土木工程专业外文翻译--高层建筑

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建筑土木工程外文翻译外文文献英文文献能源与高层建筑

Energy and the Tall BuildThe tall building is emblematic of the modern city. Tall buildings are symbolic; they are iconic celebrations of achievement for corporations , cities and entire nations. The tall building typology has reached a scale of enormity and diversity of use .Functionally, the tall building responds to variable conditions as a result of our rapidly changing world market economy. Infrastructure must support a scalable reconfigurable workplace that facilitates expanding information and communication networks and must be designed to perform at optimum impact on the environment.Buildings today consume far more resources than nature can sustain, causing an extreme imbalance in our natural ecosystems Sustainable design in architecture balances the ebbs and flows of natural ecosystems with economic and social mechanisms , so that what a building consumes in resources is balanced with the resources’ ability to recover ,leaving ample reserve for the needs of future generations.Globally, total energy demand is set to increase by 62% by the year of 2030 as rapid economic growth continues to expand the urban boundaries of cities around the world CO2 and smog-causing emissions from fossil fuel-based energy consumptionThreaten the health of our cities and feed the intensifying environmental devastation caused by global warming .Neutralizing the harmful effects of such energy use and transitioning towards a low carbon economy appears to be a daunting task. The issue is economically sensitive and of an enormous scale that crosses international boarders .As architects can we really have a positive impact on this complex issue and help transit the world to a low carbon economy .？The building industry represents 10% of the world economy. Huge amounts of resources are consumed by the building industry: 17% of potable water, 25% of timber, and 50%of total global CO2 emissions, the most of anysector. This is where architects have a great opportunity. This is where architects have a great opportunity:Architects have a great opportunity: architects can control and reduce building energy consumption by design .The issues ranging from how we commute to work to the kind of light bulb we turn on when we arrive home from work.The Central plant and Mixed UseStandard energy delivery systems have become antiquated and grossly inefficient Conventional thermoelectric stations convert only about 30% of the fuel energy into electricity. The remaining 70% is lost into electricity. The remaining 70 % is lost in the form of waste heat. Moving energy production to a central plant within the building stars to reduce these inefficiencies. Adding tri-generation technology that provides simultaneous production of power heat and cooling from a single energy source yields additional savings .waste heat from energy production is recover and used for free domestic hot water and space heating ,or in warmer climates waste heat can be run through heat absorption chillers for supplemental cooling. Maximum reuse of waste energy depends on the building use.The typical tall building often function as a mono-use tower for either commercial or residential use. The single use typology has been driven for the most part by zoning and floor plates size requirements. Office floor plates are very deep to maximize structural efficiency while residential floor plates are shallower to allow for ample access to fresh air, daylight and views. With the new generation of super tower,We are now seeing multi-use programs with combined commercial office and residential components. The bottom third may contain offices, followed by condominiums, then topped with a hotel. While this can be a design challenge, the energy use profile of the mixed use tower yields great potential for energy sharing.Design processThe environmental impact of building is a global problem that must be addressed regionally. Unique climatic, social and economic conditions and their potential impact on a project must be carefully analyzed for unique design opportunities. For example, the arid climate of Spain is ideal for passive ventilation and cooling systems, while the pervasive humidity of Hong Kong may prove a technical challenge for such a strategy.At the design phase, the energy performance of a project must be approached intelligently and holistically. There is no single universal solution, and every project is unique. An integrated multidisciplinary approach that views the building as a system made up of interdependent architectural and engineering component yields higher performance and optimizes the management of energy and resources. In looking at the energy use profile of a typical office building, lighting, heating and cooling represent 2/3 of the total load. Targeting reductions in these categories yield the most value. However, indoor environmental quality for the occupant has a direct relationship to these loads, and occupant comfort must be not be compromised.Typical Building energy Use ProfileThe value of technology is often measured in terms of a cost benefit analysis, or payback period. As the payback extends for a specific design strategy these is less financial incentive for applying the technology. In regions where energy costs are low,Extended payback periods remain an obstacle to investing in many high performance system. However, there are several low tech/low cost strategies that can have significant impact on a building’s energy performance. Building form , orientation, and fenestration are component of every building. Proper building’ orientatio n alone can reduce a building’s cooling loads by 5%. Proper fenestration and shading can help protect a structure from unwanted heat gain caused by direct solar exposure during cold months .Well designed fenestration can also maximize daylight penetration and reduce use ofartificial lighting.能源与高层建筑高层建筑是现代城市的象征。

毕业论文外文翻译-高层建筑结构

毕业论文外文翻译-高层建筑结构High-Rise Building StructureAbstract:High-rise buildings have become common in modern cities across the world. Structural considerations play a crucial role in the planning and design of these buildings. The structural system of a high-rise building must be able to support its own weight as well as any additional loads imposed by occupancy and natural forces such as wind and earthquakes. This paper provides an overview of the structural systems commonly used in high-rise buildings, including reinforced concrete, steel, and hybrid systems. It also discusses the advantages and disadvantages of each system and the factors that affect their selection based on the specific requirements of a building.Introduction:In modern cities, high-rise buildings have become an increasingly popular option for meeting the growing need for office and residential space. High-rise buildings have several advantages, including the efficient use of land, the ability to accommodate large numbers of people, and the provision of spectacular views. To achieve these benefits, it is important to develop a safe and efficient structural system for high-rise buildings.Structural Considerations for High-Rise Buildings:Structural considerations are critical for high-rise buildings. Such structures must be able to support their own weight, as well as resist loads imposed by occupancy and natural forces such as wind and earthquakes. The structural system must also be able to maintain stability throughout the building's lifespan, while providing adequate safety for its occupants.Common Structural Systems for High-Rise Buildings:Reinforced Concrete System:One of the most commonly used structural systems for high-rise buildings is reinforced concrete. This system is desirable because of its strength, durability, and fire resistance. Concrete is also easily moldable, which allows for various shapes and sizes to be used in the building design.Steel System:The steel structural system is another popular choice for high-rise buildings. Steel structures have a high strength-to-weight ratio, which makes them a good choice for taller and lighter buildings. They are also easily adaptable and have high ductility, making them more resistant to earthquake damage.Hybrid System:Hybrid structural systems, which combine the advantages of reinforced concrete and steel, have become increasingly popular in recent years. These systems include concrete encased steel frames, concrete-filled steel tubes, and steel reinforced concrete.Factors Affecting Selection:The selection of a structural system for a high-rise building depends on several factors, including the building height, location, climate, design requirements, and budget. For example, in areas with high wind loads, a steel or hybrid system may be preferable due to its high strength and ductility. In areas with high seismic activity, a reinforced concrete system may be more appropriate because of its superior resistance to earthquake damage.Advantages and Disadvantages of Structural Systems:Each structural system has its advantages and disadvantages. The reinforced concrete system is strong, durable, and fire resistant, but is also heavy and requires a longer construction period. The steel system is adaptable and has a high strength-to-weight ratio, but is also susceptible to corrosion and may require regular maintenance. The hybrid system combines the benefits of both systems but may be more expensive than either system alone.Conclusion:Structural considerations are critical for the planning and design of high-rise buildings. Reinforced concrete, steel, and hybrid systems are the most commonly used structural systems for high-rise buildings. The selection of a system depends on several factors, including the building height, location, climate, design requirements, and budget. Each system has its advantages and disadvantages, and careful consideration of these factors is necessary to develop a safe and efficient structural system for high-rise buildings.。

土木工程高层建筑中英文对照外文翻译文献

中英文资料翻译1外文资料The Tall Office Building Artistically ConsideredThe architects of this land and generation are now brought face to face with something new under the sun namely, that evolution and integration of social conditions, that special grouping of them, that results in a demand for the erection of tall office buildings.It is not my purpose to discuss the social conditions; I accept them as the fact, and say at once that the design of the tall office building must be recognized and confronted at the outset as a problem to be solved a vital problem, pressing for a true solution.Let us state the conditions in the plainest manner. Briefly, they are these: offices are necessary for the transaction of business; the invention and perfection of the high speed elevators make vertical travel, that was once tedious and painful, now easy and comfortable; development of steel manufacture has shown the way to safe, rigid, economical constructions rising to a great height; continued growth of population in the great cities, consequent congestion of centers and rise in value of ground, stimulate an increase in number of stories; these successfully piled one upon another, react on ground values and so on, byaction and reaction, interaction and inter reaction. Thus has come about that form of lofty construction called the "modern office building". It has come in answer to a call, for in it a new grouping of social conditions has found a habitation and a name.Up to this point all in evidence is materialistic, an exhibition of force, of resolution, of brains in the keen sense of the word. It is the joint product of the speculator, the engineer, the builder.Problem: How shall we impart to this sterile pile, this crude, harsh, brutal agglomeration, this stark, staring exclamation of eternal strife, the graciousness of these higher forms of sensibility and culture that rest on the lower and fiercer passions? How shall we proclaim from the dizzy height of this strange, weird, modern housetop the peaceful evangel of sentiment, of beauty, the cult of a higher life?This is the problem; and we must seek the solution of it in a process analogous to its own evolution indeed, a continuation of it namely, by proceeding step by step from general to special aspects, from coarser to finer considerations.It is my belief that it is of the very essence of every problem that is contains and suggests its own solution. This I believe to be natural law. Let us examine, then, carefully the elements, let us search out this contained suggestion, this essence of the problem.The practical conditions are, broadly speaking, these:Wanted 1st, a story below ground, containing boiler, engines of various sorts, etc. in short, the plant for power, heating, lighting, etc. 2nd, a ground floor, so called, devoted to stores, banks, or other establishments requiring large area, ample spacing, ample light, and great freedom of access, 3rd, a second story readily accessible by stairways this space usually in large subdivisions, with corresponding liberality in structural spacing and expanse of glass and breadth of external openings, 4th, above this an indefinite number of stories of offices piled tier upon tier, one tier just like another tier, one office just like all the other offices an office being similar to a cell in honey comb, merely a compartment, nothing more, 5th, and last, at the top of this pile is placed a space or story that, as related to the life and usefulness of the structure, is purely physiological in its nature namely, the attic. In this the circulatory system completes itself and makes it grand turn, ascending and descending. The space is filled with tanks, pipes, valves, sheaves, and mechanical etcetera that supplement and complement the force originating plant hidden below ground in the cellar. Finally, or at the beginning rather, there must be on the ground floor a main aperture or entrance common to all the occupants or patrons of the building.This tabulation is, in the main, characteristic of every tall office building in the country. As to the necessary arrangements for light courts, these are not germane to the problem, and as will become soon evident, I trust need not be considered here. These things, and such others as the arrangement of elevators, for example, have to do strictly with the economics of the building, and I assumethem to have been fully considered and disposed of to the satisfaction of purely utilitarian and pecuniary demands. Only in rare instances does the plan or floor arrangement of the tall office building take on an aesthetic value, and thus usually when the lighting court is external or becomes an internal feature of great importance.As I am here seeking not for an individual or special solution, but for a true normal type, the attention must be confined to those conditions that, in the main, are constant in all tall office buildings, and every mere incidental and accidental variation eliminated from the consideration, as harmful to the clearness of the main inquiry.The practical horizontal and vertical division or office unit is naturally based on a room of comfortable area and height, and the size of this standard office room as naturally predetermines the standard structural unit, and, approximately, the size of window openings. In turn, these purely arbitrary units of structure form in an equally natural way the true basis of the artistic development of the exterior. Of course the structural spacings and openings in the first or mercantile story are required to be the largest of all; those in the second or quasi mercantile story are of a some what similar nature. The spacings and openings in the attic are of no importance whatsoever the windows have no actual value, for light may be taken from the top, and no recognition of a cellular division is necessary in the structural spacing.Hence it follow inevitably, and in the simplest possible way, that if wefollow our natural instincts without thought of books, rules, precedents, or any such educational impediments to a spontaneous and "sensible" result, we will in the following manner design the exterior of our tall office building to wit: Beginning with the first story, we give this a min entrance that attracts the eye to it location, and the remainder of the story we treat in a more or less liberal, expansive, sumptuous way a way based exactly on the practical necessities, but expressed with a sentiment of largeness and freedom. The second story we treat in a similar way, but usually with milder pretension. Above this, throughout the indefinite number of typical office tiers, we take our cue from the individual cell, which requires a window with its separating pier, its still and lintel, and we, without more ado, make them look all alike because they are all alike. This brings us to the attic, which having no division into office cells, and no special requirement for lighting, gives us the power to show by means of its broad expanse of wall, and its dominating weight and character, that which is the fact namely, that the series of office tiers has come definitely to an end.This may perhaps seem a bald result and a heartless, pessimistic way of stating it, but even so we certainly have advanced a most characteristic stage beyond the imagined sinister building of the speculator engineer builder combination. For the hand of the architect is now definitely felt in the decisive position at once taken, and the suggestion of a thoroughly sound, logical, coherent expression of the conditions is becoming apparent.When I say the hand of the architect, I do not mean necessarily theaccomplished and trained architect. I mean only a man with a strong, natural liking for buildings, and a disposition to shape them in what seems to his unaffected nature a direct and simple way. He will probably tread an innocent path from his problem to its solution, and therein he will show an enviable gift of logic. If we have some gift for form in detail, some feeling for form purely and simply as form, some love for that, his result in addition to it simple straightforward naturalness and completeness in general statement, will have something of temperament and interest.However, thus far the results are only partial and tentative at best relatively true, they are but superficial. We are doubtless right in our instinct but we must seek a fuller justification, a finer sanction, for it.I assume now that in the study of our problem we have passed through the various stages of inquiry, as follows: 1st, the social basis of the demand for tall buildings; 2nd, its literal material satisfaction; 3rd, the elevation of the question from considerations of literal planning, construction, and equipment, to the plane of elementary architecture as a direct outgrowth of sound, sensible building; 4th, the question again elevated from an elementary architecture to the beginnings of true architectural expression, through the addition of a certain quality and quantity of sentiment.But our building may have all these in a considerable degree and yet be far from that adequate solution of the problem I am attempting to define. We must now heed quality and quantity of sentiment.It demands of us, what is the chief characteristic of the tall office building? And at once we answer, it is lofty. This loftiness is to the artist nature its thrilling aspect. It is the very open organ tone in its appeal. It must be in turn the dominant chard in his expression of it, the true excitant of his imagination. It must be tall, every inch of it tall. The force and power of altitude must be in it, the glory and pride of exaltation must be in it. It must be every inch a proud and soaring thing, rising in sheer exultation that from bottom to top it is a unit without a single dissenting line that it is the new, the unexpected, the eloquent peroration of most bald, most sinister, most forbidding conditions.The man who designs in the spirit and with the sense of responsibility to the generation he lives in must be no coward, no denier, no bookworm, no dilettante. He must live of his life and for his life in the fullest, most consummate sense. He must realize at once and with the grasp of inspiration that the problem of the tall office building is one of the most stupendous, one of the most magnificent opportunities that the Lord of Nature in His beneficence has ever offered to the proud spirit of man.That this has not been perceived indeed has been flatly denied is an exhibition of human perversity that must give us pause.One more consideration. Let us now lift this question into the region of calm, philosophic observation. Let us seek a comprehensive, a final solution: let the problem indeed dissolve.Certain critics, and very thoughtful ones, have advanced the theory that thetrue prototype of the tall office building is the classical column, consisting of base, shaft and capital the molded base of the column typical of the lower stories of our building, the plain or fluted shaft suggesting the monotonous, uninterrupted series of office tiers, and the capital the completing power and luxuriance of the attic.Other theorizers, assuming a mystical symbolism as a guide, quite the many trinities in nature and art, and the beauty and conclusiveness of such trinity in unity. They aver the beauty of prime numbers, the mysticism of the number three, the beauty of all things that are in three parts to wit, the day, subdividing into morning, noon, and night; the limbs, the thorax, and the head, constituting the body. So they say, should the building be in three parts vertically, substantially as before, but for different motives.Others, of purely intellectual temperament, hold that such a design should be in the nature of a logical statement; it should have a beginning, a middle, and an ending, each clearly defined therefore again a building, as above, in three parts vertically.2中文翻译高层办公建筑艺术思考这个时代该领域的建筑师开始正视一些新的由于社会条件变革和整合以及它们特殊组合导致的对高层办公建筑的立面要求。

