语言学重点总结

Chapter 6
Cognition is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception，reasoning，and judgment.
There exist three approaches to the study of language and cognition: the formal approach，the psychological approach and the conceptual approach。

The Formal approach basically addresses the structural patterns exhibited by the overt aspect of linguistic forms, largely abstracted away from or regarded as autonomous from any associated meaning。

The Psychological approach looks at language from the perspective of relatively general cognitive systems ranging from perception，memory, and attention to reasoning。

The conceptual approach is concerned with the patterns in which and the processes by which conceptual content is organized in language.
Structure will be used to refer both to patterns and to process, the conceptual approach can more simply be said to address how language structures conceptual content.
Psycholinguistics is the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activities associated with the use of language。

Six aspects of research within psycholinguistics: ①Acquisition ②Comprehension ③Production ④Disorders ⑤Language and thought ⑥Neurocognition
Language acquisition：①Holophrastic stage ②Two-word stage ③Stage of three—word utterances ④Fluent grammatical conversation stage
Connectionism in psycholinguistics claims that readers use the same system of links between spelling units and sound units to generate pronunciations of written words like tove and to access the pronunciations of familiar words like stove, or words that are exceptions to these patterns，like love。

Language comprehension: ①word recognition ②comprehension of sentences ③comprehension of text
Cohort model：the first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set or cohort of word candidates that are consistent with the input。

Interactive model holds that higher processing levels have a direct, “top—down" influence on lower levels。

The race model doe s not agree “top—down” effects, it has two routes that race each other--—-a pre-lexical route, which computes phonological information from the acoustic signal, and a lexical route, in which the phonological information associated with a word becomes available when the word itself is accessed。

Serial models propose that the sentence comprehension system continually and sequentially follows the constraints of a language’s grammar with remarkable speed。

Parallel models emphasize that the comprehension system is sensitive to a vast range of information，including grammatical，lexical and contextual，as well as knowledge of the speaker/writer and of the world in general.
In resonance model, information in long—term memory is automatically activated by the presence of material that apparently bears a rough semantic relation to it. Language production: ①Access to words ②Generation of sentences ③Written
language production
Functional planning process assigns grammatical functions such as subject，verb or direct object。

Positional encoding uses the retrieved lexicon—grammar units and the functions they have been assigned to generate syntactic structures that capture the dependencies among constituents and their order.
Cognitive linguistics is based on human experiences of the world and the way they perceive and conceptualize the world。

Construal is the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity，different mental scanning，directionality, vantage point, figure—ground segregation etc。

Construal operations are the underlying psychological processed and resources employed in the interpretation of linguistic expressions.
①Attention/Salience ②Judgment/Comparison ③Perspective/Situatedness
Trajector refers to a dynamic figure and landmark to the ground of a moving figure。

Deixis involves linguistic forms that point at something from the speech situation。

Categorization is the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences。

There are three levels in categories：①the basic level ②the superordinate level ③the subordinate level
The categories at the basic level are those that are most culturally salient and are required to fulfill our cognitive needs the best.
Superordinate categories are the most general ones。

The members of a superordinate category do not have enough features in common to conjure up a common gestalt at this level。

Image schema is a recurring, dynamic pattern of our perceptual interactions and motor programs that gives coherence and structure to our experience. ①A center—periphery schema: It involves a physical or metaphorical core and edge, and degrees of distance from the core② A containment schema: It is an image schema that involves a physical pr metaphorical boundary，enclosed area or volume, or excluded area or volume. ③A cycle schema: It involves repetitious events and event series.
④A force schema：It involves physical or metaphorical causal interaction。

⑤A link schema：It consists of two or more entities, connected physically or metaphorically，and the bound between them。

⑥A part-whole schema：It involves physical or metaphorical wholes along with their parts and a configuration of the parts。

⑦A path schema: It involves physical or metaphorical movement from place to place, and consists of a starting point, a goal, and a series of intermediate points。

⑧A scale schema: It involves an increase or decrease of physical or metaphorical
amount。

⑨A verticality schema：It involves “up” and “down" relations. Metaphor involves the comparison of two concepts in that one is construed in terms of the other.
The target domain is the experience being described by the metaphor and the source domain is the means that we use in order to describe the experience.
Three categories of conceptual metaphors：ontological metaphors，structural metaphors, and orientational metaphors.
Ontological metaphor means that human experiences with physical objecets provide the basis for ways of viewing events, activities, emotions, ideas，etc., as entities and substances.
Structural metaphor plays the important role because it allows us to go beyond orientation and referring and gives us the possibility to structure one concept according to another.
Orientational metaphor gives a concept a spatial orientation。

They are characterized not so much by structuring one concept in terms of another，but by a co-occurrence in our experience。

Metonymy is defined as a cognitive process in which the vehicle provides mental process to the target within the same domain.
We have three ICMs in ontological realms：①Sign ICMs ②Reference ICMs ③Concept ICMs
Blending theory or integration theory is a cognitive operation whereby elements of two or more “mental spaces” are integrated via projection into a new，blended space which has its unique structure。

Chapter 7 Language，Culture and Society
Context of situation：
A.The relevant features of the participants: persons, personalities
ⅰ. The verbal action of the participants。

ⅱ。

The non—verbal action of the participants.
B.The relevant objects。

C.The effects of the verbal action.
Ethnography of communication：an authoritative research framework of our time in a linguistic study of social and cultural factors。

The essential elements suggested by this framework include①speech community ②situation，event and act ③mnemonic speaking components.
Sapir—Whorf Hypothesis: our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world.Following this argument，two important points could be captured in this theory. On the one hand，language may determine our thinking patterns; on the other，similarity between languages is relative.
Linguistic determinism：one of the two points in Sapir—Whorf hypothesis, nguage determines thought。

