商务英语课后答案

商务英语课后答案
注意：tree diagram 是连续的线构成。

本笔记里有断裂是因为电脑图形无法画出连续的线，请大家自己将线连好。

也就是说，树形图必须都是连续的线。

Label是标在node旁边的。

Chapter 4 Syntax
Contents
4.1 The traditional approach
4.1.1 Number, gender and case
4.1.2 Tense and aspect
4.1.3 Concord and agreement
4.2 The structural approach
4.2.1 Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations
4.2.2 Immediate constituent analysis
4.2.2.1 IC analysis with brackets
4.2.2.2 IC analysis with tree diagrams
4.2.2.3 IC analysis with labelled tree diagrams
4.2.2.4 Criterion of IC analysis
4.2.2.5 Advantages of IC analysis
4.2.2.6 Problems of IC analysis
4.2.3 Endocentric and exocentric constructions
4.3 The generative approach
Syntax: is a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.
1. The traditional approach
Traditionally, a sentence is seen as a sequence of words.
(A sentence has a linear structure only.)
Study of sentence involves study of the word, such as
①classification of words (parts of speech/word class): noun,
verb, adjective, adv, conj, prep, article, pronoun
②identification of functions of words: subject, predicate.
These parts of speech and functions are called categories.
Category is also specifically used for the defining properties of these units (like noun or verb). Categories of noun: number, gender, case
Categories of verb: tense, aspect, voice
1.1 Number, gender, case （这两条大家已熟悉，此处不再列出。

请自己总结例子。

）
1.2 Tense, aspect, voice
1.3 Concord 一致
Concord is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.
In English, the determiner and the noun it precedes should concord in number.
this man
these men
a book
some books
1.4 Government 管辖
is a another type of control over the form of some words by other words in certain syntactic constructions. It differs from concord in that this is a relationship in which a word of a certain class determines the form of others in terms of certain category.
Pronoun after a verb/prep should be in the object form.
She gave him a book.
She gave a book to them.
The verb/prep determines or governs the form of the pronoun after it. The former is the governor and the latter the
governed.
2. The structural approach
Saussure,
all the linguistic theories after him are structural in that they all regard linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure (system).
2.1American Structuralist model of Sentence analysis
Syntagmatic relation + Paradigmatic relation
They find the value of a linguistic sign from its relations to others, or its position in the system. Two types of relations which Saussure identified are Syntagmatic(组合) and Paradigmatic(聚合) relations.
①Syntagm atic/horizontal relation: relation between one item and others in a sequence, or between elements which are all present, such as the relation between weather and the others in the following sentence.
If the weather is nice, we’ll go out.
②Paradigmatic/vert ical relation: relation between elements replaceable with each other at a particular place in a structure.
is smiling.
she
he
Tom
*Boys
* Desk
*Book
③There are syntactic and semantic conditions the words in a syntagmatic relation must meet.
The boy kicked the ball.
*The ball kicked the boy.
④In a paradigmatic relation, constraints are syntactic only. Semantic factors are not taken into consideration.
The is smiling.
girl
man
boy
2.2 Linear structure + hierarchical structure
Another thing structural linguists realize is that a sentence does not only have a linear structure, but also a hierarchical structure.
①Linear structure: A sentence consisting of individual words one after another in a line
②Hierarchical structure: A sentence consisting of layers of word groups.
In a sentence some words are in a closer relationship to each other than others.
The boy kicked the ball.
The relation between a sentence and its component elements, is referred to as the relation between
a construction(构建) and its constituents(成分).
2.3 IC analysis 直接成分分析
American linguist, Leonard Bloomfield, Language, 1933
Immediate constituent: are constituents immediately, directly, below the level of a construction (sentence/word group/word).
Poor John ran away
poor John ran away
poor John ran away
lovely
love ly
Sentence (construction)
↓
Word group/phrase (construction/constituent)
↓
Word (construction/constituent)
↓
morpheme (constituent)
Note: In practice, for the sake of convenience, we stop at the level of word.
IC analysis of a sentence may be carried out
①with brackets as:
((Poor) (John)) ((ran) (away))
②with a tree diagram as:
Poor John ran away
╲╱╲╱
╲╱╲╱
╲╱
╲╱
╲╱
③Labelled tree diagram
When we add labels like noun, verb, determiner, adj, prep, or noun phrase, verb phrase etc. to the nodes(节点), we can show ambiguities more clearly. A tree diagram like this type is called labelled tree diagram.
more expensive clothes
①more expensive clothes
Adj Adj N
╲╲╱
╲╱NP
╲╱
NP
②more expensive clothes
Adv Adj N
╲╱╱
╲╱╱
AP╲╱
NP
④Criterion of IC analy sis
How to know where to make the cut?
How to judge the immediate constituents of construction?
Criterion is substitutability: whether a sequence of words can be substituted for a single word and the structure remains the same.
Poor John→John (in a paradig matic relation)
ran away →ran (in a paradigmatic relation)
NOTE:
the traditional approach & the structural approach
Similarity: The first cut comes at the boundary between subject and predicate.
Differences: Traditionally, the sentence has a linear structure only. In contrast, IC analysis emphasizes the function of the intermediate level---word group, seeing a hierarchical structure of the sentence as well.
⑤Advantages of IC analysis
Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, and ambiguities will be revealed.
Leave the book on the shelf.
⑥Problems of IC analysis
(A) At the beginning, it only allows binary divisions.
Leave it there.
(B) Constructions with discontinuous constituents will pose
technical problems for tree diagrams in IC analysis.
Is John coming? make it up
(C) The most serious problem is that there are structural ambiguities which cannot be revealed by IC analysis.
the love of God
Det N Prep N
╲╲╲╱
╲╲╱
╲╱
2.4 Endocentric and exocentric constructions
Criterion for IC analysis is substitutability.
Poor John →John
(1)Endocentric construction/headed construction:
is one whose distribution is functionally (approaching) equivalent to one of its constituents, which serves as the head of the whole.
Endocentric constructions may be further divided into 2 subtypes: subordinate and coordinate constructions.
①Subordinate construction: those constructions in which there is only one head, with the head being dominant and the other constituents dependent, are subordinate constructions.
the three small children
will have been leaving
really very late
the book on the shelf
②Coordinate construction: those constructions in which there are more than one head. The two constituents are of equal syntactic status, and no one is dependent on the other. That is, both are capable of serving as the head.
boys and girls
coffee or tea
the city Beijing
(2) exocentric construction:
A construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constituents. There is no noticeable head in it.
On the shelf
If he is going
The girl smiled
4.3 The generative approach
Facing these problems of American Structuralism, Noam Chomsky proposed his transformational-generative grammar (TG-grammar) in his book, Syntactic Structures, in 1957.
8 categories in traditional grammar:
noun, verb, adj, adv, conj, prep, article, pronoun
In current theories: (3 are added)
determiner, degree words, qualifier。