土木外文翻译-高层建筑

Tall Building StructureTall buildings have fascinated mankind from the beginning of civilization, their construction being initially for defense and subsequently for ecclesiastical purposes. The growth in modern tall building construction, however, which began in the 1880s, has been largely for commercial and residential purposes.Tall commercial buildings are primarily a response to the demand by business activities to be as close to each other, and to the city center, as possible, thereby putting intense pressure on the available land space. Also, because they form distinctive landmarks, tall commercial buildings are frequently developed in city centers as prestige symbols for corporate organizations. Further, the business and tourist community, with its increasing mobility, has fuelled a need for more, frequently high-rise, city center hotel accommodations.The rapid growth of the urban population and the consequent pressure on limited space have considerably influenced city residential development. The high cost of land, the desire to avoid a continuous urban sprawl, and the need to preserve important agricultural production have all contributed to drive residential buildings upward.Ideally, in the early stages of planning a building, the entire design team, including the architect, structural engineer, and services engineer, should collaborate to agree on a form of structure to satisfy their respective requirements of function, safety and serviceability, and servicing. A compromise between conflicting demands will be almost inevitable. In all but the very tallest structures, however, the structural arrangement will be subservient to the architectural requirements of space arrangement and aesthetics.The two primary types of vertical load-resisting elements of tall buildings are columns and walls, the latter acting either independentlyas shear walls or in assemblies as shear wall cores. The building function will lead naturally to the provision of walls to divide and enclose space, and of cores to contain and convey services such as elevators. Columns will be provided, in otherwise unsupported regions, to transmit gravity loads and, in some types of structure, horizontal loads also.The inevitable primary function of the structural elements is to resist the gravity loading from the weight of the building and its contents. Since the loading on different floors tends to be similar, the weight of the floor system per unit floor area is approximately constant, regardless of the building height. Because the gravity load on the columns increases down the height of a building, the weight of columns per unit area increases approximately linearly with the building height.The highly probable second function of the vertical structural elements is to resist also the parasitic load caused by wind and possibly earthquakes, whose magnitudes will be obtained from National Building Codes or wind tunnel studies. The bending moments on the building caused by these lateral forces increase with at least the square of the height, and their effects will become progressively more important as the building height increases.Once the functional layout of the structure has been decided, the design process generally follows a well defined iterative procedure. Preliminary calculations for member sizes are usually based on gravity loading augmented by an arbitrary increment to account for wind forces. The cross-sectional areas of the vertical members will be based on the accumulated loadings from their associated tributary areas, with reductions to account for the probability that not all floors will be subjected simultaneously to their maximum live loading. The initial sizes of beams and slabs are normally based on moments and shears obtained from some simple method of gravity load analysis, or from codified mid and endspan values. A check is then made on the maximum horizontal deflection, and the forces in the major structural members, using some rapid approximate analysis technique. If the deflection is excessive, or some of the members are inadequate, adjustments are made to the member sizes or the structural arrangement. If certain members attract excessive loads, the engineer may reduce their stiffness to redistribute the load to less heavily stressed components. The procedure of preliminary analysis, checking, and adjustment is repeated until a satisfactory solution is obtained.Invariably, alterations to the initial layout of the building will be required as the client's and architect's ideas of the building evolve. This will call for structural modifications, or perhaps a radical rearrangement, which necessitates a complete review of the structural design. The various preliminary stages may therefore have to be repeated a number of times before a final solution is reached.Speed of erection is a vital factor in obtaining a return on the investment involved in such large-scale projects. Most tall buildings are constructed in congested city sites, with difficult access; therefore careful planning and organization of the construction sequence become essential. The story-to-story uniformity of most multistory buildings encourages construction through repetitive operations and prefabrication techniques. Progress in the ability to build tall has gone hand in hand with the development of more efficient equipment and improved methods of construction.Earthquake FaultsThe origin of an earthquakeAn earthquake originates on a plane of weakness or a fracture in the earth's crust, termed a "fault". The earth on one side of the fault slides or slips horizontally and /or vertically with respect to the earth on theopposite side, and this generates a vibration that is transmitted outward in all directions. This vibration constitutes the earthquake.The earthquake generally originates deep within the earth at a point on the fault where the stress that produces the slip is a maximum. This point is called the hypocenter or focus and the point on the earth's surface directly above this point is called the epicenter. The main or greatest shock is usually followed by numerous smaller aftershocks. These aftershocks are produced by slippage at other points on the fault or in the fault zone.Types of earthquake faultsFaults are classified in accordance with the direction and nature of the relative displacement of the earth at the fault plane. Probably the most common type is the strike-slip fault in which the relative fault displacement is mainly horizontal across an essentially vertical fault plane. The great San Andreas fault in California is of the type. Another type is termed a normal fault —when the relative movement is in an upward an downward direction on a nearly vertical fault plane. The great Alaskan earthquake of 1964 was apparently of this type. A less common type is the thrust fault —when the earth is under compressive stress across the fault and the slippage is in an upward and downward direction along an inclined fault plane. The San Fernando earthquake was generated on what has usually been classified as a thrust fault, although there was about as much lateral slippage as up and down slippage due to thrust across the inclined fault plane. Some authorities refer to this combined action as lateral thrust faulting. The compressive strain in the earth of the San Fernando Valley floor just south of the thrust fault was evidenced in many places by buckled sidewalks and asphalt paving.Forces exerted by an earthquakeSlippage along the fault occurs suddenly. It is a release of stressthat has gradually built-up in the rocks of the earth's crust. Although the vibrational movement of the earth during an earthquake is in all directions, the horizontal components are of chief importance to the structural engineer. These movements exert forces on a structure because they accelerate. This acceleration is simply a change in the velocity of the earth movement. Since the ground motion in an earthquake is vibratory, the acceleration and force that it exerts on a structure reverses in direction periodically, at short intervals of time.The structural engineer is interested in the force exerted on a body by the movement of the earth. This may be determined from Newton's second law of motion ' which may be stated in the following form:F=MaIn which F is a force that produces an acceleration a when acting on a body of mass M. This equation is nondimensional. For calculations M is set equal to W/g, then:F=W/g*a (1)In which F is in pounds, a is in feet per second per second, W is the weight of the body also in pounds and g is the acceleration of gravity, which is 32.2 feet per second per second.Equation (1) is empirical. It simply states the experimental fact that for a free falling body the acceleration a is equal to g and the acceleration force F is then equal to the weight W.For convenience, the acceleration of an earthquake is generally expressed as a ratio to the acceleration of gravity. This ratio is called a seismic coefficient. The advantage of this system is that the force exerted on a body by acceleration is simply the corresponding seismic coefficient multiplied by the weight of the body. This is in accordance with Equation (1) in which a/g is the seismic coefficient.Activity of faultsAll faults are not considered to present the same hazard. Some are classified as "active" since it is believed that these faults may undergo movement from time to time in the immediate geologic future. Unfortunately in the present state-of-the-art there is a good deal of uncertainty in the identification of potentially active faults. For example, the fault that generated the San Fernando earthquake did not even appear on any published geological maps of the area. This fault was discovered to be active only when it actually slipped and ruptured the ground surface. Accordingly the identification of active faults and geologically hazardous areas for land use criteria and for hazard reduction by special engineering may be of questionable value.Only in very recent years have geologists begun to try to evaluate the potential activity of faults that have no historical record of activity. By close inspection of a fault, visible in the side walls of a trench that cuts across the fault, it is sometimes possible to determine if it has been active in recent times. For example, if the trace of the fault extends through a recent alluvial material, then there must have been slippage since that material was deposited. However fault ruptures may be very difficult or impossible to see in imbedded material such as sand and gravel. Also of course the location of the fault must be known and it must reach the surface of the ground in order to inspect it by trenching.Evidence of the historical activity of a fault may sometimes be obtained by observing the faulting of geologically young deposits exposed in a trench. Such deposits are generally bedded and well consolidated so that fault rupture can easily be seen.The approximate time of formation of a fault rupture or scarp has in some cases been determined by radiocarbon analysis of pieces of wood found in the rupture or scarp.In addition to evidence of young fault activity obtained by trenching, there also may be topographic evidence of young faulting such as is obvious along the San Andreas fault. Vertical aerial photographs are one of the most important methods for finding topographic evidence of active faults. This evidence, which includes scarps, offset channels, depressions, and elongated ridges and valleys, is produced by fault activity. The age of these topographic features and therefore the time of the fault activity, can be estimated by the extent to which they are weathered and eroded.高层建筑结构高楼大厦已经着迷，从人类文明的开始，其建设是国防和最初其后教会的目的。

外文翻译---高层建筑及结构设计

中文3220字附录：毕业设计外文翻译院（系）建筑工程学院专业土木工程班级姓名学号导师2011年4月15日英文：High-Rise Buildings and StructuralDesignAbstract：It is difficult to define a high-rise building . One may say that a low-rise building ranges from 1 to 2 stories . A medium-rise building probably ranges between 3 or 4 stories up to 10 or 20 stories or more . Although the basic principles of vertical and horizontal subsystem design remain the same for low- , medium- , or high-rise buildings , when a building gets high the vertical subsystems become a controlling problem for two reasons . Higher vertical loads will require larger columns , walls , and shafts . But , more significantly , the overturning moment and the shear deflections produced by lateral forces are much larger and must be carefully provided for .Key Words：High-Rise Buildings Structural Design Framework Shear Seismic SystemIntroductionThe vertical subsystems in a high-rise building transmit accumulated gravity load from story to story , thus requiring larger column or wall sections to support such loading . In addition these same vertical subsystems must transmit lateral loads , such as wind or seismic loads , to the foundations. However , in contrast to vertical load , lateral load effects on buildings are not linear and increase rapidly with increase in height . For example under wind load , the overturning moment at the base of buildings varies approximately as the square of a buildings may vary as the fourth power of buildings height , other things being equal.Earthquake produces an even more pronounced effect.When the structure for a low-or medium-rise building is designed for dead and live load , it is almost an inherent property that the columns , walls , and stair or elevator shafts can carry most of the horizontal forces . The problem is primarily shear resistance . Moderate addition bracing for rigid frames in“short”buildings can easily be provided by filling certain panels ( or even all panels ) without increasing the sizes of the columns and girders otherwise required for vertical loads.Unfortunately , this is not is for high-rise buildings because the problem is primarily resistance to moment and deflection rather than shear alone . Special structural arrangements will often have to be made and additional structural material is always required for the columns , girders , walls , and slabs in order to made a high-rise buildings sufficiently resistant to much higher lateral deformations .As previously mentioned , the quantity of structural material required per square foot of floor of a high-rise buildings is in excess of that required for low-rise buildings . The vertical components carrying the gravity load , such as walls , columns , and shafts , will need to be strengthened over the full height of the buildings . But quantity of material required for resisting lateral forces is even more significant .With reinforced concrete , the quantity of material also increases as the number of stories increases . But here it should be noted that the increase in the weight of material added for gravity load is much more sizable than steel , whereas for wind load the increase for lateral force resistance is not that much more since the weight of a concrete buildings helps to resist overturn . On the other hand , the problem of design for earthquake forces . Additional mass in the upper floors will give rise to a greater overall lateral force under the of seismic effects .In the case of either concrete or steel design , there are certain basic principles for providing additional resistance to lateral to lateral forces and deflections in high-rise buildings without too much sacrifire ineconomy .1、Increase the effective width of the moment-resisting subsystems . This is very useful because increasing the width will cut down the overturn force directly and will reduce deflection by the third power of the width increase , other things remaining cinstant . However , this does require that vertical components of the widened subsystem be suitably connected to actually gain this benefit.2、Design subsystems such that the components are made to interact in the most efficient manner . For example , use truss systems with chords and diagonals efficiently stressed , place reinforcing for walls at critical locations , and optimize stiffness ratios for rigid frames .3、Increase the material in the most effective resisting components . For example , materials added in the lower floors to the flanges of columns and connecting girders will directly decrease the overall deflection and increase the moment resistance without contributing mass in the upper floors where the earthquake problem is aggravated .4、Arrange to have the greater part of vertical loads be carried directly on the primary moment-resisting components . This will help stabilize the buildings against tensile overturning forces by precompressing the major overturn-resisting components .5、The local shear in each story can be best resisted by strategic placement if solid walls or the use of diagonal members in a vertical subsystem . Resisting these shears solely by vertical members in bending is usually less economical , since achieving sufficient bending resistance in the columns and connecting girders will require more material and construction energy than using walls or diagonal members .6、Sufficient horizontal diaphragm action should be provided floor . This will help to bring the various resisting elements to work together instead of separately .7、Create mega-frames by joining large vertical and horizontal components such as two or more elevator shafts at multistory intervalswith a heavy floor subsystems , or by use of very deep girder trusses .Remember that all high-rise buildings are essentially vertical cantilevers which are supported at the ground . When the above principles are judiciously applied , structurally desirable schemes can be obtained by walls , cores , rigid frames, tubular construction , and other vertical subsystems to achieve horizontal strength and rigidity . Some of these applications will now be described in subsequent sections in the following .Shear-Wall SystemsWhen shear walls are compatible with other functional requirements , they can be economically utilized to resist lateral forces in high-rise buildings . For example , apartment buildings naturally require many separation walls . When some of these are designed to be solid , they can act as shear walls to resist lateral forces and to carry the vertical load as well . For buildings up to some 20storise , the use of shear walls is common . If given sufficient length ,such walls can economically resist lateral forces up to 30 to 40 stories or more .However , shear walls can resist lateral load only the plane of the walls ( i.e.not in a diretion perpendicular to them ) . Therefore ,it is always necessary to provide shear walls in two perpendicular directions can be at least in sufficient orientation so that lateral force in any direction can be resisted . In addition , that wall layout should reflect consideration of any torsional effect .In design progress , two or more shear walls can be connected to from L-shaped or channel-shaped subsystems . Indeed , internal shear walls can be connected to from a rectangular shaft that will resist lateral forces very efficiently . If all external shear walls are continuously connected , then the whole buildings acts as a tube , and is excellent Shear-Wall Systems resisting lateral loads and torsion .Whereas concrete shear walls are generally of solid type withopenings when necessary , steel shear walls are usually made of trusses . These trusses can have single diagonals , “X”diagonals , or“K”arrangements . A trussed wall will have its members act essentially in direct tension or compression under the action of view , and they offer some opportunity and deflection-limitation point of view , and they offer some opportunity for penetration between members . Of course , the inclined members of trusses must be suitable placed so as not to interfere with requirements for windows and for circulation service penetrations though these walls .As stated above , the walls of elevator , staircase ,and utility shafts form natural tubes and are commonly employed to resist both vertical and lateral forces . Since these shafts are normally rectangular or circular in cross-section , they can offer an efficient means for resisting moments and shear in all directions due to tube structural action . But a problem in the design of these shafts is provided sufficient strength around door openings and other penetrations through these elements . For reinforced concrete construction , special steel reinforcements are placed around such opening .In steel construction , heavier and more rigid connections are required to resist racking at the openings .In many high-rise buildings , a combination of walls and shafts can offer excellent resistance to lateral forces when they are suitably located ant connected to one another . It is also desirable that the stiffness offered these subsystems be more-or-less symmertrical in all directions .Rigid-Frame SystemsIn the design of architectural buildings , rigid-frame systems for resisting vertical and lateral loads have long been accepted as an important and standard means for designing building . They are employed for low-and medium means for designing buildings . They are employed for low- and medium up to high-rise building perhaps 70 or 100 stories high . When compared to shear-wall systems , these rigid frames bothwithin and at the outside of a buildings . They also make use of the stiffness in beams and columns that are required for the buildings in any case , but the columns are made stronger when rigidly connected to resist the lateral as well as vertical forces though frame bending .Frequently , rigid frames will not be as stiff as shear-wall construction , and therefore may produce excessive deflections for the more slender high-rise buildings designs . But because of this flexibility , they are often considered as being more ductile and thus less susceptible to catastrophic earthquake failure when compared with ( some ) shear-wall designs . For example , if over stressing occurs at certain portions of a steel rigid frame ( i.e.,near the joint ) , ductility will allow the structure as a whole to deflect a little more , but it will by no means collapse even under a much larger force than expected on the structure . For this reason , rigid-frame construction is considered by some to be a “best”seismic-resisting type for high-rise steel buildings . On the other hand ,it is also unlikely that a well-designed share-wall system would collapse.In the case of concrete rigid frames ,there is a divergence of opinion . It true that if a concrete rigid frame is designed in the conventional manner , without special care to produce higher ductility , it will not be able to withstand a catastrophic earthquake that can produce forces several times lerger than the code design earthquake forces .Therefore , some believe that it may not have additional capacity possessed by steel rigid frames . But modern research and experience has indicated that concrete frames can be designed to be ductile , when sufficient stirrups and joinery reinforcement are designed in to the frame . Modern buildings codes have specifications for the so-called ductile concrete frames . However , at present , these codes often require excessive reinforcement at certain points in the frame so as to cause congestion and result in construction difficulties 。

