土木工程专业英语翻译第五篇
完整版土木工程专业英语课文原文及对照翻译
Civil EngineeringCivil engineering, the oldest of the engineering specialties, is the planning, design, construction, and management of the built environment. This environment includes all structures built according to scientific principles, from irrigation and drainage systems to rocket-launching facilities.土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。
此处的环境包括建筑吻合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。
Civil engineers build roads, bridges, tunnels, dams, harbors, power plants, water and sewage systems, hospitals, schools, mass transit, and other public facilities essential to modern society and large population concentrations. They also build privately owned facilities such as airports, railroads, pipelines, skyscrapers, and other large structures designed for industrial, commercial, or residential use. In addition, civil engineers plan, design, and build complete cities and towns, and more recently have been planning and designing space platforms to house self-contained communities.土木工程师建筑道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。
土木工程专业英语翻译
a common way to construct steel truss and prestressed concrete cantilever spans is to counterbalance each cantilever arm with another cantilever arm projecting the opposite direction,forming a balanced cantilever. they attach to a solid foundation ,the counterbalancing arms are called anchor arms /thus,in a bridge built on two foundation piers,there are four cantilever arms ,two which span the obstacle,and two anchor arms which extend away from the obstacle,because of the need for more strength at the balanced cantilever's supports ,the bridge superstructure often takes the form of towers above the foundation piers .the commodore barry bridge is an example of this type of cantilever bridge一种常见的方法构造钢桁架和预应力混凝土悬臂跨度是每一个悬臂抗衡预测相反的方向臂悬臂，形成一个平衡的悬臂。
他们重视了坚实的基础，制约武器被称为锚武器/因此，在两个基础上建一座桥桥墩，有四个悬臂式武器，这两者之间跨越的障碍，和两个锚武器哪个延长距离的障碍，因为为更多的在平衡悬臂的支持力量的需要，桥梁上部结构往往表现为塔墩基础之上形成的准将巴里大桥是这种类型的例子悬臂桥steel truss cantilever support loads by tension of the upper members and compression of the lower ones .commonly ,the structure distributes teh tension via teh anchor arms to the outermost supports ,while the compression is carried to the foundation beneath teh central towers .many truss cantilever bridges use pinned joints and are therefore statically determinate with no members carrying mixed loads钢桁架悬臂由上层成员和下层的紧张压缩支持负载。
土木工程专业英语(带翻译)
State-of-the-art report of bridge health monitoring AbstractThe damage diagnosis and healthmonitoring of bridge structures are active areas of research in recent years. Comparing with the aerospace engineering and mechanical engineering, civil engineering has the specialities of its own in practice. For example, because bridges, as well as most civil engineering structures, are large in size, and have quite lownatural frequencies and vibration levels, at low amplitudes, the dynamic responses of bridge structure are substantially affected by the nonstructural components, unforeseen environmental conditions, and changes in these components can easily to be confused with structural damage.All these give the damage assessment of complex structures such as bridges a still challenging task for bridge engineers. This paper firstly presents the definition of structural healthmonitoring system and its components. Then, the focus of the discussion is placed on the following sections:①the laboratory and field testing research on the damage assessment;②analytical developments of damage detectionmethods, including (a) signature analysis and pattern recognition approaches, (b) model updating and system identification approaches, (c) neural networks approaches; and③sensors and their optimum placements. The predominance and shortcomings of each method are compared and analyzed. Recent examples of implementation of structural health monitoring and damage identification are summarized in this paper. The key problem of bridge healthmonitoring is damage automatic detection and diagnosis, and it is the most difficult problem. Lastly, research and development needs are addressed.1 IntroductionDue to a wide variety of unforeseen conditions and circumstance, it will never be possible or practical to design and build a structure that has a zero percent probability of failure. Structural aging, environmental conditions, and reuse are examples of circumstances that could affect the reliability and thelife of a structure. There are needs of periodic inspections to detect deterioration resulting from normal operation and environmental attack or inspections following extreme events, such as strong-motion earthquakes or hurricanes. To quantify these system performance measures requires some means to monitor and evaluate the integrity of civil structureswhile in service. Since the Aloha Boeing 737 accident that occurred on April 28, 1988, such interest has fostered research in the areas of structural health monitoring and non-destructive damage detection in recent years.According to Housner, et al. (1997), structural healthmonitoring is defined as“the use ofin-situ,non-destructive sensing and analysis of structural characteristics, including the structural response, for detecting changes that may indicate damage or degradation”[1]. This definition also identifies the weakness. While researchers have attempted the integration of NDEwith healthmonitoring, the focus has been on data collection, not evaluation. What is needed is an efficient method to collect data from a structure in-service and process the data to evaluate key performance measures, such as serviceability, reliability, and durability. So, the definition byHousner, et al.(1997)should be modified and the structural health monitoring may be defined as“the use ofin-situ,nondestructive sensing and analysis of structural characteristics, including the structural response, for the purpose of identifying if damage has occurred, determining the location of damage, estimatingthe severityof damage and evaluatingthe consequences of damage on the structures”(Fig.1). In general, a structural health monitoring system has the potential to provide both damage detection and condition assessment of a structure.Assessing the structural conditionwithout removingthe individual structural components is known as nondestructive evaluation (NDE) or nondestructive inspection. NDE techniques include those involving acoustics, dye penetrating,eddy current, emission spectroscopy, fiber-optic sensors, fiber-scope, hardness testing, isotope, leak testing, optics, magnetic particles, magnetic perturbation, X-ray, noise measurements, pattern recognition, pulse-echo, ra-diography, and visual inspection, etc. Mostof thesetechniques have been used successfullyto detect location of certain elements, cracks orweld defects, corrosion/erosion, and so on. The FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA, USA)was sponsoring a large program of research and development in new technologies for the nondestructive evaluation of highway bridges. One of the two main objectives of the program is to develop newtools and techniques to solve specific problems. The other is to develop technologies for the quantitative assessment of the condition of bridges in support of bridge management and to investigate howbest to incorporate quantitative condition information into bridge management systems. They hoped to develop technologies to quickly, efficiently, and quantitatively measure global bridge parameters, such as flexibility and load-carrying capacity. Obviously, a combination of several NDE techniques may be used to help assess the condition of the system. They are very important to obtain the data-base for the bridge evaluation.But it is beyond the scope of this review report to get into details of local NDE.Health monitoring techniques may be classified as global and local. Global attempts to simultaneously assess the condition of the whole structure whereas local methods focus NDE tools on specific structural components. Clearly, two approaches are complementaryto eachother. All such available informationmaybe combined and analyzed by experts to assess the damage or safety state of the structure.Structural health monitoring research can be categorized into the following four levels: (I) detecting the existence of damage, (II) findingthe location of damage, (III) estimatingthe extentof damage, and (IV) predictingthe remaining fatigue life. The performance of tasks of Level (III) requires refined structural models and analyses, local physical examination, and/or traditional NDE techniques. To performtasks ofLevel (IV) requires material constitutive information on a local level, materials aging studies, damage mechanics, and high-performance computing. With improved instrumentation and understanding of dynamics of complex structures, health monitoring and damage assessment of civil engineering structures has become more practical in systematic inspection andevaluation of these structures during the past two decades.Most structural health monitoringmethods under current investigation focus on using dynamic responses to detect and locate damage because they are global methods that can provide rapid inspection of large structural systems.These dynamics-based methods can be divided into fourgroups:①spatial-domain methods,②modal-domain methods,③time-domain methods, and④frequency- domain methods. Spatial-domain methods use changes of mass, damping, and stiffness matrices to detect and locate damage. Modal-domain methods use changes of natural frequencies, modal damping ratios, andmode shapesto detect damage. In the frequency domain method, modal quantities such as natural frequencies, damping ratio, and model shapes are identified.The reverse dynamic systemof spectral analysis and the generalized frequency response function estimated fromthe nonlinear auto-regressive moving average (NARMA) model were applied in nonlinear system identification. In time domainmethod, systemparameterswere determined fromthe observational data sampled in time. It is necessaryto identifythe time variation of systemdynamic characteristics fromtime domain approach if the properties of structural system changewith time under the external loading condition. Moreover, one can use model-independent methods or model-referenced methods to perform damage detection using dynamic responses presented in any of the four domains. Literature shows that model independent methods can detect the existence of damage without much computational efforts, butthey are not accurate in locating damage. On the otherhand, model-referencedmethods are generally more accurate in locating damage and require fewer sensors than model-independent techniques, but they require appropriate structural models and significant computational efforts. Although time-domain methods use original time-domain datameasured using conventional vibrationmeasurement equipment, theyrequire certain structural information and massive computation and are case sensitive. Furthermore, frequency- and modal-domain methods use transformed data,which contain errors and noise due totransformation.Moreover, themodeling and updatingofmass and stiffnessmatrices in spatial-domain methods are problematic and difficult to be accurate. There are strong developmenttrends that two or three methods are combined together to detect and assess structural damages.For example, several researchers combined data of static and modal tests to assess damages. The combination could remove the weakness of each method and check each other. It suits the complexity of damage detection.Structural health monitoring is also an active area of research in aerospace engineering, but there are significant differences among the aerospace engineering, mechanical engineering, and civil engineering in practice. For example,because bridges, as well as most civil engineering structures, are large in size, and have quite lownatural frequencies and vibration levels, at lowamplitudes, the dynamic responses of bridge structure are substantially affected by the non-structural components, and changes in these components can easily to be confused with structural damage. Moreover,the level of modeling uncertainties in reinforced concrete bridges can be much greater than the single beam or a space truss. All these give the damage assessment of complex structures such as bridges a still challenging task for bridge engineers. Recent examples of research and implementation of structural health monitoring and damage assessment are summarized in the following sections.2 Laboratory and field testing researchIn general, there are two kinds of bridge testing methods, static testing and dynamic testing. The dynamic testing includes ambient vibration testing and forced vibration testing. In ambient vibration testing, the input excitation is not under the control. The loading could be either micro-tremors, wind, waves, vehicle or pedestrian traffic or any other service loading. The increasing popularity of this method is probably due to the convenience of measuring the vibrationresponse while the bridge is under in-service and also due to the increasing availability of robust data acquisition and storage systems. Since the input is unknown, certain assumptions have to be made. Forced vibration testing involves application of input excitation of known force level at known frequencies. The excitation manners include electro-hydraulic vibrators, forcehammers, vehicle impact, etc. The static testing in the laboratory may be conducted by actuators, and by standard vehicles in the field-testing.we can distinguish that①the models in the laboratory are mainly beams, columns, truss and/or frame structures, and the location