KH-12
中国军用卫星
雷达成像卫星分辨率同样不足
中国还发展了雷达侦察卫星和电子侦察卫星，遥感卫星一号就是众所周知的雷达侦察卫星，汶川地震时官方公开消息称分辨率5米，同样根据Gunter的猜测，遥感卫星一号和遥感卫星三号、遥感卫星十号是同型号卫星。
目前遥感卫星一号已经失效，而三号和十号还在服役中，由于分辨率问题它们只能用于详查信息，判断部队部署集结调动尚可，提供目标数据同样不够精确。
资源一号：战术侦察能力基本为零
1999年发射上天的资源一号卫星不具备高分辨率能力，20米分辨率的CCD相机对于战术侦察来说聊胜于无。相机地面分辨率是衡量侦察卫星的重要指标，分辨率指的是照片上区分两点的最小间距，或者说照片上一个像素点代表的目标尺寸。一般地说，从照片上能识别的最小目标是地面分辨率的3倍以上。资源一号20米分辨率CCD相机，指的是20米长宽的目标在资源一号的照片上显示为一个像素点，它能识别的目标尺寸长宽要达到60X60米以上，根本无法对飞机、军舰、坦克等战术目标进行识别。
美国现有军事通信卫星尽管在历次战争中较好的完成了关键信息传递的作用，但仍有很大不足，尤其是带宽和接入能力有限，1991年海湾战争期间军用卫星承担了绝大部分通信量，到了科索沃战争和阿富汗战争承担大部分通信量的却是临时租用的商业卫星，这主要是战场图像和视频数据激增的结果。
美军正在发展的新一代通信卫星如宽带全球卫星通信系统(WGS)，先进极高频卫星通信系统(AEHF)和移动用户目标系统(MUOS)，提供了远超上一代系统的通信能力，这些卫星近两年来已经陆续开始使用。
麻烦不断的东方号四号平台
中国还开发了性能更为强大的东方红4卫星平台，东方红4平台太阳能电池提供功率高达10.5千瓦，可为载荷提供8千瓦电力供应，设计寿命15年，有效载荷质量达到了600千克，就平台的技术水平而言达到了世界90年代先进水平。可惜东方红4平台一直问题多多，前两令人扼腕的是原始设计中东方红4平台太阳能电池板采用二次展开的先进技术，在鑫诺二号的事故后改回老式的一次展开，太阳翼也从每侧四片电池板改为三片。
美国的信息化战争
论美国的信息化战争21世纪是信息化的时代，信息化已进渗透到社会的各个领域，美国是世界第一大国，在信息化方面也走在了世界的前列，现在就让我们来谈谈美国在信息化战争方面取得的成就。
美军近次战争信息化特点。
海湾战争期间，美军和多国部队所建立的战区通信网络是有史以来最大、最多、最全、最先进的，它运用卫星通信技术和数字化通信网络技术，把数十年来各国研制、生产和装备的各种战略、战区及战术通信网络和设备全面融合，综合为一体化的高效率的C3I通信系统，以98%以上的高战备率确保白宫、五角大楼、后勤支援基地与中央总部、多国部队和基层作战部队之间的联系，确保洲际之间、战区与本土之间、多国及友邻部队之间、各军兵种之间、飞机、舰艇和坦克等作战平台之间，以及上下、左右、纵横、交叉的不间断的持续通信和信息交换。
海湾战争总指挥施瓦茨科普夫上将当时在沙特首都利雅得开设战区指挥部，各下属司令部也是在沙特开设。
施瓦茨科普夫与各级指挥官讨论重大问题或研究作战方案基本是采用电视会议或视频面对面商谈的方式进行，各级指挥机构信息沟通也是采取电话、电报、软盘传递等方式进行。
科索沃战争是第一次大规模实战运用全球一体化C4ISR指挥控制系统。
在科索沃战争中，由于牵涉到北约十几个国家联合作战，所以还是沿用了传统的战略、战役和战术三级指挥体制。
阿富汗战争中，美军刻意试验网络中心战和扁平式指挥的能力，所以没有按照战略、战役和战术层次设立指挥体系，也没有在阿富汗战区设立前沿指挥部，只是在美国本土设立了一个战略总指挥部，下面直接就是战术指挥层次，所以这场战争的指挥实际上是一场战略性战斗的指挥尝试。
阿富汗战争期间，美军首次试验网络中心战取得了一些成果，比如，从阿拉伯海航空母舰上起飞的舰载机，有80%以上事先并不知道要去战区的什么地方、攻击什么样的目标，只是在起飞以后的飞行途中才接到指挥系统发来的最新任务指令，这时飞行员便可在指挥系统的引导下，选择最佳路径和方式对目标进行攻击。
卫星技术在伊拉克战争中的应用
卫星技术在伊拉克战争中的应用为了获取更多、更详尽的伊拉克情报，以便为美国的外交和军事决策提供依据，美国在伊拉克战争中动用了多种卫星严密监视伊拉克的一些特定设施。
美国目前部署的军用卫星系统覆盖了对伊作战所需要的各个信息领域，动用的卫星种类包括侦察卫星、通信卫星、导航定位卫星、资源卫星和气象卫星等多种类型。
美国在其本土有21处、本土之外有15处基地上共有33600人在对伊拉克战争进行天基支持。
侦察卫星成像侦察卫星通过可见光、红外、合成孔径雷达等手段对地面进行照相侦察，可提供伊拉克国家领导人驻留地点、重点军事设施布防情况和大规模杀伤性武器及生化武器的部署情况，监视战区军事态势的发展。
电子侦察卫星主要用于截获伊方雷达、通信、遥测等系统的传输信号，从而探明伊方重要领导人物和指挥控制中心的位置、辨识伊方军用电子系统的性质、位置和活动情况，并通过对所得情报的分析进一步揭示伊方军队的调动、部署乃至战略意图。
在对伊战争中，侦察卫星提供的情报对于了解战场情况、确定打击目标、提高打击精确性、准确评估打击效果起着重要的作用。
1.成像侦察卫星（1）KH-11卫星KH-11卫星在３２０千米的高空轨道上工作。
三颗（分别于2001年10月，1996年12月和1995年12月发射的）先进的拥有光学与红外传感器的KH-11卫星能提供全天时、全天候的武器设施搜查能力。
例如，2001年10月5日发射的15吨重的KH-11卫星，在每日凌晨两点（当地时间）左右向北飞过巴格达上空，使用其红外与微光能力侦察，下午约3点又由北向南飞过巴格达，使用其日光光学能力进行侦察。
（2）KH-12卫星KH－12卫星是1990年2月28日开始发射的，至今已经发射了4颗。
它能以与“哈勃”空间望远镜一样的方式成像，即其光学系统的相机采用了当今最尖端的自适应光学成像技术制成，可在计算机控制下随视场环境灵活地改变主透镜表面曲率，从而有效地补偿因大气造成的畸变影响，使分辨率达到0.1米。
海缸钙镁kh的标准值
海缸钙镁kh的标准值
海缸钙镁KH的标准值是指在海水缸中，钙和碳酸盐之间的平衡程度。
这是非常重要的，因为它对于珊瑚、藻类和其他无脊椎动物的生长和
健康至关重要。
在一般情况下，海缸钙镁KH的标准值应该在7-12 dKH之间。
这个
范围被认为是最理想的，并且能够提供最好的环境条件来支持珊瑚、
藻类和其他无脊椎动物的生长和健康。
如果你的海缸钙镁KH值太低，那么你需要增加碳酸盐水平。
可以通
过添加碳酸氢盐或者使用专业级别的缓冲剂来实现这一点。
另一方面，如果你的海缸钙镁KH值太高，那么你需要减少碳酸盐水平。
可以通过更换部分水或者使用专业级别的反应器来实现这一点。
总之，在维持一个健康、有趣和美丽的海洋环境方面，维护正确的海
缸钙镁KH标准值是至关重要的。
因此，定期测试并调整水质参数是
非常重要的，以确保你的海缸中的生物能够得到最好的生长和健康。
美国卫星系列
1988年12月2日
长曲棍球-3雷达成像照相侦查卫星 长曲棍球-4雷达成像照相侦查卫星 UFO系列特高频通信卫星 UFO-1特高频通信卫星 UFO-2特高频通信卫星 UFO-3特高频通信卫星 UFO-4特高频通信卫星 UFO-5特高频通信卫星 UFO-6特高频通信卫星 UFO-7特高频通信卫星 UFO-8特高频通信卫星 UFO-9特高频通信卫星 UFO-10特高频通信卫星 UFO-11特高频通信卫星 UFO-12特高频通信卫星 UFO-13特高频通信卫星 DSCS系列美国国防卫星通信系统 DSCS-1美国国防卫星通信系统 DSCS-2美国国防卫星通信系统 DSCS-3美国国防卫星通信系统 DSCS-4美国国防卫星通信系统 DSCS-5美国国防卫星通信系统 跟踪和数据中继卫星 子午仪卫星导航系统 GPS全球定位系统
锁眼系列照相侦察卫星 KH－1型是第1代普查型照相侦察卫星 KH－4型第1代详查型照相侦察卫星 KH－5型第2代普查型照相侦察卫星 KH－6型第2代详查型照相侦察卫星 KH－7型第3代普查型照相侦察卫星 KH－8型第3代详查型照相侦察卫星。 KH－9型第4代普查兼详查型照相侦察卫星 KH－11型第5代普查型照相侦察卫星 KH－12型第5代普查型照相侦察卫星 地球静止轨道环境业务卫星(GOES) GOES-8第3代地球静止轨道环境业务卫星 GOES-9第3代地球静止轨道环境业务卫星 GOES-10第3代地球静止轨道环境业务卫星 GOES-11第3代地球静止轨道环境业务卫星 GOES-12第3代地球静止轨道环境业务卫星 GOES-1第1代业务静止气象卫星 GOES-2第1代业务静止气象卫星 GOES-3第1代业务静止气象卫星 GOES-4第2代业务静止气象卫星 GOES-5第2代业务静止气象卫星 GOES-6第2代业务静止气象卫星 GOES-7第2代业务静止气象卫星 泰罗斯N／诺阿卫星系列太阳同步轨道气象卫星 诺阿1号 诺阿2号 诺阿3号 诺阿4号 诺阿5号 诺阿6号 诺阿7号 诺阿8号 NPOESS系列国家极轨环境业务卫星 NPOESS-1 NPOESS-2 NPOESS-3 NPOESS-4 NPOESS-5 NPOESS-6 DMSP系列国防气象卫星 DMSP-1 DMSP-2 DMSP-3 DMSP-4 DMSP-5 长曲棍球系列雷达成像照相侦查卫星 长曲棍球-1雷达成像照相侦查卫星 长曲棍球-2雷达成像照相侦查卫星
美军在伊拉克战争中的使用主要卫星简介
••美军在伊拉克战争中的使用主要卫星简介一、侦察卫星侦察卫星通过可见光、红外和合成孔径雷达等手段对地面进行照相侦察，可提供伊拉克国家领导人驻留地点、重点军事设施布防情况和大规模杀伤性武器及生化武器的部署情况，监视战区军事态势的发展。
电子侦察卫星主要用于截获伊方雷达、通信、遥测等系统的传输信号，从而探明伊方重要领导人物和指挥控制中心的位置，辨识伊方军用电子系统的性质、位置和活动情况，并通过对所得情报的分析进一步揭示伊方军队的调动、部署乃至战略意图。
在对伊战争中，侦察监视卫星提供的情报对于了解战场情况、确定打击目标、提高打击精确性和准确评估打击效果起着重要的作用。
1. 成像侦察卫星(1) KH-12侦察卫星KH-12卫星是1990午2月28日开始发射的，至今已经发射了4颗。
它能以与“哈勃”空间望远镜一样的方式成像，即其光学系统的相机采用了当今尖端的自适应光学成像技术制成，可在计算机控制下随视场环境灵活地改变主透镜表面曲率，从而有效地补偿因大气造成的畸变影响，使分辨率达到0.1m。
卫星上的红外相机可发现地面伪装物、飞机发动机和大烟囱等有热源的目标。
卫星上的高级“水晶”测量系统(ICMS)可使数据以网格标记传输。
卫星还装有雷达高度计和其他用于测量地形高度的传感器。
3颗KH-12卫星运行在270~1000km的轨道上。
KH-12燃料用完后可由航天飞机进行在轨加注，因而该星的机动变轨能力极强，具有无限制的轨道机动能力。
KH-12卫星的设计寿命为8年。
KH-12卫星的光学系统在KH-11的基础上，增加了热红外谱段，能探测伪装和埋置结构目标，对地下核爆炸或其他地下设施进行监测，探知导弹和航天器的发射，分辨出目标区内哪些工厂开工，哪些工厂关闭等。
由于使用了更先进的技术，所以KH-12的分辨率达0.1m。
星上装有一台潜望镜式的旋转透镜，能把图像反射到主镜上，因而卫星在大倾角的条件下也能成像。
它还采取了防核效应加固手段和防激光武器攻击的保护措施，并增装了防碰撞探测器。
现代战场高技术侦察特点
第三代
处）
装备师炮兵
８
７。
和团以下侦
察分队
采用通用组
１０．５
７。
件
３侦察波段全频化
美军的侦察器材在使用的波段上已经覆盖了可见光、热红外和雷达波等全部频谱，能够 根据战场条件和作战的需要随时选择所需波段，或者同时使用，互相融合，也可以相互协同， 相互补充。由于使用的波段全，侦察器材抗自然干扰能力增强，可以全天时、全天候发挥作 用。美国在科索沃战争期间使用的３颗ＫＨ一１２第六代照相侦察卫星，带有先进的光电遥感 器，采用热成像和自适应光学技术，进一步提高了夜间侦察能力和情报信息的准确性，还使 用了２颗“长曲棍球”雷达成像侦察卫星，该卫星采用合成孔径雷达技术，克服了可见光照 相侦察卫星夜间和阴天无法照相的缺点，可全天时和全天候实施侦察。
１．５无线电侦察
无线电技术侦察又称为信号侦察，被称为除了陆、海、空、天之外的“第五维侦察空间”。 无线电技术侦察通常是通过设在全球各地的固定侦听站和测向站来实现对无线电信号的侦 听和测向的。
卫星 类型
照相 侦察 卫星
卫星 圄别
型号 大鸟
美国
ＫＨ—１１
ＫＨ．１２
俄国 宇宙号
轨道 高度 （千米）
１６０一２９０
月光下：６０００ 星光下：４０００
４００—５００
４００一５００
星光下： 对人２５０ 探测：２４００ 识别：６００ 对坦克： 月光下２０００ 星光下１２００ ｌ矿勒克斯时： 对人：１０００ 对车：１７００ 对坦克：４０００ １０．３勒克斯三代 管坦克：１４００ 二代管坦克：
１０００
１０００（典型值）， ６００（１０－３勒克斯
３．３ｘ１０－４ＬＸ，
物镜ｆ＝２１０ｍｍ，视场４０ｘ５ ５０，照度范围１０－４—１０－３ （夜闯）１０２．１０３（白天加滤光镜），尺寸 ７００ｘ３４０ｘ２４０ｍｍ３，电源２４Ｖ１００Ｗ，重量加ｋｇ 物镜有效直径 ２００ｒａｍ，槐场４．５０。调焦范围 ５０－６０，分辨率６００线．最低照度１０－４ＬＸ，电源 ２４Ｖ４０Ｗ，尺寸中２００ｘ４４５ｍｍ，重量１．８５ｋｇ 视频带宽９ＭＨＺ，视场３．０５０（１６ｒａｍ增强器） －４．７７０（２５ｒａｍ增强器），电源２８Ｖ，尺寸 ｄｐ２６０×５６８ｍｍ，重量２３ｋｇ 灵敏度８ｘｌＯ．５Ｌｘ，极限分辨率５７０电视线，视频 带宽１５Ｍｈｚ（＋３ｄｂ）Ｓ／Ｎ３６ｄｂ，电源１２Ｖ或２４Ｖ． 直流１Ａ，尺寸１２０ｘ１３０ｘ３７０ｍｍ３，重量２０ｋｇ
21世纪军用卫星发展概况
21世纪军用卫星发展概况摘要：21世纪初前后的几场高技术局部战争中，军事卫星得到了广泛应用。
实践证明，军事卫星在战争中的作用越来越重要。
本文主要对21世纪军用卫星的发展概况进行分析。
关键词：卫星军事发展战争一：军用卫星的概念军用卫星（military satellite）：专门用于各种军事目的的人造地球卫星。
是发射时间最早、发射数量最多的人造地球卫星之一。
