从意象再现角度赏析杨宪益唐诗翻译

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
for the Degree of Master of Arts
A Study of Yang Xianyi’s Translation of Tang Poems
From the Perspective of Image Reproduction
Candidate : Chen Xi
Major : Foreign Linguistics and Applied Linguistics Supervisor : Prof. Wang Shuhuai
Huazhong University of Science and Technology
Wuhan 430074, P. R. China
May, 2012
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华中科技大学硕士学位论文
Abstract
Chinese classical poetry, famous for its musicality and uniqueness in language, has been constantly translated into foreign languages, especially in English. The translation works of Chinese classical poetry help foreigners take a closer look at Chinese culture and literature. Thus to many scholars who devote their lives to the translation of Chinese literature, poetry translation is a popular choice.
As the soul of poetry, images provide an implicit way of expressing the poets’ appreciation of nature and beauty, hatred of unfair social system, sorrow and happiness. Therefore, translators often regard image as the most important element of poetry and devote much effort to recreating images in English versions.
Although many scholars have referred different translation theories to the discussion of image reproduction, some of them only focused on the rendition of a single image. The purpose of poets is to combine images into lines organically, and create a complete picture with them. However, the meaning of a single image is indeterminate; it cannot express the complicated and subtle feelings of the poet. Meanwhile, the single image cannot indicate the cause, effect, change and development of the poet’s feelings either. Only when all the images are combined can they serve to express the poet’s complete feelings and the poem’s theme, and effectively play the role that a single image could not. Therefore, no poetry translator can overlook the transference of image combination in translating classical Chinese poetry.
In this thesis, the author attempts to classify the lyrics of the Tang Dynasty according to different combinations of images: juxtaposition, skipping, superimposition, crisscross and radiation; then make a comparative study between the translated versions of Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang and of other scholars. The methods of comparative study and deduction
华中科技大学硕士学位论文
were employed to analyze the selected materials and the translation methods they used when facing different combinations of images and appreciating the reproduction of images. Finally, the conclusion shows that when dealing with images in juxtaposition, the Yangs adopted the method of equivalence; when dealing with images in skipping, they used addition and reduction in translation to keep the symmetry of syntax; when dealing with images in superimposition, they adopted the neutralization method, balanced the use of liberal and literal translation; when dealing with images in crisscross, the Yangs merged the images and processed them together; when dealing with images in radiation, the Yangs took a method of liberal translation or attaching notes of explanation at the end of translation.
This thesis is divided into four parts.
Chapter one is the literature review of the related theories. It is composed of four parts. The first part gives an overview of studies on images, and a comparison between Chinese concept of image and western concept of image. The second part introduces the five combinations of images. The third part is a brief introduction to Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang. It begins with a brief survey of Yang Xianyi as a translator, consisting of his translation career influenced by social environment and his magnificent accomplishments in translation. The forth part reviews the theories and commentaries concerning Yang’s translation made by him and other scholars.
Chapter two is the methodology mainly adopted in this thesis. It included research questions, sample selection, comparison and description.
Chapter three is the study on image translation of Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang and other translators. It contains five parts and analyzes the English versions of Tang poems from the perspectives of five ways of image combinations. In each part, the comparative study was employed in poems of the Tang Dynasty translated by Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang and other translators.
华中科技大学硕士学位论文
Chapter four is the ending part of this thesis; it concluded the translation methods the Yangs adopted in each kind of combination, limitations of the research and suggestions for further study.
Keywords: combination of images,Yang Xianyi, translation of Tang poem
华中科技大学硕士学位论文
摘 要
中国古典诗歌以其音乐性和语言独特性闻名世界，被译成各国语言广为流传，使 得外国人对中国文化有了更深刻的了解。

许多翻译家和学者都对中国古典诗歌的翻 译和传播做出过重大贡献，杨宪益先生不可不说是其中的翘楚，他与妻子戴乃迭一 起，将过百部中国文学作品翻译成了英文，是中国不可多得的高产译者。