and severity of damage in the models are determined in advance;②the testing has demonstrated lots of performances of damage structures;③the field-testing and damage assessmentof real bridges are more complicated than the models in the laboratory;④the correlation between the damage indicator and damage type,location, and extentwill still be improved.3 Analytical developmentThe bridge damage diagnosis and health monitoring are both concerned with two fundamental criteria of the bridges, namely, the physical condition and the structural function. In terms of mechanics or dynamics, these fundamental criteria can be treated as mathematical models, such as response models, modal models and physical models.Instead of taking measurements directly to assess bridge condition, the bridge damage diagnosis and monitoring systemevaluate these conditions indirectly by using mathematical models. The damage diagnosis and health monitoring are active areas of research in recentyears. For example, numerous papers on these topics appear in the proceedings of Inter-national Modal Analysis Conferences (IMAC) each year, in the proceedings of International Workshop on Structural HealthMonitoring (once of two year, at Standford University), in the proceedings of European Conference on Smart materials and Structures and European Conference on Structural Damage AssessmentUsing Advanced Signal Processing Procedures, in the proceedings ofWorld Conferences of Earthquake Engineering, and in the proceedings of International Workshop on Structural Control, etc.. There are several review papers to be referenced, for examples,Housner, et al. (1997)provided an extensive summary of the state of the art in control and health monitoring of civil engineering structures[1].Salawu (1997)discussed and reviewed the use of natural frequency as a diagnostic parameter in structural assessment procedures using vibrationmonitoring.Doebling, Farrar, et al. (1998)presented a through review of the damage detection methods by examining changes in dynamic properties.Zou, TongandSteven (2000)summarized the methods of vibration-based damage and health monitoring for composite structures, especially in delamination modeling techniques and delamination detection.4 Sensors and optimum placementOne of the problems facing structural health monitoring is that very little is known about the actual stress and strains in a structure under external excitations. For example, the standard earthquake recordings are made ofmotions of the floors of the structure and no recordings are made of the actual stresses and strains in structural members. There is a need for special sensors to determine the actual performance of structural members. Structural health monitoring requires integrated sensor functionality to measure changes in external environmental conditions, signal processing functionality to acquire, process, and combine multi-sensor and multi-measured information. Individual sensors and instrumented sensor systems are then required to provide such multiplexed information.FuandMoosa (2000)proposed probabilistic advancing cross-diagnosis method to diagnosis-decision making for structural health monitoring. It was experimented in the laboratory respectively using a coherent laser radar system and a CCD high-resolution camera. Results showed that this method was promising for field application. Another new idea is thatneural networktechniques are used to place sensors. For example,WordenandBurrows (2001)used the neural network and methods of combinatorial optimization to locate and classify faults.The static and dynamic data are collected from all kinds of sensorswhich are installed on the measured structures.And these datawill be processed and usable informationwill be extracted. So the sensitivity, accuracy, and locations,etc. of sensors are very important for the damage detections. The more information are obtained, the damage identification will be conducted more easily, but the price should be considered. That’s why the sensors are determinedin an optimal ornearoptimal distribution. In aword, the theory and validation ofoptimumsensor locationswill still being developed.5 Examples of health monitoring implementationIn order for the technology to advance sufficiently to become an operational system for the maintenance and safety of civil structures, it is of paramount importance that new analytical developments are ultimately verified with appropriate data obtained frommonitoring systems, which have been implemented on civil structures, such as bridges.Mufti (2001)summarized the applications of SHM of Canadian bridge engineering, including fibre-reinforced polymers sensors, remote monitoring, intelligent processing, practical applications in bridge engineering, and technology utilization. Further study and applications are still being conducted now.FujinoandAbe(2001)introduced the research and development of SHMsystems at the Bridge and Structural Lab of the University of Tokyo. They also presented the ambient vibration based approaches forLaser DopplerVibrometer (LDV) and the applications in the long-span suspension bridges.The extraction of the measured data is very hard work because it is hard to separate changes in vibration signature duo to damage form changes, normal usage, changes in boundary conditions, or the release of the connection joints.Newbridges offer opportunities for developing complete structural health monitoring systems for bridge inspection and condition evaluation from“cradle to grave”of the bridges. Existing bridges provide challenges for applying state-of-the-art in structural health monitoring technologies to determine the current conditions of the structural element,connections and systems, to formulate model for estimating the rate of degradation, and to predict the existing and the future capacities of the structural components and systems. Advanced health monitoring systems may lead to better understanding of structural behavior and significant improvements of design, as well as the reduction of the structural inspection requirements. Great benefits due to the introduction of SHM are being accepted by owners, managers, bridge engineers,etc..6 Research and development needsMost damage detection theories and practices are formulated based on the following assumption: that failure or deterioration would primarily affect the stiffness and therefore affect the modal characteristics of the dynamic response of the structure. This is seldom true in practice, because①Traditional modal parameters (natural frequency, damping ratio and mode shapes, etc.) are not sensitive enough to identify and locate damage. The estimation methods usually assume that structures are linear and proportional damping systems.②Most currently used damage indices depend on the severity of the damage, which is impractical in the field. Most civil engineering structures, such as highway bridges, have redundancy in design and large in size with low natural frequencies. Any damage index should consider these factors.③Scaledmodelingtechniques are used in currentbridge damage detection. Asingle beam/girder models cannot simulate the true behavior of a real bridge. Similitude laws for dynamic simulation and testing should be considered.④Manymethods usually use the undamaged structural modal parameters as the baseline comparedwith the damaged information. This will result in the need of a large data storage capacity for complex structures. But in practice,there are majority of existing structures for which baseline modal responses are not available. Only one developed method(StubbsandKim (1996)), which tried to quantify damagewithout using a baseline, may be a solution to this difficulty. There is a lot of researchwork to do in this direction.⑤Seldommethods have the ability to distinguish the type of damages on bridge structures. To establish the direct relationship between the various damage patterns and the changes of vibrational signatures is not a simple work.Health monitoring requires clearly defined performance criteria, a set of corresponding condition indicators and global and local damage and deterioration indices, which should help diagnose reasons for changes in condition indicators. It is implausible to expect that damage can be reliably detected or tracked byusing a single damage index. We note that many additional localized damage indiceswhich relate to highly localized properties ofmaterials or the circumstances may indicate a susceptibility of deterioration such as the presence of corrosive environments around reinforcing steel in concrete, should be also integrated into the health monitoring systems.There is now a considerable research and development effort in academia, industry, and management department regarding global healthmonitoring for civil engineering structures. Several commercial structural monitoring systems currently exist, but further development is needed in commercialization of the technology. We must realize that damage detection and health monitoring for bridge structures by means of vibration signature analysis is a very difficult task. Itcontains several necessary steps, including defining indicators on variations of structural physical condition, dynamic testing to extract such indication parameters, defining the type of damages and remaining capacity or life of the structure, relating the parameters to the defined damage/aging. Unfortunately, to date, no one has accomplished the above steps. There is a lot of work to do in future.桥梁健康监测应用与研究现状摘要桥梁损伤诊断与健康监测是近年来国际上的研究热点,在实践方面,土木工程和航空航天工程、机械工程有明显的差别,比如桥梁结构以及其他大多数土木结构,尺寸大、质量重,具有较低的自然频率和振动水平,桥梁结构的动力响应极容易受到不可预见的环境状态、非结构构件等的影响,这些变化往往被误解为结构的损伤,这使得桥梁这类复杂结构的损伤评估具有极大的挑战性.本文首先给出了结构健康监测系统的定义和基本构成,然后集中回顾和分析了如下几个方面的问题:①损伤评估的室内实验和现场测试;②损伤检测方法的发展,包括:(a)动力指纹分析和模式识别方法, (b)模型修正和系统识别方法, (c)神经网络方法;③传感器及其优化布置等,并比较和分析了各自方法的优点和不足.文中还总结了健康监测和损伤识别在桥梁工程中的应用,指出桥梁健康监测的关键问题在于损伤的自动检测和诊断,这也是困难的问题;最后展望了桥梁健康监测系统的研究和发展方向.关键词:健康监测系统;损伤检测;状态评估;模型修正;系统识别;传感器优化布置;神经网络方法;桥梁结构1概述由于不可预见的各种条件和情况下，设计和建造一个结构将永远不可能或无实践操作性，它有一个失败的概率百分之零。
土木工程专业英语翻译
土木工程专业英语翻译第一篇：土木工程专业英语翻译1.第一课土木工程，这个最古老的工程专业，是指对被建设环境的规划、设计、建筑和管理。
这个环境包括按科学原理所建的一切结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设备。
土木工程师们修路、建桥、打隧道，木工程师始终（将介词throughout转译成副词）都要充分利用计算机。
用计算机来设计工程的各要素（计算机辅助设计CAD）且用计算机来管理这个工程项目。
对于现代土木工程师而言，计算机是必备的工具，因为它们允许工程师高效建水坝，海港，发电厂，供水排水系统，建医院，学校，公共交通设施和其他公共设施实质上就是要建设现代化社会和大量人口集中地。
他们也建设私有的设施，例如：机场，铁路，管线，摩天大楼，和其他大型建筑物，它们设计用于工业，商业和居住等用途。
此外，土木工程师规划，设计和建设完整的城市和乡镇，近年来，已经在规划和设计空间平台来构建自给自足型社区。
2.土木这个词来源于拉丁文，原意是市民。
1782年，英国人JohnSmeaton用这个术语将非军事工程工作从在当时占绝大多数的军事工程师所人事的工程工作中区别开来。
从那以后，土木工程这个词常常用于表示建设公用设施的工程师们所人事的工作，尽管这个领域要宽广得多。
3.范围：因为它的面太广，所以土木工程被分成许多技术专业。
各专业的土木工程专家所需要的技能取决于工程项目的类型。
当一个项目开始时，场地被土木工程师所测绘，他们给定给水排水设施和电力线路的实际位置。
岩土工程专家们完成土壤实验来确定地基是否能承受工程项目的自重。
环境专家们研究项目对当地的影响：潜在的空气和地下水资源的污染，工程项目对当地动植物的影响，为满足保护环境的管理要求，怎样才能把工程项目设计好。
4.对于任何一个给定的工程项目，土地处理大量的用来制定工程最佳施工方法的数据。
5.结构工程.在这个专业中，土木工程师计划和设计各种各样的结构，包括桥，水坝，发电厂，设备的支柱，海岸工程的特殊结构，美国空间项目，发射塔，巨大的天文射电望远镜，和许多种其它的工程项目。
土木工程专业英语(带翻译)
State-of-the-art report of bridge health monitoring AbstractThe damage diagnosis and healthmonitoring of bridge structures are active areas of research in recent years. Comparing with the aerospace engineering and mechanical engineering, civil engineering has the specialities of its own in practice. For example, because bridges, as well as most civil engineering structures, are large in size, and have quite lownatural frequencies and vibration levels, at low amplitudes, the dynamic responses of bridge structure are substantially affected by the nonstructural components, unforeseen environmental conditions, and changes in these components can easily to be confused with structural damage.All these give the damage assessment of complex structures such as bridges a still challenging task for bridge engineers. This paper firstly presents the definition of structural healthmonitoring system and its components. Then, the focus of the discussion is placed on the following sections:①the laboratory and field testing research on the damage assessment;②analytical developments of damage detectionmethods, including (a) signature analysis and pattern recognition approaches, (b) model updating and system identification approaches, (c) neural networks approaches; and③sensors and their optimum placements. The predominance and shortcomings of each method are compared and analyzed. Recent examples of implementation of structural health monitoring and damage identification are summarized in this paper. The key problem of bridge healthmonitoring is damage automatic detection and diagnosis, and it is the most difficult problem. Lastly, research and development needs are addressed.1 IntroductionDue to a wide variety of unforeseen conditions and circumstance, it will never be possible or practical to design and build a structure that has a zero percent probability of failure. Structural aging, environmental conditions, and reuse are examples of circumstances that could affect the reliability and the life of a structure. There are needs of periodic inspections to detect deterioration resulting from normal operation and environmental attack or inspections following extreme events, such as strong-motion earthquakes or hurricanes. To quantify these system performance measures requires some means to monitor and evaluate the integrity of civil structureswhile in service. Since the Aloha Boeing 737 accident that occurred on April28, 1988, such interest has fostered research in the areas of structural health monitoring and non-destructive damage detection in recent years.According to Housner, et al. (1997), structural healthmonitoring is defined as“the use ofin-situ,non-destructive sensing and analysis of structural characteristics, including the structural response, for detecting changes that may indicate damage or degradation”[1]. This definition also identifies the weakness. While researchers have attempted the integration of NDEwith healthmonitoring, the focus has been on data collection, not evaluation. What is needed is an efficient method to collect data from a structure in-service and process the data to evaluate key performance measures, such as serviceability, reliability, and durability. So, the definition byHousner, et al.