军用卫星从20世纪50年代末出现到90年代直接参加局部战争，已经发展成为一些国家现代作战指挥系统和战略武器系统的重要组成部分，被喻为现代信息战的军事力量倍增器。
二：军用卫星的分类用于各种军事目的的人造地球卫星。
军用卫星发射数量最多，约占世界各国航天器发射数量的三分之二以上。
50年代末期，人造地球卫星开始试验用于军事目的，到60年代中期各种军用卫星即已相继投入使用。
70年代之后，军用卫星得到很大发展，已经成为一些国家现代作战指挥系统和战略武器系统的重要组成部分。
军用卫星按用途一般可以分为侦察卫星、军用气象卫星、军用导航卫星、军用测地卫星、军用通信卫星和截击卫星。
一些民用卫星也兼有军事用途。
1、侦察卫星：利用各种遥感器或无线电接收机等侦察设备收集地面、海洋或空中目标的辐射、反射或发射的电磁波信息，获取军事情报。
侦察卫星又分为照相侦察卫星、电子侦察卫星、海洋监视卫星、导弹预警卫星和核爆炸监视卫星等。
2、军用气象卫星：利用各种气象遥感器拍摄云图和获取其他定量气象参数，提供全球范围的战略地区和任何战场上空的实时气象资料。
军用气象卫星具有保密性强和图像分辨率高的特点。
美国的军用气象卫星有“布洛克”号国防气象卫星，苏联的军用气象卫星混编在"宇宙"号卫星系列中（见气象卫星）。
3、军用导航卫星：通过发射无线电信号为地面、海洋和空中军事用户导航定位。
军用导航卫星定位精度高，能在各种天气条件下和全球范围内提供导航信息，而且用户设备简单。
军用导航卫星主要为核潜艇提供在各种天气条件下全球导航定位服务，也能为地面战车、空中飞机、水面舰艇、地面部队甚至单兵提供精确位置、速度和时间信息。
航天光学有效载荷的发展动态
面向21世纪的航天光学有效载荷的发展动态报告内容一、航天光学有效载荷概念二、国内外发展概况三、发展动态一、航天光学有效载荷概念航天光学有效载荷概念卫星有效载荷卫星平台结构与机构热控制电源姿态与轨道控制卫星测控有效载荷是卫星中直接执行特定任务的分系统，是卫星的核心部分，是决定卫星性能水平的主要分系统。
光学有效载荷是利用光学谱段获取目标信息的航天有效载荷，又称为光学遥感器，航天相机。
光学有效载荷是集光学、精密机械、电子、热控和航天技术等多学科为一体的综合性高科技产品。
在信息技术中属于上游的源头技术。
航天光学有效载荷1958年前苏联发射第一颗卫星后，美苏开始研究把光学有效载荷装在卫星上，实现对地侦查。
1960年至今，针对军事、陆地资源、气象、海洋、天文等不同的观测目标，发展了军事侦察卫星、测绘卫星、导弹预警卫星，资源卫星，气象卫星，海洋卫星，天文卫星等各种卫星，研制了针对各自目标的光学有效载荷。
航天光学有效载荷分类航天光学有效载荷天文卫星军事卫星资源卫星气象卫星海洋卫星空间望远镜侦察相机测绘相机多光谱CCD 相机多光谱光机扫描仪多通道扫描成像仪扫描成像大气探测仪CCD 成像仪海洋水色仪超光谱成像光谱仪导弹预警相机对天观测对地观测深空探测月球探测有效载荷火星探测有效载荷二、国内外发展概况——国外现状侦察相机航天光学有效载荷起源于军事应用。
侦察相机的研制水平代表了航天光学有效载荷的最高水平。
1960年美国KH-1普查型照相侦察卫星发射成功，标志着这一技术在军事领域应用的开始，开创了航天遥感事业。
目前美国的水平最高，其次是俄罗斯，法国、以色列、印度等国家。
国家卫星分辨率美国KH-120.1m俄罗斯阿尔康优于0.5m法国太阳神0.5m以色列EROSA 1.8m美国至今已研制6代，前四代为胶片型相机，后两代为为CCD传输型相机(KH-11,KH-12)可分为三个发展阶段1、前三代相机以提高空间分辨率为主要目标;2、第四代开始以提高单星的综合侦察能力为主，实现普查和详查的有机结合;3、从60年代至今已经形成了可见光和微波成像侦察的结合体系。
伊拉克战争与军用卫星
军用卫星
照相侦察卫星──它是装有光学成像的空间遥感设备进行侦察，获取军事情报的人造地球卫星，常用的 遥感设备有可见光照相机、电视摄像机、红外照相机、多光谱照照相机和微波遥感设备等。 电子侦察卫星──它是装有电子侦察设备，用于侦察雷达和其它无线电设备的位置与特性，截收对方遥 测和通信等机密信息的侦察卫星。 预警卫星──它是用于监视和发现敌方来袭的战略导弹，并发出警报的侦察卫星。它能延长预警时间， 便于及时组织战略防御和反击。 海洋监视卫星──它是用于监视海上舰只潜艇活动、侦察舰艇雷达信号和无线电通信的侦察卫星。世界 上第一颗海洋监视卫星是苏联于1967年12月27日发射的 “宇宙”198号卫星 ，这是一颗试验卫星。苏联的 海洋监视卫星自1973年后进入实用阶段。 军用导航卫星──它是通过发射无线电信号，为地面、海洋和空中军事用户导航定位的人造地球卫星。 军用导航卫星原先主要为核潜艇提供在各种气象条件下的全球定位服务，现在也能为地面战车、空中飞机 、水面舰艇、地面部队及单兵提供精确的所处位置、时间的信息。 军用气象卫星──它是为军事需要提供气象资料的卫星。它可提供全球范围的战略地区和任何战场上空 的实时气象资料，具有保密性强和图像分辨率高的特点。世界上第一颗气象卫星是美国1960年4月1日发射 的 “泰罗斯”1号卫星，这是一颗军民合用的试验卫星。 军用测地卫星──它是为军事目的而进行大地测量的人造地球卫星。地球的真实形状及大小，重力场和 磁力场分布情况、地球表面诸点的精确地理坐标及相关位置等，对战略导弹的弹道计算和制导关系甚大， 测地卫星就是用于探测上述参数的航天器，它可测定地球上任何一点的坐标和地面及海上目标的坐标。
KH-12
“锁眼”12（1）采用大型CCD多光谱线阵器件和凝视成像技术，使卫星在取得高几何分辨率的同时还有多光谱成像能力。
其先进的红外相机可提供优秀的夜间侦察能力。
（2）采用镜面曲率计算机控制技术，因而当卫星在高轨道普查或在低轨道详查时，能快速改变镜头焦距，在低轨道有优越的分辨率，而在高轨道则可获得宽的幅宽。
（3）机动能力强，可满足现代战争的需要。
（4）可进行电子侦察。
“锁眼”12可把高清晰度图片传至五角大楼的美国侦察办公室，由电脑进行处理后可用来识别物体运动，且能清楚地显示地面上行驶汽车的车牌号码。
瞬时观测幅度：40km~50km地面重复周期：2天（一对）轨道：太阳同步轨道IMPROVED CRYSTAL-KH12The IMPROVED CRYSTAL can be imagined as a Hubble Space Telescope, with a large rocket engine attached to provide maneuverability. Like the Space Telescope, the IMPROVED CRYSTAL is about 4.5 meters (15 feet) in diameter, and with addition of its maneuvering module, is over 15 meters (50 feet) long (compared to the 13 meter Space Telescope). Contractors on the IMPROVED CRYSTAL include TRW and Lockheed. The dry weight (minus fuel) of the IMPROVED CRYSTAL is about 10 metric tons, about the same as the total weight, including fuel, of the KH-11. The total weight of the IMPROVED CRYSTAL has grown significantly, from the original 14 tons, to the current 18 tons. The additional fuel-carrying capacity accounts for most of the increase, and the IMPROVED CRYSTAL now can carry up to 7 tons of fuel. The primary difference between the 28,000 pound KH-11 and the heavier KH-12 is that the additional amount of maneuvering propellant carried on the IMPROVED CRYSTAL. This additional propellant can be used to prolong the operating life of the IMPROVED CRYSTAL, to maneuver to improve coverage of areas on the Earth of particular interest, and to maneuver to evade Soviet anti-satellite interceptors. Although the KH-12 was originally designed to be place into orbit (and perhaps serviced and refueled in orbit) by the Shuttle, the Titan 4 is now the primary launch vehicle for the IMPROVED CRYSTAL.The optical sensors on the IMPROVED CRYSTAL are similar to the those of theKH-11. These electronic cameras provide real-time transmission of images to ground stations via Milstar relay satellites. The IMPROVED CRYSTAL sensors operate in visible and near infrared light, as well as thermal infrared to detect heat sources. These sensors probably incorporate low-light-level image intensifiers to provide night-time images. The KH-12's have an infrared capability superior to that of the IMPROVED CRYSTAL, with the advantage in infrared primarily for camouflage detection, for looking at buried structures, for looking at differential thermal inertia in the target area, for trying to determine which factories are operating and which factories are not.The IMPROVED CRYSTAL's sophisticated electronics provides sharper images than the KH-11, comparable in quality to the best of the film return satellites, with a resolution approaching ten centimeters. A periscope-like rotating mirror reflects images onto the primary mirror, enabling the KH-12 to take pictures at very high angles of obliquity, imaging objects hundreds of kilometers away from its flight path.Assembling the International Space Station [ISS] requires cooperation among the United States and its four international partners during 44 Space Shuttle flights commencing in late 1998. A Russian Service Module is required to support the ISS's initial assembly process and on-orbit development. Continued delays in Russian funding of the RSM, required for the third assembly phase of the ISS, raised considerable concern throughout the ISS community. NASA funded feasibility studies to provide alternate solutions and these studies identified a relatively low-cost and low-risk approach for an Interim Control Module (ICM), referred to as the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) Bus. This concept offers a flight-proven design, initially developed as the Bus for the IMPROVED CRYSTAL, capable of delivery within the timeframe needed to maintain ISS schedules. The ICM