土木工程外文翻译外文文献英文文献高层建筑

High-Rise BuildingsIntroductionIt is difficult to define a high-rise building . One may say that a low-rise building ranges from 1 to 2 stories . A medium-rise building probably ranges between 3 or 4 stories up to 10 or 20 stories or more .Although the basic principles of vertical and horizontal subsystem design remain the same for low- , medium- , or high-rise buildings , when a building gets high the vertical subsystems become a controlling problem for two reasons . Higher vertical loads will require larger columns , walls , and shafts . But , more significantly , the overturning moment and the shear deflections produced by lateral forces are much larger and must be carefully provided for .The vertical subsystems in a high-rise building transmit accumulated gravity load from story to story , thus requiring larger column or wall sections to support such loading . In addition these same vertical subsystems must transmit lateral loads , such as wind or seismic loads , to the foundations. However , in contrast to vertical load , lateral load effects on buildings are not linear and increase rapidly with increase in height . For example under wind load , the overturning moment at the base of buildings varies approximately as the square of a buildings may vary as the fourth power of buildings height , other things being equal. Earthquake produces an even more pronounced effect.When the structure for a low-or medium-rise building is designed for dead and live load , it is almost an inherent property that the columns , walls , and stair or elevator shafts can carry most of the horizontal forces . The problem is primarily one of shear resistance . Moderate addition bracing for rigid frames in“short”buildings can easily be provided by filling certain panels ( or even all panels ) without increasing the sizes of the columns and girders otherwise required for vertical loads.Unfortunately , this is not is for high-rise buildings because the problem is primarily resistance to moment and deflection rather than shear alone . Special structural arrangements will often have to be made and additional structural material is always required for the columns ,girders , walls , and slabs in order to made a high-rise buildings sufficiently resistant to much higher lateral deformations .As previously mentioned , the quantity of structural material required per square foot of floor of a high-rise buildings is in excess of that required for low-rise buildings . The vertical components carrying the gravity load , such as walls , columns , and shafts , will need to be strengthened over the full height of the buildings . But quantity of material required for resisting lateral forces is even more significant .With reinforced concrete , the quantity of material also increases as the number of stories increases . But here it should be noted that the increase in the weight of material added for gravity load is much more sizable than steel , whereas for wind load the increase for lateral force resistance is not that much more since the weight of a concrete buildings helps to resist overturn . On the other hand , the problem of design for earthquake forces . Additional mass in the upper floors will give rise to a greater overall lateral force under the of seismic effects .In the case of either concrete or steel design , there are certain basic principles for providing additional resistance to lateral to lateral forces and deflections in high-rise buildings without too much sacrifire in economy .1.Increase the effective width of the moment-resisting subsystems . This is very usefulbecause increasing the width will cut down the overturn force directly and will reducedeflection by the third power of the width increase , other things remaining cinstant .However , this does require that vertical components of the widened subsystem besuitably connected to actually gain this benefit.2.Design subsystems such that the components are made to interact in the most efficientmanner . For example , use truss systems with chords and diagonals efficientlystressed , place reinforcing for walls at critical locations , and optimize stiffness ratiosfor rigid frames .3.Increase the material in the most effective resisting components . For example ,materials added in the lower floors to the flanges of columns and connecting girderswill directly decrease the overall deflection and increase the moment resistancewithout contributing mass in the upper floors where the earthquake problem isaggravated .4.Arrange to have the greater part of vertical loads be carried directly on the primarymoment-resisting components . This will help stabilize the buildings against tensileoverturning forces by precompressing the major overturn-resisting components .5.The local shear in each story can be best resisted by strategic placement if solid wallsor the use of diagonal members in a vertical subsystem . Resisting these shears solelyby vertical members in bending is usually less economical , since achieving sufficientbending resistance in the columns and connecting girders will require more materialand construction energy than using walls or diagonal members .6.Sufficient horizontal diaphragm action should be provided floor . This will help tobring the various resisting elements to work together instead of separately .7.Create mega-frames by joining large vertical and horizontal components such as twoor more elevator shafts at multistory intervals with a heavy floor subsystems , or byuse of very deep girder trusses .Remember that all high-rise buildings are essentially vertical cantilevers which are supported at the ground . When the above principles are judiciously applied , structurally desirable schemes can be obtained by walls , cores , rigid frames, tubular construction , and other vertical subsystems to achieve horizontal strength and rigidity . Some of these applications will now be described in subsequent sections in the following .The vertical subsystems in a high-rise building transmit accumulated gravity load from story to story , thus requiring larger column or wall sections to support such loading . In addition these same vertical subsystems must transmit lateral loads , such as wind or seismic loads , to the foundations. However , in contrast to vertical load , lateral load effects on buildings are not linear and increase rapidly with increase in height . For example under wind load , the overturning moment at the base of buildings varies approximately as the square of a buildings may vary as the fourth power of buildings height , other things being equal. Earthquake produces an even more pronounced effect.When the structure for a low-or medium-rise building is designed for dead and live load , it is almost an inherent property that the columns , walls , and stair or elevator shafts can carry most of the horizontal forces . The problem is primarily one of shear resistance . Moderate addition bracing for rigid frames in“short”buildings can easily be provided by filling certain panels ( or even all panels ) without increasing the sizes of the columns and girders otherwise required for vertical loads.With reinforced concrete , the quantity of material also increases as the number of stories increases . But here it should be noted that the increase in the weight of material added for gravity load is much more sizable than steel , whereas for wind load the increase for lateral force resistance is not that much more since the weight of a concrete buildings helps to resist overturn . On the other hand , the problem of design for earthquake forces . Additional mass in the upper floors will give rise to a greater overall lateral force under the of seismic effects .In the case of either concrete or steel design , there are certain basic principles for providing additional resistance to lateral to lateral forces and deflections in high-rise buildings without too much sacrifire in economy . Increase the effective width of the moment-resisting subsystems . This is very useful because increasing the width will cut down the overturn force directly and will reduce deflection by the third power of the width increase , other things remaining cinstant . However , this does require that vertical components of the widened subsystem be suitably connected to actually gain this benefit.Design subsystems such that the components are made to interact in the most efficient manner .Remember that all high-rise buildings are essentially vertical cantilevers which are supported at the ground . When the above principles are judiciously applied , structurally desirable schemes can be obtained by walls , cores , rigid frames, tubular construction , and other vertical subsystems to achieve horizontal strength and rigidity . Some of these applications will now be described in subsequent sections in the following .Shear-Wall SystemsWhen shear walls are compatible with other functional requirements , they can be economically utilized to resist lateral forces in high-rise buildings . For example , apartment buildings naturally require many separation walls . When some of these are designed to be solid , they can act as shear walls to resist lateral forces and to carry the vertical load as well . For buildings up to some 20storise , the use of shear walls is common . If given sufficient length ,such walls can economically resist lateral forces up to 30 to 40 stories or more .However , shear walls can resist lateral load only the plane of the walls ( i.e.not in a diretion perpendicular to them ) . There fore ,it is always necessary to provide shear walls in two perpendicular directions can be at least in sufficient orientation so that lateral force in any direction can be resisted . In addition , that wall layout should reflect consideration of any torsional effect .In design progress , two or more shear walls can be connected to from L-shaped or channel-shaped subsystems . Indeed , internal shear walls can be connected to from a rectangular shaft that will resist lateral forces very efficiently . If all external shear walls are continuously connected , then the whole buildings acts as tube , and connected , then the whole buildings acts as a tube , and is excellent Shear-Wall Seystems resisting lateral loads and torsion .Whereas concrete shear walls are generally of solid type with openings when necessary , steel shear walls are usually made of trusses . These trusses can have single diagonals , “X”diagonals , or“K”arrangements . A trussed wall will have its members act essentially in direct tension or compression under the action of view , and they offer some opportunity and deflection-limitation point of view , and they offer some opportunity for penetration between members . Of course , the inclined members of trusses must be suitable placed so as not to interfere with requirements for wiondows and for circulation service penetrations though these walls .In many high-rise buildings , a combination of walls and shafts can offer excellent resistance to lateral forces when they are suitably located ant connected to one another . It is also desirable that the stiffness offered these subsystems be more-or-less symmertrical in all directions .Rigid-Frame SystemsIn the design of architectural buildings , rigid-frame systems for resisting vertical and lateral loads have long been accepted as an important and standard means for designing building . They are employed for low-and medium means for designing buildings . They are employed for low- and medium up to high-rise building perhaps 70 or 100 stories high . When compared to shear-wall systems , these rigid frames both within and at the outside of a buildings . They also make use of the stiffness in beams and columns that are required for the buildings in any case , but the columns are made stronger when rigidly connected to resist the lateral as well as vertical forces though frame bending .Frequently , rigid frames will not be as stiff as shear-wall construction , and therefore may produce excessive deflections for the more slender high-rise buildings designs . But because of this flexibility , they are often considered as being more ductile and thus less susceptible to catastrophic earthquake failure when compared with ( some ) shear-wall designs . For example , if over stressing occurs at certain portions of a steel rigid frame ( i.e.,near the joint ) , ductility will allow the structure as a whole to deflect a little more , but it will by no means collapse even under a much larger force than expected on the structure . For this reason , rigid-frame construction is considered by some to be a “best”seismic-resisting type for high-rise steel buildings . On the other hand ,it is also unlikely that a well-designed share-wall system would collapse.In the case of concrete rigid frames ,there is a divergence of opinion . It true that if a concrete rigid frame is designed in the conventional manner , without special care to produce higher ductility , it will not be able to withstand a catastrophic earthquake that can produce forces several times lerger than the code design earthquake forces . therefore , some believe that it may not have additional capacity possessed by steel rigid frames . But modern research and experience has indicated that concrete frames can be designed to be ductile , when sufficient stirrups and joinery reinforcement are designed in to the frame . Modern buildings codes have specifications for the so-called ductile concrete frames . However , at present , these codes often require excessive reinforcement at certain points in the frame so as to cause congestion and resultin construction difficulties 。

土木工程外文翻译-原文

外文原文Response of a reinforced concrete infilled-frame structure to removal of twoadjacent columnsMehrdad Sasani_Northeastern University, 400 Snell Engineering Center, Boston, MA 02115, UnitedStatesReceived 27 June 2007; received in revised form 26 December 2007; accepted 24January 2008Available online 19 March 2008AbstractThe response of Hotel San Diego, a six-story reinforced concrete infilled-frame structure, is evaluated following the simultaneous removal of two adjacent exterior columns. Analytical models of the structure using the Finite Element Method as well as the Applied Element Method are used to calculate global and local deformations. The analytical results show good agreement with experimental data. The structure resisted progressive collapse with a measured maximum vertical displacement of only one quarter of an inch mm). Deformation propagation over the height of the structure and the dynamic load redistribution following the column removal are experimentally and analytically evaluated and described. The difference between axial and flexural wave propagations is discussed. Three-dimensional Vierendeel (frame) action of the transverse and longitudinal frames with the participation of infill walls is identified as the major mechanism for redistribution of loads in the structure. The effects of two potential brittle modes of failure (fracture of beam sections without tensile reinforcement and reinforcing bar pull out) are described. The response of the structure due to additional gravity loads and in the absence of infill walls is analytically evaluated.c 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.Keywords: Progressive collapse; Load redistribution; Load resistance; Dynamic response; Nonlinear analysis; Brittle failure1.IntroductionThe principal scope of specifications is to provide general principles and computational methods in order to verify safet y of structures. The “safety factor ”, which according t o modern trends is independent of the nature and combination of the materials used, can usually be defined as the rati o between the conditions. This ratio is also proportional to the inverse of the probability ( risk ) of failure of th e structure.Failure has to be considered not only as overall collapse o f the structure but also as unserviceability or, according t o a more precise. Common definition. As the reaching of a “limit state ”which causes the construction not to acco mplish the task it was designed for. There are two categori es of limit state :(1)Ultimate limit sate, which corresponds to the highest value of the load-bearing capacity. Examples include local buckli ng or global instability of the structure; failure of some sections and subsequent transformation of the structure intoa mechanism; failure by fatigue; elastic or plastic deformati on or creep that cause a substantial change of the geometry of the structure; and sensitivity of the structure to alte rnating loads, to fire and to explosions.(2)Service limit states, which are functions of the use and durability of the structure. Examples include excessive defo rmations and displacements without instability; early or exces sive cracks; large vibrations; and corrosion.Computational methods used to verify structures with respect to the different safety conditions can be separated into: (1)Deterministic methods, in which the main parameters are co nsidered as nonrandom parameters.(2)Probabilistic methods, in which the main parameters are co nsidered as random parameters.Alternatively, with respect to the different use of factors of safety, computational methods can be separated into:(1)Allowable stress method, in which the stresses computed un der maximum loads are compared with the strength of the mat erial reduced by given safety factors.(2)Limit states method, in which the structure may be propor tioned on the basis of its maximum strength. This strength, as determined by rational analysis, shall not be less than that required to support a factored load equal to the sum of the factored live load and dead load ( ultimate state ).The stresses corresponding to working ( service ) conditions with unfactored live and dead loads are compared with pres cribed values ( service limit state ) . From the four poss ible combinations of the first two and second two methods, we can obtain some useful computational methods. Generally, t wo combinations prevail:(1)deterministic methods, which make use of allowable stresses . (2)Probabilistic methods, which make use of limit states. The main advantage of probabilistic approaches is that, at l east in theory, it is possible to scientifically take into account all random factors of safety, which are then combine d to define the safety factor. probabilistic approaches depend upon :(1) Random distribution of strength of materials with respect to the conditions of fabrication and erection ( scatter of the values of mechanical properties through out the structu re ); (2) Uncertainty of the geometry of the cross-section sand of the structure ( faults and imperfections due to fab rication and erection of the structure );(3) Uncertainty of the predicted live loads and dead loads acting on the structure; (4)Uncertainty related to the approx imation of the computational method used ( deviation of the actual stresses from computed stresses ). Furthermore, proba bilistic theories mean that the allowable risk can be based on several factors, such as :(1) Importance of the construction and gravity of the damage by its failure; (2)Number of human lives which can be thr eatened by this failure; (3)Possibility and/or likelihood of repairing the structure; (4) Predicted life of the structure. All these factors are related to economic and social consi derations such as：(1) Initial cost of the construction;(2) Amortization funds for the duration of the construction;(3) Cost of physical and material damage due to the failure of the construction;(4) Adverse impact on society;(5) Moral and psychological views.The definition of all these parameters, for a given saf ety factor, allows construction at the optimum cost. However, the difficulty of carrying out a complete probabilistic ana lysis has to be taken into account. For such an analysis t he laws of the distribution of the live load and its induc ed stresses, of the scatter of mechanical properties of mate rials, and of the geometry of the cross-sections and the st ructure have to be known. Furthermore, it is difficult to i nterpret the interaction between the law of distribution of strength and that of stresses because both depend upon the nature of the material, on the cross-sections and upon the load acting on the structure. These practical difficulties ca n be overcome in two ways. The first is to apply different safety factors to the material and to the loads, without necessarily adopting the probabilistic criterion. The second i s an approximate probabilistic method which introduces some s implifying assumptions ( semi-probabilistic methods ) . Aspart of mitigation programs to reduce the likelihood of mass casualties following local damage in structures, the General Services Administration [1] and the Department of Defense [2] developed regulations to evaluate progressive collapse resistance of structures. ASCE/SEI 7 [3] defines progressive collapse as the spread of an initial local failure fromelement to element eventually resulting in collapse of an entire structure or a disproportionately large part of it. Following the approaches proposed by Ellinwood and Leyendecker [4], ASCE/SEI 7 [3] defines two general methods for structural design of buildings to mitigate damage due to progressive collapse: indirect and direct design methods. General building codes and standards [3,5] use indirect design by increasing overall integrity of structures. Indirect design is also used in DOD [2]. Although the indirect design method can reduce the risk of progressive collapse [6,7] estimation of post-failure performance of structures designed based on such a method is not readily possible. One approach based on direct design methods to evaluate progressive collapse of structures is to study the effects of instantaneous removal of load-bearing elements, such as columns. GSA [1] and DOD [2] regulations require removal of one load bearing element. These regulations are meant to evaluate general integrity of structures and their capacity of redistributing the loads following severe damage to only one element. While such an approach provides insight as to the extent to which the structures are susceptible to progressive collapse, in reality, the initial damage can affect more than just one column. In this study, using analytical results that are verified against experimental data, the progressive collapse resistance of the Hotel San Diego is evaluated, following the simultaneous explosion (sudden removal) of two adjacent columns, one of which was a corner column. In order to explode the columns, explosives were inserted into predrilled holes in the columns. The columns were then well wrapped with a few layers of protective materials. Therefore, neither air blast nor flying fragments affected the structure.2. Building characteristicsHotel San Diego was constructed in 1914 with a south annex added in 1924. The annex included two separate buildings. Fig. 1 shows a south view of the hotel. Note that in the picture, the first and third stories of the hotel are covered with black fabric. The six story hotel had a non-ductile reinforced concrete (RC) frame structure with hollow clay tile exterior infill walls. The infills in the annex consisted of two withes (layers) of clay tiles with a total thickness of about 8 in (203 mm). The height of the first floor was about 190–800 m). The height of other floors and that of the top floor were 100–600 m) and 160–1000 m), respectively. Fig. 2 shows the second floor of one of the annex buildings. Fig. 3 shows a typical plan of this building, whose responsefollowing the simultaneous removal (explosion) of columns A2 and A3 in the first (ground) floor is evaluated in this paper. The floor system consisted of one-way joists running in the longitudinal direction (North–South), as shown in Fig. 3. Based on compression tests of two concrete samples, the average concrete compressive strength was estimated at about 4500 psi (31 MPa) for a standard concrete cylinder. The modulus of elasticity of concrete was estimated at 3820 ksi (26 300 MPa) [5]. Also, based on tension tests of two steel samples having 1/2 in mm) square sections, the yield and ultimate tensile strengths were found to be 62 ksi (427 MPa) and 87 ksi (600 MPa), respectively. The steel ultimate tensile strain was measured at . The modulus of elasticity of steel was set equal to 29 000 ksi (200 000 MPa). The building was scheduled to be demolished by implosion. As part of the demolition process, the infill walls were removed from the first and third floors. There was no live load in the building. All nonstructural elements including partitions, plumbing, and furniture were removed prior to implosion. Only beams, columns, joist floor and infill walls on the peripheral beams were present.3. SensorsConcrete and steel strain gages were used to measure changes in strains of beams and columns. Linear potentiometers were used to measure global and local deformations. The concrete strain gages were in (90 mm) long having a maximum strain limit of ±. The steel strain gages could measure up to a strain of ±. The strain gages could operate up to a several hundred kHz sampling rate. The sampling rate used in the experiment was 1000 Hz. Potentiometers were used to capture rotation (integral of curvature over a length) of the beam end regions and global displacementin the building, as described later. The potentiometers had a resolution of about in mm) and a maximum operational speed of about 40 in/s m/s), while the maximum recorded speed in the experiment was about 14 in/sm/s).4. Finite element modelUsing the finite element method (FEM), a model of the building was developed in the SAP2000 [8] computer program. The beams and columns are modeled with Bernoulli beam elements. Beams have T or L sections with effective flange width on each side of the web equal to four times the slab thickness [5]. Plastic hinges are assigned to all possible locations where steel bar yielding can occur, including the ends of elements as well as the reinforcing bar cut-off and bend locations. The characteristics of the plastic hinges are obtained using section analysesof the beams and columns and assuming a plastic hinge length equal to half of the section depth. The current version of SAP2000 [8] is not able to track formation of cracks in the elements. In order to find the proper flexural stiffness of sections, an iterative procedure is used as follows. First, the building is analyzed assuming all elements are uncracked. Then, moment demands in the elements are compared with their cracking bending moments, Mcr . The moment of inertia of beam and slab segments are reduced by a coefficient of [5], where the demand exceeds the Mcr. The exterior beam cracking bending moments under negative and positive moments, are 516 k in kN m) and 336 k in kN m), respectively. Note that no cracks were formed in the columns. Then the building is reanalyzed and moment diagrams are re-evaluated. This procedure is repeated until all of the cracked regions are properly identified and modeled.The beams in the building did not have top reinforcing bars except at the end regions (see Fig. 4). For instance, no top reinforcement was provided beyond the bend in beam A1–A2, 12 inches away from the face of column A1 (see Figs. 4 and 5). To model the potential loss of flexural strength in those sections, localized crack hinges were assigned at the critical locations where no top rebar was present. Flexural strengths of the hinges were set equal to Mcr. Such sections were assumed to lose their flexural strength when the imposed bending moments reached Mcr.The floor system consisted of joists in the longitudinal direction (North–South). Fig. 6 shows the cross section of a typical floor. In order to account for potential nonlinear response of slabs and joists, floors are molded by beam elements. Joists are modeled with T-sections, having effective flange width on each side of the web equal to four times the slab thickness [5]. Given the large joist spacing between axes 2 and 3, two rectangular beam elements with 20-inch wide sections are used between the joist and the longitudinal beams of axes 2 and 3 to model the slab in the longitudinal direction. To model the behavior of the slab in the transverse direction, equally spaced parallel beams with 20-inch wide rectangular sections are used. There is a difference between the shear flow in the slab and that in the beam elements with rectangular sections modeling the slab. Because of this, the torsional stiffness is setequal to one-half of that of the gross sections [9].The building had infill walls on 2nd, 4th, 5th and 6th floors on the spandrel beams with some openings . windows and doors). As mentioned before and as part of the demolition procedure, the infill walls in the 1st and 3rd floors were removed before the test. The infill walls were made of hollow clay tiles, which were in good condition. The net area of the clay tiles was about 1/2 of the gross area. The in-plane action of the infill walls contributes to the building stiffness and strength and affects the building response. Ignoring the effects of the infill walls and excluding them in the model would result in underestimating the building stiffness and strength.Using the SAP2000 computer program [8], two types of modeling for the infills are considered in this study: one uses two dimensional shell elements (Model A) and the other uses compressive struts (Model B) as suggested in FEMA356 [10] guidelines.. Model A (infills modeled by shell elements)Infill walls are modeled with shell elements. However, the current version of the SAP2000 computer program includes only linear shell elements and cannot account for cracking. The tensile strength of the infill walls is set equal to 26 psi, with a modulus of elasticity of 644 ksi [10]. Because the formation ofcracks has a significant effect on the stiffness of the infill walls, the following iterative procedure is used to account for crack formation:(1) Assuming the infill walls are linear and uncracked, a nonlinear time history analysis is run. Note that plastic hinges exist in the beam elements and the segments of the beam elements where moment demand exceeds the cracking moment have a reduced moment of inertia.(2) The cracking pattern in the infill wall is determined by comparingstresses in the shells developed during the analysis with the tensile strength of infills.(3) Nodes are separated at the locations where tensile stress exceeds tensile strength. These steps are continued until the crack regions are properly modeled.. Model B (infills modeled by struts)Infill walls are replaced with compressive struts as described in FEMA 356 [10] guidelines. Orientations of the struts are determined from the deformed shape of the structure after column removal and the location of openings.. Column removalRemoval of the columns is simulated with the following procedure. (1) The structure is analyzed under the permanent loads and the internal forces are determined at the ends of the columns, which will be removed.(2) The model is modified by removing columns A2 and A3 on the first floor. Again the structure is statically analyzed under permanent loads. In this case, the internal forces at the ends of removed columns found in the first step are applied externally to the structure along with permanent loads. Note that the results of this analysis are identical to those of step 1.(3) The equal and opposite column end forces that were applied in the second step are dynamically imposed on the ends of the removed column within one millisecond [11] to simulate the removal of the columns, and dynamic analysis is conducted.. Comparison of analytical and experimental resultsThe maximum calculated vertical displacement of the building occurs at joint A3 in the second floor. Fig. 7 shows the experimental andanalytical (Model A) vertical displacements of this joint (the AEM results will be discussed in the next section). Experimental data is obtained using the recordings of three potentiometers attached to joint A3 on one of their ends, and to the ground on the other ends. The peak displacements obtained experimentally and analytically (Model A) are in mm) and in mm), respectively, which differ only by about 4%. The experimental and analytical times corresponding to peak displacement are s and s, respectively. The analytical results show a permanent displacement of about in mm), which is about 14% smaller than the corresponding experimental value of in mm).Fig. 8 compares vertical displacement histories of joint A3 in the second floor estimated analytically based on Models A and B. As can be seen, modeling infills with struts (Model B) results in a maximum vertical displacement of joint A3 equal to about in mm), which is approximately 80% larger than the value obtained from Model A. Note that the results obtained from Model A are in close agreement with experimental results (see Fig. 7), while Model B significantly overestimates the deformation of the structure. If the maximum vertical displacement were larger, the infill walls were more severely cracked and the struts were more completely formed, the difference between the results of the two models (Models A and B) would be smaller.Fig. 9 compares the experimental and analytical (Model A) displacement of joint A2 in the second floor. Again, while the first peak vertical displacement obtained experimentally and analytically are in good agreement, the analytical permanent displacement under estimates the experimental value.Analytically estimated deformed shapes of the structure at the maximumvertical displacement based on Model A are shown in Fig. 10 with a magnification factor of 200. The experimentally measured deformed shape over the end regions of beams A1–A2 and A3–B3 in the second floorare represented in the figure by solid lines. A total of 14 potentiometers were located at the top and bottom of the end regions of the second floor beams A1–A2 and A3–B3, which were the most critical elements in load redistribution. The beam top and corresponding bottom potentiometerrecordings were used to calculate rotation between the sections where the potentiometer ends were connected. This was done by first finding the difference between the recorded deformations at the top and bottom of the beam, and then dividing the value by the distance (along the height of the beam section) between the two potentiometers. The expected deformed shapes between the measured end regions of the second floor beams are shown by dashed lines. As can be seen in the figures, analytically estimated deformed shapes of the beams are in good agreement with experimentally obtained deformed shapes.Analytical results of Model A show that only two plastic hinges are formed indicating rebar yielding. Also, four sections that did not have negative (top) reinforcement, reached cracking moment capacities and therefore cracked. Fig. 10 shows the locations of all the formed plastic hinges and cracks.。