Linguistic relativity:one of the two points in Sapir-Whorf hypothesis，i。

e.there’s no limit to the structural diversity of languages。

During cross-cultural communication,there are five types of sub—culture we should be fully aware of:①ecological culture ②linguistic culture ③religious culture ④material culture ⑤social culture
Linguistic universality is the similarities possessed by most languages, instead of their assumed differences.
There are at least three objectives for us to teach culture in our language class:
1.To get the students familiar with cultural differences
2.To get the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of
the target culture will
3.To emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding
culture through various classroom practices
S ocial factors of influencing our language behavior in a social context：a）class b) gender c）age d）ethnic identity e) education background f）occupation g)religious belief
Women register’s features：
1)Women use more “fancy” color words such as “mauve” and “beige”
2)Women use less powerful curse words
3)Women use more intensifiers such as “terrible” and “awful"
4)Women use more tag questions
5)Women use more statement questions like “Dinner will be ready at seven
o'clock?”（with a rising intonation at the end)
6)Women’s linguistic behavior is more indirect and, hence, more polite than men’s. Linguistic sexism:many differences between men and women in language use are brought about by nothing less than women’s place in society.
Sociolinguistics of language：one of the two things in sociolinguistics, in which we want to look at structural things by paying attention to potential sociocultural factors in a social context.
Sociolinguistics of society: one of the two things in sociolinguistics, in which we try to understand sociological things of society by examining linguistic phenomena of a speaking community.
Communicative competence:a speaker’s knowledge of the total set of rules，conventions, etc。

governing the skilled use of language in a society。

Sociolinguistics has made some important contributions:
1.Sociolinguistics has contributed to a change of emphasis in the content of
language teaching
2.It has also contributed to innovations in materials and activities for the
classroom
3.It has contributed to a fresh look at the nature of language development and use
4.It has contributed to a more fruitful research in this field
Tripartite model for successful communication:
1.try to look at things from other persons’ point of view
2.try to sense their feeling to a given issue
3.try to understanding their way of knowing the world
Gender difference：a difference in a speech between men and women is“gende r
difference”
Variationist linguistics：a branch of linguistics，which studies the relationship between speakers’social starts and phonological variations.
Chapter 8 Language in Use
Performative：an utterance by which a speaker does something does something，as apposed to a constative, by which makes a statement which may be true or false. Constative: an utterance by which a speaker expresses a proposition which may be true or false.
Locutionary act:the act of saying something;it’s an act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax，lexicon, and phonology. Namely，the utterance of a sentence with determinate sense and reference.
Illocutionary act：the act performed in saying something；its force is identical with the speaker's intention.
Perlocutionary act:the act performed by or resulting from saying something, it’s the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance。

Conversational implicature：the extra meaning not contained in the literal utterances, unders tandable to the listener only when he shares the speaker’s knowledge or knows why and how he violates intentionally one of the four maxims of the cooperative principle.
Cooperative principle：
Quantity
1.Make your contribution as informative as is required （for the current purpose of the
exchange）.
2.Do not make your contribution more informative than is required。

Quality
Try to make your contribution one that is true。

1.Do not say what you believe to be false;
2.Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.
Relevance
Be relevant。

Manner
Be perspicuous.
1.Avoid obscurity of expression
2.Avoid ambiguity
3.be brief （avoid prolixity）
4.Be orderly.
Entailment:relation between propositions one of which necessarily follows from the other：e.g。

“Mary is running”entails, among other things,“Mary is not standing still”. Ostensive communication:a complete characterization of communication is that it is ostensive—inferential.
Communicative principle of relevance:every act of ostensive communication communicates the presumption of its own optimal relevance。

Relevance: a property that any utterance，or a proposition that it communicates, must, in the nature of communication, necessarily have。

Q—principle：one of the two principles in Horn’s scale，i。

e. Make your contribution sufficient （of quantity1）；Say as much as you can (given R）。

R—principle: one of the two principles in Horn’s scale，i.e。

Make your contribution necessary (Relation，Quantity2,Manner);Say no more than you must(given Q）。

Division of pragmatic labor: the use of a marked relatively complex and/or expression when a corresponding unmarked（simpler，less“effortful”）alternate expression is available tends to be interpreted as conveying a marked message（one which the unmarked alternative would not or could not have conveyed）。

Constraints on Horn scales：the hearer-based Q—Principle is a sufficiency condition in the sense that information provided is the most the speaker is able to.
Chapter 12
Schools of modern linguistics: The PragueSchool，The London School, American Structuralism, Transformational—Generative Grammar。

Three points of PragueSchool:
1.It was stressed that the synchronic study of language is fully justified as it can
draw on complete and controllable material for investigation but no rigid theoretical barrier is erected to separate diachronic study.
2.There was an emphasis on the systemic character of language.
nguage was looked on as functional in another sense，that is，as a tool
performing a number of essential functions or tasks for the community using it. Trubetzkoy’s contributions to phonological theory:
1.He showed distinctive functions of speech sounds and gave an accurate
definition for the phoneme.
2.By making distinctions between phonetics and phonology，and between
stylistic phonology，he defined the sphere of phonological studies。

3.By studying the syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations between phonemes，he
revealed the interdependent relations between phonemes。

4.He put forward a set of methodologies for phonological studies，such as the
method of extracting phonemes and the method of studying phonological combinations。

Functional Sentence Perspective is a theory of linguistic analysis which refers to an analysis of utterances in terms of the information they contain。