric techniques, such as regression analysis, time series analysis, and panel data analysis, econometricians are able to estimate and measure the parameters of economic models, assess the significance of different factors, and make predictions or forecasts about future economic outcomes. Econometrics plays a crucial role in several areas of economics, including macroeconomics, microeconomics, finance, and labor economics, as it helps in understanding economic phenomena, formulating economic policies, and making informed decisions. In addition to its theoretical applications, econometrics also has practical applications in business, government, and research institutions where data-driven decision-making is important. Overall, econometrics provides a systematic and quantitative approach toeconomics, allowing economists to study and analyze economic behavior and relationships in a rigorous and scientific manner.中文翻译:计量经济学是经济学的一个分支，它应用统计方法和数学模型来分析和量化经济变量之间的关系。
投资项目的财务与经济分析概述(pdf 45)
项目本身的财务分析
Project financial projections
5
有关项目所在行业的财务分析 (Sector Analysis)
对所在行业的结构, 产业政策, 政府规制等进行归纳, 来以 确定是否能对项目的有效实施提供必要的支持, 特别是从 扶贫和促进增长的角度来考虑; Assessment of the existing structure, policy, and regulation of the sector against its capacity to support cost-effective service delivery, especially to poor people, and to enhance economic growth. 对所在行业的相关企业和项目的财务表现进行系统分析, 建立可资比较的行业标准, 并为项目的设计和改进提供参 考; Assessment of financial performance against appropriate benchmarks to identify scope for improvement. 对政策和规制的可能变化(如民营化, 收费标准, 竞争与行 业准入等)进行分析, 以改善项目的财务可持续性. Identification of policy and regulatory changes—notably privatization, tariff and competition policy—aimed at improving financial sustainability.
future performance of the executing agency: key assumptions and financial statements, with an emphasis on cash flows, financial ratios and debt service capacity.
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General equilibrium analysis: The study of equilibrium of all markets simultaneously.
Chapter 2 Demand, Supply and Equilibrium
2.1 Demand： Demand refers to how much (quantity) of a product or service is desired by buyers. The quantity demanded the consumers are willing to buy and able to pay at a certain price. Demand = Need +Purchase power 2.11 What factors influence consumer's decisions to buy a certain good? ● Price. ● Income ● Prices of related goods. ● Tastes: the extent that consumer like a good. ● Expectations of future price
A C.
basic assumptions ●the given amount of the resources ●the given technology
the curve concave to the origin.
d.
B
shift of production possibilities frontier
Positive analysis deals with statements of cause and effect. It studies what is,or how the economic problems are actually solved. Positive analysis is devoid of any ethical position or value judgment, is primarily empirical or statistical in nature, and is independent of normative economics. Normative analysis deals with statements that embody value judgments. It studies what ought to be, or how the economic problems should be solved. Normative analysis is based on positive analysis and with value judgments. It provides guidelines for policies to increase and possibly maximize the social welfare.
1.4 opportunity cost the value of the next best alternative foregon as the result of making a decision. For example, if an asset such as capital is used for purpose X, it could't have been used for purpose Y with 10% profit or Z with 15% profit, then the opportunity cost of purpose X is the value of the best purpose Z alternative foregon.
allocation of resources:
"What to produce" "How to produce" "For whom to produce" Above three problem are issues of Microeconomics:resources allocation
The free good is a term used in economics to describe a good that is not scarce. A good is said to be a free good if the quantity of the good supplied exceeds the quantity demanded at a zero price. In other words, a good is a free good if there is more than enough available for everyone even when the good is free. Economists argue that there are relatively few, if any, free goods. The best examples of free goods are air and sunlight.
Microeconomic Analysis
Sun Hangsheng
Chapter 1 Introduction 1.1 Economic and Microeconomics?
Economics is a social science, and as such tries to explain human behavior. Economics theory studies how individuals and societies use limited resources to satisfy unlimited wants.
Partial equilibrium analysis: The study of equilibrium in one market in isolation.
In economics, analysis that treats one particular sector of the economy as operating in isolation from the other sectors of the economy.
substitute goods.
If goods can be substituted each other in consumption, these are called substitute goods. The demand of a given good and the price of it's substitute good are positively related. Such as chicken and pork, if the price of pork goes up, people can substitute chicken for pork, the amount of chicken demand will increase.
● labor, ● capital, ● land, ● entrepreneurship
1.3
Fundamental economic problem
Scarcity is the problem of infinite human needs and wants, in a world of finite resources. In other words, society does not have sufficient productive resources to fulfill those wants and needs.
Economics is divided into two branches: Microeconomics and macroeconomics. Microeconomic theory studies the economic behavior of individual decision-making units such as consumers, resource owners and business firms in a free-enterprise economy.
The technology improvement push PPF curve to shift outwards, the output combination of two goods will increase. output of Y
Y1
0
X1
X2
output of X
1.5 Positive and Normative analysis
complement goods
If goods must be used together or have derived demand each other, these are called complement goods. For example, crucian(a kind of fish) and shallot must be used together in cooking; the cotton's demand occurs as a result of demand for cotton yarn.
Rational economic man:
Self-interest and rational choice
“Economic man" assumes not only selfinterest, but also rationality of choices. The economic agents or individuals as rational actors who maximize their profits or welfare in the marketplace.