土木工程建筑外文翻译外文文献高层建筑的消防安全设计

土木工程建筑外文翻译外文文献高层建筑的消防安全设计Fire Safety Design for High-rise BuildingsKeywords: fire safety, high-rise buildings, means of escape, fire resistant materials, fire detection and alarm systems, fire suppression systems, fire risk assessment, emergency plans1. Introduction2. Means of Escape3. Fire Resistant Materials4. Fire Detection and Alarm SystemsEarly detection of a fire is crucial to allow for the safe evacuation of occupants. High-rise buildings should be equipped with fire detection and alarm systems, including smoke detectors, heat detectors, and manual call points. These systems should be interconnected and monitored to ensure prompt notification of a fire.5. Fire Suppression Systems6. Fire Risk AssessmentBefore occupancy, a fire risk assessment should be conducted to identify potential fire hazards and ensure appropriate fire safety measures are in place. This assessment should considerthe building's use, occupant load, and fire resistance ofconstruction materials. Regular fire risk assessments shouldalso be conducted to address any changes in building use or occupancy.7. Emergency PlansHigh-rise buildings should have well-defined emergency plans that outline the actions to be taken in the event of a fire. These plans should include procedures for evacuating occupants, contacting emergency services, and isolating fire-affected areas. Regular drills and training sessions should be conducted to familiarize occupants with the emergency procedures.8. ConclusionFire safety design is critical in high-rise buildings to protect the lives of occupants and minimize property damage. Designers and engineers should consider means of escape, fire resistant materials, fire detection and alarm systems, fire suppression systems, fire risk assessments, and emergency plans when designing a high-rise building. By implementing these measures effectively, the risk of fire-related incidents can be significantly reduced.。

土木外文翻译---高层建筑与钢结构

毕业设计外文资料翻译原文题目：Talling building and Steel construction译文题目：高层建筑与钢结构院系名称：土木建筑学院专业班级：土木工程0806班学生姓名：学号：指导教师：教师职称：副教授附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。

附件1：外文资料翻译译文高层建筑与钢结构摘要：近年来，尽管一般的建筑结构设计取得了很大的进步，但是取得显著成绩的还要属超高层建筑结构设计。

最初的高层建筑设计是从钢结构的设计开始的。

钢筋混凝土和受力外包钢筒系统运用起来是比较经济的系统，被有效地运用于大批的民用建筑和商业建筑中。

50层到100层的建筑被定义为超高层建筑。

而这种建筑在美国得到广泛的应用是由于新的结构系统的发展和创新。

关键词：高层建筑，结构设计，钢结构，发展创新，结构体系这样的高度需要增大柱和梁的尺寸，这样以来可以使建筑物更加坚固以至于在允许的限度范围内承受风荷载而不产生弯曲和倾斜。

过分的倾斜会导致建筑的隔离构件、顶棚以及其他建筑细部产生循环破坏。

除此之外，过大的摇动也会使建筑的使用者们因感觉到这样的的晃动而产生不舒服的感觉。

无论是钢筋混凝土结构系统还是钢结构系统都充分利用了整个建筑的刚度潜力，因此不能指望利用多余的刚度来限制侧向位移。

在钢结构系统设计中，经济预算是根据每平方英寸地板面积上的钢材的数量确定的。

钢结构中的体系：钢结构的高层建筑的发展是几种结构体系创新的结果。

这些创新的结构已经被广泛地应用于办公大楼和公寓建筑中。

刚性带式桁架的框架结构：为了联系框架结构的外柱和内部带式桁架，可以在建筑物的中间和顶部设置刚性带式桁架。

1974年在米望基建造的威斯康森银行大楼就是一个很好的例子。

框架筒结构：如果所有的构件都用某种方式互相联系在一起，整个建筑就像是从地面发射出的一个空心筒体或是一个刚性盒子一样。

这个时候此高层建筑的整个结构抵抗风荷载的所有强度和刚度将达到最大的效率。

这种特殊的结构体系首次被芝加哥的43层钢筋混凝土的德威特红棕色的公寓大楼所采用。

外文翻译---高层建筑及结构设计

外文翻译---高层建筑及结构设计High-rise XXX to define。

Generally。

a low-rise building is considered to be een 1 to 2 stories。

while a medium-rise building ranges from 3 or 4 stories up to 10 or 20 stories or more。

While the basic principles of vertical and horizontal subsystem design remain the same for low-。

medium-。

or high-rise buildings。

the vertical subsystems XXX high-XXX requiring larger columns。

walls。

XXX。

XXX.The design of high-rise buildings must take into account the unique XXX by their height and the need to withstand lateral forces such as wind and earthquakes。

One important aspect of high-rise design is the framework shear system。

XXX。

braced frames。

or XXX the appropriate system depends on the specific building characteristics and the seismicity of the n in which it is located.Another key n in high-rise design is the seismic system。

高层建筑外文翻译

土木工程外文翻译题目：高层建筑学院：兰州交通大学博文学院专业：土木工程班级：08级土木5班学号：学生姓名：指导教师：完成日期：2012年3月11号一、外文原文：Tall Building StructureTall buildings have fascinated mankind from the beginning of civilization, their construction being initially for defense and subsequently for ecclesiastical purposes. The growth in modern tall building construction, however, which began in the 1880s, has been largely for commercial and residential purposes.Tall commercial buildings are primarily a response to the demand by business activities to be as close to each other, and to the city center, as possible, thereby putting intense pressure on the available land space. Also, because they form distinctive landmarks, tall commercial buildings are frequently developed in city centers as prestige symbols for corporate organizations. Further, the business and tourist community, with its increasing mobility, has fuelled a need for more, frequently high-rise, city center hotel accommodations.The rapid growth of the urban population and the consequent pressure on limited space have considerably influenced city residential development. The high cost of land, the desire to avoid a continuous urban sprawl, and the need to preserve important agricultural production have all contributed to drive residential buildings upward.Ideally, in the early stages of planning a building, the entire design team, including the architect, structural engineer, and services engineer, should collaborate to agree on a form of structure to satisfy their respective requirements of function, safety and serviceability, and servicing. A compromise between conflicting demands will be almost inevitable. In all but the very tallest structures, however, the structural arrangement will be subservient to the architectural requirements of space arrangement and aesthetics.The two primary types of vertical load-resisting elements of tall buildings are columns and walls, the latter acting either independently as shear walls or in assemblies as shear wall cores. The building function will lead naturally to the provision of walls to divide and enclose space, and of cores to contain and conveyservices such as elevators. Columns will be provided, in otherwise unsupported regions, to transmit gravity loads and, in some types of structure, horizontal loads also.The inevitable primary function of the structural elements is to resist the gravity loading from the weight of the building and its contents. Since the loading on different floors tends to be similar, the weight of the floor system per unit floor area is approximately constant, regardless of the building height. Because the gravity load on the columns increases down the height of a building, the weight of columns per unit area increases approximately linearly with the building height.The highly probable second function of the vertical structural elements is to resist also the parasitic load caused by wind and possibly earthquakes, whose magnitudes will be obtained from National Building Codes or wind tunnel studies. The bending moments on the building caused by these lateral forces increase with at least the square of the height, and their effects will become progressively more important as the building height increases.Once the functional layout of the structure has been decided, the design process generally follows a well defined iterative procedure. Preliminary calculations for member sizes are usually based on gravity loading augmented by an arbitrary increment to account for wind forces. The cross-sectional areas of the vertical members will be based on the accumulated loadings from their associated tributary areas, with reductions to account for the probability that not all floors will be subjected simultaneously to their maximum live loading. The initial sizes of beams and slabs are normally based on moments and shears obtained from some simple method of gravity load analysis, or from codified mid and end span values. A check is then made on the maximum horizontal deflection, and the forces in the major structural members, using some rapid approximate analysis technique. If the deflection is excessive, or some of the members are inadequate, adjustments are made to the member sizes or the structural arrangement. If certain members attract excessive loads, the engineer may reduce their stiffness to redistribute the load to less heavily stressed components. The procedure of preliminary analysis, checking, andadjustment is repeated until a satisfactory solution is obtained.Invariably, alterations to the initial layout of the building will be required as the client's and architect's ideas of the building evolve. This will call for structural modifications, or perhaps a radical rearrangement, which necessitates a complete review of the structural design. The various preliminary stages may therefore have to be repeated a number of times before a final solution is reached.Speed of erection is a vital factor in obtaining a return on the investment involved in such large-scale projects. Most tall buildings are constructed in congested city sites, with difficult access; therefore careful planning and organization of the construction sequence become essential. The story-to-story uniformity of most multistory buildings encourages construction through repetitive operations and prefabrication techniques. Progress in the ability to build tall has gone hand in hand with the development of more efficient equipment and improved methods of construction.Earthquake FaultsThe origin of an earthquakeAn earthquake originates on a plane of weakness or a fracture in the earth's crust, termed a "fault". The earth on one side of the fault slides or slips horizontally and /or vertically with respect to the earth on the opposite side, and this generates a vibration that is transmitted outward in all directions. This vibration constitutes the earthquake.The earthquake generally originates deep within the earth at a point on the fault where the stress that produces the slip is a maximum. This point is called the hypocenter or focus and the point on the earth's surface directly above this point is called the epicenter. The main or greatest shock is usually followed by numerous smaller aftershocks. These aftershocks are produced by slippage at other points on the fault or in the fault zone.Types of earthquake faultsFaults are classified in accordance with the direction and nature of the relative displacement of the earth at the fault plane. Probably the most common type is the strike-slip fault in which the relative fault displacement is mainly horizontal across anessentially vertical fault plane. The great San Andreas fault in California is of the type. Another type is termed a normal fault — when the relative movement is in an upward an downward direction on a nearly vertical fault plane. The great Alaskan earthquake of 1964 was apparently of this type. A less common type is the thrust fault — when the earth is under compressive stress across the fault and the slippage is in an upward and downward direction along an inclined fault plane. The San Fernando earthquake was generated on what has usually been classified as a thrust fault, although there was about as much lateral slippage as up and down slippage due to thrust across the inclined fault plane. Some authorities refer to this combined action as lateral thrust faulting. The compressive strain in the earth of the San Fernando Valley floor just south of the thrust fault was evidenced in many places by buckled sidewalks and asphalt paving.Forces exerted by an earthquakeSlippage along the fault occurs suddenly. It is a release of stress that has gradually built-up in the rocks of the earth's crust. Although the vibrational movement of the earth during an earthquake is in all directions, the horizontal components are of chief importance to the structural engineer. These movements exert forces on a structure because they accelerate. This acceleration is simply a change in the velocity of the earth movement. Since the ground motion in an earthquake is vibratory, the acceleration and force that it exerts on a structure reverses in direction periodically, at short intervals of time.The structural engineer is interested in the force exerted on a body by the movement of the earth. This may be determined from Newton's second law of motion ' which may be stated in the following form:F=MaIn which F is a force that produces an acceleration a when acting on a body of mass M. This equation is nondimensional. For calculations M is set equal to W/g, then:F=W/g*a (1)In which F is in pounds, a is in feet per second per second, W is the weight of thebody also in pounds and g is the acceleration of gravity, which is 32.2 feet per second per second.Equation (1) is empirical. It simply states the experimental fact that for a free falling body the acceleration a is equal to g and the acceleration force F is then equal to the weight W.For convenience, the acceleration of an earthquake is generally expressed as a ratio to the acceleration of gravity. This ratio is called a seismic coefficient. The advantage of this system is that the force exerted on a body by acceleration is simply the corresponding seismic coefficient multiplied by the weight of the body. This is in accordance with Equation (1) in which a/g is the seismic coefficient.Activity of faultsAll faults are not considered to present the same hazard. Some are classified as "active" since it is believed that these faults may undergo movement from time to time in the immediate geologic future. Unfortunately in the present state-of-the-art there is a good deal of uncertainty in the identification of potentially active faults. For example, the fault that generated the San Fernando earthquake did not even appear on any published geological maps of the area. This fault was discovered to be active only when it actually slipped and ruptured the ground surface. Accordingly the identification of active faults and geologically hazardous areas for land use criteria and for hazard reduction by special engineering may be of questionable value.Only in very recent years have geologists begun to try to evaluate the potential activity of faults that have no historical record of activity. By close inspection of a fault, visible in the side walls of a trench that cuts across the fault, it is sometimes possible to determine if it has been active in recent times. For example, if the trace of the fault extends through a recent alluvial material, then there must have been slippage since that material was deposited. However fault ruptures may be very difficult or impossible to see in imbedded material such as sand and gravel. Also of course the location of the fault must be known and it must reach the surface of the ground in order to inspect it by trenching.Evidence of the historical activity of a fault may sometimes be obtained byobserving the faulting of geologically young deposits exposed in a trench. Such deposits are generally bedded and well consolidated so that fault rupture can easily be seen.The approximate time of formation of a fault rupture or scarp has in some cases been determined by radiocarbon analysis of pieces of wood found in the rupture or scarp.In addition to evidence of young fault activity obtained by trenching, there also may be topographic evidence of young faulting such as is obvious along the San Andreas fault. Vertical aerial photographs are one of the most important methods for finding topographic evidence of active faults. This evidence, which includes scarps, offset channels, depressions, and elongated ridges and valleys, is produced by fault activity. The age of these topographic features and therefore the time of the fault activity, can be estimated by the extent to which they are weathered and eroded.二、外文译文：高层建筑结构高楼大厦已经着迷，从人类文明的开始，其建设是国防和最初其后教会的目的。