意象作为诗歌的灵魂，是帮助诗人表达忧伤和喜悦；表达对自然和美的赞赏，以 及对不公平社会制度的憎恶的媒介和途径。

因此，在诗歌的翻译过程中，意象作为 最重要的部分，理所应当得到最大程度的重现。

这也成为了众多译者不遗余力想要 实现的目标。

然而，在研究意象的翻译时，有些学者只注重单一的意象而忽略了意象的组合。

事实上，单一的意象本身其实并没有确定的含义，也无法表达诗人复杂和微妙的情 感。

而诗人在写诗的过程中，只有将各种不同的意象有机结合起来，建立成一个完 整的画面，才能成功将意境传达至读者面前。

如果只有单一的意象，诗人情感的起 因，效果，变化和发展也就无从得知。

因此，只有所有意象共同发挥作用，才能完 整表达诗人的感情和诗的主题。

本文以翻译家杨宪益和戴乃迭夫妇的唐诗英译作为研究对象， 同时借鉴陈植锷先 生对中国古典诗歌意象组合的分类，将唐诗根据不同意象组合方式分为五类：并置 式、跳跃式、叠加式、相交式和辐合式。

在每种分类下，将杨氏夫妇的译本同其它 翻译学者的译本进行对比研究，分析鉴赏他们针对不同的意象组合方式，所选择的 意象处理方式有何不同以及与之对应的意境再现的效果，进而总结出，杨宪益和戴 乃迭夫妇在处理五种不同类别的意象组合是所采用的方法各有不同。

对于并置式的 意象组合，杨氏夫妇采取了形式对等的翻译策略；对于跳跃式的意象组合，他们主 要采用增译和变换句式的策略来保证意境的重现；对于叠加式的意象组合，他们采 取的是中庸的翻译策略，将直译和意译相互融合，兼顾源语和目的语的文化差异；
华中科技大学硕士学位论文
对于相交式的意象组合，他们采取的是合并处理的方式，同时通过增译保持结构上 的对等；而对于辐合式的意象组合，他们采用直译加学术性注释的翻译策略。

