Economic crises, stress and mortality in Russia. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of t
什么让我感到焦虑英语作文
As a high school student, I find myself navigating through a sea of emotions and experiences that can be overwhelming at times. One of the most prominent feelings that I often grapple with is anxiety. Its a feeling that can be triggered by various factors, and for me, there are several specific sources that cause this unease.The pressure to perform academically is a significant contributor to my anxiety. The expectations from teachers, parents, and even myself can be immense. The fear of not meeting these expectations, of failing a test, or not getting into the college of my dreams, often keeps me up at night. The thought of the future and the uncertainty it holds can be daunting. I remember the time when I had to prepare for a crucial math exam. The weeks leading up to it were filled with sleepless nights, endless revisions, and a constant feeling of unease. The pressure to score well was not just about personal satisfaction but also about living up to the expectations that others had set for me.Another source of anxiety for me is social situations. The fear of being judged or not fitting in can be paralyzing. High school can be a breeding ground for cliques and social hierarchies, and the thought of not being accepted or being ostracized can be terrifying. I recall an incident where I was invited to a party by a group of classmates. The entire day leading up to the event, I was filled with dread. Would I know anyone else there? Would I be able to hold a conversation? The anxiety of the unknown and the fear of rejection made the experience a stressful one.The rapid pace of technology and the constant need to stay connectedalso contributes to my anxiety. The fear of missing out FOMO is a real phenomenon in todays digital age. Seeing friends posting about their adventures or achievements on social media can make one feel left out or inadequate. Ive often found myself comparing my life to the highlight reels I see online, which can lead to feelings of inadequacy and anxiety.Moreover, the global issues that we face today, such as climate change, political instability, and economic uncertainty, can also induce anxiety. As a young adult, its hard not to worry about the kind of world we will be living in a few years down the line. The news is filled with stories of natural disasters, economic crises, and social unrest, which can be distressing and lead to a sense of helplessness.However, its important to recognize that anxiety, while uncomfortable, can also serve as a catalyst for change and selfimprovement. It has made me more aware of my mental health and the need to manage stress effectively. Ive learned to seek support from friends, family, and even professional help when needed. Ive also discovered the importance of selfcare, whether its through exercise, meditation, or simply taking time out for myself to relax and recharge.In conclusion, while anxiety can be a debilitating emotion, its something that many of us experience in our daily lives. For me, its been a journey of understanding and managing these feelings. Its a reminder that its okay to not be okay sometimes, and that seeking help and support is not a sign of weakness but a step towards strength and resilience.。
经济对人体的影响英语作文
The economy is a complex and multifaceted entity that has a profound impact on every aspect of human life, from the most basic needs to the most sophisticated desires. As a high school student, I have observed and experienced the influence of the economy in various ways, and I believe it is essential to discuss this topic to understand its implications fully.First and foremost, the economy directly affects our standard of living. When the economy is thriving, there is an abundance of jobs, and wages tend to be higher. This allows people to afford better housing, education, and healthcare. For instance, during the economic boom in the early 2000s, my family was able to move into a larger home and my parents were able to afford better healthcare plans. However, when the economy is in a downturn, unemployment rates rise, and wages stagnate or even decrease, leading to a lower standard of living for many people.Moreover, the economy influences our purchasing power. When the economy is doing well, people have more disposable income to spend on nonessential items, such as entertainment, travel, and luxury goods. This leads to a higher quality of life and greater opportunities for personal fulfillment. However, during economic downturns, people often have to cut back on spending, which can lead to a decrease in overall happiness and wellbeing.In addition to affecting our daily lives, the economy also has a significant impact on our future prospects. A strong economy provides more opportunities for education and career advancement. For example, during periods of economic growth, there are typically more scholarships andgrants available for students, making higher education more accessible. Furthermore, a robust job market allows for greater career mobility and the potential for higher salaries and promotions.However, the economy can also create disparities and inequalities. For example, during times