will provide reboost and attitude control for the ISS from assembly phase 2A-7A, and possibly 8A. The ICM is deployed from the Space Shuttle and mated with the ISS at the Russian Node (called the FGB). The ICM provides at least one year of propellant operation with a goal of three years of operation.KH-12 /1 was launched on 28 November 1992 by a Titan-4 from Vandenberg.KH-12 /2 was launched on 05 December 1995 by a Titan-4 from Vandenberg.KH-12 /3 was launched on 20 December 1996 by a Titan-4 from Vandenberg.The spacecraft's mirror is believed to be as large as or larger than that of the KH-11, believed to have a 2.3 meter diameter. It may be as large as 4 meters. As a point of comparison, the HST's mirror is 2.4 m in size. Jane's Defence Weekly indicates that the secondary mirror in theCassegrain reflecting telescope A reflecting telescope reflector is an optical telescope which uses mirrors, rather than lenses, to reflect light. The British scientist Sir Isaac Newton designed the first reflector circa 1670. He designed the reflector in order to solve the problem of c system can be moved significantly, allowing images to be taken from angles unusual for a satellite. Also, there are indications that the satellite can take images every 5 second This article is about the unit of time. See second (disambiguation) for other uses The second (symbol s is a unit for time, and one of seven SI base units. It is defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transis. Sources vary on how the KH-12 communicates with ground stations. Several different clusters of relay satellites are available, so the birds may use the Satellite Data System The Satellite Data System SDS is a system of United States military communications satellites. At least two generations have been used: SDS-1 from July 1976 to November 1995, and SDS-2 from 1989 to the present. SDS satellites have a highly elliptical orbi (SDS), MILSTAR , or Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) networks.KH-11：Then, in 1977, the fifth generation dawned with the launch of the KH-11. This was a major breakthrough, as canisters were no longer needed and resolution was such that objects 70mm (a few inches) in size could be identified from 200 kilometers up via digital photos. The KH-11 telescopic cameras operated like a high resolution TV camera. Images were captured continuously and transmitted to earth stations. Computers were used to finish the process and produce photos identical to those taken by a conventional film camera. You could even have motion pictures, as well as indications of heat and the nature of the various items. KH-11 could often tell what kind of metal an object on the ground was made of. This did not come cheap, these birds cost over $400 million each and lasted three or four years, depending on fuel usage. Moreover, you needed two of them up at the same time in order to guarantee coverage and save the birds from having to change orbit too frequently.The most recent KH-11, the 15th, was launched in 2011. There have been at least four models of the KH-11, since the first of five "Block 1s" was launched in 1976. Name KH-11Block [35] Launch date ID NROL numberOrbit Plan e [35] Orbital decay date OPS 5705 1-1 19 December 1976 1976-125A [36]N/A 247 km × 533 km, i=96.9° West 28 January 1979 OPS 4515 1–2 14 June 1978 1978-060A [37]276 km × 509 km, i=96.8° West 23 August 1981 OPS 2581 1–3 7 February 1980 1980-010A [38]309 km × 501 km, i=97.1° East 30 October 1982 OPS 3984 1–4 3 September 1981 1981-085A [39]244 km × 526 km, i=96.9° West 23 November 1984 OPS 9627 1–5 17 November 1982 1982-111A [40]280 km × 522 km, i=96.9° East 13 August 1985 USA-6 2-1 4 December 1984 1984-122A [41] 335 km × 758 km, i=98°[26] West 10 November 1994 Unknown 2-2 28 August 1985 N/AFailed to orbit East N/A USA-27 2–3 26 October 1987 1987-090A [42] 300 km × 1000 km, i=98°[26] East 11 June 1992 USA-33 2–4 6 November 1988 1988-099A [43] 300 km × 1000 km, i=98°[26] West 12 May 1996 USA-86 3-1 28 November 1992 1992-083A [44] 408 km × 931 km, i=97.7°[45] East 5 June 2000 USA-116 3-2 5 December 1995 1995-066A [46] 405 km × 834 km, i=97.7°[47] East 19 November 2008 USA-129 3-3 20 December 1996 1996-072A [48] NROL-2 292 km × 894 km, i=97.7°[49] West USA-161 4-1 5 October 2001 2001-044A [50] NROL-14 309 km × 965 km, i=97.9°[51] East USA-186 3–4 19 October 2005 2005-042A [52] NROL-20 256 km × 1006 km, i=97.9°[53] West USA-224 4-2 20 January 2011 2011-002A [54]NROL-49 290 km × 985 km, Easti=97.9°[55]The KH-11 KENNAN (KENNEN according to other sources[1][2][3]), renamed CRYSTAL in 1982[4]and also referenced by the codenames 1010,[5] and "Key Hole"[5]), is a type of reconnaissance satellite launched by the American National Reconnaissance Office since December 1976. Manufactured by Lockheed in Sunnyvale, California, the KH-11 was the first American spy satellite to utilize electro-optical digital imaging, and create a real-time optical observation capability.[6]Later KH-11 satellites have been referred to by outside observers as KH-11B or KH-12, and by the names "Advanced KENNAN", "Improved Crystal" and "Ikon". The Key Hole series was officially discontinued in favour of a random numbering scheme after repeated public references to KH-8 Gambit, KH-9 Hexagon, and KH-11 satellites.[7] KH-11 satellites are believed to have been the source of some imagery of the Soviet Union and China made public in 1997, as well as images of Sudan and Afghanistan made public in 1998 that were related to the response to the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings.Program history and logisticsThe Film Read-Out GAMBIT (FROG) served as NRO Program A's competitor to NRO Program B's initial electro-optical imagery (EOI) satellite.[8]Data is transmitted through a network of communications satellites; the Satellite Data System.[4] The initial ground station for the processing of the electro-optical imaging was a secret National Reconnaissance Office facility in Area 58, located in the continental United States according to the NRO,[9]and more precisely in Fort Belvoir according to other sources.