(1997)should be modified and the structural health monitoring may be defined as“the use ofin-situ,nondestructive sensing and analysis of structural characteristics, including the structural response, for the purpose of identifying if damage has occurred, determining the location of damage, estimatingthe severityof damage and evaluatingthe consequences of damage on the structures”(Fig.1). In general, a structural health monitoring system has the potential to provide both damage detection and condition assessment of a structure.Assessing the structural conditionwithout removingthe individual structural components is known as nondestructive evaluation (NDE) or nondestructive inspection. NDE techniques include those involving acoustics, dye penetrating,eddy current, emission spectroscopy, fiber-optic sensors, fiber-scope, hardness testing, isotope, leak testing, optics, magnetic particles, magnetic perturbation, X-ray, noise measurements, pattern recognition, pulse-echo, ra-diography, and visual inspection, etc. Mostof these techniques have been used successfullyto detect location of certain elements, cracks orweld defects, corrosion/erosion, and so on. The FederalHighwayAdministration(FHWA, USA)was sponsoring a large program of research and development in new technologies for the nondestructive evaluation of highway bridges. One of the two main objectives of the program is to develop newtools and techniques to solve specific problems. The other is to develop technologies for the quantitative assessment of the condition of bridges in support of bridge management and to investigate howbest to incorporate quantitative condition information into bridge management systems. They hoped to develop technologies to quickly, efficiently, and quantitatively measure global bridge parameters, such as flexibility and load-carrying capacity. Obviously, a combination of several NDEtechniques may be used to help assess the condition of the system. They are very important to obtain the data-base for the bridge evaluation.But it is beyond the scope of this review report to get into details of local NDE.Health monitoring techniques may be classified as global and local. Global attempts to simultaneously assess the condition of the whole structure whereas local methods focus NDE tools on specific structural components. Clearly, two approaches are complementaryto eachother. All such available informationmaybe combined and analyzed by experts to assess the damage or safety state of the structure.Structural health monitoring research can be categorized into the following four levels: (I) detecting the existence of damage, (II) findingthe location of damage, (III) estimatingthe extentof damage, and (IV) predictingthe remaining fatigue life. The performance of tasks of Level (III) requires refined structural models and analyses, local physical examination, and/or traditional NDE techniques. To performtasks ofLevel (IV) requires material constitutive information on a local level, materials aging studies, damage mechanics, and high-performance computing. With improved instrumentation and understanding of dynamics of complex structures, health monitoring and damage assessment of civil engineering structures has become more practical in systematic inspection and evaluation of these structures during the past two decades.Most structural health monitoringmethods under current investigation focus on using dynamic responses to detect and locate damage because they are global methods that can provide rapid inspection of large structural systems.These dynamics-based methods can be divided into fourgroups:①spatial-domain methods,②modal-domain methods,③time-domain methods, and④frequency- domain methods. Spatial-domain methods use changes of mass, damping, and stiffness matrices to detect and locate damage. Modal-domain methods use changes of natural frequencies, modal damping ratios, andmode shapesto detect damage. In the frequency domain method, modal quantities such as natural frequencies, damping ratio, and model shapes are identified.The reverse dynamic systemof spectral analysis and the generalized frequency response function estimated fromthe nonlinear auto-regressive moving average (NARMA) model were applied in nonlinear system identification. In time domainmethod, systemparameterswere determined fromthe observational data sampled in time. It is necessaryto identifythe time variation of systemdynamic characteristics fromtime domain approach if the properties of structural systemchangewith time under the external loading condition. Moreover, one can use model-independent methods or model-referenced methods to perform damage detection using dynamic responses presented in any of the four domains. Literature shows that model independent methods can detect the existence of damage without much computational efforts, butthey are not accurate in locating damage. On the otherhand, model-referencedmethods are generally more accurate in locating damage and require fewer sensors than model-independent techniques, but they require appropriate structural models and significant computational efforts. Although time-domain methods use original time-domain datameasured using conventional vibrationmeasurement equipment, theyrequire certain structural information and massive computation and are case sensitive. Furthermore, frequency- and modal-domain methods use transformed data,which contain errors and noise due totransformation.Moreover, themodeling and updatingofmass and stiffnessmatrices in spatial-domain methods are problematic and difficult to be accurate. There are strong developmenttrends that two or three methods are combined together to detect and assess structural damages.For example, several researchers combined data of static and modal tests to assess damages. The combination could remove the weakness of each method and check each other. It suits the complexity of damage detection.Structural health monitoring is also an active area of research in aerospace engineering, but there are significant differences among the aerospace engineering, mechanical engineering, and civil engineering in practice. For example,because bridges, as well as most civil engineering structures, are large in size, and have quite lownatural frequencies and vibration levels, at lowamplitudes, the dynamic responses of bridge structure are substantially affected by the non-structural components, and changes in these components can easily to be confused with structural damage. Moreover,the level of modeling uncertainties in reinforced concrete bridges can be much greater than the single beam or a space truss. All these give the damage assessment of complex structures such as bridges a still challenging task for bridge engineers. Recent examples of research and implementation of structural health monitoring and damage assessment are summarized in the following sections.2 Laboratory and field testing researchIn general, there are two kinds of bridge testing methods, static testing and dynamic testing. The dynamic testing includes ambient vibration testing and forcedvibration testing. In ambient vibration testing, the input excitation is not under the control. The loading could be either micro-tremors, wind, waves, vehicle or pedestrian traffic or any other service loading. The increasing popularity of this method is probably due to the convenience of measuring the vibrationresponse while the bridge is under in-service and also due to the increasing availability of robust data acquisition and storage systems. Since the input is unknown, certain assumptions have to be made. Forced vibration testing involves application of input excitation of known force level at known frequencies. The excitation manners include electro-hydraulic vibrators, force hammers, vehicle impact, etc. The static testing in the laboratory may be conducted by actuators, and by standard vehicles in the field-testing.we can distinguish that①the models in the laboratory are mainly beams, columns, truss and/or frame structures, and the location and severity of damage in the models are determined in advance;②the testing has demonstrated lots of performances of damage structures;③the field-testing and damage assessmentof real bridges are more complicated than the models in the laboratory;④the correlation between the damage indicator and damage type,location, and extentwill still be improved.3Analytical developmentThe bridge damage diagnosis and health monitoring are both concerned with two fundamental criteria of the bridges, namely, the physical condition and the structural function. In terms of mechanics or dynamics, these fundamental criteria can be treated as mathematical models, such as response models, modal models and physical models.Instead of taking measurements directly to assess bridge condition, the bridge damage diagnosis and monitoring systemevaluate these conditions indirectly by using mathematical models. The damage diagnosis and health monitoring are active areas of research in recentyears. For example, numerous papers on these topics appear in the proceedings of Inter-national Modal Analysis Conferences (IMAC) each year, in the proceedings of International Workshop on Structural HealthMonitoring (once of two year, at Standford University), in the proceedings of European Conference on Smart materials and Structures and European Conference on Structural Damage AssessmentUsing Advanced Signal Processing Procedures, in the proceedings ofWorld Conferences of Earthquake Engineering, and in the proceedings of International Workshop on Structural Control, etc.. There are several review papers to be referenced, for examples,Housner, et al. (1997)provided an extensive summary ofthe state of the art in control and health monitoring of civil engineering structures[1].Salawu (1997)discussed and reviewed the use of natural frequency as a diagnostic parameter in structural assessment procedures using vibration monitoring.Doebling, Farrar, et al. (1998)presented a through review of the damage detection methods by examining changes in dynamic properties.Zou, TongandSteven (2000)summarized the methods of vibration-based damage and health monitoring for composite structures, especially in delamination modeling techniques and delamination detection.4Sensors and optimum placementOne of the problems facing structural health monitoring is that very little is known about the actual stress and strains in a structure under external excitations. For example, the standard earthquake recordings are made ofmotions of the floors of the structure and no recordings are made of the actual stresses and strains in structural members. There is a need for special sensors to determine the actual performance of structural members. Structural health monitoring requires integrated sensor functionality to measure changes in external environmental conditions, signal processing functionality to acquire, process, and combine multi-sensor and multi-measured information. Individual sensors and instrumented sensor systems are then required to provide such multiplexed information.FuandMoosa (2000)proposed probabilistic advancing cross-diagnosis method to diagnosis-decision making for structural health monitoring. It was experimented in the laboratory respectively using a coherent laser radar system and a CCD high-resolution camera. Results showed that this method was promising for field application. Another new idea is thatneural networktechniques are used to place sensors. For example,WordenandBurrows (2001)used the neural network and methods of combinatorial optimization to locate and classify faults.The static and dynamic data are collected from all kinds of sensorswhich are installed on the measured structures.And these datawill be processed and usable informationwill be extracted. So the sensitivity, accuracy, and locations,etc. of sensors are very important for the damage detections. The more information are obtained, the damage identification will be conducted more easily, but the price should be considered. That’s why the sensors are determined in an optimal ornearoptimal distribution. In aword, the theory and validation ofoptimumsensor locationswill still being developed.5 Examples of health monitoring implementationIn order for the technology to advance sufficiently to become an operational system for the maintenance and safety of civil structures, it is of paramount importance that new analytical developments are ultimately verified with appropriate data obtained frommonitoring systems, which have been implemented on civil structures, such as bridges.Mufti (2001)summarized the applications of SHM of Canadian bridge engineering, including fibre-reinforced polymers sensors, remote monitoring, intelligent processing, practical applications in bridge engineering, and technology utilization. Further study and applications are still being conducted now.FujinoandAbe(2001)introduced the research and development of SHMsystems at the Bridge and Structural Lab of the University of Tokyo. They also presented the ambient vibration based approaches forLaser DopplerVibrometer (LDV) and the applications in the long-span suspension bridges.The extraction of the measured data is very hard work because it is hard to separate changes in vibration signature duo to damage form changes, normal usage, changes in boundary conditions, or the release of the connection joints.Newbridges offer opportunities for developing complete structural health monitoring systems for bridge inspection and co ndition evaluation from“cradle to grave”of the bridges. Existing bridges provide challenges for applying state-of-the-art in structural health monitoring technologies to determine the current conditions of the structural element,connections and systems, to formulate model for estimating the rate of degradation, and to predict the existing and the future capacities of the structural components and systems. Advanced health monitoring systems may lead to better understanding of structural behavior and significant improvements of design, as well as the reduction of the structural inspection requirements. Great benefits due to the introduction of SHM are being accepted by owners, managers, bridge engineers, etc..6 Research and development needsMost damage detection theories and practices are formulated based on the following assumption: that failure or deterioration would primarily affect the stiffness and therefore affect the modal characteristics of the dynamic response of the structure. This is seldom true in practice, because①Traditional modal parameters (natural frequency, damping ratio and mode shapes, etc.) are not sensitive enough to identifyand locate damage. The estimation methods usually assume that structures are linear and proportional damping systems.