Lesson 04 Tall Building(土木工程专业英语)

The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing．
高层建筑的早期发展始于结构的钢框架。
Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes．
钢筋混凝土和钢结构系统充分利用了整个建筑的固有的潜在的刚度，因此不需要额外的加强板来限制倾斜。
In a steel structure, for example, the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building.
过分的水平倾斜将导致隔板、天花板和其他建筑物细部的严重的复发性破坏。
In addition, excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because of their perception of such motion．
土木工程专业英语
Lesson 4 Tall Building 高层建筑
New words and phrases:
spectacular 壮观 sway 摇摆 residential 住宅 commercial 商业的 innovation 改革；革新 boundary 界限 eliminate 消除；淘汰 apartment 公寓 column 柱 demonstrate 示范；演示 project 项目 stress 应力

土木工程-毕业设计-论文-外文翻译-中英文对照

英文原文：Concrete structure reinforcement designSheyanb oⅠWangchenji aⅡⅠFoundation Engineering Co., Ltd. Heilongjiang DongyuⅡHeilongjiang Province, East Building Foundation Engineering Co., Ltd. CoalAbstract：structure in the long-term natural environment and under the use environment's function, its function is weaken inevitably gradually, our structural engineering's duty not just must finish the building earlier period the project work, but must be able the science appraisal structure damage objective law and the degree, and adopts the effective method guarantee structure the security use, that the structure reinforcement will become an important work. What may foresee will be the 21st century, the human building also by the concrete structure, the steel structure, the bricking-up structure and so on primarily, the present stage I will think us in the structure reinforcement this aspect research should also take this as the main breakthrough direction.Key word：Concrete structure reinforcement bricking-up structure reinforcement steel structure reinforcement1 Concrete structure reinforcementConcrete structure's reinforcement divides into the direct reinforcement and reinforces two kinds indirectly, when the design may act according to the actual condition and the operation requirements choice being suitable method and the necessary technology.1.1the direct reinforcement's general method1）Enlarges the section reinforcement lawAdds the concretes cast-in-place level in the reinforced concrete member in bending compression zone, may increase the section effective height, the expansion cross sectional area, thus enhances the component right section anti-curved, the oblique section anti-cuts ability and the section rigidity, plays the reinforcement reinforcement the role.In the suitable muscle scope, the concretes change curved the component right section supporting capacity increase along with the area of reinforcement and the intensity enhance. In the original component right section ratio of reinforcement not too high situation, increases the main reinforcement area to be possible to propose the plateau component right section anti-curved supporting capacity effectively. Is pulled in the section the area to add the cast-in-place concrete jacket to increase the component section, through new Canada partial and original component joint work, but enhances the component supporting capacity effectively, improvement normal operational performance.Enlarges the section reinforcement law construction craft simply, compatible, and has the mature design and the construction experience; Is suitable in Liang, the board, the column, the wall and the general structure concretes reinforcement; But scene construction's wet operating time is long, to produces has certain influence with the life, and after reinforcing the building clearance has certain reduction.2) Replacement concretes reinforcement lawThis law's merit with enlarges the method of sections to be close, and after reinforcing, does not affect building's clearance, but similar existence construction wet operating time long shortcoming; Is suitable somewhat low or has concretes carrier's and so on serious defect Liang, column in the compression zone concretes intensity reinforcement.3) the caking outsourcing section reinforcement lawOutside the Baotou Steel Factory reinforcement is wraps in the section or the steel plate is reinforced component's outside, outside the Baotou Steel Factory reinforces reinforced concrete Liang to use the wet outsourcing law generally, namely uses the epoxy resinification to be in the milk and so on methods with to reinforce the section the construction commission to cake a whole, after the reinforcement component, because is pulled with the compressed steel cross sectional area large scale enhancement, therefore right section supporting capacity and section rigidity large scale enhancement.This law also said that the wet outside Baotou Steel Factory reinforcement law, the stress is reliable, the construction is simple, the scene work load is small, but is big with the steel quantity, and uses in above not suitably 600C in the non-protection's situation the high temperature place; Is suitable does not allow in the use obviously to increase the original component section size, but requests to sharpen its bearing capacity large scale the concrete structure reinforcement.4) Sticks the steel reinforcement lawOutside the reinforced concrete member in bending sticks the steel reinforcement is (right section is pulled in the component supporting capacity insufficient sector area, right section compression zone or oblique section) the superficial glue steel plate, like this may enhance is reinforced component's supporting capacity, and constructs conveniently.This law construction is fast, the scene not wet work or only has the plastering and so on few wet works, to produces is small with the life influence, and after reinforcing, is not remarkable to the original structure outward appearance and the original clearance affects, but the reinforcement effect is decided to a great extent by the gummy craft and the operational level; Is suitable in the withstanding static function, and is in the normal humidity environment to bend or the tension member reinforcement.5) Glue fibre reinforcement plastic reinforcement lawOutside pastes the textile fiber reinforcement is pastes with the cementing material the fibre reinforcement compound materials in is reinforced the component to pull the region, causes it with to reinforce the section joint work, achieves sharpens the component bearing capacity the goal. Besides has glues the steel plate similar merit, but also has anticorrosive muddy, bears moistly, does not increase the self-weight of structure nearly, durably, the maintenance cost low status merit, but needs special fire protection processing, is suitable in each kind of stress nature concrete structure component and the general construction.This law's good and bad points with enlarge the method of sections to be close; Is suitable reinforcement which is insufficient in the concrete structure component oblique section supporting capacity, or must exert the crosswise binding force to the compressional member the situation.6) Reeling lawThis law's good and bad points with enlarge the method of sections to be close; Is suitable reinforcement which is insufficient in the concrete structure component oblique section supporting capacity, or must exert the crosswise binding force to the compressional member the situation.7) Fang bolt anchor lawThis law is suitable in the concretes intensity rank is the C20~C60 concretes load-bearing member transformation, the reinforcement; It is not suitable for already the above structure which and the light quality structure makes decent seriously. 1.2The indirect reinforcement's general method1)Pre-stressed reinforcement law(1)Thepre-stressed horizontal tension bar reinforces concretes member in bending,because the pre-stressed and increases the exterior load the combined action, in the tension bar has the axial tension, this strength eccentric transmits on the component through the pole end anchor (, when tension bar and Liang board bottom surface close fitting, tension bar can look for tune together with component, this fashion has partial pressures to transmit directly for component bottom surface), has the eccentric compression function in the component, this function has overcome the bending moment which outside the part the load produces, reduced outside the load effect, thus sharpened component's anti-curved ability. At the same time, because the tension bar passes to component's pressure function, the component crack development can alleviate, the control, the oblique section anti-to cut the supporting capacity also along with it enhancement.As a result of the horizontal lifting stem's function, the original component's section stress characteristic by received bends turned the eccentric compression, therefore, after the reinforcement, component's supporting capacity was mainly decided in bends under the condition the original component's supporting capacity 。

土木工程英文翻译高层结构与钢结构

外文原文：Talling building and Steel constructionAlthough there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general. Spectacular archievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing.Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes.The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structual systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit.Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions,ceilings.and other architectural details. In addition,excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because their perception of such motion.Structural systems of reinforced concrete,as well as steel,take full advantage of inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore require additional stiffening to limit the sway.In a steel structure,for example,the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building.Curve A in Fig .1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame.Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium.Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings.Frame with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses,a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building(1974) in Milwaukee.Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for both strength and stiffness,to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column element can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago. The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story World Trade Center building in New York Column-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with diagonal members interesting at the centre line of the columns and beams. This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Centre in Chicago, using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional 40-story building.Bundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or thecolumn-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The 110-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tube, bundled at the base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural con cept. The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft(442m), is the world’s tallest building.Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind and earthquake) and the control of drift (lateral building movement ) in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the façade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area.Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin façade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and less expensive. All the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapes,minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized. The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Mellon Bank Center in Pittburgh.Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive chanllenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings.Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building ,exterior columns were spaced at 5.5ft (1.68m) centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in . -thick (20-m) flat-plate concrete slabs.Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system (Fig .2), known as the tube-in-tube system , made it possible to design the world’s present tallest (714ft or 218m)lightweight concrete building ( the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston) for the unit price of a traditional shear wall structure of only 35 stories.Systems combining both concrete and steel have also been developed, an examle of which is the composite system developed by skidmore, Owings &Merril in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems. The 52-story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system.Steel construction refers to a broad range of building construction in which steel plays the leading role. Most steel construction consists of large-scale buildings or engineering works, with the steel generally in the form of beams, girders, bars, plates, and other members shaped through the hot-rolled process. Despite the increased use of other materials, steel construction remained a major outlet for the steel industries of the U.S, U.K, U.S.S.R, Japan, West German, France, and other steel producers in the 1970s.Early history. The history of steel construction begins paradoxically several decades before the introduction of the Bessemer and the Siemens-Martin (openj-hearth) processes made it possible toproduce steel in quantities sufficient for structure use. Many of problems of steel construction were studied earlier in connection with iron construction, which began with the Coalbrookdale Bridge, built in cast iron over the Severn River in England in 1777. This and subsequent iron bridge work, in addition to the construction of steam boilers and iron ship hulls , spurred the development of techniques for fabricating, designing, and jioning. The advantages of iron over masonry lay in the much smaller amounts of material required. The truss form, based on the resistance of the triangle to deformation, long used in timber, was translated effectively into iron, with cast iron being used for compression members-i.e, those bearing the weight of direct loading-and wrought iron being used for tension members-i.e, those bearing the pull of suspended loading.The technique for passing iron, heated to the plastic state, between rolls to form flat and rounded bars, was developed as early as 1800;by 1819 angle irons were rolled; and in 1849 the first I beams, 17.7 feet (5.4m) long , were fabricated as roof girders for a Paris railroad station.Two years later Joseph Paxton of England built the Crystal Palace for the London Exposition of 1851. He is said to have conceived the idea of cage construction-using relatively slender iron beams as a skeleton for the glass walls of a large, open structure. Resistance to wind forces in the Crystal palace was provided by diagonal iron rods. Two feature are particularly important in the history of metal construction; first, the use of latticed girder, which are small trusses, a form first developed in timber bridges and other structures and translated into metal by Paxton ; and second, the joining of wrought-iron tension members and cast-iron compression members by means of rivets inserted while hot.In 1853 the first metal floor beams were rolled for the Cooper Union Building in New York. In the light of the principal market demand for iron beams at the time, it is not surprising that the Cooper Union beams closely resembled railroad rails.The development of the Bessemer and Siemens-Martin processes in the 1850s and 1860s suddenly open the way to the use of steel for structural purpose. Stronger than iron in both tension and compression ,the newly available metal was seized on by imaginative engineers, notably by those involved in building the great number of heavy railroad bridges then in demand in Britain, Europe, and the U.S.A notable example was the Eads Bridge, also known as the St. Louis Bridge, in St. Louis (1867-1874), in which tubular steel ribs were used to form arches with a span of more than 500ft (152.5m). In Britain, the Firth of Forth cantilever bridge (1883-90) employed tubular struts, some 12 ft (3.66m) in diameter and 350 ft (107m) long. Such bridges and other structures were important in leading to the development and enforcement of standards and codification of permissible design stresses. The lack of adequate theoretical knowledge, and even of an adequate basis for theoretical studies, limited the value of stress analysis during the early years of the 20th century,as iccasionally failures,such as that of a cantilever bridge in Quebec in 1907,revealed.But failures were rare in the metal-skeleton office buildings;the simplicity of their design proved highly practical even in the absence of sophisticated analysis techniques. Throughout the first third of the century, ordinary carbon steel, without any special alloy strengthening or hardening, was universally used.The possibilities inherent in metal construction for high-rise building was demonstrated to the world by the Paris Exposition of 1889.for which Alexandre-Gustave Eiffel, a leading French bridge engineer, erected an openwork metal tower 300m (984 ft) high. Not only was the height-more than double that of the Great Pyramid-remarkable, but the speed of erection and low cost were even more so,a small crew completed the work in a few months.The first skyscrapers. Meantime, in the United States another important development was taking place. In 1884-85 Maj. William Le Baron Jenney, a Chicago engineer , had designed the Home Insurance Building, ten stories high, with a metal skeleton. Jenney’s beams were of Bessemer steel, though his columns were cast iron. Cast iron lintels supporting masonry over window openings were, in turn, supported on the cast iron columns. Soild masonry court and party walls provided lateral support against wind loading. Within a decade the same type of construction had been used in more than 30 office buildings in Chicago and New York. Steel played a larger and larger role in these , with riveted connections for beams and columns, sometimes strengthened for wind bracing by overlaying gusset plates at the junction of vertical and horizontal members. Light masonry curtain walls, supported at each floor level, replaced the old heavy masonry curtain walls, supported at each floor level , replaced the old heavy masonry.Though the new construction form was to remain centred almost entirely in America for several decade, its impact on the steel industry was worldwide. By the last years of the 19th century, the basic structural shapes-I beams up to 20 in. ( 0.508m) in depth and Z and T shapes of lesser proportions were readily available, to combine with plates of several widths and thicknesses to make efficient members of any required size and strength. In 1885 the heaviest structural shape produced through hot-rolling weighed less than 100 pounds (45 kilograms) per foot; decade by decade this figure rose until in the 1960s it exceeded 700 pounds (320 kilograms) per foot.Coincident with the introduction of structural steel came the introduction of the Otis electric elevator in 1889. The demonstration of a safe passenger elevator, together with that of a safe and economical steel construction method, sent building heights soaring. In New York the 286-ft (87.2-m) Flatiron Building of 1902 was surpassed in 1904 by the 375-ft (115-m) Times Building ( renamed the Allied Chemical Building) , the 468-ft (143-m) City Investing Company Building in Wall Street, the 612-ft (187-m) Singer Building (1908), the 700-ft (214-m) Metropolitan Tower (1909) and, in 1913, the 780-ft (232-m) Woolworth Building.The rapid increase in height and the height-to-width ratio brought problems. To limit street congestion, building setback design was prescribed. On the technical side, the problem of lateral support was studied. A diagonal bracing system, such as that used in the Eiffel Tower, was not architecturally desirable in offices relying on sunlight for illumination. The answer was found in greater reliance on the bending resistance of certain individual beams and columns strategically designed into the skeletn frame, together with a high degree of rigidity sought at the junction of the beams and columns. With today’s modern interior lighting sys tems, however, diagonal bracing against wind loads has returned; one notable example is the John Hancock Center in Chicago, where the external X-braces form a dramatic part of the structure’s façade.World War I brought an interruption to the boom in what had come to be called skyscrapers (the origin of the word is uncertain), but in the 1920s New York saw a resumption of the height race, culminating in the Empire State Building in the 1931. The Empi re State’s 102 stories (1,250ft. [381m]) were to keep it established as the hightest building in the world for the next 40 years. Its speed of the erection demonstrated how thoroughly the new construction technique had been mastered. A depot across the bay at Bayonne, N.J., supplied the girders by lighter and truck on a schedule operated with millitary precision; nine derricks powerde by electric hoists lifted the girders to position; an industrial-railway setup moved steel and other material on each floor. Initial connections were made bybolting , closely followed by riveting, followed by masonry and finishing. The entire job was completed in one year and 45 days.The worldwide depression of the 1930s and World War II provided another interruption to steel construction development, but at the same time the introduction of welding to replace riveting provided an important advance.Joining of steel parts by metal are welding had been successfully achieved by the end of the 19th century and was used in emergency ship repairs during World War I, but its application to construction was limited until after World War II. Another advance in the same area had been the introduction of high-strength bolts to replace rivets in field connections.Since the close of World War II, research in Europe, the U.S., and Japan has greatly extended knowledge of the behavior of different types of structural steel under varying stresses, including those exceeding the yield point, making possible more refined and systematic analysis. This in turn has led to the adoption of more liberal design codes in most countries, more imaginative design made possible by so-called plastic design ?The introduction of the computer by short-cutting tedious paperwork, made further advances and savings possible.高层结构与钢结构近年来，尽管一般的建筑结构设计取得了很大的进步，但是取得显著成绩的还要属超高层建筑结构设计。