[10]In 1999, NRO selected Boeing as the prime contractor for the Future Imagery Architecture (FIA) program, aimed at replacing the KH-11 satellites by a more cost effective constellation of smaller, and also more capable reconnaissance satellites. After the failure of the FIA in 2005, NRO ordered from Lockheed two additional legacy hardware KH-11s.[11]USA-224, the first of these two, was launched in early 2011 two years ahead of the initial schedule estimate.[12]In January 2011 NRO offered NASA two space optical systems with 2.4 m diameter primary mirrors, similar to the Hubble Space Telescope, yet with steerable secondary mirrors and shorter focal length resulting a wider field of view. These could either be spare hardware from the KH-11 program, or optics from the cancelled FIA program.[13][14]The satellites were reportedly stored in a clean room facility at ITT Exelis in Rochester, NY.[15][16]DesignIt is believed to resemble the Hubble Space Telescope in size and shape, as the satellites were shipped in similar containers. Furthermore, a NASA history of the Hubble,[17]in discussing the reasons for switching from a 3-meter main mirror to a 2.4-meter design, states: "In addition, changing to a 2.4-meter mirror would lessen fabrication costs by using manufacturing technologies developed for military spy satellites." A CIA history states that the primary mirror on the first KH-11s measured 2.34 meters, but sizes increased in later versions.[4]NRO led the development of a computer controlled mirror polishing technique, which was subsequently also used for the polishing of the primary mirror of the Hubble Space Telescope.[18]Assuming a 2.4-meter mirror, the theoretical ground resolution with no atmospheric degradation and 50% MTF would be roughly 15 cm (6 inches). Operational resolution would be worse due to effects of the atmosphere. Different versions of the KH-11 vary in mass, with earlier blocks ranging from 13,000 to 13,500 kilograms, whilst later blocks have a mass of around 19,600 kg. Its length is believed to be 19.5 meters, and diameter is 3 meters or less.[4][19]The two optical telescope assemblies (OTAs only, not full satellites) offered to NASA from the NRO in January 2011 are suspected, but not confirmed, to be KH-11 series "extra hardware." The OTA's are of a three-mirror anastigmat(TMA) optical design (sans the 3rd "tertiary" mirror). The f/1.2 primary has a diameter of 2.4 m, and is refocused by the secondary to give an overall f/8 focal ratio, making the optical telescope assembly shorter than that of HST. With the addition of the tertiary mirror, this will produce a much wider field than Hubble's 2-mirror f/24 Ritchey–Chrétien optical design, making it an potential ideal observatory for Dark Energy or other astrophysics surveys. The secondary mirror is mounted on a hexapod to increase the side-viewing and ground scanning ability for the originally intended reconnaissance mission.[15][16][20]KH-11 was the first reconnaissance satellite equipped with charge-coupled device (CCD) array technology for imaging which had a resolution of 800 x 800 pixels.[21] Later block satellites may include signals intelligence capabilities and greater sensitivity in broader light spectrums (probably into infrared).[22]Later satellites had larger mirrors, with a diameter of around 2.9–3.1 m.[23] Jane's Defence Weekly indicates that the secondary mirror in the Cassegrain reflecting telescope system could be moved, allowing images to be taken from angles unusual for a satellite. Also, there are indications that the satellite can take images every five seconds.Four generations of U.S. electro-optical reconnaissance have been identified:[24][25]Block IBlock I refers to the original KH-11 satellite, of which five were launched between 19 December 1976 and 17 November 1982.Block IIThe three Block II satellites are in the open literature referred to as KH-11B, the alleged DRAGON codename, or Crystal, and are believed to be capable of taking infrared images in addition to optical observations.[26]The first or second Block II satellite was lost in a launch failure.[25]Block IIIFour Block III satellites, commonly called KH-12 or Improved Crystal were launched between November 1992 and October 2001. The name "Improved Crystal" refers to the "Improved Metric CRYSTAL System" (IMCS), which adds reference markings for accurate mapping to images obtained by the satellite.[27]Block IVTwo electro-optical satellites launched in October 2005 and January 2011 are attributed to Block IV.DerivativesThe Misty satellite is believed to have been derived from the KH-11, but modified to make it invisible to radar, and hard to detect visually. The first Misty satellite, USA-53, was released by the Space Shuttle Atlantis on mission STS-36. The USA-144 satellite, launched on 22 May 1999 by a Titan IV B from Vandenberg Air Force Base may have been a second Misty satellite,[28]or an Enhanced Imaging System spacecraft. The satellites are sometimes identified as KH-12s.CompromiseKH-11 image of the construction of a Kiev-class aircraft carrier, as published by Jane's in 1984.In 1978, a young CIA employee named William Kampiles was accused of selling a KH-11 System Technical Manual describing design and operation to the Soviets. Kampiles was convicted of espionage and initially sentenced to 40 years in prison.[29] Later, this term was reduced, and after serving 18 years, Kampiles was released in 1996.[30][31]In 1984 Samuel Loring Morison, an intelligence analyst at the Naval Intelligence Support Center, forwarded three classified images taken by KH-11 to the publication Jane's Fighting Ships. In 1985, Morison was convicted in Federal Court on two counts of espionage and two counts of theft of government property, and was sentenced to two years in prison.[32]He was pardoned by President Clinton in 2001.[33]KH-11 missionsOrbital constellation of the KH-11 satellites currently in orbit (situation August 2011)Nine KH-11 satellites were launched between 1976 and 1990 aboard Titan-3D and −34D rockets, with one launch failure. For the following five satellite launches between 1992 and 2005, a Titan IV launch vehicle was used. The most recent launch in 2011 was carried out by a Delta IV Heavy rocket. The KH-11 replaced the KH-9 film return satellite, among others, the last of which was lost in a liftoff explosion in 1986.KH-11 satellites are in either of two standard planes in Sun-synchronous orbits. As shadows help to discern ground features, satellites in a standard plane east of a noon/midnight orbit observe the ground at local afternoon hours, while satellites in a western plane observe the ground at local morning hours.[34][35] Historically launches have therefore been timed to occur either about two hours before or one hour after local noon (or midnight), respectively.[25]Dynamical Test Unit of KH-11 (unconfirmed) Three Mirror AssemblyKH-12 最终没有发射美国空间成像公司的“伊科诺斯”卫星和法国“斯波特”卫星图像的利用率。