②Most currently used damage indices depend on the severity of the damage, which is impractical in the field. Most civil engineering structures, such as highway bridges, have redundancy in design and large in size with low natural frequencies. Any damage index should consider these factors.③Scaledmodelingtechniques are used in currentbridge damage detection. Asingle beam/girder models cannot simulate the true behavior of a real bridge. Similitude laws for dynamic simulation and testing should be considered.④Manymethods usually use the undamaged structural modal parameters as the baseline comparedwith the damaged information. This will result in the need of a large data storage capacity for complex structures. But in practice,there are majority of existing structures for which baseline modal responses are not available. Only one developed method(StubbsandKim (1996)), which tried to quantify damagewithout using a baseline, may be a solution to this difficulty. There is a lot of researchwork to do in this direction.⑤Seldommethods have the ability to distinguish the type of damages on bridge structures. To establish the direct relationship between the various damage patterns and the changes of vibrational signatures is not a simple work.Health monitoring requires clearly defined performance criteria, a set of corresponding condition indicators and global and local damage and deterioration indices, which should help diagnose reasons for changes in condition indicators. It is implausible to expect that damage can be reliably detected or tracked by using a single damage index. We note that many additional localized damage indiceswhich relate to highly localized properties ofmaterials or the circumstances may indicate a susceptibility of deterioration such as the presence of corrosive environments around reinforcing steel in concrete, should be also integrated into the health monitoring systems.There is now a considerable research and development effort in academia, industry, and management department regarding global healthmonitoring for civil engineering structures. Several commercial structural monitoring systems currently exist, but further development is needed in commercialization of the technology. We must realize that damage detection and health monitoring for bridge structures by means of vibration signature analysis is a very difficult task. Itcontains several necessary steps, including defining indicators on variations of structural physical condition, dynamic testing to extract such indication parameters,defining the type of damages and remaining capacity or life of the structure, relating the parameters to the defined damage/aging. Unfortunately, to date, no one has accomplished the above steps. There is a lot of work to do in future.桥梁健康监测应用与研究现状摘要桥梁损伤诊断与健康监测是近年来国际上的研究热点,在实践方面,土木工程和航空航天工程、机械工程有明显的差别,比如桥梁结构以及其他大多数土木结构,尺寸大、质量重,具有较低的自然频率和振动水平,桥梁结构的动力响应极容易受到不可预见的环境状态、非结构构件等的影响,这些变化往往被误解为结构的损伤,这使得桥梁这类复杂结构的损伤评估具有极大的挑战性.本文首先给出了结构健康监测系统的定义和基本构成,然后集中回顾和分析了如下几个方面的问题:①损伤评估的室内实验和现场测试;②损伤检测方法的发展,包括:(a)动力指纹分析和模式识别方法, (b)模型修正和系统识别方法, (c)神经网络方法;③传感器及其优化布置等,并比较和分析了各自方法的优点和不足.文中还总结了健康监测和损伤识别在桥梁工程中的应用,指出桥梁健康监测的关键问题在于损伤的自动检测和诊断,这也是困难的问题;最后展望了桥梁健康监测系统的研究和发展方向.关键词:健康监测系统;损伤检测;状态评估;模型修正;系统识别;传感器优化布置;神经网络方法;桥梁结构1概述由于不可预见的各种条件和情况下，设计和建造一个结构将永远不可能或无实践操作性，它有一个失败的概率百分之零。
本科毕业土木工程专业英语翻译翻译
Discuss the construction temperature and crack of theconcrete lightlyBy G. K. Kululanga, W. Kuotcha，R. McCaffer，Member，ASCE, and F。
Edum-Fotwe ，The American Society of Civil EngineersThe summary , In order to prevent the owners of the concrete work of claims，we must do a good job in the construction process in the temperature and crackcontrol,through observation live for many years, through consulting the monograph about stress within the concrete，explain to concrete temperature reason , on—the-spot concrete control and measure , prevention of crack of temperature that crack produce。
Keyword Concrete Temperature stress Crack Control1.The concrete occupies the important position in modern engineering construction。
But today，the crack of the concrete is comparatively general，the cracks are nearly omnipresent in the science of bridge building. Though we take various kinds of measures in constructing，careful, but the crack still occurs now and then。
土木工程专业英语课文翻译考试必备
土木工程专业英语课文_翻译_考试必备土木工程专业英语课文翻译The principal construction materials of earlier times were wood and masonry brick, stone, or tile, and similar materials. The courses or layers were bound together with mortar or bitumen, a tar like substance, or some other binding agent. The Greeks and Romanssometimes used iron rods or claps to strengthen their building. The columns of the Parthenon in Athens, for example, have holes drilled in them for iron bars that have now rusted away. The Romans also used a natural cement called puzzling, made from volcanic ash, that became as hard as stone under water.早期时代的主要施工材料,木材和砌体砖,石,或瓷砖,和类似的材料;这些课程或层密切联系在一起,用砂浆或沥青,焦油一个样物质,或其他一些有约束力的代理人;希腊人和罗马人有时用铁棍或拍手以加强其建设;在雅典的帕台农神庙列,例如,在他们的铁钻的酒吧现在已经生锈了孔;罗马人还使用了天然水泥称为令人费解的,由火山灰制成,变得像石头一样坚硬在水中;Both steel and cement, the two most important construction materials of modern times, were introduced in the nineteenth century. Steel, basically an alloy of iron and a small amount of carbon had been made up to that time by a laborious process that restricted it to such special uses as sword blades. After the invention of the Bessemer process in 1856, steel was available in large quantities at low prices. The enormous advantage of steel is its tensile force which, as we have seen, tends to pull apart many materials. New alloys have further, which is a tendency for it to weaken as a result of continual changes in stress.钢铁和水泥,两个最重要的现代建筑材料,介绍了在十九世纪;钢,铁,基本上是少量的碳合金已作出了这一由一个艰苦的过程,限制它的刀刃等特殊用途的时间;后在1856年发明贝塞麦过程,钢在低价格大批量供货;钢铁的巨大优势是它的拉伸力,正如我们所看到的,往往会拉开许多材料;新合金进一步,这是一个趋势,它削弱了在压力不断变化的结果;Modern cement, called Portland cement, was invented in 1824. It is a mixture of limestone and clay, which is heated and then ground into a power. It is mixed at or near the construction site with sand, aggregate small stones, crushed rock, or gravel, and water to make concrete. Different proportions of the ingredients produce concrete with different strength and weight. Concrete is very versatile; it can be poured, pumped, or even sprayed into all kinds of shapes. And whereas steel has great tensile strength, concrete has great strength under compression. Thus, the two substances complement each other. 现代水泥,称为硅酸盐水泥,发明于1824年;它是石灰石和粘土的混合物,被加热,然后进入电源地;它是混合达到或接近沙施工现场,聚集的小石头,碎石,或石子和水,使混凝土;不同比例的成分产生不同强度和重量混凝土;混凝土是非常灵活,它可浇,泵浦,或连成各种形状喷洒;和鉴于钢具有很大的拉伸强度,混凝土受压的伟大力量;因此,这两种物质是相辅相成的;They also complement each other in another way: they have almost the same rate of contraction and expansion. They therefore can work together in situations where both compression and tension are factors. Steel rods are embedded in concrete to make reinforced concrete in concrete beams or structures where tensions will develop. Concrete and steel also form such a strong bond the force that unites them that the steel cannot slip within theconcrete. Still another advantage is that steel does not rust in concrete. Acid corrodessteel, whereas concrete has an alkaline chemical reaction, the oppositeof acid.他们还以另一种方式补充对方:他们几乎在同样的速度收缩和扩张;因此,他们可以一起工作的情况下压缩和紧张的因素;钢条是嵌在混凝土,使钢筋混凝土结构中混凝土梁或地方的紧张局势会发展;混凝土和钢也形成如此强烈的纽带团结的力量他们的钢材,不滑内的混凝土;还有一个好处是,不生锈的钢混凝土;酸腐蚀钢,而混凝土的碱性化学反应,酸相反;The adoption of structural steel and reinforced concrete caused major changes in traditional construction practices. It was no longer necessary to use thick walls of stone or brick for multistory buildings, and it became much simpler to build fire-resistant floors. Both these changes served to reduce the cost of construction. It also became possible to erect buildings with greater heights and longer spans.结构钢和钢筋混凝土建筑采用传统的做法造成了重大变化;它不再需要使用的石块或砖头厚的多层建筑物的墙壁,成为更简单,建立防火地板;这些变化都有助于降低建设成本;它也成为可能有更大的直立高度和时间跨度的建筑;Since the weight of modern structures is carried by the steel or concrete frame, the walls do not support the building. They have become curtain walls, which keep out the weather and let in light. In the earlier steel orconcrete frame building, the curtain walls were generally made of masonry; they had the solid look of bearing walls. Today, however, curtain walls are often made of lightweight materials such as glass, aluminum, or plastic, in various combinations. 由于现代结构重量是由钢或混凝土框架进行,墙壁不支持建设;他们已成为玻璃幕墙,它保持了天气和光线让;在早期的钢或混凝土框架结构,玻璃幕墙,一般由砖石,他们有坚实的承重墙看看;然而,今天,玻璃幕墙往往是由诸如玻璃,铝,塑料或轻质材料,在各种组合;Another advance in steel construction is the method of fastening together the beams. For many years the standard method was riveting. A rivet is abolt with a head that looks like a blunt screw without threads. It is heated, placed in holes through the pieces of steel, and a second head is formed at the other end by hammering it to hold it in place. Riveting has now largely been replaced by welding, thejoining together of pieces of steel by melting a steel material between them under high heat.钢结构建筑的另一个进步是梁紧固在一起的方法;多年来,标准方法是铆;铆钉是一个头,像一个没有线程看起来钝螺丝螺栓;它被加热时,通过放置在洞的钢件,第二头在另一端形成的锤击它举行到位;铆接现在很大程度上是由焊接取代,加入钢件在一起融化在高温下它们之间的钢铁材料;Presstressed concrete is an improved form of reinforcement. Steel rodsare bent into the shapes to give them the necessary degree of tensile strengths. They are then used to priestess concrete, usually by one of two different methods. The first is to leave channels in a concrete beam that correspond to the shapes of the steel rods. When the rods are run throughthe channels, they are then bonded to the concrete by filling the channels with grout, a thin mortar or binding agent. In the other and more common method, the priestesses steel rods are placed in the lower part of a formthat corresponds to the shape of the finished structure, and the concrete is poured around them. Priestess’s concrete uses less steel and less concrete. Because it is a highly desirable material.预应力钢筋混凝土是一种改进形式;棒钢弯曲成的形状,给他们一定程度的拉伸强度;然后他们用女祭司混凝土,由两种不同的方法之一,通常;首先是留在渠道混凝土梁对应于钢铁棒的形状;当棒是通过渠道来说,他们是那么粘在混凝土充填灌浆,薄砂浆或结合剂的渠道;在其他更常见的方法,女祭司钢棒放置在一个表格对应的成品下部结构形状,和他们周围的混凝土浇;女祭司的具体使用较少的钢铁和混凝土少;因为它是一个非常可取的材料;Presstressed concrete has made it possible to develop buildings with unusual shapes, like some of the modern, sports arenas, with large spaces unbroken by any obstructing supports. The uses for this relatively new structural method are constantly being developed. 预应力混凝土使人们有可能发展不寻常的形状的建筑物,如现代,体育场一些大空间的任何阻挠支持不间断;在使用这种相对较新的构造方法正在不断发展;。
土木工程专业英语译文 段兵延
第一课土木工程学土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。
此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。
土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。
他们也建造私有设施，比如飞机场，铁路，管线，摩天大楼，以及其他设计用作工业，商业和住宅途径的大型结构。
此外，土木工程师还规划设计及建造完整的城市和乡镇，并且最近一直在规划设计容纳设施齐全的社区的空间平台。
土木一词来源于拉丁文词“公民”。
在1782年，英国人John Smeaton为了把他的非军事工程工作区别于当时占优势地位的军事工程师的工作而采用的名词。
自从那时起，土木工程学被用于提及从事公共设施建设的工程师，尽管其包含的领域更为广阔。
领域。
因为包含范围太广，土木工程学又被细分为大量的技术专业。
不同类型的工程需要多种不同土木工程专业技术。
一个项目开始的时候，土木工程师要对场地进行测绘，定位有用的布置，如地下水水位，下水道，和电力线。
岩土工程专家则进行土力学试验以确定土壤能否承受工程荷载。
环境工程专家研究工程对当地的影响，包括对空气和地下水的可能污染，对当地动植物生活的影响，以及如何让工程设计满足政府针对环境保护的需要。
交通工程专家确定必需的不同种类设施以减轻由整个工程造成的对当地公路和其他交通网络的负担。
同时，结构工程专家利用初步数据对工程作详细规划，设计和说明。
从项目开始到结束，对这些土木工程专家的工作进行监督和调配的则是施工管理专家。
根据其他专家所提供的信息，施工管理专家计算材料和人工的数量和花费，所有工作的进度表，订购工作所需要的材料和设备，雇佣承包商和分包商，还要做些额外的监督工作以确保工程能按时按质完成。
贯穿任何给定项目，土木工程师都需要大量使用计算机。
计算机用于设计工程中使用的多数元件（即计算机辅助设计，或者CAD）并对其进行管理。
(完整版)土木工程专业英语翻译
(1)Concrete and reinforced concrete are used as building materials in every country. In many, including Canada and the United States, reinforced concrete is a dominant structural material in engineered construction.(1)混凝土和钢筋混凝土在每个国家都被用作建筑材料。
在许多国家，包括加拿大和美国，钢筋混凝土是一种主要的工程结构材料。
(2)The universal nature of reinforced concrete construction stems from the wide availability of reinforcing bars and the constituents of concrete, gravel, sand, and cement, the relatively simple skills required in concrete construction.(2) 钢筋混凝土建筑的广泛存在是由于钢筋和制造混凝土的材料，包括石子，沙，水泥等，可以通过多种途径方便的得到，同时兴建混凝土建筑时所需要的技术也相对简单。
(3)Concrete and reinforced concrete are used in bridges, building of all sorts, underground structures, water tanks, television towers, offshore oil exploration and production structures, dams, and even in ships.(3)混凝土和钢筋混凝土被应用于桥梁，各种形式的建筑，地下结构，蓄水池，电视塔，海上石油平台，以及工业建筑，大坝，甚至船舶等。
土木工程专业英语 中英文对照 unit5
the structure’s response when both system(s) are
applied simultaneously.