论文主要分为四个部分。

第一章为文献综述。

介绍了意象的概念和五种组合方式，并简要介绍了杨宪益和 戴乃迭夫妇的生平以及对诗歌翻译的贡献和成就。

第二章为方法论，包括研究问题，样本采集，对比及描述性研究。

第三章是对杨宪益和其他学者唐诗译本的比较研究。

本章分为五部分，每一部分 分别针对对应一种意象组合方式的唐诗，比较研究不同译本对不同意象组合的处理 方式以及意境再现的效果。

第四章总结了杨宪益和戴乃迭夫妇在唐诗翻译过程中，对于意象处理的特点，并 提出了文章的不足。

关键词：意象组合，杨宪益，唐诗翻译
华中科技大学硕士学位论文
Contents
Abstract (I)
摘 要 (IV)
Introduction (1)
1 Literature Review
1.1 Image and image combination (4)
1.2 Brief introduction to Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang and their poem
translation (8)
2 Methodology
2.1 Research Questions (10)
2.2 Sample selection (10)
2.3 Comparison and Description (10)
3 Results and Discussion
3.1 Juxtaposition: a comparison between two translated versions of “Song
of Eternal Sorrow” and “climbing a terrace” (11)
3.2 Skipping: a comparison between two translated versions of “Climbing
the Yueyang Tower” (17)
3.3 Superimposition:a comparison between translated versions of two)
quatrains of Li Bai............................................................................(21 3.4 Crisscross: a comparison between two translated versions of “Invitation
to wine” (27)
3.5 Radiation: a comparison between two translated versions of “Watching
the Waterfall” and “The Zither” (36)
Conclusion (41)
Acknowledgements (44)
Bibliography (45)
华中科技大学硕士学位论文
Introduction
Research background
Chinese classical poetry is famous for its rhyme and refining in language, and has been constantly translated into foreign languages, especially in English. The translation works of Chinese classical poetry help foreigners have a closer look towards Chinese culture and literature. Thus to many scholars who devote their lives to the translation of Chinese literature, poetry translation is a popular choice.
As the soul of poetry, images provide an implicit way of expressing the poets’ appreciation of nature and beauty, hatred of unfair social system, sorrow and happiness. Therefore, translators often regard image as the most important element of poetry and devote considerable amount of effort to recreating image in English versions.
Among those scholars, imagists including Ezra Pound, Arthur Waley, Amy Lowell and Florence Ayscough were all interested in retaining as many original images in the translation as possible, and did not pay much attention to the prosody or the meaning of the original text. Meanwhile, some other scholars, represented by Xu Y uanchong, appreciated the aesthetic approach to preserve the beauty of poetry, thus considered it unnecessary to retain the original image. It can even be possible to create a target image that outshines the original one (Xu Y uanchong, 2003:40). With different aesthetic conceptions, those translators adopted a variety of methods to reproduce images. Combining with their life experiences, different translation styles are implied.
Although many scholars have referred different translation theories to the discussion of image reproduction, some of them only focused on the rendition of single image. The poet’s purpose is to combine images with lines organically, and create a complete picture with them. However, the meaning of the single image is indeterminate; it cannot express
华中科技大学硕士学位论文
the complicated and subtle feelings of the poet. Meanwhile, single image cannot indicate the cause, effect, change and development of the poet’s feelings either. Therefore, images must be organically combined (Cao Weifang, Wu Xiao, 2002:119). After that, all of those images will together serve to express the poet’s complete feelings and the poem’s theme, and effectively play the role that single image does not have. Therefore, no poetry translator can overlook the transference of combination of images in translating classical Chinese poetry.
Research purpose
The thesis attempts to classify the lyrics of the Tang Dynasty according to different combinations of images: juxtaposition（并置式）, skipping（跳跃式）, superimposition （叠加式）, crisscross（相交式） and radiation（辐合式）; Then make a comparison between the translated versions of Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang and other scholars. The methods of comparison and description are made to analyze the translation methods they used when facing different combinations of images and appreciate their reproduction of images.
This thesis is divided into four parts.
Chapter one is the literature review of the related theories. It is composed of four parts. The first part gives an overview of images studies, and a comparison between Chinese concept of image and western concept of image. The second part introduces the five combinations of images. The third part is a brief introduction to Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang’s poem translation. It begins with a brief survey of Yang Xianyi as a translator, consisting of his translation career influenced by social environment and his magnificent accomplishments in translation. The forth part reviews the theories and commentaries concerning Yang’s translation made by him and other scholars.
Chapter two is the methodology mainly adopted in this thesis. It included research questions, sample selection, comparison and description.
华中科技大学硕士学位论文
Chapter three is the study on image translation of Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang and other translators. It contains five parts and analyzes the English versions of Tang poems from the perspectives of five combinations of images. In each part, the comparative study is done in poems of the Tang Dynasty translated by Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang and other translators.
Chapter four is the ending part of this thesis; it concluded the translation methods the Yangs adopted in each kind of combinations and proposed the limitation and suggestion for further study.
华中科技大学硕士学位论文
1 Literature Review
1.1 Image and image combination
1.1.1 The definition of image
Image is translated as “意象” in Chinese. It is known as the key and spirit of poetry. “Poem always begins with sweet music and ends in touch and imagination, possessing the pleasing images of sound and sight”(Li Y unluo, 1987:32). Being filled with images is a very important sign of an excellent poem, because images will evoke the feelings of the readers and make them use their imagination in order to understand what the poet really wants to convey and imply. It is essential to understand the images when we appreciate poems.
Y uan Xingpei(1987:59­61) classified the definition of“image”in the article“Images in Chinese Classical Poetry” ( 《中国古典诗歌的意象》 ). He pointed out that some images are objective figures containing subjective feelings while others are subjective feelings expressed through objective figures. He also claimed that such definition has neither certain meaning nor consistent use. In the early 20th century, Ai Qing and Zhu Guangqian, influenced by poetics from China and the West, combined the definitions of image from both sides in the field of poetry. Influenced by the image view from modern western psychology, Ai Qing (1980:199) considered image as a figurative psychological feeling. However, Zhu Guangqian adopted “image” in multiple contexts with a variety of meanings. Sometimes it was the form of subject appearing in your mind, and sometimes it was the actual figure in the objective world.
In the West, the word “image” is related to the imagist movement in early 20th century. The representatives were translators who dealt with Chinese classical poetries and found
华中科技大学硕士学位论文
the combination of images in the whole text. Hence they were all interested in recreating the Chinese images. Ezra Pound, being one of them, defined “image” as the complex of sense and sensibility expressed at one moment. (Chen Liangyun, 1991:92)
1.1.2 Introduction of combinations of images
Goethe says, “art should speak to the world as a whole.” The role of a single image can only be identified in the combination of images and its meaning can then be made determinate too. As for the combination of images, many scholars have done researches into it. The famous imagist Ezra Pound once proposed that the combination of images included juxtaposition, disconnection, superimposition, and so on. In China, Wu Sheng (1997) pointed out six kinds of image combinations from the perspective of way of creating image: superimposition, contrast, synesthesia, fantasy, consecutive, radiation, superstition. In “poetic imagery”( 《诗歌意象论》 ), Chen Zhi’e critically absorbed Pound’s theories, combined them with Chinese classical poetry and summarized 5 types of image combination which are more detailed than Pound’s. The 5 types are juxtaposition, skipping, superimposition, crisscross, radiation and will also be adopted in this thesis.
(a) Juxtaposition
Juxtaposition is to combine the related images in the form of parallelism, comparison or contrast, etc. The clearer syntactic structure and the description in details can effectively present the poet’s intent and produce a distinct mental picture. A typical example is the dramatic lyric written by Ma Zhiyuan:
枯藤老树昏鸦，小桥流水人家，古道西风瘦马。