KH-12
“锁眼”12（1）采用大型CCD多光谱线阵器件和凝视成像技术，使卫星在取得高几何分辨率的同时还有多光谱成像能力。
其先进的红外相机可提供优秀的夜间侦察能力。
（2）采用镜面曲率计算机控制技术，因而当卫星在高轨道普查或在低轨道详查时，能快速改变镜头焦距，在低轨道有优越的分辨率，而在高轨道则可获得宽的幅宽。
（3）机动能力强，可满足现代战争的需要。
（4）可进行电子侦察。
“锁眼”12可把高清晰度图片传至五角大楼的美国侦察办公室，由电脑进行处理后可用来识别物体运动，且能清楚地显示地面上行驶汽车的车牌号码。
瞬时观测幅度：40km~50km地面重复周期：2天（一对）轨道：太阳同步轨道IMPROVED CRYSTAL-KH12The IMPROVED CRYSTAL can be imagined as a Hubble Space Telescope, with a large rocket engine attached to provide maneuverability. Like the Space Telescope, the IMPROVED CRYSTAL is about 4.5 meters (15 feet) in diameter, and with addition of its maneuvering module, is over 15 meters (50 feet) long (compared to the 13 meter Space Telescope). Contractors on the IMPROVED CRYSTAL include TRW and Lockheed. The dry weight (minus fuel) of the IMPROVED CRYSTAL is about 10 metric tons, about the same as the total weight, including fuel, of the KH-11. The total weight of the IMPROVED CRYSTAL has grown significantly, from the original 14 tons, to the current 18 tons. The additional fuel-carrying capacity accounts for most of the increase, and the IMPROVED CRYSTAL now can carry up to 7 tons of fuel. The primary difference between the 28,000 pound KH-11 and the heavier KH-12 is that the additional amount of maneuvering propellant carried on the IMPROVED CRYSTAL. This additional propellant can be used to prolong the operating life of the IMPROVED CRYSTAL, to maneuver to improve coverage of areas on the Earth of particular interest, and to maneuver to evade Soviet anti-satellite interceptors. Although the KH-12 was originally designed to be place into orbit (and perhaps serviced and refueled in orbit) by the Shuttle, the Titan 4 is now the primary launch vehicle for the IMPROVED CRYSTAL.The optical sensors on the IMPROVED CRYSTAL are similar to the those of theKH-11. These electronic cameras provide real-time transmission of images to ground stations via Milstar relay satellites. The IMPROVED CRYSTAL sensors operate in visible and near infrared light, as well as thermal infrared to detect heat sources. These sensors probably incorporate low-light-level image intensifiers to provide night-time images. The KH-12's have an infrared capability superior to that of the IMPROVED CRYSTAL, with the advantage in infrared primarily for camouflage detection, for looking at buried structures, for looking at differential thermal inertia in the target area, for trying to determine which factories are operating and which factories are not.The IMPROVED CRYSTAL's sophisticated electronics provides sharper images than the KH-11, comparable in quality to the best of the film return satellites, with a resolution approaching ten centimeters. A periscope-like rotating mirror reflects images onto the primary mirror, enabling the KH-12 to take pictures at very high angles of obliquity, imaging objects hundreds of kilometers away from its flight path.Assembling the International Space Station [ISS] requires cooperation among the United States and its four international partners during 44 Space Shuttle flights commencing in late 1998. A Russian Service Module is required to support the ISS's initial assembly process and on-orbit development. Continued delays in Russian funding of the RSM, required for the third assembly phase of the ISS, raised considerable concern throughout the ISS community. NASA funded feasibility studies to provide alternate solutions and these studies identified a relatively low-cost and low-risk approach for an Interim Control Module (ICM), referred to as the Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) Bus. This concept offers a flight-proven design, initially developed as the Bus for the IMPROVED CRYSTAL, capable of delivery within the timeframe needed to maintain ISS schedules. The ICM will provide reboost and attitude control for the ISS from assembly phase 2A-7A, and possibly 8A. The ICM is deployed from the Space Shuttle and mated with the ISS at the Russian Node (called the FGB). The ICM provides at least one year of propellant operation with a goal of three years of operation.KH-12 /1 was launched on 28 November 1992 by a Titan-4 from Vandenberg.KH-12 /2 was launched on 05 December 1995 by a Titan-4 from Vandenberg.KH-12 /3 was launched on 20 December 1996 by a Titan-4 from Vandenberg.The spacecraft's mirror is believed to be as large as or larger than that of the KH-11, believed to have a 2.3 meter diameter. It may be as large as 4 meters. As a point of comparison, the HST's mirror is 2.4 m in size. Jane's Defence Weekly indicates that the secondary mirror in theCassegrain reflecting telescope A reflecting telescope reflector is an optical telescope which uses mirrors, rather than lenses, to reflect light. The British scientist Sir Isaac Newton designed the first reflector circa 1670. He designed the reflector in order to solve the problem of c system can be moved significantly, allowing images to be taken from angles unusual for a satellite. Also, there are indications that the satellite can take images every 5 second This article is about the unit of time. See second (disambiguation) for other uses The second (symbol s is a unit for time, and one of seven SI base units. It