2021/6/21
5
关于本章结构中所用的材料只作了两点假设。首
先，材料具有线性的应力应变关系。其次，材料的性 能在受拉和受压时没有区别。研究的框架和桁架是平 面结构体系。假定垂直于平面的方向有足够的支撑， 因而构件不会因为弹性失稳而失效。一个非常重要的 关于这种失稳的考虑留待具体的设计过程。假定所有 的结构在它们加荷时只经历小的变形。因此，我们假 定当结构变位时荷载的位置与方向不变。最后，因为 假定了线弹性材料和小位移，叠加原理将适用于所有 的情况。这样当两种不同的力系同时施加时，可以由 不同的力系一次施加一个引起的位移或内力几何相加 来确定结构的响应。
will be assumed that there is adequate bracing perpendicular to（垂直于）the plane so that no member will fail due to an elastic instability（弹性 失稳）. The very important consideration
linear elastic materials and small displacement
本科毕业土木工程专业英语翻译翻译
Discuss the construction temperature and crack of theconcrete lightlyBy G. K. Kululanga, W. Kuotcha，R。
McCaffer, Member，ASCE，and F. Edum-Fotwe ,The American Society of Civil EngineersThe summary，In order to prevent the owners of the concrete work of claims, we must do a good job in the construction process in the temperature and crackcontrol，through observation live for many years，through consulting the monograph about stress within the concrete，explain to concrete temperature reason ，on-the—spot concrete control and measure , prevention of crack of temperature that crack produce. Keyword Concrete Temperature stress Crack Control1。
The concrete occupies the important position in modern engineering construction。
But today，the crack of the concrete is comparatively general, the cracks are nearly omnipresent in the science of bridge building. Though we take various kinds of measures in constructing, careful，but the crack still occurs now and then. Tracing it to its cause，it is one of them incompletely that our change to concrete temperature stress pays attention to。
最新土木工程专业英语课文原文及对照翻译
Civil EngineeringCivil engineering, the oldest of the engineering specialties, is the planning, design, construction, and management of the built environment. This environment includes all structures built according to scientific principles, from irrigation and drainage systems to rocket-launching facilities.土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。
此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。
Civil engineers build roads, bridges, tunnels, dams, harbors, power plants, water and sewage systems, hospitals, schools, mass transit, and other public facilities essential to modern society and large population concentrations. They also build privately owned facilities such as airports, railroads, pipelines, skyscrapers, and other large structures designed for industrial, commercial, or residential use. In addition, civil engineers plan, design, and build complete cities and towns, and more recently have been planning and designing space platforms to house self-contained communities.土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。
本科毕业土木工程专业英语翻译翻译
Discuss the construction temperature and crack ofthe concrete lightlyBy G. K. Kululanga, W. Kuotcha, R. McCaffer, Member, ASCE, and F. Edum-Fotwe ,The American Society of Civil EngineersThe summary , In order to prevent the owners of the concrete work of claims, we must do a good job in the construction process in thetemperature and crack control,through observation live for many years, through consulting the monograph about stress within the concrete, explain to concrete temperature reason , on-the-spot concrete control and measure , prevention of crack of temperature that crack produce.Keyword Concrete Temperature stress Crack Control1.The concrete occupies the important position in modern engineering construction. But today, the crack of the concrete is comparatively general, the cracks are nearly omnipresent in the science of bridge building. Though we take various kinds of measures in constructing, careful, but the crack still occurs now and then. Tracing it to its cause, it is one of them incompletely that our change to concrete temperature stress pays attention to. In the large volume concrete, temperature stress and temperature control are significant. This is mainly because of the reason of two respects. First of all, concrete often appear the temperature crack in not constructing, influence the globality and durability of the structure. Secondly, in the course of operating, the temperature change has remarkable influence that can't be ignored on the stress state of the structure. We meet to construct temperature crack in mainly, so only to origin cause of formation and treatment measure, concrete of crack make a discussion in constructing this text.Reason of a crackHave many kinds of reasons to produce the crack in the concrete, it is mainly the changes of temperature and humidity, fragility and disparity of the concrete, and the structure is unreasonable, the raw materials is not up to standard (if the alkali aggregate react), the template is out of shape, the foundation does not subside etc. evenly . The cement emits a large amount of heat of hydration when the concrete is hardenned, inside temperature is rising constantly, cause the stress of drawing on the surface. In the course of lowering the temperature , is it congeal foundation pay restrain to mix always later stage, will present the stress of drawing within the concrete . Reducing of temperature can surface cause heavy stress of drawing very in concrete too. When these draw the stress and go beyond resisting the ability of splitting of concrete , namely will present the crack . A lot of inside humidity of concrete change very light or change relatively slow, surface humidity might change heavy the violent change takes placing. Such as maintainingthoroughly, when getting wetter when not doing,contract surface there aren't deformation doing, often cause the crack too. The concrete is a kind of fragility material , tensile strength is about 1/10 of the compression strength, is it carry on one's shoulder or back limit when draw out of shape to have *104 only , is it carry on one's shoulder or back limit location when stretch out of shape to there is *104 to add for a long time to add a short time. Because raw materials even, water dust than unstable, transport and build phenomenon of emanating of course, its tensile strength is not even in the same concrete, a lot of resist the ability of drawing very low, it is apt to present the weak position of the crack. Among armored concrete , draw stress to undertake by reinforcing bar mainly , concrete bear stress of keeping just. Or reinforcing bar mix if edge position gone to to congeal present the stress of drawing in the structure in plain concrete, must rely on the concrete oneself to bear . Require to avoid the stress of drawing or only very small stress of drawing appears of the the general design. But the concrete is cooled from maximum temperature to the steady temperature of operating period in constructing, often cause sizable to draw the stress within the concrete. The temperature stress can exceed other outsides and load the stresses caused sometimes, know change law , temperature of stress for carry on reasonable structural design and construct extremely important.Analysis of 2 temperature stressesCan be divided into following three stages according to the forming process of the temperature stress:(1)It is early: Build concrete is it is it over basically to send out heat to cement to begin , generally one one day by oneself. Two characteristics at this stage, first, the cement emits a large amount of heat of hydration, second , mix and congeal the changing sharply of elastic model quantity. Because of the change of elastic model quantity , form the remaining stress in the concrete in this period.(2)Middle period: Up till the concrete is cooled until stability temperature from cement send out heat function basically when expiring, in this period, the temperature stress is mainly because the cooling of the concrete and external temperature change cause, these stresses and remnants stresses that is formed in early days are superposed , mix and congeal the elastic mould amount that goes to and does not change much during this period.(3)Later period: Operation period after the complete cooling of concrete. Temperature stress whether external temperature change cause mainly, these stresses and first two kinds of remnants stresseses are changed and added .Can be divided into two kinds according to the reason why the temperature stress causes:(1)Spontaneous stress: There are not any restraint or totally static structure at the border, if inside temperature is non-linear distribution, temperature stress appearing because structure restrains from each other. For example, the body of mound of the bridge, the physical dimension is relatively large, surface temperature is low when the concrete is cooled, inside temperature is high, present the stress of drawing on the surface, present the stress of pressing in the middle.(2)Restrain the stress: All of the structure ones or it restrain external one some border,can't out of shape and stress not cause not free. Such as case roof beam roof concrete and guardrail concrete.This two kinds of temperature stresses draw back stresses caused to act on with the doing of concrete together frequently. It is a more complicated job to want to analyse the distribution , size of the temperature stress accurately according to known temperature. In case of great majority , need to rely on the model test or the number value to calculate. To is it make temperature stress have sizable limp to creep concrete, at the stress accounting temperature, must consider the influence that creep , calculate concretly that no longer states thinly here.Control and preventing the measure of the crack of 3 temperatureFor prevent crack , lighten temperature stress can from control temperature and is it is it set about to restrain terms from two to improve.The measure of controlling temperature is as follows:(1)Is it improve aggregate grade mix , is it do rigid concrete to spend , mix mixture to adopt, is it guide angry pharmaceutical or plastification pharmaceutical ,etc. measure in order to reduce cement consumption of concrete to add;(2)Add water or the water to cool the broken stone in order to reduce the temperature of building of the concrete while mixing and shutting the concrete;(3)Reduce the thickness of building while building the concrete on hot day, utilize and build the aspect to dispel the heat;(4)Bury the water pipe underground in the concrete, enter the cold water to lower the temperature openly;(5)Stipulate rational form removal time, the temperature keeps warm the surface while lowering suddenly, in case that the rapid temperature gradient takes place in the concrete surface;(6)The concrete with medium and long-term and exposed construction buildsa piece of surface or thin wall structure, take the measure of keeping warm in cold season;The measure of improving condition of restraining is:(1)Divide and sew and divide one rationally ;(2)Prevent the foundation from rising and falling too big;(3)Rational arrangement construction process, prevent the too big discrepancy in elevation and side from exposing for a long time;In addition, improve the performance of the concrete and improve and resist the ability of splitting, strengthen maintenance , prevent the surface from being done and contracted , especially guarantee the quality of the concrete is very important to preventing the crack, should pay special attention to avoiding producing and running through the crack , the globality resumed its structure after appearing is very difficult, so should rely mainly on preventing the emergence of the running through crack while constructing.In construction of concrete , for raise turnover rate of template , demand concrete form removal as soon as possible that build newly often. Should considerform removal time properly when concrete temperature is higher than the temperature, so as not to cause the superficial early crack of concrete. Building the early form removal newly, cause very large stress of drawing on the surface, the phenomenon that " temperature is assaulted " appears. Build initial stage in concrete, because heat of hydration is sent out, the surface causes sizable to draw the stress, surface temperature is also higher than temperature at this moment, remove the template at this moment , surface temperature is lowered suddenly, must cause temperature gradient , thus add and draw the stress on the surface , change and add with the heat of hydration stress, in addition, the concrete dries and contracts , the superficial stress of drawing reaches very great number value, have danger of causing the crack, but cover a light-duty heat insulator with on the surface in time after removing the template , for instance foam sponge ,etc., for prevent concrete surface from produce the too big stress of drawing, have remarkable results.Add muscle influence to large volume temperature stress of concrete very light , because large volume concrete include muscle to be rate very much low. Just have influence on the general armored concrete. On terms that temperature is not very high and the stress is less than limit of surrendering, every performance of the steel is steady, and have nothing to do with stress state , time and temperature. Line bloated coefficient of steel and concrete line bloated coefficient difference very light, take place little internal stress very only between the two while changing in temperature. Because elastic mould amount of steel concrete elastic mould 7~15 of quantity, reach as interior concrete stress tensile strength and when fracturing, the stress of the reinforcing bar will not exceed 10000kg/cm2. . So is it is it prevent tiny appearance difficulty very much of crack from to make use of reinforcing bar to want among concrete. But the crack in the structure generally becomes numerous, the interval is little, the width and depth are smaller after adding the muscle. And if diameter of reinforcing bar detailed and when interval dense, to improve concrete resist result of person who split better. Concrete and surface , armored concrete of structure can take place detailed and shallow crack often, among them the great majority belong to and do and draw back the crack. Though this kind of crack is generally all relatively light, it stills have certain influence on the intensity and durability of the structure.In order to guarantee concrete project quality , prevent fracturing , improve the durability of the concrete, use the admixture to reduce one of the measures that fractures correctly. Whether is it reduce water is it split pharmaceutical to defend ,I summarize his main function in practice to use.