土木工程毕业论文中英文翻译

外文翻译班级：xxx学号：xxx姓名：xxx一、外文原文：Structural Systems to resist lateral loads Commonly Used structural SystemsWith loads measured in tens of thousands kips, there is little room in the design of high-rise buildings for excessively complex thoughts. Indeed, the better high-rise buildings carry the universal traits of simplicity of thought and clarity of expression.It does not follow that there is no room for grand thoughts. Indeed, it is with such grand thoughts that the new family of high-rise buildings has evolved. Perhaps more important, the new concepts of but a few years ago have become commonplace in today’ s technology.Omitting some concepts that are related strictly to the materials of construction, the most commonly used structural systems used in high-rise buildings can be categorized as follows:1.Moment-resisting frames.2.Braced frames, including eccentrically braced frames.3.Shear walls, including steel plate shear walls.4.Tube-in-tube structures.5.Core-interactive structures.6.Cellular or bundled-tube systems.Particularly with the recent trend toward more complex forms, but in response also to the need for increased stiffness to resist the forces from wind and earthquake, most high-rise buildings have structural systems built up of combinations of frames, braced bents, shear walls, and related systems. Further, for the taller buildings, the majorities are composed of interactive elements in three-dimensional arrays.The method of combining these elements is the very essence of the design process for high-rise buildings. These combinations need evolve in response to environmental, functional, and cost considerations so as to provide efficient structures that provoke the architectural development to new heights. This is not to say that imaginative structural design can create great architecture. To the contrary, many examples of fine architecture have been created with only moderate support from the structural engineer, while only fine structure, not great architecture, can be developed without the genius and the leadership of a talented architect. In any event, the best of both is needed to formulate a truly extraordinary design of a high-rise building.While comprehensive discussions of these seven systems are generally available in the literature, further discussion is warranted here .The essence of the design process is distributed throughout the discussion.Moment-Resisting FramesPerhaps the most commonly used system in low-to medium-rise buildings, the moment-resisting frame, is characterized by linear horizontal and vertical members connected essentially rigidly at their joints. Such frames are used as a stand-alone system or in combination with other systems so as to provide the needed resistance to horizontal loads. In the taller of high-rise buildings, the system is likely to be found inappropriate for a stand-alone system, this because of the difficulty in mobilizing sufficient stiffness under lateral forces.Analysis can be accomplished by STRESS, STRUDL, or a host of other appropriate computer programs; analysis by the so-called portal method of the cantilever method has no place in today’s technology.Because of the intrinsic flexibility of the column/girder intersection, and because preliminary designs should aim to highlight weaknesses of systems, it is not unusual to use center-to-center dimensions for the frame in the preliminary analysis. Of course, in the latter phases of design, a realistic appraisal in-joint deformation is essential.Braced Frame sThe braced frame, intrinsically stiffer than the moment –resisting frame, finds also greater application to higher-rise buildings. The system is characterized by linear horizontal, vertical, and diagonal members, connected simply or rigidly at their joints. It is used commonly inconjunction with other systems for taller buildings and as a stand-alone system in low-to medium-rise buildings.While the use of structural steel in braced frames is common, concrete frames are more likely to be of the larger-scale variety.Of special interest in areas of high seismicity is the use of the eccentric braced frame.Again, analysis can be by STRESS, STRUDL, or any one of a series of two –or three dimensional analysis computer programs. And again, center-to-center dimensions are used commonly in the preliminary analysis. Shear wallsThe shear wall is yet another step forward along a progression of ever-stiffer structural systems. The system is characterized by relatively thin, generally but not always concrete elements that provide both structural strength and separation between building functions.In high-rise buildings, shear wall systems tend to have a relatively high aspect ratio, that is, their height tends to be large compared to their width. Lacking tension in the foundation system, any structural element is limited in its ability to resist overturning moment by the width of the system and by the gravity load supported by the element. Limited to a narrow overturning, One obvious use of the system, which does have the needed width, is in the exterior walls of building, where the requirement for windows is kept small.Structural steel shear walls, generally stiffened against buckling by a concrete overlay, have found application where shear loads are high. The system, intrinsically more economical than steel bracing, is particularly effective in carrying shear loads down through the taller floors in the areas immediately above grade. The system has the further advantage of having high ductility a feature of particular importance in areas of high seismicity.The analysis of shear wall systems is made complex because of the inevitable presence of large openings through these walls. Preliminary analysis can be by truss-analogy, by the finite element method, or by making use of a proprietary computer program designed to consider the interaction, or coupling, of shear walls.Framed or Braced TubesThe concept of the framed or braced or braced tube erupted into the technology with the IBM Building in Pittsburgh, but was followed immediately with the twin 110-story towers of the World Trade Center, New York and a number of other buildings .The system is characterized by three –dimensional frames, braced frames, or shear walls, forming a closed surface more or less cylindrical in nature, but of nearly any plan configuration. Because those columns that resist lateral forces are placed as far as possible from the cancroids of the system, the overall moment of inertia is increased and stiffness is very high.The analysis of tubular structures is done using three-dimensional concepts, or by two- dimensional analogy, where possible, whichever method is used, it must be capable of accounting for the effects of shear lag.The presence of shear lag, detected first in aircraft structures, is a serious limitation in the stiffness of framed tubes. The concept has limited recent applications of framed tubes to the shear of 60 stories. Designers have developed various techniques for reducing the effects of shear lag, most noticeably the use of belt trusses. This system finds application in buildings perhaps 40stories and higher. However, except for possible aesthetic considerations, belt trusses interfere with nearly every building function associated with the outside wall; the trusses are placed often at mechanical floors, mush to the disapproval of the designers of the mechanical systems. Nevertheless, as a cost-effective structural system, the belt truss works well and will likely find continued approval from designers. Numerous studies have sought to optimize the location of these trusses, with the optimum location very dependent on the number of trusses provided. Experience would indicate, however, that the location of these trusses is provided by the optimization of mechanical systems and by aesthetic considerations, as the economics of the structural system is not highly sensitive to belt truss location.Tube-in-Tube StructuresThe tubular framing system mobilizes every column in the exterior wallin resisting over-turning and shearing forces. The term‘tube-in-tube’is largely self-explanatory in that a second ring of columns, the ring surrounding the central service core of the building, is used as an inner framed or braced tube. The purpose of the second tube is to increase resistance to over turning and to increase lateral stiffness. The tubes need not be of the same character; that is, one tube could be framed, while the other could be braced.In considering this system, is important to understand clearly the difference between the shear and the flexural components of deflection, the terms being taken from beam analogy. In a framed tube, the shear component of deflection is associated with the bending deformation of columns and girders , the webs of the framed tube while the flexural component is associated with the axial shortening and lengthening of columns , the flanges of the framed tube. In a braced tube, the shear component of deflection is associated with the axial deformation of diagonals while the flexural component of deflection is associated with the axial shortening and lengthening of columns.Following beam analogy, if plane surfaces remain plane , the floor slabs,then axial stresses in the columns of the outer tube, being farther form the neutral axis, will be substantially larger than the axial stresses in the inner tube. However, in the tube-in-tube design, when optimized, the axial stresses in the inner ring of columns may be as high, or evenhigher, than the axial stresses in the outer ring. This seeming anomaly is associated with differences in the shearing component of stiffness between the two systems. This is easiest to under-stand where the inner tube is conceived as a braced , shear-stiff tube while the outer tube is conceived as a framed , shear-flexible tube.Core Interactive StructuresCore interactive structures are a special case of a tube-in-tube wherein the two tubes are coupled together with some form of three-dimensional space frame. Indeed, the system is used often wherein the shear stiffness of the outer tube is zero. The United States Steel Building, Pittsburgh, illustrates the system very well. Here, the inner tube is a braced frame, the outer tube has no shear stiffness, and the two systems are coupled if they were considered as systems passing in a straight line from the “hat” structure. Note that the exterior columns would be improperly modeled if they were considered as systems passing in a straight line from the “hat” to the foundations; these columns are perhaps 15% stiffer as they follow the elastic curve of the braced core. Note also that the axial forces associated with the lateral forces in the inner columns change from tension to compression over the height of the tube, with the inflection point at about 5/8 of the height of the tube. The outer columns, of course, carry the same axial force under lateral load for the full height of the columns because the columns because the shearstiffness of the system is close to zero.The space structures of outrigger girders or trusses, that connect the inner tube to the outer tube, are located often at several levels in the building. The AT&T headquarters is an example of an astonishing array of interactive elements:1.The structural system is 94 ft wide, 196ft long, and 601ft high.2.Two inner tubes are provided, each 31ft by 40 ft , centered 90 ft apartin the long direction of the building.3.The inner tubes are braced in the short direction, but with zero shearstiffness in the long direction.4.A single outer tube is supplied, which encircles the buildingperimeter.5.The outer tube is a moment-resisting frame, but with zero shearstiffness for the center50ft of each of the long sides.6.A space-truss hat structure is provided at the top of the building.7.A similar space truss is located near the bottom of the building8.The entire assembly is laterally supported at the base on twinsteel-plate tubes, because the shear stiffness of the outer tube goes to zero at the base of the building.Cellular structuresA classic example of a cellular structure is the Sears Tower, Chicago,a bundled tube structure of nine separate tubes. While the Sears Towercontains nine nearly identical tubes, the basic structural system has special application for buildings of irregular shape, as the several tubes need not be similar in plan shape, It is not uncommon that some of the individual tubes one of the strengths and one of the weaknesses of the system.This special weakness of this system, particularly in framed tubes, has to do with the concept of differential column shortening. The shortening of a column under load is given by the expression△=ΣfL/EFor buildings of 12 ft floor-to-floor distances and an average compressive stress of 15 ksi 138MPa, the shortening of a column under load is 15 1212/29,000 or per story. At 50 stories, the column will have shortened to in. 94mm less than its unstressed length. Where one cell of a bundled tube system is, say, 50stories high and an adjacent cell is, say, 100stories high, those columns near the boundary between .the two systems need to have this differential deflection reconciled.Major structural work has been found to be needed at such locations. In at least one building, the Rialto Project, Melbourne, the structural engineer found it necessary to vertically pre-stress the lower height columns so as to reconcile the differential deflections of columns in close proximity with the post-tensioning of the shorter column simulatingthe weight to be added on to adjacent, higher columns.二、原文翻译：抗侧向荷载的结构体系常用的结构体系若已测出荷载量达数千万磅重,那么在高层建筑设计中就没有多少可以进行极其复杂的构思余地了;确实,较好的高层建筑普遍具有构思简单、表现明晰的特点;这并不是说没有进行宏观构思的余地;实际上,正是因为有了这种宏观的构思,新奇的高层建筑体系才得以发展,可能更重要的是：几年以前才出现的一些新概念在今天的技术中已经变得平常了;如果忽略一些与建筑材料密切相关的概念不谈,高层建筑里最为常用的结构体系便可分为如下几类：1．抗弯矩框架;2．支撑框架,包括偏心支撑框架;3．剪力墙,包括钢板剪力墙;4．筒中框架;5．筒中筒结构;6．核心交互结构;7．框格体系或束筒体系;特别是由于最近趋向于更复杂的建筑形式,同时也需要增加刚度以抵抗几力和地震力,大多数高层建筑都具有由框架、支撑构架、剪力墙和相关体系相结合而构成的体系;而且,就较高的建筑物而言,大多数都是由交互式构件组成三维陈列;将这些构件结合起来的方法正是高层建筑设计方法的本质;其结合方式需要在考虑环境、功能和费用后再发展,以便提供促使建筑发展达到新高度的有效结构;这并不是说富于想象力的结构设计就能够创造出伟大建筑;正相反,有许多例优美的建筑仅得到结构工程师适当的支持就被创造出来了,然而,如果没有天赋甚厚的建筑师的创造力的指导,那么,得以发展的就只能是好的结构,并非是伟大的建筑;无论如何,要想创造出高层建筑真正非凡的设计,两者都需要最好的;虽然在文献中通常可以见到有关这七种体系的全面性讨论,但是在这里还值得进一步讨论;设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论;设计方法的本质贯穿于整个讨论中;抗弯矩框架抗弯矩框架也许是低,中高度的建筑中常用的体系,它具有线性水平构件和垂直构件在接头处基本刚接之特点;这种框架用作独立的体系,或者和其他体系结合起来使用,以便提供所需要水平荷载抵抗力;对于较高的高层建筑,可能会发现该本系不宜作为独立体系,这是因为在侧向力的作用下难以调动足够的刚度;我们可以利用STRESS,STRUDL 或者其他大量合适的计算机程序进行结构分析;所谓的门架法分析或悬臂法分析在当今的技术中无一席之地,由于柱梁节点固有柔性,并且由于初步设计应该力求突出体系的弱点,所以在初析中使用框架的中心距尺寸设计是司空惯的;当然,在设计的后期阶段,实际地评价结点的变形很有必要;支撑框架支撑框架实际上刚度比抗弯矩框架强,在高层建筑中也得到更广泛的应用;这种体系以其结点处铰接或则接的线性水平构件、垂直构件和斜撑构件而具特色,它通常与其他体系共同用于较高的建筑,并且作为一种独立的体系用在低、中高度的建筑中;尤其引人关注的是,在强震区使用偏心支撑框架;此外,可以利用STRESS,STRUDL,或一系列二维或三维计算机分析程序中的任何一种进行结构分析;另外,初步分析中常用中心距尺寸;剪力墙剪力墙在加强结构体系刚性的发展过程中又前进了一步;该体系的特点是具有相当薄的,通常是而不总是混凝土的构件,这种构件既可提供结构强度,又可提供建筑物功能上的分隔;在高层建筑中,剪力墙体系趋向于具有相对大的高宽经,即与宽度相比,其高度偏大;由于基础体系缺少应力,任何一种结构构件抗倾覆弯矩的能力都受到体系的宽度和构件承受的重力荷载的限制;由于剪力墙宽度狭狭窄受限,所以需要以某种方式加以扩大,以便提从所需的抗倾覆能力;在窗户需要量小的建筑物外墙中明显地使用了这种确有所需要宽度的体系;钢结构剪力墙通常由混凝土覆盖层来加强以抵抗失稳,这在剪切荷载大的地方已得到应用;这种体系实际上比钢支撑经济,对于使剪切荷载由位于地面正上方区域内比较高的楼层向下移特别有效;这种体系还具有高延性之优点,这种特性在强震区特别重要;由于这些墙内必然出同一些大孔,使得剪力墙体系分析变得错综复杂;可以通过桁架模似法、有限元法,或者通过利用为考虑剪力墙的交互作用或扭转功能设计的专门计处机程序进行初步分析框架或支撑式筒体结构：框架或支撑式筒体最先应用于IBM公司在Pittsburgh的一幢办公楼,随后立即被应用于纽约双子座的110层世界贸易中心摩天大楼和其他的建筑中;这种系统有以下几个显着的特征：三维结构、支撑式结构、或由剪力墙形成的一个性质上差不多是圆柱体的闭合曲面,但又有任意的平面构成;由于这些抵抗侧向荷载的柱子差不多都被设置在整个系统的中心,所以整体的惯性得到提高,刚度也是很大的;在可能的情况下,通过三维概念的应用、二维的类比,我们可以进行筒体结构的分析;不管应用那种方法,都必须考虑剪力滞后的影响;这种最先在航天器结构中研究的剪力滞后出现后,对筒体结构的刚度是一个很大的限制;这种观念已经影响了筒体结构在60层以上建筑中的应用;设计者已经开发出了很多的技术,用以减小剪力滞后的影响,这其中最有名的是桁架的应用;框架或支撑式筒体在40层或稍高的建筑中找到了自己的用武之地;除了一些美观的考虑外,桁架几乎很少涉及与外墙联系的每个建筑功能,而悬索一般设置在机械的地板上,这就令机械体系设计师们很不赞成;但是,作为一个性价比较好的结构体系,桁架能充分发挥它的性能,所以它会得到设计师们持续的支持;由于其最佳位置正取决于所提供的桁架的数量,因此很多研究已经试图完善这些构件的位置;实验表明：由于这种结构体系的经济性并不十分受桁架位置的影响,所以这些桁架的位置主要取决于机械系统的完善,审美的要求,筒中筒结构：筒体结构系统能使外墙中的柱具有灵活性,用以抵抗颠覆和剪切力;“筒中筒”这个名字顾名思义就是在建筑物的核心承重部分又被包围了第二层的一系列柱子,它们被当作是框架和支撑筒来使用;配置第二层柱的目的是增强抗颠覆能力和增大侧移刚度;这些筒体不是同样的功能,也就是说,有些筒体是结构的,而有些筒体是用来支撑的;在考虑这种筒体时,清楚的认识和区别变形的剪切和弯曲分量是很重要的,这源于对梁的对比分析;在结构筒中,剪切构件的偏角和柱、纵梁例如：结构筒中的网等的弯曲有关,同时,弯曲构件的偏角取决于柱子的轴心压缩和延伸例如：结构筒的边缘等;在支撑筒中,剪切构件的偏角和对角线的轴心变形有关,而弯曲构件的偏角则与柱子的轴心压缩和延伸有关;根据梁的对比分析,如果平面保持原形例如：厚楼板,那么外层筒中柱的轴心压力就会与中心筒柱的轴心压力相差甚远,而且稳定的大于中心筒;但是在筒中筒结构的设计中,当发展到极限时,内部轴心压力会很高的,甚至远远大于外部的柱子;这种反常的现象是由于两种体系中的剪切构件的刚度不同;这很容易去理解,内筒可以看成是一个支撑或者说是剪切刚性的筒,而外筒可以看成是一个结构或者说是剪切弹性的筒;核心交互式结构：核心交互式结构属于两个筒与某些形式的三维空间框架相配合的筒中筒特殊情况;事实上,这种体系常用于那种外筒剪切刚度为零的结构;位于Pittsburgh的美国钢铁大楼证实了这种体系是能很好的工作的;在核心交互式结构中,内筒是一个支撑结构,外筒没有任何剪切刚度,而且两种结构体系能通过一个空间结构或“帽”式结构共同起作用;需要指出的是,如果把外部的柱子看成是一种从“帽”到基础的直线体系,这将是不合适的；根据支撑核心的弹性曲线,这些柱子只发挥了刚度的15%;同样需要指出的是,内柱中与侧向力有关的轴向力沿筒高度由拉力变为压力,同时变化点位于筒高度的约5/8处;当然,外柱也传递相同的轴向力,这种轴向力低于作用在整个柱子高度的侧向荷载,因为这个体系的剪切刚度接近于零;把内外筒相连接的空间结构、悬臂梁或桁架经常遵照一些规范来布置;美国电话电报总局就是一个布置交互式构件的生动例子;1、结构体系长米,宽米,高米;2、布置了两个筒,每个筒的尺寸是米×米,在长方向上有米的间隔;3、在短方向上内筒被支撑起来,但是在长方向上没有剪切刚度;4、环绕着建筑物布置了一个外筒;5、外筒是一个瞬时抵抗结构,但是在每个长方向的中心米都没有剪切刚度;6、在建筑的顶部布置了一个空间桁架构成的“帽式”结构;7、在建筑的底部布置了一个相似的空间桁架结构;8、由于外筒的剪切刚度在建筑的底部接近零,整个建筑基本上由两个钢板筒来支持;框格体系或束筒体系结构：位于美国芝加哥的西尔斯大厦是箱式结构的经典之作,它由九个相互独立的筒组成的一个集中筒;由于西尔斯大厦包括九个几乎垂直的筒,而且筒在平面上无须相似,基本的结构体系在不规则形状的建筑中得到特别的应用;一些单个的筒高于建筑一点或很多是很常见的;事实上,这种体系的重要特征就在于它既有坚固的一面,也有脆弱的一面;这种体系的脆弱,特别是在结构筒中,与柱子的压缩变形有很大的关系,柱子的压缩变形有下式计算：△=ΣfL/E对于那些层高为米左右和平均压力为138MPa的建筑,在荷载作用下每层柱子的压缩变形为1512/29000或毫米;在第50层柱子会压缩94毫米,小于它未受压的长度;这些柱子在50层的时候和100层的时候的变形是不一样的,位于这两种体系之间接近于边缘的那些柱需要使这种不均匀的变形得以调解;主要的结构工作都集中在布置中;在Melbourne的Rialto项目中,结构工程师发现至少有一幢建筑,很有必要垂直预压低高度的柱子,以便使柱不均匀的变形差得以调解,调解的方法近似于后拉伸法,即较短的柱转移重量到较高的邻柱上;。