is defined as the duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transis. Sources vary on how the KH-12 communicates with ground stations. Several different clusters of relay satellites are available, so the birds may use the Satellite Data System The Satellite Data System SDS is a system of United States military communications satellites. At least two generations have been used: SDS-1 from July 1976 to November 1995, and SDS-2 from 1989 to the present. SDS satellites have a highly elliptical orbi (SDS), MILSTAR , or Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System (TDRSS) networks.KH-11：Then, in 1977, the fifth generation dawned with the launch of the KH-11. This was a major breakthrough, as canisters were no longer needed and resolution was such that objects 70mm (a few inches) in size could be identified from 200 kilometers up via digital photos. The KH-11 telescopic cameras operated like a high resolution TV camera. Images were captured continuously and transmitted to earth stations. Computers were used to finish the process and produce photos identical to those taken by a conventional film camera. You could even have motion pictures, as well as indications of heat and the nature of the various items. KH-11 could often tell what kind of metal an object on the ground was made of. This did not come cheap, these birds cost over $400 million each and lasted three or four years, depending on fuel usage. Moreover, you needed two of them up at the same time in order to guarantee coverage and save the birds from having to change orbit too frequently.The most recent KH-11, the 15th, was launched in 2011. There have been at least four models of the KH-11, since the first of five "Block 1s" was launched in 1976. Name KH-11Block [35] Launch date ID NROL numberOrbit Plan e [35] Orbital decay date OPS 5705 1-1 19 December 1976 1976-125A [36]N/A 247 km × 533 km, i=96.9° West 28 January 1979 OPS 4515 1–2 14 June 1978 1978-060A [37]276 km × 509 km, i=96.8° West 23 August 1981 OPS 2581 1–3 7 February 1980 1980-010A [38]309 km × 501 km, i=97.1° East 30 October 1982 OPS 3984 1–4 3 September 1981 1981-085A [39]244 km × 526 km, i=96.9° West 23 November 1984 OPS 9627 1–5 17 November 1982 1982-111A [40]280 km × 522 km, i=96.9° East 13 August 1985 USA-6 2-1 4 December 1984 1984-122A [41] 335 km × 758 km, i=98°[26] West 10 November 1994 Unknown 2-2 28 August 1985 N/AFailed to orbit East N/A USA-27 2–3 26 October 1987 1987-090A [42] 300 km × 1000 km, i=98°[26] East 11 June 1992 USA-33 2–4 6 November 1988 1988-099A [43] 300 km × 1000 km, i=98°[26] West 12 May 1996 USA-86 3-1 28 November 1992 1992-083A [44] 408 km × 931 km, i=97.7°[45] East 5 June 2000 USA-116 3-2 5 December 1995 1995-066A [46] 405 km × 834 km, i=97.7°[47] East 19 November 2008 USA-129 3-3 20 December 1996 1996-072A [48] NROL-2 292 km × 894 km, i=97.7°[49] West USA-161 4-1 5 October 2001 2001-044A [50] NROL-14 309 km × 965 km, i=97.9°[51] East USA-186 3–4 19 October 2005 2005-042A [52] NROL-20 256 km × 1006 km, i=97.9°[53] West USA-224 4-2 20 January 2011 2011-002A [54]NROL-49 290 km × 985 km, Easti=97.9°[55]The KH-11 KENNAN (KENNEN according to other sources[1][2][3]), renamed CRYSTAL in 1982[4]and also referenced by the codenames 1010,[5] and "Key Hole"[5]), is a type of reconnaissance satellite launched by the American National Reconnaissance Office since December 1976. Manufactured by Lockheed in Sunnyvale, California, the KH-11 was the first American spy satellite to utilize electro-optical digital imaging, and create a real-time optical observation capability.[6]Later KH-11 satellites have been referred to by outside observers as KH-11B or KH-12, and by the names "Advanced KENNAN", "Improved Crystal" and "Ikon". The Key Hole series was officially discontinued in favour of a random numbering scheme after repeated public references to KH-8 Gambit, KH-9 Hexagon, and KH-11 satellites.[7] KH-11 satellites are believed to have been the source of some imagery of the Soviet Union and China made public in 1997, as well as images of Sudan and Afghanistan made public in 1998 that were related to the response to the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings.Program history and logisticsThe Film Read-Out GAMBIT (FROG) served as NRO Program A's competitor to NRO Program B's initial electro-optical imagery (EOI) satellite.[8]Data is transmitted through a network of communications satellites; the Satellite Data System.[4] The initial ground station for the processing of the electro-optical imaging was a secret National Reconnaissance Office facility in Area 58, located in the continental United States according to the NRO,[9]and more precisely in Fort Belvoir according to other sources.[10]In 1999, NRO selected Boeing as the prime contractor for the Future Imagery Architecture (FIA) program, aimed at replacing the KH-11 satellites by a more cost effective constellation of smaller, and also more capable reconnaissance satellites. After the failure of the FIA in 2005, NRO ordered from Lockheed two additional legacy hardware KH-11s.[11]USA-224, the first of these two, was launched in early 2011 two years ahead of the initial schedule estimate.[12]In January 2011 NRO offered NASA two space optical systems with 2.4 m diameter primary mirrors, similar to the Hubble Space Telescope, yet with steerable secondary mirrors and shorter focal length resulting a wider field of view. These could either be spare hardware from the KH-11 program, or optics from the cancelled FIA program.[13][14]The satellites were reportedly stored in a clean room facility at ITT Exelis in Rochester, NY.[15][16]DesignIt is believed to resemble the Hubble Space Telescope in size and shape, as the satellites were shipped in similar containers. Furthermore, a NASA history of the Hubble,[17]in discussing the reasons for switching from a 3-meter main mirror to a 2.4-meter design, states: "In addition, changing to a 2.4-meter mirror would lessen fabrication costs by using manufacturing technologies developed for military spy satellites." A CIA history states that the primary mirror on the first KH-11s measured 2.34 meters, but sizes increased in later versions.