(1)There is pore Dao of a large number of mao in the concrete , produce capillary tension in the capillary after water is evaporated, make concrete is it contract out of shape to do. Increasing the thin aperture of hair can reduce the capillary surface tension , but will make the intensity of concrete reduce . This surface tension theory has already been confirmed in the world as far back as the sixties.(2)Water dust than influence important factor that concrete shrink, is it reducewater is it split pharmaceutical can make concrete water consumption reduce by 25% to defend to use.(3)Cement consumption important factor, concrete of person who shrink too, is it add and subtract water is it split concrete reducible 15% of the cement consumption on terms that keep the intensity of concrete of pharmaceutical to defend to mix, its volume is supplemented by increasing aggregate consumption.(4)Reduce water is it split pharmaceutical can improve consistency of grout , reduce concrete secrete ink to defend, reduce and sink and draw back deforming.(5)Improve glueing the strength of forming of the grout and aggregate, the concrete improved resists the performance of splitting.(6)Concrete is it produce stress of drawing to restrain from while shrinking, crack when drawing the stress and is greater than concrete tensile strength can produce. Reduce water is it split pharmaceutical effective concrete tensile strength of improvement very to defend , improve resisting the performance of splitting of concrete by a wide margin.(7)It can make the concrete density good to add the admixture to mix , can improve resisting carbonization of concrete effectively , reduce carbonization to shrink.(8)Is it reduce water is it split slow coagulation time proper concrete under pharmaceutical to defend , on the basis of preventing the fast water of cement from sending out heat effectively to mix, prevent the plasticity shrink that brings because the cement is not congealed for a long time from increasing.(9)Mix admixture concrete and getting easy and kind , surface easy to feel flat , form little membrane, reduce the moisture to evaporate, reduce drily and shrink. A lot of admixture all have the functions of slow coagulation , increasing and apt , improvement plasticity, the experiment that we should carry on in this respect more in the project practice is compared with and studied, than lean against not improving terms more simple,may getting simple and more direct, economy.Early maintenance of 4 concretePractice has proved , the common crack of concrete , most is the surface crack of different depth, main reason its whether temperature gradient cause cold temperature of area lower too easy to form crack suddenly. So say the warm - keeping of the concrete is especially important to preventing the early crack of surface.From the viewpoint of temperature stress, should reach and require to keep warm followingly:1)Prevent concrete internal and external temperature poor and concrete surface gradient from , prevent the surface crack.2)Prevent concrete from to be ultra and cold , should is it is it make the minimum temperature is not lower than the steady temperature of concrete service time construction time in concrete to try to try one's best.3)Prevent the old concrete subcooling , in order to reduce the restraint among the old and new concrete.The early maintenance of the concrete, the main purpose lies in keeping thesuitable warm and humid condition , in order to get the result of two respects, on the other hand make the concrete avoid the invasion and attack of the unfavorable and warm , humidity out of shape, the ones that prevent from harmfully are cold to contract and do to contract. On one hand make cement water function go on smoothly , is in the hope of reaching the intensity designed and resisting the ability of splitting.The suitable warm damp condition is interrelated. Mix warm - keeping measure paid to congeal often protect wet results too. Analyse , water concrete include moisture can meet demand , cement of water have enough and to spare newly theoretically. But because the reason of evaporating etc. often causes losses of the moisture, thus postpone or hinder water of the cement from, the surface concrete receives this kind of adverse effect easiestly and directly. Key period when maintained in initial a few days after so the concrete is built, should pay attention to conscientiously in constructing.ConclusionsConstruction temperature and relation of crack in concrete the above carry on preliminary discussion of theory and practice, though the academia has different theories to origin cause of formation and computing technology of the concrete crack, but to concrete prevention and improving the measure suggestion to relatively unify , application in practice result fine too at the same time, concrete to is it observe , compare more more by us to want in constructing, analyse more , summarize more after going wrong , combine many kinds of prevention and deal with the measure, the crack of the concrete can be avoided.2.Quality control of waterproof concrete constructionCombined with experience, from formwork design, fabrication and installation, assembing reinforoement, pouring and curing of concrete and other aspects construction technology of fair-faced concrete is introduced as well as quality control measures and standards in order to reduce engineering cost to acquire satisfied economic and social benefits.The factors of influening waterproof- concrete quality are very many Any links does not pay attention to the water-proof concrete of field loss hinders the water function without exception jointly with degree.Engineering construction in the basement adopts secondary form board fabrication and installation, reinforced bar fabrication and bind, concrete stirring and mixing system and transport, concrete concrete covibration beat with a stick, construction joint practice, concrete curing and dismantle model and beingready for backfill and so on aspects.These are very critical to quality method to ensure that water-proof concrete self water-proof, and the way of practice has wan out.Method being under construction2.1 Fabrication and InstallationAccording to the concrett of closely knit , demand of reason why to form board since the water-proof also concrete have made and haveassembled corresponding rise is special , be to require that not leaving out thick fluid , firm closely knit block of wood deformation , water absorption Character should be small and ought to give priority to select and using bamboo slab rubber form board or the steel form.. Strict control form board room gap size, necessary exceeding 2 mms uses foam rubber or plastic to squeeze a crack in , porous form board nonutility without exception to board face Be ready for wall post at the same time rotting the prevention and cure job Adopt the cement mortar pouring same ,indicia in before the root segment sticking the foam rubber or plastic strip , the bottom puts on a cement mortar , concrete a concrete, first 5 cm ~ 10 cm. Since water-proof, concrete structure wall thickness is mostly more infertile .Be to ensure that component geometry dimension , Chang adopt the inside and outside bolt to pull the measure meeting attention to, responds to on play receive bolt centre interpose stop water iron plate, to prevent water from forming pilotage passage along bolt leakage.2.2 Assembing reinforoementWater-proof concrete structure has demanding as follows to the reinforced bar1) reinforced bar should adopt twisted steel as far as possible , increases by hold wrap a force composing in reply a water ability2) reinforced bars connect should try one's best to adopt to solder connection , stop using and being needless to bind connection to the full 3) when binding a reinforced bar, the iron wire head responds to inner bending.4) strict control reinforced bars protective layer thickness.Minimal thickness of water-proof concrete reinforced bar protective layer is not smaller than 25 mms , the protective layer welcoming water surface especially inadmissibility to disappoint error,. The iron wire and reinforced bar that application buries in advance within mortar piece whileusing mortar heel block as protective layer, are boundsolid .When the cavalry puts up the fixed reinforced bar if adopt a reinforced bar, Ying Jia also solders water iron plate or fixation just goes ahead, to strengthen water-proof effect in theheel block.This project uses new materials nylon to have fixed there is an effect's had guarded against reinforced bar protective layer deviation piece big mass common failings.The concrete stirring and mixing makes and transportsSince the water-proof concrete requires that higher closely knit , reason why stir and mix system also need to have the fairly good homogeneity , should be ready for burning as follows almost for this purpose1) ensures that mixing time , mixing at every time are secondary jump into a expect the general ejection of compact block of wood less than 2 mins.2) should use the apposition agent , the solution queen who shouldmanufacture certain thickness from apposition agent adds the mixer inner, the dried powder or high concentration solution will add an agent extra not to adds the mixer inner directly ,prevent from mixing is uneven but part concentrates, both lose the apposition agent effect, and affect concrete mass.3) responds to the assured source of life degree having a spot test on the admeasurement concrete at the regular intervals collapsing in the process being under construction , construction is middleif Yu rains or other cause, respond to the ratio determining whose water ratio, and adjusting the composition being under construction in time when change happened in sandstone moisture content.4) project uses the commodity concrete , has boundary have raised a concrete stirring mass and of all kinds effect apposition agent adulterating falls when amounts , the water ash having controlled a concrete strictly collapsing.5) concretes concrete adopt a pump to have given handicraft , effective avoiding a concrete producing the phenomenon isolating Mi Shui and leaving out thick fluid in theprocess of transportation.2.4 Matters needing attention in being under construction1) construction school assignment soft and floury is divided .Water-proof concreting should stratify strictly being in progress, and a continuous construction iscompletedThe front and back and high and low connect between the tier should subjugate within the cement initial settingtime，For this purpose ,with handling a worker dividing into several, at the same time each other, school assignment group faces or it is all right for each other, carry on the back .2)Achieve strictly fixed point determines the amounts of the components ofa substance material down According to the vehicle capacities stratifying concrete altitude and the means of transport, the quantify carrying out fixed point strictly is able to go down one important ring expecting that this is to improve water-proof concreting mass.3) insist that you go down material opening the door or use string to expect that under barrel (chute)Be to prevent a cement paste from parting from aggregate for , to expect that liberty should not exceed 1.5 ms now and then highly under water-proof concrete。
本科毕业土木工程专业英语翻译翻译