土木工程外文翻译—高层建筑结构的发展

Development of Structural Forms For Tall Buildings The first steps towards the modern multistory building appear to have been taken in the Bronge Age, with the appearance of the emergence of proper cities. Even today there appears to be an instrinc relationship between the tall building, and the city. Multistory buildings were considered a characteristic of ancient Rome, and four and five-story wooden tenement buildings were common. Those built after the great fire of Nero used the new burnt brick and concrete materials in the form of arch and barrel vault structures, which replaced the earlier post and lintel construction.Throughout the following centuries, the two basic materials used in building construction were timber and masonry, although the former lacked the strength required for buildings of more than about 16m in height, and always presented a fire hazard. The latter had the advantages of high compressive strength and fire resistance, but suffered from its high weight, which tended to overload the lower supports. The limits of this form of construction became apparent in 1891 in the16-story Monadnock Building in Chicago which required the lower walls to be over 2m thick, and was the last tall building in the city for which load-bearing masonry walls were employed.The socio-econormic problems which followed the industrialization of the 19th century, allied to the insatiable demand for space in the US cities, gave a big impetus to tall building construction. However, the growth could not have been sustained without two major technical innovations during the middle of that century, namely, the development of new higher strength and structurally more efficient materials, wrought iron and subsequently steel, and the introduction of the elevator to facilitate vertical transportation.The new material allowed the development of lightweight framed or skeletal structures, permitting greater heights and more and larger openings in the building. The forerunner of the steel frame which appeared in Chicago around 1890 may well have been a seven-story iron-framed Manchester cotton mill, built in 1801,in which the contemporary I-beam shape appears to have been used for the first time. The Crystal Palace, built for the London International Exhibition of 1851, used acompletely autonomous iron frame, with columns of cast iron and beams of cast or wrought iron. One of the notable features of this design was the large-scale approach towards mass-production techniques to facilitate fabrication and erection.Although the first elevator appeared in 1851, in a New York hotel, its potential in high-rise building was apparently not realized until its incorporation in the Equitable Life Insurance Company Building in New York in 1870. For the first time, this made the upper stories as attractive a renting proposition as the lower ones, and in so doing made the taller-than-average structure financially viable.Improved steel design methods and construction techniques allowedsteel-framed structure to grow steadily upwards, although progress slowed down during the period of the First World War. In 1909, the 50-story Metropolitan Tower Building. This golden age of American skyscraper construction culminated in 1931 in its crowning glory, the Empire State Building. Its 102 stories rose to a height of 381m which has now increased to 449m with the addition of a TV aerial. The building used 57000t (US) of structural steel, nearly 53500m of concrete, and was designed and built in the record time of 17 months.Although reinforced concrete construction began to be adopted seriously around the turn of the century, it dose not appear to have been used properly for multistory buildings until after the end of the First World War. The inherent advantages of the composite material were not at that time fully appreciated, and the early systems were developed purely as imitations of steel structures. An early landmark was the 16-story Ingalls Building in Cincinnatti, Ohio, (1903), which was not superseded until 1915 when the 19-story Medical Arts Building in Dallas was hailed as the word’s tallest reinforced concrete building. Thereafter, progress was slow and intermittent, and when the Empire State Building was completed, the Exchange Building in Seattle had attained a height of only 23 stories.The economic depression of the 1930s put an end to the great skyscraper era, and it was not until some years after the end of the Second World War that the construction of high-rise building recommend, bringing with it new structural and architectural solution. However, modern developments have produced new structural layouts, improved material qualities, and better design and construction techniques rather than significant increases in height.Design philosophies altered during the period of recession and war. The earliertall buildings were characterized by having heavy structural elements and being very stiff due to the high in-plane rigidities of the interior partitions and façade cladding with low areas of fenestrastion. However, modern office blocks tend to be characterized by light demountable partitions to aloe planning flexibility of occupancy, exterior glass curtain walls, and lighter sections as a result ofhigh-strength concrete and steel material, whilst non-load-bearing infills have give way to load-bearing walls which simultaneously divide and enclose space. As a result, much of the hidden reserve of the earlier buildings has disappeared, and the basic structure must now provide both the required strength and stiffness against vertical and lateral loads. Consequently, the last there decades have seen major changes in structural framing systems for tall building.The building frame was traditionally designed to resist the gravitational loads which are always present and form the reason for its very existence. These loads derive from the self-weight of the vertical and horizontal structural components, including the cladding, and the superimposed floor loadings. There will give rise to necessary minimum cross-sectional areas, based on allowable stress levels, for the vertical column and wall elements, in the design.In the past three decades, therefore, designers have sought to evolve structural systems which will reduce as far as possible the cost and weight of materials, while simultaneously fulfilling the primary building function. A suitable arrangement of the vertical column and wall elements, allied to the horizontal floor system, is required which will provide an economic method of resisting lateral forces and minimizing the additional height premium.Although the provision of load paths for gravitational forces is limited, there is considerable scope for organizing the structural system to resist lateral forces as efficiently as possible. This may be achieved by the judicious disposition of the vertical elements and their interconnection by horizontal structural components in order to resist moment by axial forces rather than bending moments in these vertical elements.In general, different structural systems have evolved for residential and office buildings have been constructed in which the two categories have been mixed, in a deliberate attempt to revitalize moribund city center areas.The basic functional requirement of a residential building is the provision ofdiscrete dwelling units for groups of individuals. These have common requirements of living, sleeping, cooking and toilet areas, which must be separated by partitions which offer fire and acoustic insulation between dwelling.Framed structures may be usefully employed for residential buildings, since the presence of permanent partitions allows the column layout to the correspond to the architectural plan. However, these depend on the rigidity of the joints for their resistance to lateral forces, and tend to become uneconomic at heights above 20-25 stories, depending on the overall dimensions, when wind forces begin to control the design, and it becomes increasingly difficult to meet stiffness requirements. Since their introduction in the late 1940s, shear walls, acting either independence or in the form of core assemblies, have been used extensively as additional stiffening elements for traditional frame structures.In order to provide adequate fire and acoustic insulation between dwellings, infill panels of brickwork or blockwork are introduced into the frames. Although techniques exist for assessing the influence of these infill panels on the strength and stiffness of the frame, they are generally assumed to be non-load-bearing, in view of the designer’s fear that they may be either removed or perforated for a change of function at some future date, as well as the difficulty of achieving a tight fit between an infill panel and the surrounding frame. Consequently, later trends were to utilize the walls which are required for space division in a structural context, and omit the relatively heavy infills which could not be employed in a load resisting capacity. This has led to the development of the shear wall building, in which structural walls are used to divide and enclose space, while simultaneously resisting both vertical and horizontal loads. These walls are generally of precast large panel or reinforced concrete in-situ construction, but concrete blockwork and brickwork have also been employed, allied to precast floor slab construction. Since the functional plan requires a large number of division walls between dwellings, it is frequently found that the minimum thickness required for fire and acoustic insulation will be adequate for structural requirements also.Functional requirements for this form of building have given rise to the slab block of cross-wall construction, in which horizontal movement of occupants is achieved by long corridors running along the length of the building, with apartments positioned on either side, or to point blocks in which apartments are grouped around the area ofvertical transportation, lifts and stairwells. In each case, the basic structure consists of orthogonal systems of shear walls, connected by floor slabs and perhaps lintel beams spanning across door, window or corridor openings, to form a stiff structure. Structural cores, which consist of assemblies of walls along their vertical edges to form open or partially closed box sections enclosing lift shafts and stair wells act as additional strong points in such buildings, and can play a major role in resisting lateral forces.In a design, the shear walls must be sufficiently stiff to meet the imposed deflection criterion, and in addition, should be so arranged that tensile stresses caused by wind forces are less than the compressive stresses produced by the weight of the building. A careful arrangement of walls can improve structural efficiency which consists of a series of cross-walls and two flank walls running across the width of the building. As a reasonable approximation, each wall will carry the vertical loads associated with the surrounding tributary area shown hatched in the figure, so that the compressive stresses in the cross walls will be roughly twice those in the flank walls, if they are of the same thickness, However, if all walls deflect equally under the action of the wind forces, as a result of the high in-plane rigidity of the floor slabs, the bending moment and associated stresses in each wall will be proportional respectively to its moment of inertia and section modulus. Consequently, the maximum tensile stresses in the flank walls will be roughly four times those in the cross-walls. The flank walls may then be subjected to unacceptable tensile stresses. A more efficient structure could be achieved by splitting each flank wall into two units, perhaps by forming an architectural feature by having them out of alignment. The flank walls would then be subjected to roughly the same wind moments as the cross-walls, and the tensile wind stresses reduced by a factor of more than four.Shear wall structures are well suited for resisting seismic loadings, and have performed well in recent disasters. They tend to become economical as soon as lateral forces affect the design and proportioning of flat plate or framed systems. However, they do possess the disadvantage of an inherent lack of flexibility for future modifications, while discontinuities are frequently required at the critical ground level area to provide a different architectural function on the ground floor, and special detailing becomes necessary.A relative recent innovation which is particularly suitable for residential blocks isthe staggered wall-beam system. The structure consists of a series of parallel bents, each comprising columns with perforated story-height walls between them, in alternate bays. Each wall panel acts in conjunction with, and supports, the slab above and below to form a composite I-beam. By this device, large clear areas are created on each floor, yet the floor slabs span only half the distance between adjacent wall beams, from the bottom of one to the top of the next. The wind shears are transmitted through the floor slabs from the wall beams on one story to shoes on the next. Similar systems are possible with staggered trusses rather than stagtered walls.The essential functional requirement of an office building is the provision of areas unobstructed as possible by walls or columns to allow each occupant to design the partitioning and space enclosure most suitable for his particular business organization. The partition layout will generally alter when tenants change, and this necessitates flexibility in the distribution of the various services to any particular floor. As a result, services tend to be carried vertically within one or more service cores, and a distribution network run beneath the structural floor slab to the entire floor area.By judicious planning of the column layout to maximize the open floor areas, shear wall-frame interactive structures may also be employed for office blocks, although the presence of the columns may make it difficult to achieve the desired planning flexibility.Possibly the simplest method of creating open floor areas is to use a central concrete shear core, which carries all essential services and which is designed to resist all lateral forces. The floor system spans between the central core and the exteriorfaçade columns, and a large unobstructed floor area is created between the two vertical components. The exterior columns can be designed to be effectivelypin-connected at each floor level, so that they transmit vertical forces only, in conjunction with the interior core. These exterior columns are frequently precast to form a sculptured façade. Another possibility is to provide a core at each end, especially if the building is slender. However, in order to support the floor slabs in the interior, it is then necessary to provide a spine beam running between the cores, which will require additional supporting interior columns. If the floor spans are long, it may become economic to introduce additional columns in the interior to reduce the span of the slabs.In some situations, a different architectural arrangement is desired at groundlevel, which precludes the columns being taken right down to ground level. In that case, heavy cantilevers are required to collect the column loads from the levels above and transmit then to the central core.An alternative approach is to introduce a roof truss in either prestressed concrete or steel construction, at the top of the core. The floor slabs may then be supported between the core and a system of steel hangers suspended from the roof truss. The system has the architectural advantage of lightness of façade, and can simplify construction on a congested city site. The core may be slipformed, and the floor slabs cast on site and simply hoisted into position. However, there is the inherent structural disadvantage that the core is subjected to the entire weight of the building , compressive forces are high at roof level, and settlement may pose problems. Intermediate level trusses will assist in carrying the external tie forces and reduce the extensions of the hangers.A further increase in lateral stiffness can be achieved if the central core or shear wall system is tied to the exterior columns by deep (usually story height) flexural members or trusses at the top and possibly at other intermediate levels. The effect of these connections is to create an overall framed system, which mobilizes the axial stiffness of the exterior columns to resist wind forces. The objective is to cause the structure to act more as a vertical cantilever beam, and so resist the wind by axial forces in, rather than by bending of. The larger lever arm involved ensures that large moments of resistance may be produced by relatively low column forces.The first reinforced concrete building to utilize this concept was the 51-story Place Victoria Building in Montreal (1964) , in which an X-shaped core is linked at four levels by story-high graders to the massive corner columns.As building become taller, the use of a core on its own to resist lateral forces will lead to unusually large cores, occupying too large a ratio of a given floor area, and leading to uneconomic solutions. The efficiency can be increased substantially if the outer façade is replaced by a rigidly-jointed framework, which can be used to resist lateral as well as vertical forces. The outer shell then acts effectively as a closedbox-like structure, whose faces are formed of rigidly-jointed frame panels, or as a highly perforated tube, whose cross-sectional shape is maintained by the floor slabs acting as horizontal diaphragms.A combination of the framed-tube concept with the shear wall-frame interactionconcept yields the structural from termed the tube-in tube system, in which an exterior closely spaced column system is constrained by the floor slabs to act in collaboration with a very stiff shear core enclosing the central service area. The first design application of this form of shear wall-frame interactive behaviour appears to have been in the 38-story Brunswick Building in Chicago, completed in 1962. In this case, the lateral forces are resisted by both the interior core and outer framed tube, in proportion to their stiffnesses. The large lever arm involved between opposite normal faces of the exterior tube give rise to an efficient moment-resisting structure, akin to an ordinary tubular structural component.While the system is very useful in the creation of flexible spaces in office buildings, it is less suitable for very tall apartment buildings. An alternative solution using the framed-tube concept was devised first for the 43-story De Witt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago in 1965. In this case, the exterior columns were closely spaced at 1.68m centres and, when rigidly connected to 600mm deep spandrel beams, gave rise to a relatively stiff exterior perforated tube which was designed to resist all wind forces. A system of interior columns at approximately 6m spacing was provided to support the flat plate type of floor construction. The closely spaced exterior columns in this form of construction allow simpler methods of fixing the window glazing directly to the columns themselves.The closely-spaced columns in a framed tube may pose problems in gaining across to the building at ground level, and some structural rearrangement may be necessary in that region. Several columns may be run into one at regular intervals, as in the World Trade Center, or a deep girder may be provided at first-floor level to transfer column forces to more widely spaced first-floor columns.The pure framed tube has the disadvantage that under bending action, a considerable degree of shear lag occurs in the faces normal to the wind, as a result of the flexibility of the spandrel beams. This has the effect of increasing the stresses in the corner columns, and of reducing those in the inner columns of the normal panels, and results in a loss of efficiency in the desired pure tubular action of the structure. Warping of the floor slabs, and consequently deformations of interior partitions and secondary structure will occur, which may become of importance in design.One technique which has been employed to help overcome this problem is to add substantial diagonal bracing members in the planes of the exterior frames. Theexterior columns may then be more widely spaced, and the diagonals, aligned at some 45°to the vertical, serve to tie together the exterior columns and spandrel beams to form façade trusses. Consequently, a very rigid cantilever tube is produced. The diagonals, however, pose their own special problems in the design of the curtain wall system. Although the technique has been used only in steel construction so far, there appears to be no intrinsic reason why it should not be a feasible solution for tall concrete structures.For very tall buildings, the shear lag effect may be greatly reduced by adding additional interior web panels across the entire width of the building in each direction to form a modular tube or bundled-tube system. The additional stiffening of the structure produced by the interior webs increase the local stress levels at the exterior frame junction and thereby reduces substantially the nonuniformity of column forces caused by shear lag. The structure may be regarded as a set of modular tubes which are interconnected with common panels to form a perforated multi-cell tube, in which the frames in the wind direction resist the wind shears. The system is such that modules can be omitted at different heights to reduce the cross-section and still maintain the structural integrity. Any torsion arising from the resulting unsymmetry is readily resisted by the closed-sectional form of the modules.The best known example of this form of construction is the 109-story, 442m high, Sears Tower in Chicago, the world’s tallest building. Completed in 1974, the basic cross-sectional shape consists of nine 22.86m square modular tubes, for an overall floor area 68.58m square, which continues up to the 50th floor. Step backs, produced by a termination of one or more of the modular tubes, then occur at floor 50, 66 and 90, creating a variety of floor configurations.An alternative possibility, yielding the same general form of structural behaviour, is to use shear walls to form the interior webs of the framed tube and create an alternative form of multi-cellular construction. This approach has been adopted for the 74-story, 262m high Water Tower Place Building, Chicago (1976), the world’s tallest concrete building. The 64-story tower which rises from a 12-story base is a slender tube of cross–sectional dimensions 67×29m which is bisected by an internal transverse perforated shear wall to form a two-cell structure. The building is amulti-purpose one and encompasses an hotel and apartments in addition to office space.译文：高层建筑结构的发展建筑的出现应该追溯到青铜器时代，伴随着真正的城市的出现，房子也出现了两层的。