of economic hardship, it is often the most vulnerable members of society who suffer the most. Lowincome individuals and families may struggle to afford basic necessities, such as food and shelter, while wealthier individuals may still be able to maintain a comfortable lifestyle. This can lead to a widening gap between the rich and the poor, which can have longlasting effects on society as a whole.Furthermore, the economy can have a significant impact on our mental health. Economic instability can lead to stress, anxiety, and depression, as people worry about job security, financial stability, and the future. This can have a ripple effect on other aspects of life, such as relationships, work performance, and overall wellbeing.In conclusion, the economy is an integral part of our lives, shaping our present and future in numerous ways. It affects our standard of living, purchasing power, opportunities for education and career advancement, and even our mental health. While a strong economy can bring about many benefits, it is important to recognize the potential for disparities and inequalities that can arise during times of economic hardship. As a society, we must strive to create a more equitable and inclusive economy that benefits everyone, regardless of their social or economic status.。
2016年6月大学英语四级真题及答案解析
2016年6月大学英语四级考试真题及参考答案Part ⅡListening Comprehension（听力部分共有两套）四级第一套Section A1. C) Rising unemployment worldwide.2. A) Many countries have not taken measures to create enough jobs.3. B) Put calorie information on the menu.4. A) They will be fined.C) They will get a warning.5. D) Failure to integrate innovation into their business.6. B) It is the creation of something new.7. C) Its innovation culture.Section B8. D) He does not talk long on the phone.9. B) Talk at length.10. A) He thought it was cool.11. C) It is childish and unprofessional.12. B) He is unhappy with his department manager.13. A) His workload was much too heavy.14. C) His boss has a lot of trust in him.15. D) Talk to his boss in person first.Section C16. A) The importance of sleep to a healthy life.17. C) They get less and less sleep.18. D) Their blood pressure will rise.19. B) What course you are going to choose.20. D) The personal statement.21. C) Indicate they have reflected and thought about the subject.22. B) It was built in the late 19th century.23. D) They often broke down.24. A) They were produced on the assembly line.25. C) It marked a new era in motor travel.Section A1. C) Why sufficient sleep is important for college students.2. C) Making last-minute preparations for tests may be less effective than sleeping.3. B) Whether the British irports Authority should sell off some of its assets.4. D) Lack of runway and terminal capacity.5. D) Report the nicotine content of their cigarettes.6. A) The biggest increase in nicotine content tended to be in brands young smokers like.7. B) They were not prepared to comment on the cigarette study.Section B8. A) Holland.9. D) Learning a language where it is not spoken.10. C) Trying to speak it as much as one can.11. A) It provides opportunities for language practice.12. B) Rules and regulations for driving.13.C) Make cars that are less powerful.14. D) They tend to drive responsibly.15. C) It is not useful.Section C16. D) The card reader failed to do the scanning.17. B) By covering the credit card with a layer of plastic.18. A) Produce many low-tech fixes for high-tech failures.19. A) They vary among different departments.20.D) By contacting the deparmental office.21. B) They specify the number of credits students must earn.22. C) Students in health classes.23. A) Its overemphasis on thinness.24. B) To explain how computer images can be misleading.25. C) To promote her own concept of beauty.Part ⅢReading Comprehension四级第一套Section A26.O) tend28.L) performance29.K) particularly30.N) survive31.E) dropping32.J) mutually33.H) flow34.F) essential35.I) moodSection B36.E）“We thought we would see differences based on the housing types,”said the lead author of the study, Julie Robison, an associate professor of medicine at the university. A reasonable assumption—don't families struggle to avoid nursing homes and suffer real guilt if they can't?37.L）Of course, sons and daughters want to visit the facilities, talk to the administrators and residents and other families, and do everything possible to fulfill their duties. But perhaps they don't have to turn themselves into private investigators or Congressional subcommittees. “Families can look a bit more for where the residents are going to be happy,”Dr. Sloane said. And involving the future resident in the process can be very important.38.B）Does assisted living really mark a great improvement over a nursing home, or has the industry simply hired better interior designers? Are nursing homes as bad as people fear, or is that an out-moded stereotype (固定看法)？