夕阳西下，断肠人在天涯。

(《天净 沙•秋思》)
Tune to “Sand­pure Sky”
Autumn Thoughts
Dry vine, old tree, crows at dusk,
Low bridge, stream running, cottages,
Ancient road, west wind, lean nag,
The sun westering,
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And one with breaking heart at the world’s edge.
——Tr. by Wayne Schlepp In these three lines, there are no verbs or link verbs but nouns and their modifiers. However, an image of a remote and quiet small village is well presented before the eyes.
(b)Skipping
Skipping is formed by a set of images existing in different spaces and times. It can be divided into: 1) skipping in the same time and in different space. For example, in 渭北春 天树，江东日暮云。

（《春日忆李白》 by Du Fu）, “the north of Wei River” refers to the city of Chang’an where Du Fu was staying; “The east of Changjiang River” refers to the place where Li Bai was traveling. The two lines describe two scenes respectively, which expresses that Du Fu was missing Li Bai very much at that time. 2) Skipping in the same space and in different time. For example, in 前不见古人，后不见来者。

（《登幽州台歌》 by Chen Ziang）, the place this poem refers to is Youzhou altar, where the poet looks back on the past and looks forward to the future. 3) Time crossed with space. For example, in 楼船夜雪瓜洲渡，铁马秋风大散关。

（《书愤》 by Lu You）, the poet uses two frontiers towns in Southern Song Dynasty. When describing “tiding over GuaZhou”, the poet uses two images “towered ship” and “snow in the night”; when describing “DaSanGuan”, the poet uses two images “armored horse” and “autumn wind”. The images of “towered ship” and “armored horse” represented human activities, and the images of “snow in the night” and “autumn wing” the time, and the images of “tiding over Guazhou” and “dasanguan” the places. The poet does not use connective words that are often used in verbal communication, such as when, where, what, how, and so on. On the contrary, he just combines some noun images that indicate what have happened in different times and places to show the tension in the frontier and generalize his life in the army.
(c) Superimposition
Superimposition means that images are combined according to the order in time or space. From the perspective of aesthetic appreciation, classical Chinese poetry is the art of time and space. Images are often combines according to the order in time or space. There are
华中科技大学硕士学位论文
synchronic and diachronic orders in time. For example, in 人闲桂花落，夜静春山空。

月 出惊山鸟， 时鸣春涧中。

（《鸟鸣涧》by Wang Wei） , the images in the poem are obviously combined according to the diachronic order in time. It is the superimposition way of combining images that makes it a successful poem of natural scenery and expresses the poet’s real intention of getting away from such worldly stuff at fame and the wealth and retreating to nature.
(d)Crisscross
Crisscross means the overlap of indication of images in one combination, so as to contain more images and emotions within limited words. For example, in 秦时明月汉时关， 万里 长征人未还。

（《出塞》 by Wang Changling）. The images of “秦” and “汉” function together as an adverbial of time, indicating the existing period of both the images of “明 月” and “关”. That is to say, instead of the bright moon of Qin Dynasty and strategic fortification of Han Dynasty, the poet was implying that the bright moon and the strategic fortification had been there since Qin and Han Dynasty. The two pairs of images cover each other to give readers the impression of extensive and exhausting process of war.
(e) Radiation
Radiation means to group the images together to create a central image. In classical Chinese poetry, there are lots of poems devoted to chanting a certain object, usually natural phenomena or plants. Sometimes, this central image is not mentioned in the poem. It is the description of other objects that gives rise to this central object. The typical example is 碧玉妆成一树高，万条垂下绿丝绦。