[4]NRO led the development of a computer controlled mirror polishing technique, which was subsequently also used for the polishing of the primary mirror of the Hubble Space Telescope.[18]Assuming a 2.4-meter mirror, the theoretical ground resolution with no atmospheric degradation and 50% MTF would be roughly 15 cm (6 inches). Operational resolution would be worse due to effects of the atmosphere. Different versions of the KH-11 vary in mass, with earlier blocks ranging from 13,000 to 13,500 kilograms, whilst later blocks have a mass of around 19,600 kg. Its length is believed to be 19.5 meters, and diameter is 3 meters or less.[4][19]The two optical telescope assemblies (OTAs only, not full satellites) offered to NASA from the NRO in January 2011 are suspected, but not confirmed, to be KH-11 series "extra hardware." The OTA's are of a three-mirror anastigmat(TMA) optical design (sans the 3rd "tertiary" mirror). The f/1.2 primary has a diameter of 2.4 m, and is refocused by the secondary to give an overall f/8 focal ratio, making the optical telescope assembly shorter than that of HST. With the addition of the tertiary mirror, this will produce a much wider field than Hubble's 2-mirror f/24 Ritchey–Chrétien optical design, making it an potential ideal observatory for Dark Energy or other astrophysics surveys. The secondary mirror is mounted on a hexapod to increase the side-viewing and ground scanning ability for the originally intended reconnaissance mission.[15][16][20]KH-11 was the first reconnaissance satellite equipped with charge-coupled device (CCD) array technology for imaging which had a resolution of 800 x 800 pixels.[21] Later block satellites may include signals intelligence capabilities and greater sensitivity in broader light spectrums (probably into infrared).[22]Later satellites had larger mirrors, with a diameter of around 2.9–3.1 m.[23] Jane's Defence Weekly indicates that the secondary mirror in the Cassegrain reflecting telescope system could be moved, allowing images to be taken from angles unusual for a satellite. Also, there are indications that the satellite can take images every five seconds.Four generations of U.S. electro-optical reconnaissance have been identified:[24][25]Block IBlock I refers to the original KH-11 satellite, of which five were launched between 19 December 1976 and 17 November 1982.Block IIThe three Block II satellites are in the open literature referred to as KH-11B, the alleged DRAGON codename, or Crystal, and are believed to be capable of taking infrared images in addition to optical observations.[26]The first or second Block II satellite was lost in a launch failure.[25]Block IIIFour Block III satellites, commonly called KH-12 or Improved Crystal were launched between November 1992 and October 2001. The name "Improved Crystal" refers to the "Improved Metric CRYSTAL System" (IMCS), which adds reference markings for accurate mapping to images obtained by the satellite.[27]Block IVTwo electro-optical satellites launched in October 2005 and January 2011 are attributed to Block IV.DerivativesThe Misty satellite is believed to have been derived from the KH-11, but modified to make it invisible to radar, and hard to detect visually. The first Misty satellite, USA-53, was released by the Space Shuttle Atlantis on mission STS-36. The USA-144 satellite, launched on 22 May 1999 by a Titan IV B from Vandenberg Air Force Base may have been a second Misty satellite,[28]or an Enhanced Imaging System spacecraft. The satellites are sometimes identified as KH-12s.CompromiseKH-11 image of the construction of a Kiev-class aircraft carrier, as published by Jane's in 1984.In 1978, a young CIA employee named William Kampiles was accused of selling a KH-11 System Technical Manual describing design and operation to the Soviets. Kampiles was convicted of espionage and initially sentenced to 40 years in prison.[29] Later, this term was reduced, and after serving 18 years, Kampiles was released in 1996.[30][31]In 1984 Samuel Loring Morison, an intelligence analyst at the Naval Intelligence Support Center, forwarded three classified images taken by KH-11 to the publication Jane's Fighting Ships. In 1985, Morison was convicted in Federal Court on two counts of espionage and two counts of theft of government property, and was sentenced to two years in prison.[32]He was pardoned by President Clinton in 2001.[33]KH-11 missionsOrbital constellation of the KH-11 satellites currently in orbit (situation August 2011)Nine KH-11 satellites were launched between 1976 and 1990 aboard Titan-3D and −34D rockets, with one launch failure. For the following five satellite launches between 1992 and 2005, a Titan IV launch vehicle was used. The most recent launch in 2011 was carried out by a Delta IV Heavy rocket. The KH-11 replaced the KH-9 film return satellite, among others, the last of which was lost in a liftoff explosion in 1986.KH-11 satellites are in either of two standard planes in Sun-synchronous orbits. As shadows help to discern ground features, satellites in a standard plane east of a noon/midnight orbit observe the ground at local afternoon hours, while satellites in a western plane observe the ground at local morning hours.[34][35] Historically launches have therefore been timed to occur either about two hours before or one hour after local noon (or midnight), respectively.[25]Dynamical Test Unit of KH-11 (unconfirmed) Three Mirror AssemblyKH-12 最终没有发射美国空间成像公司的“伊科诺斯”卫星和法国“斯波特”卫星图像的利用率。
军事卫星
空中间谍——军事卫星放眼近20年来的世界范围内的几场局部战争，我们不难发现原本陆海空三军一体的作战样式已逐步被包括有“天军”的陆海空天四种军种协同作战打破！而“天军”的代表便是被誉为“空中间谍”的军事卫星。
自从一九六零年美国成功发射了世界第一颗照相侦察卫星以来，五十年的发展使得军事卫星技术渐进成熟。
照相侦察卫星也在现代战争中的地位日趋明显，随之而来的是越来越多的国家开始热衷于发展这项顶尖技术武器。
继美苏中以发之后，日本和印度为了在政治上、军事上等许多方面争取更大的主动权也开始染指这一领域。
无疑新一轮的“天军”军事竞赛已经上演！“天军”已逐步成为最能展示一个国家国防实力以及高精尖武器的代表。
首先，我将介绍的是“太空神探”照相侦察卫星。
它是利用所携带的光学遥感器和微波遥感器拍摄地面一定范围内的物体来产生高分辨率图像的卫星。
主要用于战略情报收集、战术侦察、军备控制核查和打击效果评估等，例如，获取军事设施，机场、港口、导弹基地以及交通枢纽、工业布局等信息。
更甚者被用为侦查绝密任务行踪以实施斩首行动的排头兵。
现役的照相侦查卫星其轨道高度一般为几千米。