Discuss the construction temperature and crack of theconcrete lightlyBy G. K. Kululanga, W. Kuotcha, R. McCaffer, Member, ASCE, and F. Edum-Fotwe ,The American Society of Civil EngineersThe summary , In order to prevent the owners of the concrete work of claims, we must do a good job in the construction process in the temperature and crackcontrol,through observation live for many years, through consulting the monograph about stress within the concrete, explain to concrete temperature reason , on-the-spot concrete control and measure , prevention of crack of temperature that crack produce. Keyword Concrete Temperature stress Crack Control1. The concrete occupies the important position in modern engineering construction. But today, the crack of the concrete is comparatively general, the cracks are nearly omnipresent in the science of bridge building. Though we take various kinds of measures in constructing, careful, but the crack still occurs now and then. Tracing it to its cause, it is one of them incompletely that our change to concrete temperature stress pays attention to. In the large volume concrete, temperature stress and temperature control are significant. This is mainly because of the reason of two respects. First of all, concrete often appear the temperature crack in not constructing, influence the globality and durability of the structure. Secondly, in the course of operating, the temperature change has remarkable influence that can't be ignored on the stress state of the structure. We meet to construct temperature crack in mainly, so only to origin cause of formation and treatment measure, concrete of crack make a discussion in constructing this text.Reason of a crackHave many kinds of reasons to produce the crack in the concrete, it is mainly the changes of temperature and humidity, fragility and disparity of the concrete, and the structure is unreasonable, the raw materials is not up to standard (if the alkali aggregate react), the template is out of shape, the foundation does not subside etc. evenly . The cement emits a large amount of heat of hydration when the concrete is hardenned, inside temperature is rising constantly, cause the stress of drawing on the surface. In the course of lowering the temperature , is it congeal foundation pay restrain to mix always later stage, will present the stress of drawing within the concrete . Reducing of temperature can surface cause heavy stress of drawing very in concrete too. When these draw the stress and go beyond resisting the ability of splitting of concrete , namely will present the crack .A lot of inside humidity of concrete change very light or change relatively slow, surface humidity might change heavy the violent change takes placing. Such as maintaining thoroughly, when getting wetter when not doing,contract surface there aren't deformation doing, often cause the crack too. The concrete is a kind of fragility material , tensile strength is about 1/10 of the compression strength, is it carry on one's shoulder or back limit when draw out of shape to have *104 only , is it carry on one's shoulder or backlimit location when stretch out of shape to there is *104 to add for a long time to add a short time. Because raw materials even, water dust than unstable, transport and build phenomenon of emanating of course, its tensile strength is not even in the same concrete, a lot of resist the ability of drawing very low, it is apt to present the weak position of the crack. Among armored concrete , draw stress to undertake by reinforcing bar mainly , concrete bear stress of keeping just. Or reinforcing bar mix if edge position gone to to congeal present the stress of drawing in the structure in plain concrete, must rely on the concrete oneself to bear . Require to avoid the stress of drawing or only very small stress of drawing appears of the the general design. But the concrete is cooled from maximum temperature to the steady temperature of operating period in constructing, often cause sizable to draw the stress within the concrete. The temperature stress can exceed other outsides and load the stresses caused sometimes, know change law , temperature of stress for carry on reasonable structural design and construct extremely important.Analysis of 2 temperature stressesCan be divided into following three stages according to the forming process of the temperature stress:(1)It is early: Build concrete is it is it over basically to send out heat to cement to begin , generally one one day by oneself. Two characteristics at this stage, first, the cement emits a large amount of heat of hydration, second , mix and congeal the changing sharply of elastic model quantity. Because of the change of elastic model quantity , form the remaining stress in the concrete in this period.(2)Middle period: Up till the concrete is cooled until stability temperature from cement send out heat function basically when expiring, in this period, the temperature stress is mainly because the cooling of the concrete and external temperature change cause, these stresses and remnants stresses that is formed in early days are superposed , mix and congeal the elastic mould amount that goes to and does not change much during this period.(3)Later period: Operation period after the complete cooling of concrete. Temperature stress whether external temperature change cause mainly, these stresses and first two kinds of remnants stresseses are changed and added .Can be divided into two kinds according to the reason why the temperature stress causes:(1)Spontaneous stress: There are not any restraint or totally static structure at the border, if inside temperature is non-linear distribution, temperature stress appearing because structure restrains from each other. For example, the body of mound of the bridge, the physical dimension is relatively large, surface temperature is low when the concrete is cooled, inside temperature is high, present the stress of drawing on the surface, present the stress of pressing in the middle.(2)Restrain the stress: All of the structure ones or it restrain external one some border,can't out of shape and stress not cause not free. Such as case roof beam roof concrete and guardrail concrete.This two kinds of temperature stresses draw back stresses caused to act on with the doing of concrete together frequently. It is a more complicated job to want to analyse the distribution , size of the temperature stress accurately according to known temperature. In case of great majority , need to rely on the model test or the number value to calculate. Tois it make temperature stress have sizable limp to creep concrete, at the stress accounting temperature, must consider the influence that creep , calculate concretly that no longer states thinly here.Control and preventing the measure of the crack of 3 temperatureFor prevent crack , lighten temperature stress can from control temperature and is it is it set about to restrain terms from two to improve.The measure of controlling temperature is as follows:(1)Is it improve aggregate grade mix , is it do rigid concrete to spend , mix mixture to adopt, is it guide angry pharmaceutical or plastification pharmaceutical ,etc. measure in order to reduce cement consumption of concrete to add;(2)Add water or the water to cool the broken stone in order to reduce the temperature of building of the concrete while mixing and shutting the concrete;(3)Reduce the thickness of building while building the concrete on hot day, utilize and build the aspect to dispel the heat;(4)Bury the water pipe underground in the concrete, enter the cold water to lower the temperature openly;(5)Stipulate rational form removal time, the temperature keeps warm the surface while lowering suddenly, in case that the rapid temperature gradient takes place in the concrete surface;(6)The concrete with medium and long-term and exposed construction builds a piece of surface or thin wall structure, take the measure of keeping warm in cold season;The measure of improving condition of restraining is:(1)Divide and sew and divide one rationally ;(2)Prevent the foundation from rising and falling too big;(3)Rational arrangement construction process, prevent the too big discrepancy in elevation and side from exposing for a long time;In addition, improve the performance of the concrete and improve and resist the ability of splitting, strengthen maintenance , prevent the surface from being done and contracted , especially guarantee the quality of the concrete is very important to preventing the crack, should pay special attention to avoiding producing and running through the crack , the globality resumed its structure after appearing is very difficult, so should rely mainly on preventing the emergence of the running through crack while constructing.In construction of concrete , for raise turnover rate of template , demand concrete form removal as soon as possible that build newly often. Should consider form removal time properly when concrete temperature is higher than the temperature, so as not to cause the superficial early crack of concrete. Building the early form removal newly, cause very large stress of drawing on the surface, the phenomenon that " temperature is assaulted " appears. Build initial stage in concrete, because heat of hydration is sent out, the surface causes sizable to draw the stress, surface temperature is also higher than temperature at this moment, remove the template at this moment , surface temperature is lowered suddenly, must cause temperature gradient , thus add and draw the stress on the surface , change and add with the heat of hydration stress, in addition, the concrete dries and contracts , the superficial stress of drawing reaches very great number value, have danger of causing the crack, but cover a light-duty heat insulator with on the surface in time afterremoving the template , for instance foam sponge ,etc., for prevent concrete surface from produce the too big stress of drawing, have remarkable results.Add muscle influence to large volume temperature stress of concrete very light , because large volume concrete include muscle to be rate very much low. Just have influence on the general armored concrete. On terms that temperature is not very high and the stress is less than limit of surrendering, every performance of the steel is steady, and have nothing to do with stress state , time and temperature. Line bloated coefficient of steel and concrete line bloated coefficient difference very light, take place little internal stress very only between the two while changing in temperature. Because elastic mould amount of steel concrete elastic mould 7~15 of quantity, reach as interior concrete stress tensile strength and when fracturing, the stress of the reinforcing bar will not exceed 10000kg/cm2. . So is it is it prevent tiny appearance difficulty very much of crack from to make use of reinforcing bar to want among concrete. But the crack in the structure generally becomes numerous, the interval is little, the width and depth are smaller after adding the muscle. And if diameter of reinforcing bar detailed and when interval dense, to improve concrete resist result of person who split better. Concrete and surface , armored concrete of structure can take place detailed and shallow crack often, among them the great majority belong to and do and draw back the crack. Though this kind of crack is generally all relatively light, it stills have certain influence on the intensity and durability of the structure.In order to guarantee concrete project quality , prevent fracturing , improve the durability of the concrete, use the admixture to reduce one of the measures that fractures correctly. Whether is it reduce water is it split pharmaceutical to defend , I summarize his main function in practice to use.(1)There is pore Dao of a large number of mao in the concrete , produce capillary tension in the capillary after water is evaporated, make concrete is it contract out of shape to do. Increasing the thin aperture of hair can reduce the capillary surface tension , but will make the intensity of concrete reduce . This surface tension theory has already been confirmed in the world as far back as the sixties.(2)Water dust than influence important factor that concrete shrink, is it reduce water is it split pharmaceutical can make concrete water consumption reduce by 25% to defend to use.(3)Cement consumption important factor, concrete of person who shrink too, is it add and subtract water is it split concrete reducible 15% of the cement consumption on terms that keep the intensity of concrete of pharmaceutical to defend to mix, its volume is supplemented by increasing aggregate consumption.(4)Reduce water is it split pharmaceutical can improve consistency of grout , reduce concrete secrete ink to defend, reduce and sink and draw back deforming.(5)Improve glueing the strength of forming of the grout and aggregate, the concrete improved resists the performance of splitting.(6)Concrete is it produce stress of drawing to restrain from while shrinking, crack when drawing the stress and is greater than concrete tensile strength can produce. Reduce water is it split pharmaceutical effective concrete tensile strength of improvement very to defend , improve resisting the performance of splitting of concrete by a wide margin.(7)It can make the concrete density good to add the admixture to mix , can improveresisting carbonization of concrete effectively , reduce carbonization to shrink.(8)Is it reduce water is it split slow coagulation time proper concrete under pharmaceutical to defend , on the basis of preventing the fast water of cement from sending out heat effectively to mix, prevent the plasticity shrink that brings because the cement is not congealed for a long time from increasing.