不知细叶谁裁出，二月春风似剪刀。

（《咏柳》 by He Zhizhang）. The central image in the poem is willow in early spring. To present this image, the poet lay the emphasis on two typical characteristics of willow: the greenness of trees and the silk ribbon­like green branches. The images of “碧玉” and “绿 丝绦” are produced to present these two characteristics. Another similar example can be 大弦嘈嘈如急雨，小弦切切如私语。

嘈嘈切切错杂弹，大珠小珠落玉盘。

间关莺语 花底滑，幽咽泉流冰下难。

（《琵琶行》 by Bai Juyi）. There are five metaphoric images
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in this poem: “急雨”, “珠落玉盘”, “莺语花底”, “泉流冰下”, which are grouped together to create the central image “琵琶”.
1.2 Brief introduction to Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang and their poem translation
Yang Xianyi (1915­2009) and Gladys Yang (1919­1999), as versatile persons of letters, are well known as outstanding translators for their arduous long­term involvement in the exploration and evolution of Chinese translation practice. It is not exaggerating to claim that they have made unparalleled contributions to Chinese modern translation cause and have exerted far­reaching influence in the area, so far as the quality and quantity of their translations are concerned. Their translation works cover from ancient to modern, from the west to the east, from English to Greek, Latin and French. Throughout their lives, they never ceased translating and introducing the well written works to the west and east alike. Hardly anyone could be compared with them in the quantity aspect of translations.
The perfect couple had made great contributions to Chinese translation all their lives, and held a significant position in the history of Chinese translation. They formed the husband and wife team of translation in the late 1930s when they were still studying in Oxford University in Britain. Half a century’s diligent work made them well­known for their numerous high quality translations. Their translation career can be divided into three periods.
The first period is from the end of 1930s to the beginning of the 1940s, that is, from their later years in Oxford to the time before they joined the National Institute of Translation and Compilation. During this period, Yang Xianyi and Gladys did most of their translating work out of interest. At that time, Japanese occupied most of the major cities in China. Yang Xianyi, studying in Oxford University, spent most of his time doing anti­Japanese propaganda work. As a result, the couple did relatively less translation work. However, during this period the Yangs were under little restrictions. So they could choose any work
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that they enjoyed and had real passion for translation. The selections of the materials for translation reflected their preference in literature. Most of them were Chinese classical writings, including classical poems.
The second period of their translation career lasted for about six years. It began at a time when the couple was recommended by a friend to join the National Institute of Translation and Compilation in the year of 1943 and ended when the institute was taken over by the central government and terminated shortly after that in 1951. At this time, their translation work was actually a means of supporting them to survive.
The last period of the Yangs’ translation career is from the early 1950s to the end of the 1980s. This period was the most important as well as the longest one for Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang, during which they finished most of their well­known translations. In the 1960s’ Chinese Literature they translated many poems such as those composed by Li Bai, Du Fu and many other poets.
华中科技大学硕士学位论文
2 Methodology
2.1 Research Questions
The thesis addresses two research questions:
1. What methods did Yang Xianyi and other scholars choose to deal with different
combinations of images?
2. To what extent did Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang successfully reproduce the image in
translated versions?
2.2 Sample selection
The author collected the relative documentaries on researches of the translation of images from Chinese classical poetry, and the studies on Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang. Then the author read the original Tang poems and their translated versions intensively and extensively, meanwhile, thought deeply and thoroughly about such theories of image combination.
The related materials of different English versions of Chinese classical poetry were sorted out. The author used speculative method to classify the lyrics based on the different combinations of images and analyze the translated versions.
2.3 Comparison and Description
The thesis mainly invokes documentary study, comparison and description:
Observation, description and explanation were used in the comparative study of different versions of translation practice, and then the author made comments and conducted analysis on each one.
华中科技大学硕士学位论文
3 Results and Discussion
In the previous chapters, the discussion mainly lies in the definition and combinations of image, and the introduction of Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang respectively. According to the analysis, translators’ translation activities were analyzed from a viewpoint of functionalism. That is to say, their translation activities have different translation purposes, which have influence on translation process in some way. Also, because of different translation purposes, translators chose suitable translation skills to achieve their purposes that lead to the appearance of various versions. In this chapter, some case studies were made to prove this viewpoint. And the case studies are divided to the five combinations of images mentioned above, and circled on different English versions of Tang poetry, translated by Yang Xianyi and Gladys Yang and other translators.
3.1 Juxtaposition: a comparison between two translated versions of “Song of Eternal Sorrow” and “climbing a terrace”
The juxtaposition of images usually appears in the form of antithesis, duality and contrast. The parallel in structure makes it memorable and popular among readers. One golden lyrics of juxtaposition kind is from “Song of Eternal Sorrow” of Bai Juyi. (《长恨歌》白 居易) In such narrative poems, the poet told a story in ancient poetry style, usually with five or seven Chinese characters in a line. Readers from whatever cultural background can be easily attracted by the plainness of language and plots of story. In this case, the poet described a love story between the emperor of Tang and his concubine. The last stanza used two parallel images, “比翼鸟” and “连理枝”, as metaphors of the love­till­death between the two lovers.
在天愿作比翼鸟，在地愿为连理枝。