土木工程专业外文翻译--高层建筑可编辑

土木工程专业外文翻译--高层建筑外文原文Tall Buildings Although there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general, spectacular achievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing. Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes. The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structural systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limitExcessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions, ceilings, and other architectural details. In addition, excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because of their perception of such motion. Structural systems of reinforced concrete, as well as steel, take full advantage of the inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore do notrequire additional stiffening to limit the sway In a steel structure, for example, the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building. Curve A in Fig. 1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame; Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium Systems in steelTall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings Frames with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses, a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building 1974 in Milwaukee Framed tube. The imum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for both strength and stiffness, to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column elements can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut ApartmentBuilding in Chicago. The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story World Trade Center building in New York Column-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with. Diagonal members intersecting at the center line of the columns and beams. This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Center in Chicago, using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional story buildingFig. 1. Graphical relationship between design quantities of steel and building heights for a typical building frameCurves A and B correspond to the boundary conditions indicated in the two building diagrams. 1 psf 0. 048kPaBundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The i10-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tubes, bundled at tile base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft 442 m, is the world's tallest buildingStressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces wind or earthquake and the control of driftlateral building movement in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the facade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor areaBecause of the contribution of the stressed-skin facade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and less expensive. All the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapes, minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized. The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Mellon Bank Center in Pittsburgh Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive challenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building, exterior columns were spaced at 5.5-ft 1.68-m centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in.-thick 20-cm flat-plate concrete slabs Tube in tube. Anothersystem in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system Fig.2, known as the tube-in-tube system, made it possible to design the world's present tallest 714 ft or 218m lightweight concrete Building in Houstonfor structure of only 35 s oriel building the unit 52?story One Shell Plaza of a traditional shear wall Systems compiling both concrete and steel have also been developed,an example of which is the composite system developed by Skidmore,Owings & Merrill in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing,thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structuralsteel systems.The 52?story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system.NEW WORDS AND PHRASES1.spectacular 壮观的,惊人的,引人注意的2.sway 摇动,摇摆,歪,使倾斜3.residential 居住的,住宅的,作住家用的4mercial 商业的,商业上的,商务的5.innovation 革新,创新,新方法,新事物6.boundary 分界线,边界7.eliminate 排除,消除,除去8.apartment 公寓住宅,单元住宅9.column 柱,支柱,圆柱,柱状物10.demonstrate 示范,证明,演示,11.project 凸出,投射,计划,工程12.stress 应力,压力13.truss 构架,桁架14.bundle 捆,束,包15.terminate 使终止,使结尾,结束16.facade 房屋的/E面,立面,表面17.perimeter 周,周围,周界,周长18.encroach 侵犯,侵占,蚕食19.high?rise building 高层建筑20.reinforced concrete 钢筋混凝土21.spandrel beam 窗下墙的墙托梁22.shear wall 剪力墙中文译文高层建筑大体上建筑施工工艺学方面已经有许多进步, 在超高层的设计和施工上已经取得了惊人的成就。

建筑土木毕业设计中英文翻译建筑及高层建筑的组成

建筑土木毕业设计中英文翻译--建筑及高层建筑的组成英文原文Components of A Building and Tall BuildingsAndre1. AbstractMaterials and structural forms are combined to make up the various parts of a building, including the load-carrying frame, skin, floors, and partitions. The building also has mechanical and electrical systems, such as elevators, heating and cooling systems, and lighting systems. The superstructure is that part of a building above ground, and the substructure and foundation is that part of a building below ground.The skyscraper owes its existence to two developments of the 19th century: steel skeleton construction and the passenger elevator. Steel as a construction material dates from the introduction of the Bessemer converter in 1885.Gustave Eiffel (1832-1932) introduced steel construction in France. His designs for the Galerie des Machines and the Tower for the Paris Exposition of 1889 expressed the lightness of the steel framework. The Eiffel Tower, 984 feet (300 meters) high, was the tallest structure built by man and was not surpassed until 40 years later by a series of American skyscrapers.Elisha Otis installed the first elevator in a department store in New York in 1857.In 1889, Eiffel installed the first elevators on a grand scale in the Eiffel Tower, whose hydraulic elevators could transport 2,350 passengers to the summit every hour.2. Load-Carrying FrameUntil the late 19th century, the exterior walls of a building were used as bearing walls to support the floors. This construction is essentially a post and lintel type, and it is still used in frame construction for houses. Bearing-wall construction limited the height of building because of the enormous wall thickness required；for instance, the 16-s tory Monadnock Building built in the 1880’s in Chicago had walls 5 feet (1.5 meters) thick at the lower floors. In 1883, William Le Baron Jenney (1832-1907) supported floors on cast-iron columns to form a cage-like construction. Skeleton construction, consisting of steel beams and columns, was firstused in 1889. As a consequence of skeleton construction, the enclosing walls become a “curtain wall” rather than serving a supporting function. Masonry was the curtain wall material until the 1930’s, when light metal and glass curtain walls were used. After the introduction of buildings continued to increase rapidly.All tall buildings were built with a skeleton of steel until World War Ⅱ. After the war, the shortage of steel and the improved quality of concrete led to tall building being built of reinforced concrete. Marina Tower (1962) in Chicago is the tallest concrete building in the United States；its height—588 feet (179 meters)—is exceeded by the 650-foot (198-meter) Post Office Tower in London and by other towers.A change in attitude about skyscraper construction has brought a return to the use of the bearing wall. In New York City, the Columbia Broadcasting System Building, designed by Eero Saarinen in 1962,has a perimeter wall consisting of 5-foot (1.5meter) wide concrete columns spaced 10 feet (3 meters) from column center to center. This perimeter wall, in effect, constitutes a bearing wall. One reason for this trend is that stiffness against the action of wind can be economically obtained by using the walls of the building as a tube；the World Trade Center building is another example of this tube approach. In contrast, rigid frames or vertical trusses are usually provided to give lateral stability.3. SkinThe skin of a building consists of both transparent elements (windows) and opaque elements (walls). Windows are traditionally glass, although plastics are being used, especially in schools where breakage creates a maintenance problem. The wall elements, which are used to cover the structure and are supported by it, are built of a variety of materials: brick, precast concrete, stone, opaque glass, plastics, steel, and aluminum. Wood is used mainly in house construction；it is not generally used for commercial, industrial, or public building because of the fire hazard.4. FloorsThe construction of the floors in a building depends on the basic structural frame that is used. In steel skeleton construction, floors are either slabs of concrete resting on steel beams or a deck consisting of corrugated steel with a concrete topping. In concrete construction, the floors are either slabs of concrete on concrete beams or a series of closely spaced concrete beams (ribs) in two directions toppedwith a thin concrete slab, giving the appearance of a waffle on its underside. The kind of floor that is used depends on the span between supporting columns or walls and the function of the space. In an apartment building, for instance, where walls and columns are spaced at 12 to 18 feet (3.7 to 5.5 meters), the most popular construction is a solid concrete slab with no beams. The underside of the slab serves as the ceiling for the space below it. Corrugated steel decks are often used in office buildings because the corrugations, when enclosed by another sheet of metal, form ducts for telephone and electrical lines.5. Mechanical and Electrical SystemsA modern building not only contains the space for which it is intended (office, classroom, apartment) but also contains ancillary space for mechanical and electrical systems that help to provide a comfortable environment. These ancillary spaces in a skyscraper office building may constitute 25% of the total building area. The importance of heating, ventilating, electrical, and plumbing systems in an office building is shown by the fact that 40% of the construction budget is allocated to them. Because of the increased use of sealed building with windows that cannot be opened, elaborate mechanical systems are provided for ventilation and air conditioning. Ducts and pipes carry fresh air from central fan rooms and air conditioning machinery. The ceiling, which is suspended below the upper floor construction, conceals the ductwork and contains the lighting units. Electrical wiring for power and for telephone communication may also be located in this ceiling space or may be buried in the floor construction in pipes or conduits.There have been attempts to incorporate the mechanical and electrical systems into the architecture of building by frankly expressing them；for example, the American Republic Insurance Company Building(1965) in Des Moines, Iowa, exposes both the ducts and the floor structure in an organized and elegant pattern and dispenses with the suspended ceiling. This type of approach makes it possible to reduce the cost of the building and permits innovations, such as in the span of the structure.6. Soils and FoundationsAll building are supported on the ground, and therefore the nature of the soil becomes an extremely important consideration in the design of any building. The design of a foundation dependson many soil factors, such as type of soil, soil stratification, thickness of soillavers and their compaction, and groundwater conditions. Soils rarely have a single composition；they generally are mixtures in layers of varying thickness. For evaluation, soils are graded according to particle size, which increases from silt to clay to sand to gravel to rock. In general, the larger particle soils will support heavier loads than the smaller ones. The hardest rock can support loads up to 100 tons per square foot(976.5 metric tons/sq meter), but the softest silt can support a load of only 0.25 ton per square foot(2.44 metric tons/sq meter). All soils beneath the surface are in a state of compaction；that is, they are under a pressure that is equal to the weight of the soil column above it. Many soils (except for most sands and gavels) exhibit elastic properties—they deform when compressed under load and rebound when the load is removed. The elasticity of soils is often time-dependent, that is, deformations of the soil occur over a length of time which may vary from minutes to years after a load is imposed. Over a period of time, a building may settle if it imposes a load on the soil greater than the natural compaction weight of the soil. Conversely, a building may heave if it imposes loads on the soil smaller than the natural compaction weight. The soil may also flow under the weight of a building；that is, it tends to be squeezed out.Due to both the compaction and flow effects, buildings tend settle. Uneven settlements, exemplified by the leaning towers in Pisa and Bologna, can have damaging effects—the building may lean, walls and partitions may crack, windows and doors may become inoperative, and, in the extreme, a building may collapse. Uniform settlements are not so serious, although extreme conditions, such as those in Mexico City, can have serious consequences. Over the past 100 years, a change in the groundwater level there has caused some buildings to settle more than 10 feet (3 meters). Because such movements can occur during and after construction, careful analysis of the behavior of soils under a building is vital.The great variability of soils has led to a variety of solutions to the foundation problem. Wherefirm soil exists close to the surface, the simplest solution is to rest columns on a small slab of concrete(spread footing). Where the soil is softer, it is necessary to spread the column load over a greater area；in this case, a continuous slab of concrete(raft or mat) under the whole building is used. In cases where the soil near the surface is unable to support the weight of the building, piles of wood, steel, or concrete are driven down to firm soil.The construction of a building proceeds naturally from the foundation up to the superstructure. The design process, however, proceeds from the roof down to the foundation (in the direction of gravity). In the past, the foundation was not subject to systematic investigation. A scientific approach to the design of foundations has been developed in the 20th century. Karl Terzaghi of the United States pioneered studies that made it possible to make accurate predictions of the behavior of foundations, using the science of soil mechanics coupled with exploration and testing procedures. Foundation failures of the past, such as the classical example of the leaning tower in Pisa, have become almost nonexistent. Foundations still are a hidden but costly part of many buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing. Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes. The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structural systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit. Excessive lateral sway may causeserious recurring damage to partitions, ceilings, and other architectural details. In addition, excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because of their perception of such motion. Structural systems of reinforced concrete, as well as steel, take full advantage of the inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore do not require additional stiffening to limit the sway.中文译文建筑及高层建筑的组成安得烈1 摘要材料和结构类型是构成建筑物各方面的组成部分，这些部分包括承重结构、围护结构、楼地面和隔墙。

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外文原文Tall BuildingsAlthough there have been many advancements in building construction technology in general, spectacular achievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing. Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes. The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structural systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit. Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions, ceilings, and other architectural details. In addition, excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because of their perception of such motion. Structural systems of reinforced concrete, as well as steel, take full advantage of the inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore do not require additional stiffening to limit the sway.In a steel structure, for example, the economy can be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building. Curve A in Fig. 1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame; Structural engineers have developed structural systems with a view to eliminating this premium.Systems in steel. Tall buildings in steel developed as a result of several types of structural innovations. The innovations have been applied to the construction of both office and apartment buildings.Frames with rigid belt trusses. In order to tie the exterior columns of a frame structure to the interior vertical trusses, a system of rigid belt trusses at mid-height and at the top of the building may be used. A good example of this system is the First Wisconsin Bank Building (1974) in Milwaukee.Framed tube. The maximum efficiency of the total structure of a tall building, for bothstrength and stiffness, to resist wind load can be achieved only if all column elements can be connected to each other in such a way that the entire building acts as a hollow tube or rigid box in projecting out of the ground. This particular structural system was probably used for the first time in the 43-story reinforced concrete DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building in Chicago. The most significant use of this system is in the twin structural steel towers of the 110-story World Trade Center building in New York.Column-diagonal truss tube. The exterior columns of a building can be spaced reasonably far apart and yet be made to work together as a tube by connecting them with. Diagonal members intersecting at the center line of the columns and beams. This simple yet extremely efficient system was used for the first time on the John Hancock Center in Chicago, using as much steel as is normally needed for a traditional story building.Fig. 1. Graphical relationship between design quantities of steel and building heights for a typical building frame. Curves A and B correspond to the boundary conditions indicated in the two building diagrams. 1 psf = 0. 048kPa.Bundled tube. With the continuing need for larger and taller buildings, the framed tube or the column-diagonal truss tube may be used in a bundled form to create larger tube envelopes while maintaining high efficiency. The i10-story Sears Roebuck Headquarters Building in Chicago has nine tubes, bundled at tile base of the building in three rows. Some of these individual tubes terminate at different heights of the building, demonstrating the unlimited architectural possibilities of this latest structural concept. The Sears tower, at a height of 1450 ft (442 m), is the world's tallest building.Stressed-skin tube system. The tube structural system was developed for improving the resistance to lateral forces (wind or earthquake) and the control of drift (lateral building movement) in high-rise building. The stressed-skin tube takes the tube system a step further. The development of the stressed-skin tube utilizes the facade of the building as a structural element which acts with the framed tube, thus providing an efficient way of resisting lateral loads in high-rise buildings, and resulting in cost-effective column-free interior space with a high ratio of net to gross floor area.Because of the contribution of the stressed-skin facade, the framed members of the tube require less mass, and are thus lighter and less expensive. All the typical columns and spandrel beams are standard rolled shapes, minimizing the use and cost of special built-up members. The depth requirement for the perimeter spandrel beams is also reduced, and the need for upset beams above floors, which would encroach on valuable space, is minimized.The structural system has been used on the 54-story One Mellon Bank Center in Pittsburgh.Systems in concrete. While tall buildings constructed of steel had an early start, development of tall buildings of reinforced concrete progressed at a fast enough rate to provide a competitive challenge to structural steel systems for both office and apartment buildings.Framed tube. As discussed above, the first framed tube concept for tall buildings was used for the 43-story DeWitt Chestnut Apartment Building. In this building, exterior columns were spaced at 5.5-ft (1.68-m) centers, and interior columns were used as needed to support the 8-in.-thick (20-cm) flat-plate concrete slabs.Tube in tube. Another system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid shear wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system (Fig.2), known as the tube-in-tube system, made it possible to design the world's present tallest (714 ft or 218m) lightweight concrete Building in Houston)for structure of only 35 s oriel building the unit 52 —story One Shell Plaza of a traditional shear wallSystems compiling both concrete and steel have also been developed ，an example of which is the composite system developed by Skidmore ，Owings & Merrill in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing ，thereby combining the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structuralsteel systems．The 52—story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system．NEW WORDS AND PHRASES1．spectacular 壮观的，惊人的，引人注意的2．sway 摇动，摇摆，歪，使倾斜3．residential 居住的，住宅的，作住家用的4．commercial 商业的，商业上的，商务的5．innovation 革新，创新，新方法，新事物6．boundary 分界线，边界7．eliminate 排除，消除，除去8．apartment 公寓住宅，单元住宅9．column 柱，支柱，圆柱，柱状物10．demonstrate 示范，证明，演示，11．project 凸出，投射，计划，工程12．stress 应力，压力13．truss 构架，桁架14．bundle 捆，束，包15．terminate 使终止，使结尾，结束16．facade （房屋的）／E 面，立面，表面17．perimeter 周，周围，周界，周长18．encroach 侵犯，侵占，蚕食19. high • rise building 高层建筑20．reinforced concrete 钢筋混凝土21 . spandrel beam 窗下墙的墙托梁22. shear wall 剪力墙中文译文高层建筑大体上建筑施工工艺学方面已经有许多进步, 在超高层的设计和施工上已经取得了惊人的成就。

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