在特殊需要时还可调整轨道高度。
它是把目标区的图像信息记录在胶片或磁记录器上，早期通过返回式卫星送回地面站，后来随着技术的进一步革新便用无线电加密传输方式实时或延时传回地面。
信息经过加工处理后，就能判读和识别出目标的内容细节并确定其地理位置。
所以，按获取图像的方式分类，照相侦察卫星可分为回收型和传输型两种。
与一般的民用对地观测卫星相比，照相侦察卫星最主要的特点是地面分辨率高，至少优于五米，目前最高分辨率可达0.05米。
据说中国以成熟掌握该项技术，并发射数颗该类卫星，并取得良好的效果。
根据星载遥感器的不同，目前的照相侦察卫星又可分为光学照相侦察卫星和雷达照相侦察卫星两类，它们各有千秋，用途不一。
目前，全世界有四个国家发射了照相侦察卫星，其中以美国的照相侦察卫星品种最为齐全，技术最为先进，它包括了返回型和传输型，普查型和详查型，光学型和雷达型。
美军在伊拉克战争中的使用主要卫星简介
∙∙美军在伊拉克战争中的使用主要卫星简介一、侦察卫星侦察卫星通过可见光、红外和合成孔径雷达等手段对地面进行照相侦察，可提供伊拉克国家领导人驻留地点、重点军事设施布防情况和大规模杀伤性武器及生化武器的部署情况，监视战区军事态势的发展。
电子侦察卫星主要用于截获伊方雷达、通信、遥测等系统的传输信号，从而探明伊方重要领导人物和指挥控制中心的位置，辨识伊方军用电子系统的性质、位置和活动情况，并通过对所得情报的分析进一步揭示伊方军队的调动、部署乃至战略意图。
在对伊战争中，侦察监视卫星提供的情报对于了解战场情况、确定打击目标、提高打击精确性和准确评估打击效果起着重要的作用。
1. 成像侦察卫星(1) KH-12侦察卫星KH-12卫星是1990午2月28日开始发射的，至今已经发射了4颗。
它能以与“哈勃”空间望远镜一样的方式成像，即其光学系统的相机采用了当今尖端的自适应光学成像技术制成，可在计算机控制下随视场环境灵活地改变主透镜表面曲率，从而有效地补偿因大气造成的畸变影响，使分辨率达到0.1m。
卫星上的红外相机可发现地面伪装物、飞机发动机和大烟囱等有热源的目标。
卫星上的高级“水晶”测量系统(ICMS)可使数据以网格标记传输。
卫星还装有雷达高度计和其他用于测量地形高度的传感器。
3颗KH-12卫星运行在270~1000km的轨道上。
KH-12燃料用完后可由航天飞机进行在轨加注，因而该星的机动变轨能力极强，具有无限制的轨道机动能力。
KH-12卫星的设计寿命为8年。
KH-12卫星的光学系统在KH-11的基础上，增加了热红外谱段，能探测伪装和埋置结构目标，对地下核爆炸或其他地下设施进行监测，探知导弹和航天器的发射，分辨出目标区内哪些工厂开工，哪些工厂关闭等。
由于使用了更先进的技术，所以KH-12的分辨率达0.1m。
星上装有一台潜望镜式的旋转透镜，能把图像反射到主镜上，因而卫星在大倾角的条件下也能成像。
它还采取了防核效应加固手段和防激光武器攻击的保护措施，并增装了防碰撞探测器。
DK UK15-A+和KH12系列音箱
DK UK15-A+和KH12系列音箱
佚名
【期刊名称】《电声技术》
【年(卷),期】2009(033)002
【摘要】UK15-A＋系列音箱 UK15-A＋系列音箱适用于各种固定安装的高档洒吧及各类豪华KTV包房.采用世界高档扬声器单元和轻巧的进口桦木箱体搭配．通过计算机lsdof优化设计，具有精确的分频及展宽的频响特点和良好的控制覆盖性能.可旋转的压缩式号筒使其实现垂直和平衡安装，平滑的频率响府和精确的分频确保极好的音质效果。
【总页数】1页(P90)
【正文语种】中文
【中图分类】TN912.26
【相关文献】
1.DK UK10-A系列音箱 [J], 帝肯音响实业有限公司/DK
2.VKH系列大功率短程音箱和DK数字音效处理器 [J],
3.DK音响(DK品牌)户外音箱VX系列 [J],
4.DK推出KH系列和RX系列音箱 [J],
5.DK Audio HT同轴系列音箱 [J],
因版权原因，仅展示原文概要，查看原文内容请购买。
如何对付卫星侦察
如何对付卫星侦察？美国KH-12"锁眼"4光学侦察卫星，有"极限轨道平台"之称，是当今分辨力最高的光学侦察卫星，但在伪装和干扰的双重保护下"锁眼"那一端还能洞悉一切么？提问：Google Earth于2006年6月9日进行了一次重大的更新，卫星照片数量一下扩大了四倍，也由此引发了围绕卫星侦察和反侦察的讨论。
今天就从伪装和干扰两个角度谈谈。
卫星侦察分成像侦察和电子侦察。
成像侦察卫星主要在几百公里的低轨道，而像美国"大酒瓶"电子侦察卫星及俄罗斯第五代电子侦察卫星等却都运行在36000公里的地球同步轨道，是什么原因？在此高度它所接收的信号强度仅是低轨道的1／5100。
回答：轨道越高生存力越强，成像侦察卫星选择低轨道是无奈之举。
广泛采用CCD电耦合器件的光学成像卫星其实就是一超长焦的数码相机，轨道越高拍出来相片越不清楚，另一方面得花大价钱研制更好的镜头。
电子侦察卫星则不同，它收集的是电磁信号，由于某些辐射信号有突发性的特点，所以最好能保证24小时不间断监控。
高轨道"站得高，看得远"，具有这一优势。
另外像"大酒瓶"采用了直径数十米的大口径碟型天线，侦查范围很广，对微弱信号也相当敏感，美国多次用它收集我军的弹道导弹测控信号。
提问：但美国"雪貂-D"电子侦察卫星是在极轨道运行的，什么原因？回答：地球同步轨道位于赤道上空，对诸如俄摩尔曼茨克军港之类的高纬度目标侦察效果很差，所以美国才部署了这种通过两极的极轨卫星，但需要多星组网才能保证全天时侦察。
更早的时候美国还部署过诸如"折叠椅"的大椭圆轨道卫星，轨道高度大致在1 000～30 000公里之间，但现在地球同步轨道是发展趋势，"折叠椅"也逐步被淘汰。
提问：反电子侦察卫星主要靠干扰，具体讲如何进行？回答：原理是投其所好。
验厂程序文件
A/0
37 QMS-KH-37 工程变更管理控制程序
A/0
39 QMS-KH-39 产前会议控制程序
A/0
40 QMS-KH-40 搬运,存储,防护和客户财产控制程序
A/0
41 QMS-KH-41 产品安全管理控制程序
A/0
42 QMS-KH-42 顾客品牌保护管理控制程序
A/0
19 QMS-KH-19 法律法规控制程序
A/0
20 QMS-KH-20 产品标识和可追溯性标识控制程序
A/0
21 QMS-KH-21 仓库管理控制程序
A/0
22 QMS-KH-22 紧急采购控制程序
A/0
23 QMS-KH-23 先进先出作业控制程序
A/0
24 QMS-KH-24 产品召回程序
a) 管理性文件：包括质量手册、程序文件和与质量管理体系及产品质量有关的各种管理制度、外来文件，以 及适用的国家政策、法律法规等。
b) 技术性文件：包括产品标准、工艺规定、操作规程、检验规范、技术图纸、外来技术文件等。 c) 质量文件：可以是针对特定产品、项目、过程或合同编制的质量计划、规范等，包括各种与质量活动有关 的记录。 4.1.2 文件的编号： a）文件编号规则： 质量手册/程序文件 QM/QMS-KH-××
A/0
31 QMS-KH-31 质量策划控制程序
A/0
32 QMS-KH-32 设计和开发控制程序
A/0
33 QMS-KH-33 产品认证一致性控制程序
A/0
34 QMS-KH-34 产品风险评估及风险控制程序
A/0
3
35 QMS-KH-35 化学品和有害物质管理控制程序
A/0
油压机自动压装卡簧工装
共28张 第 8 张 版本
替代
185
60
R65
140 50
166
70
100 200
280
25 95
4 x M5 - 6H 10 4.20 12.40
166
零件代号
25
借(通)用件登记 旧底图总号 底图总号 技术要求： 未注倒角为C10
110 10
A-A
110
20
18
Q235A 阶段标记 质量 19.554 比例 1:6 更改文件号 签名 标准化 工艺 审核 批准 共28张 第 9 张 版本 替代 年月日
102 98 15°
Q235A 阶段标记 质量 3.616 比例 1:3
分区
更改文件号 签名 标准化 工艺 审核 批准
年月日
14料筒 KH-14
共 28 张 第 12 张 版本
替代
2- 5.50
3.2
-0.065 20 d9 -0.117 +0.50 16 +0.20
替代
8
10
18
2- 8 42 45
1
KH-00
2
3
4
A
A
250 78
250
200
16 90.05
36 35 34 “图样代号” 00上T形板 “图样代号” 00下T形板 F4球面销 F1-1-982-011-1024-4端头 Rolling bearings 6200 GB 276-94 Rolling bearings 6201 GB 276-94 垫片 8-A140 螺母 M8 弹性档圈80 KH-36 KH-35 KH-34 KH-33 KH-32 KH-31 KH-24 KH-23 KH-22 KH-21 KH-20 KH-19 KH-18 KH-17 KH-16 KH-15 KH-14 KH-13 KH-12 KH-11 KH-07 KH-06 KH-05 KH-04 KH-03 KH-02 KH-01 零件编号 36盖板 35挡料杆 34双轮轴 33压紧轮轴 32限位板 31推板 24轴承压盘 23拉杆 22冲头 21上压板 20导套 19撑块 18滑槽轮轴 17弹簧螺栓 16卡簧挡板 15导向块 14料筒 13料筒支架 12收缩套 11卡簧托板 07滑槽板 06V形定位块 05下导柱 04止退板 03下压板 02下定位座 01下安装板 零件名称 1 1 1 1 5 1 1 1 3 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 Q235A 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 45 Q235A 45 45 45 45 Q235A 45 Q235A Q235A 45 Q235A 45 Q235A 45 Q235A Q235A 45 Q235 54.986 备注 0.038 0.025 0.712 0.138 3.616 1.530 1.970 19.554 6.742 C 0.014 0.038 0.017 0.556 3.387 0.008 0.330 4.541 10.101 38.76 普通碳钢 普通碳钢 21.614 142.040 0 0 0 0 0 38.76 0 B 标准件
锁眼
性能特点:
[ 转自铁血社区 / ]
①可进行轨道机动，对重要目标详查时可降低高度。
②兼有普查和详查功能，遥感设备先进，分辨率高。
③可由航天飞机在轨道在补充燃料，工作寿命长。
基本数据:
发射载体 哥伦比亚号航天飞机或大力神－4火箭
工作寿命 不少于 6 年
一、概述
从第2次海湾战争开始前到现在，美国一直利用各种侦察卫星、飞机等侦察、监视伊拉克总统萨达姆行踪、部队的调动和导弹的发射等，其中电子侦察卫星负责监听伊拉克军事基地、萨达姆车队、总统官邸以及其他地区电话和无线电通话内容，电子侦察机则负责记录伊拉克高层官员的谈话内容，并将通话的具体位置确定在一英里范围内。例如，用今年1月发射的XSS-10小型卫星监听伊电话并传往设在英格兰门威斯希尔的接收站，如果电话数据加密，则通过其他卫星传往马里兰州米德堡的美国家安全局进行破译。能监听大多数蜂窝电话的“军号”卫星把收集到的信息数据传往科罗拉多州奥罗拉巴克利空军基地和米德堡进行破译。传输数据和破译大约需要10分钟。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
KH-12――极限摄像平台
2001年10月5日，美国当地时间下午5时21分，美国国家侦察局在加利福尼亚州的范登堡空军基地，用“大力神4B”火箭发射了一颗高度机密的间谍卫星。
据有关专家分析，这是一颗高级KH-11（又称KH-12）侦察卫星，可用于
直接支援美国正在进行的反恐怖战争。
KH-12是美国现役的光学成像侦察卫星。
该型卫星从1990年开始投入使用，在此之前已发射4颗这类卫星，其中分别于1995年12月和1996年12月发射的第三颗和第四颗KH-12卫星仍在轨运行，是美国目前空间照相侦察的主力。
KH-12卫星运行在数百千米高的太阳同步轨道上，性能十分先进。
它既可以进行大范围的普查，又可以对小范围进行详查；既能在白天进行可见光照相，又能在夜晚进行红外照相。
星载光学系统的相机镜头采用当今最尖端的自适应光学成像技术，可在计算机控制下改变主透镜表面曲率，能有效补偿大气层造成的影像畸变，卫星详查时地面分辨率可达0.1米，这是世界上空间照相侦察迄今所能达到的最高水平，KH-12卫星也因此有“极限摄像平台”之称。
星上的红外照相能力可使卫星发现地面伪装物、飞机发动机和烟火等热
源，能在光线不足或完全黑暗的条件下拍摄地面目标。
卫星上还装有电子侦察设备，在进行照相侦察的同时，还可进行电子侦察。
KH-12卫星具有极强的机动变轨能力，可在需要时迅速降低
轨道，对热点或可疑地区进行仔细侦察。
在变轨燃料用完后，可以由航天飞机在轨加以补充。
卫星获取的数字图像数据经由美军的数据中继卫星传回地面站，可近实时地获取侦察图像。
KH-12卫星重达15吨，价值10多亿美元，设计寿命长达8年。
10月5日发射的这颗KH-12卫星正值美军即将发动反恐怖战争的前夕发射升空，因此有人称它为“反恐怖卫星”。
其实，早在美国遭受恐怖袭击之前，美国国家侦察局就已计划在10月初发射这颗侦察卫星。
现在，美军发动的反恐怖战争已经打响。
毫无疑问，这颗KH-12卫星将以其卓越的性能，得天独厚的空间地理位置，居高临下地直接监视恐怖分子的一举一动，支援美军的反恐怖战争。
预计这颗KH-12卫星将与在轨的另两颗KH-12卫星、两颗“长曲棍球”雷达成像卫星、1颗“增强成像系统”卫星（又称8X卫星，它既可光学成像，又可雷达成像）以及“伊克诺斯”等商业成像卫星一起，对阿富汗进行严密的侦察监视，包括阿富汗的地形地貌、本?拉登的行踪、本?拉登和塔利班政权的军事部署等，为美军提供打击目标清
单、目标地理位置以及打击效果评估等支援。
美国商用“伊克诺斯”商业成像卫星拍摄的本?拉登在阿富汗的基地、营地和掩体，分辨率为1米，KH-12的分辨率将是它的10倍，即0.1米。