Yangs’ version: In heaven we shall be birds
Flying side by side.
华中科技大学硕士学位论文
On earth flowering sprigs
On the same brunch!
Xu’s version: On high, we’d be two lovebirds flying wing to wing;
On earth, two trees with branches twined from spring to spring.
The grammatical structure of each line of the original couplet is “adverbial + verb + noun” with the functions as “adverbial + predicate + object”. “在天” (functioning as an adverbial of place) is parallel to “在地” (functioning as an adverbial of place). And the two significant images “比翼鸟” and “连理枝” are also parallel to each other not only on structure but also in internal meanings. “比翼鸟” is a bird from ancient Chinese legend. Having only one eye and one wing, such two birds have to work together to fly in the sky. “连理枝” means the branches of two trees growing together into one. Both images are metaphors of the strongest love in the world.
In Professor Xu’s version, the structure of the original verse remained the same. Meanwhile, he also considered the difficulty for foreign readers in understanding of the cultural images. So he translated “比翼” and “连理” as adverbial phrases after the objects “lovebirds” and “branches”. In order to keep the symmetry of the two stanzas in structure and rhythm, Xu added “spring to spring” to be parallel to “wing to wing”. However, he sacrificed the loyalty to the original verse, because the source of the added translation of “spring to spring” cannot be found. What’s more, this method inevitably increased the characters of each line and might lead to readers’ loss in the two key images, which are “birds” and “branches”. In Yangs’ translation, each of the two stanzas was divided into two parts. The key images “比翼鸟” and “连理枝” were translated as “noun” on the first line and “adverbial” on the second. In this way, the translator managed to keep the parallel in structure and give some explanation to the complex cultural background.
Another poem with image combination of juxtaposition is Du Fu’s “climbing a terrace” (《登高》 杜甫)
华中科技大学硕士学位论文
风急天高猿啸哀，
渚清沙白鸟飞回。

无边落木萧萧下，
不尽长江滚滚来。

万里悲秋常作客，
百年多病独登台。

艰难苦恨繁霜鬓，
潦倒新停浊酒杯。

This poem was written by Du Fu when he was in grief and poverty at the age of 56. The lonely poet climbed up to the platform and looked into the distance. The desolate view of river in the autumn initiated his signing for himself because of the vagrom and sickness experience. The first four lines described the scenery from the platform, and the rest four lines express the depressed feeling of the poet.
As for the grammatical structure, it’s an eight­line poem with seven characters to each line. With each line being a complete sentence, the poem consists of four couplets. The grammatical parallelism appears throughout the poem, not only between two couplets but also within the same couplet. And the four couplets have four different syntactic structures.
The first couplet in this poem comprises six semantic units put side by side without any connecting words, which indicates that they are of equal importance: “风急/天高/猿啸 哀”、“渚清/沙白/鸟飞回”. These six images depict six intrinsic interrelated scenes representing the late autumn. The grammatical arrangement of first four images “风急”、 “天高”、“渚清” and “沙白” is “noun + adjective” with their grammatical functions as “subject + predicate” while that of the last two “猿啸哀” and “鸟飞回” is “noun + verb + adverb” with their functions as “subject + predicate + adverbial”.。