(9)Mix admixture concrete and getting easy and kind , surface easy to feel flat , form little membrane, reduce the moisture to evaporate, reduce drily and shrink. A lot of admixture all have the functions of slow coagulation , increasing and apt , improvement plasticity, the experiment that we should carry on in this respect more in the project practice is compared with and studied, than lean against not improving terms more simple,may getting simple and more direct, economy.Early maintenance of 4 concretePractice has proved , the common crack of concrete , most is the surface crack of different depth, main reason its whether temperature gradient cause cold temperature of area lower too easy to form crack suddenly. So say the warm - keeping of the concrete is especially important to preventing the early crack of surface.From the viewpoint of temperature stress, should reach and require to keep warm followingly:1)Prevent concrete internal and external temperature poor and concrete surface gradient from , prevent the surface crack.2)Prevent concrete from to be ultra and cold , should is it is it make the minimum temperature is not lower than the steady temperature of concrete service time construction time in concrete to try to try one's best.3)Prevent the old concrete subcooling , in order to reduce the restraint among the old and new concrete.The early maintenance of the concrete, the main purpose lies in keeping the suitable warm and humid condition , in order to get the result of two respects, on the other hand make the concrete avoid the invasion and attack of the unfavorable and warm , humidity out of shape, the ones that prevent from harmfully are cold to contract and do to contract. On one hand make cement water function go on smoothly , is in the hope of reaching the intensity designed and resisting the ability of splitting.The suitable warm damp condition is interrelated. Mix warm - keeping measure paid to congeal often protect wet results too. Analyse , water concrete include moisture can meet demand , cement of water have enough and to spare newly theoretically. But because the reason of evaporating etc. often causes losses of the moisture, thus postpone or hinder water of the cement from, the surface concrete receives this kind of adverse effect easiestly and directly. Key period when maintained in initial a few days after so the concrete is built, should pay attention to conscientiously in constructing.ConclusionsConstruction temperature and relation of crack in concrete the above carry on preliminary discussion of theory and practice, though the academia has different theories to origin cause of formation and computing technology of the concrete crack, but to concrete prevention and improving the measure suggestion to relatively unify , application in practice result fine too at the same time, concrete to is it observe , compare more more by us to want in constructing, analyse more , summarize more after going wrong ,combine many kinds of prevention and deal with the measure, the crack of the concrete can be avoided.2.Quality control of waterproof concrete constructionCombined with experience, from formwork design, fabrication and installation, assembing reinforoement, pouring and curing of concrete and other aspects construction technology of fair-faced concrete is introduced as well as quality control measures and standards in order to reduce engineering cost to acquire satisfied economic and social benefits.The factors of influening waterproof- concrete quality are very manyAny links does not pay attention to the water-proof concrete of field loss hinders the water function without exception jointly with degree.Engineering construction in the basement adopts secondary form board fabrication and installation, reinforced bar fabrication and bind, concrete stirring and mixing system and transport, concrete concrete covibration beat with a stick, construction joint practice, concrete curing and dismantle model and beingready for backfill and so on aspects.These are very critical to quality method to ensure that water-proof concrete self water-proof, and the way of practice has wan out.Method being under construction2.1 Fabrication and InstallationAccording to the concrett of closely knit , demand of reason why to form board since the water-proof also concrete have made and have assembled corresponding rise is special , be to require that not leaving out thick fluid , firm closely knit block of wood deformation , water absorption Character should be small and ought to give priority to select and using bamboo slab rubber form board or the steel form.. Strict control form board room gap size, necessary exceeding 2 mms uses foam rubber or plastic to squeeze a crack in , porous form board nonutility without exception to board face Be ready for wall post at the same time rotting the prevention and cure job Adopt the cement mortar pouring same ,indicia in before the root segment sticking the foam rubber or plastic strip , the bottom puts on a cement mortar , concrete a concrete, first 5 cm ~ 10 cm. Since water-proof, concrete structure wall thickness is mostly more infertile .Be to ensure that component geometry dimension , Chang adopt the inside and outside bolt to pull the measure meeting attention to, responds to on play receive bolt centre interpose stop water iron plate, to prevent water from forming pilotage passage along bolt leakage.2.2 Assembing reinforoementWater-proof concrete structure has demanding as follows to the reinforced bar 1) reinforced bar should adopt twisted steel as far as possible , increases by hold wrap a force composing in reply a water ability2) reinforced bars connect should try one's best to adopt to solder connection , stop using and being needless to bind connection to the full3) when binding a reinforced bar, the iron wire head responds to inner bending.4) strict control reinforced bars protective layer thickness.Minimal thickness of water-proof concrete reinforced bar protective layer isnot smaller than 25 mms , the protective layer welcoming water surface especially inadmissibility to disappoint error,. The iron wire and reinforced bar that application buries in advance within mortar piece whileusing mortar heel block as protective layer, are boundsolid .When the cavalry puts up the fixed reinforced bar if adopt a reinforced bar, Ying Jia also solders water iron plate or fixation just goes ahead, to strengthen water-proof effect in theheel block.This project uses new materials nylon to have fixed there is an effect's had guarded against reinforced bar protective layer deviation piece big mass common failings.The concrete stirring and mixing makes and transportsSince the water-proof concrete requires that higher closely knit , reason why stir and mix system also need to have the fairly good homogeneity , should be ready for burning as follows almost for this purpose1) ensures that mixing time , mixing at every time are secondary jump into a expect the general ejection of compact block of wood less than 2 mins.2) should use the apposition agent , the solution queen who should manufacture certain thickness from apposition agent adds the mixer inner, the dried powder or high concentration solution will add an agent extra not to adds the mixer inner directly ,prevent from mixing is uneven but partconcentrates, both lose the apposition agent effect, and affect concrete mass.3) responds to the assured source of life degree having a spot test on the admeasurement concrete at the regular intervals collapsing in the process being under construction , construction is middleif Yu rains or other cause, respond to the ratio determining whose water ratio, and adjusting the composition being under construction in time when change happened in sandstone moisture content.4) project uses the commodity concrete , has boundary have raised a concrete stirring mass and of all kinds effect apposition agent adulterating falls when amounts , the water ash having controlled a concrete strictly collapsing.5) concretes concrete adopt a pump to have given handicraft , effective avoidinga concrete producing the phenomenon isolating Mi Shui and leaving out thick fluid in theprocess of transportation.2.4 Matters needing attention in being under construction1) construction school assignment soft and floury is divided .Water-proof concreting should stratify strictly being in progress, and a continuous construction iscompletedThe front and back and high and low connect between the tier should subjugate within the cement initial settingtime，For this purpose ,with handling a worker dividing into several, at the same time each other, school assignment group faces or it is all right for each other, carry on the back .2)Achieve strictly fixed point determines the amounts of the components of a substance material down According to the vehicle capacities stratifying concretealtitude and the means of transport, the quantify carrying out fixed point strictly is able to go down one important ring expecting that this is to improve water-proof concreting mass.3) insist that you go down material opening the door or use string to expect that under barrel (chute)Be to prevent a cement paste from parting from aggregate for , to expect that liberty should not exceed 1.5 ms now and then highly under water-proof concrete。
土木工程专业英语(苏小卒)课文翻译3~5单元
Unit 3 (从第三段开始)现代水泥发明于1824年，称为波特兰水泥。
它是石灰石和粘土的混合物，加热后磨成粉末。
在或靠近施工现场，将水泥与砂、骨料（小石头、压碎的岩石或砾石）、水混合而制成混凝土。
不同比例的配料会制造出不同强度和重量的混凝土。
混凝土的用途很多，可以浇筑、泵送甚至喷射成各种形状。
混凝土具有很大的抗压强度，而钢材具有很大的抗拉强度。
这样，两种材料可以互补。
They also complement each other in another way: they have almost the same rate of contraction and expansion. They therefore can work together in situations where（在…情况下）both compression and tension are factors（主要因素）. Steel rods（钢筋）are embedded in（埋入）concrete to make reinforced concrete in concrete beams or structures where tension will develop （出现）. Concrete and steel also form such a strong bond - the force that unites（粘合）them - that the steel cannot slip（滑移）with the concrete. Still（还有）another advantage is that steel does not rust in concrete. Acid（酸）corrodes steel, whereas concrete has an alkaline chemical reaction, the opposite of acid.它们也以另外一种方式互补：它们几乎有相同的收缩率和膨胀率。
土木工程英语翻译
土木工程英语翻译6 Lateral buckling of beams6.1 IntroductionIn the discussion given in Chapter 5 of the in-plane behaviour of beams, it was assumed that when a beam is loaded in its stiffer principal plane, it deflects only in that plane. If the beam does not have sufficient lateral stiffness or lateral support to ensure that this is so, then it may buckle out of the plane of loading, as shown in Fig. 6.1. The load at which this buckling occurs may be substantially less than the beam's in-plane load carrying capacity, as indicated in Fig. 6.2.6.梁的侧面翘曲6.1 说明在第五章关于梁的平面内机能的评论辩论中，假定梁按刚性主平面放置时，梁仅在该平面内倾斜。
假如梁没有足够的侧向刚度或侧面支撑，梁会产生平面外愚蠢，如图6.1所示。
如图6.2所示，当产生平面外愚蠢时梁的承载才能会大年夜大年夜减小。
For an idealized perfectly straight elastic beam, there are no out-of-plane deformations until the applied moment M reaches the elastic buckling moment M0b, when the beam buckles by deflecting laterally and twisting, as shown in Fig. 6.1. These two deformations are interdependent: when the beam deflects laterally, the applied moment has a component which exerts a torque about the deflected longitudinal axis which causes the beam to twist. This behaviour, which is important for long unrestrained I-beams whose resistances to lateral bending and torsion are low, is called elastic flexural-torsional buckling.作为一个幻想的弹性直梁，当施加弯矩达到弹性愚蠢弯矩时，梁才会产生侧向曲折和扭改变形，产生平面外愚蠢，如图6.1所示。
土木工程专业英语_翻译参考
建筑要求有恰当的比例，即令人愉快的虚与实、高与宽、长与宽的关系。人类已经作过许多尝试用数学公式来解释好多比例，如黄金分割。然而，这些努力并没有被广泛接受，尽管在设计各处透过一些尺寸（举例来说，一个模数是一个柱的直径一半）的复测法已经收到很好的结果。这种复测法帮助提出了人类思想渴望的可视规则。
摄影测量，测量学和地图绘制。在这一专业领域的土木工程师精确测量地球表面以获得可靠的信息来定位和设计工程项目。这一 方面包括高工艺学方法，如卫星成相，航拍，和计算机成相。来自人造卫星的无线电信号，通过激光和音波柱扫描被转换为地图，为隧道钻孔，建造高速公路和大坝，绘制洪水控制和灌溉方案，定位可能影响建筑项目的地下岩石构成，以及许多其他建筑用途提供更精准的测量。
土木一词来源于拉丁文词“公民”。在1782年，英国人John Smeaton为了把他的非军事工程工作区别于当时占优势地位的军事工程师的工作而采用的名词。自从那时起，土木工程学被用于提及从事公共设施建设的工程师，尽管其包含的领域更为广阔。
领域。因为包含范围太广，土木工程学又被细分为大量的技术专业。不同类型的工程需要多种不同土木工程专业技术。一个项目开始的时候，土木工程师要对场地进行测绘，定位有用的布置，如地下水水位，下水道，和电力线。岩土工程专家则进行土力学试验以确定土壤能否承受工程荷载。环境工程专家研究工程对当地的影响，包括对空气和地下水的可能污染，对当地动植物生活的影响，以及如何让工程设计满足政府针对环境保护的需要。交通工程专家确定必需的不同种类设施以减轻由整个工程造成的对当地公路和其他交通网络的负担。同时，结构工程专家利用初步数据对工程作详细规划，设计和说明。从项目开始到结束，对这些土木工程专家的工作进行监督和调配的则是施工管理专家。根据其他专家所提供的信息，施工管理专家计算材料和人工的数量和花费，所有工作的进度表，订购工作所需要的材料和设备，雇佣承包商和分包商，还要做些额外的监督工作以确保工程能按时按质完成。
(完整版)土木工程专业英语课文原文及对照翻译
Civil EngineeringCivil engineering, the oldest of the engineering specialties, is the planning, design, construction, and management of the built environment. This environment includes all structures built according to scientific principles, from irrigation and drainage systems to rocket-launching facilities.土木工程学作为最老的工程技术学科，是指规划，设计，施工及对建筑环境的管理。
此处的环境包括建筑符合科学规范的所有结构，从灌溉和排水系统到火箭发射设施。
Civil engineers build roads, bridges, tunnels, dams, harbors, power plants, water and sewage systems, hospitals, schools, mass transit, and other public facilities essential to modern society and large population concentrations. They also build privately owned facilities such as airports, railroads, pipelines, skyscrapers, and other large structures designed for industrial, commercial, or residential use. In addition, civil engineers plan, design, and build complete cities and towns, and more recently have been planning and designing space platforms to house self-contained communities.土木工程师建造道路，桥梁，管道，大坝，海港，发电厂，给排水系统，医院，学校，公共交通和其他现代社会和大量人口集中地区的基础公共设施。
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在不能设中间墩且有较好的岩石支承拱座处很大的推力时，可采用大跨度拱桥。拱桥的一个变种是系杆拱桥，在此结构中，支承路面的水平系杆承受了拱中的水平推力。
斜拉桥通常用于200～500米的跨度，它是处于连续箱梁桥和悬索桥之间的过渡桥型。在桥面上方设置缆索，与索塔相连，则可不设中间墩，因而增加跨度，便于通航。因为斜拉索的阻尼效应，斜拉桥与悬索桥相比，不易产生风激振荡。
桥梁也可分为上承式和下承式两种类型。在上承式桥梁中，线路在支承结构的上面，也就是说，上部结构的承载构件在线路的下面。在下承式桥梁中，如下承式钢桁梁桥，线路穿过上部结构的构件。上承式的桥梁占大多数：它们外观整洁，视野开阔，远期交通加宽容易实现。
小跨混凝土桥梁包括现浇钢筋混凝土T梁桥（或板）、单跨预应力梁桥（包括预制预应力工字形梁或箱梁及现浇桥面板）和现浇箱梁。
桥梁的组成可以说主要由上部结构和下部结构组成。这种划分主要是为了方便。在很多桥梁中，根本不存在明显的分界线。
下部结构主要由桥台（通常在桥梁的端部）和桥墩（在桥台中间）组成。桥墩和桥台通常支承在独立修建的基础上，例如：混凝土扩大基础或群桩基础。基础也是下部结构的一部分。偶尔桥梁结构中也采用桩柱（排架）式基础，此时桩延伸到水面线以上，在顶端做桩帽，上部结构则直接支承在其上。这些桩排通常采用相同的形式作为又长又低的水上跨接的一部分。
中等跨度和大跨度桥梁的设计总是力求最佳地适应当地条件，结果形成了种类繁多的桥梁，它们或在基本设计原则或在设计细节上相区别。
以下几段中对钢桥的一般分类作简要介绍。
梁桥基本分为两类：板梁桥和箱梁桥。板梁桥在美国常用于中等跨度的桥梁，通常是连续结构，在墩处梁最高而跨中最小。板梁桥通常采用工字形截面。以线形布置以支承纵梁、横梁和通常现浇的混凝土面板。主梁在工厂预制时采用焊接，现场连接多采用高强螺栓。焊接钢箱梁和钢板梁类似，只是断面形式不同。
近年来，大、中、小跨桥梁的分界线一定程度上不像先前那样明显了。目前，许多工程师认为跨度在20至100英尺（6.1到30.5米）的桥梁是小桥，而
且对此类跨度的桥梁也已开发了很多标准设计，使设计更经济。在现代桥梁工程实践中，中桥的跨度最高可达400英尺（121.9米），具体划分标准与具体结构和材料有关。大跨桥梁的跨度则可达到4000英尺（1219.2米）或更大，但净跨度超过1000英尺（304.8米）的桥梁较少见。
关于材料和结构行为的科学知识得到了极大的扩展，计算技术也能够很快地处理不同领域的复杂理论。在过去的十年中，工程师实际上已在桥梁设计和施工方法上进行了彻底革新。这种进步适用于大、中、小跨度的桥梁。
对于永久性桥梁，常用的建材是钢材和混凝土。许多不同类型的桥梁均用这些材料（或单独使用或结合使用）建成，木材可应用于临时性的水上结构，水面线以下的构件（尤其是木桩）或次要公路上的短跨桥梁结构中。在美国也建造了一些小跨试验性铝桥。
5、桥梁
桥梁是人类征服宇宙空间的伟大象征。徐徐落日下太平洋中金门大桥金色的桁架线条或者加拉比高架桥高耸深谷的弧线总让人心中充满惊叹和对建造者的建筑艺术的崇敬。它们是人们排除所有障碍，追求更美好、更自由的世界的永久印证。它们的设计和施工方案构思如梦如幻。但仅有梦想和决心还不够。所有的自然界的外力和重力必须用数学精确表述，并运用恰当的材料以合适的方式来承受。这需要艺术家的灵感和工匠的巧妙技术。
悬索桥通常用于很大跨径的建成于1964年，造价3.05亿美元的，跨度4260英尺（1298.5米），跨越纽约港的入海口，连接斯塔腾岛和布鲁克林区。 混凝土桥几乎和钢桥一样多种多样。