Can doing one's homework really steer families to the best places? It is genuinely hard to know.39.H）An elderly person who describes herself as in poor health, therefore, might be no less depressed in assisted living (even if her children preferred it) than in a nursing home. A person who had input into where he would move and has had time to adapt to it might do as well in a nursing home as in a small residential care home, other factors being equal. It is an interaction between the person and the place, not the sort of place in itself, that leads to better or worse experiences. “You can't just say, ‘Let's put this person in a residential care home instead of a nursing home—she will be much better off,’”Dr. Robison said. What matters, she added, “is a combination of what people bring in with them, and what they find there.”40.N）The daughter feared her mother would be ignored there, and so she decided to move her into a more welcoming facility. Based on what is emerging from some of this research, that might have been as rational a way as any to reach a decision.41.J）As I was considering all this, a press release from a respected research firm crossed my desk，announcing that the five-star rating system that Medicare developed in 2008 to help families compare nursing home quality also has little relationship to how satisfied its residents or their family members are. As a matter of fact, consumers expressed higher satisfaction with theone-star facilities, the lowest rated, than with the five-star ones.(More on this study and the star ratings will appear in a subsequent post.)42.F）In the initial results, assisted living residents did paint the most positive picture. They were less likely to report symptoms of depression than those in the other facilities, for instance, and less likely to be bored or lonely. They scored higher on social interaction.43.C）I am about to make things more complicated by suggesting that what kind of facility an older person lives in may matter less than we have assumed. And that the characteristics adult children look for when they begin the search are not necessarily the things that make a difference to the people who are going to move in. I am not talking about the quality of care，let me hastily add. Nobody flourishes in a gloomy environment with irresponsible staff and a poor safety record. But an accumulating body of research indicates that some distinctions between one type of elder care and another have little real bearing on how well residents do.44.I）Such findings, which run counter to common sense, have surfaced before. In a multi-state study of assisted living, for instance, University of North Carolina researchers found that a host of variables—the facility's type, size or age; whether a chain owned it; how attractive the neighborhood was—had no significant relationship to how the residents fared in terms of illness, mental decline, hospitalizations or mortality. What mattered most was the residents' physical health and mental status. What people were like when they came in had greater consequence than what happened once they were there.45.G）But when the researchers plugged in a number of other variables, such differences disappeared. It is not the housing type, they found, that creates differences in residents' responses. “It is the characteristics of the specific environment they are in, combined with their own personal characteristics—how healthy they feel they are, their age and marital status,”Dr. Robison explained. Whether residents felt involved in the decision to move and how long they had lived there also proved significant.Section C46. C) It can be avoided if human values are translated into their language.47.D) They are ill-bred.48. C) By picking up patterns from massive data on human behavior.49. B) Stop to seek advice from a human being.50. A) Determine what is moral and ethical.51. A) to see whether people's personality affects their life span52. D) They are more likely to get over hardship.53. C) Such personality characteristics as self-discipline have no effect on longevity.54. D) Mothers' negative personality characteristics may affect their children's life span.55. B) Longevity results from a combination of mental and physical health.四级第二套Section A26.G) growing27.A) dependent28.C) fast29.F) give30.H) launch31.N) successful32.I) policyl33.B) designed34.O) treatments35.E) gainedSection B36.D)As we begin to examine our life, Soupios says, we come to Rule No. 2: Worry only about things that you can control. “The individual who promoted this idea was a Stoic philosopher. His name is Epictetus,”he says. “And what the Stoics say in general is simply this: There is a larger plan in life. You are not really going to be able to understand all of the dimensions of this plan. You are not going to be able to control the dimensions of this plan.”37.B)The wisdom of the ancient Greek philosophers is timeless, says Soupios. The philosophy professor says it is as relevant today as when it was first written many centuries ago. “There is no expiration (失效) date on wisdom,”he says. “There is no shelf life on intelligence. I think that things have become very gloomy these days, lots of misunderstanding, misleading cues, a lot of what the ancients would have called sophistry (诡辩). The nice thing about ancient philosophy as offered by the Greeks is that they tended to see life clear and whole, in a way that we tend not to see life today.”38.F)To have a meaningful, happy life we need friends. But according to Aristotle—a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great—most relationships don't qualify as true friendships. “Just because I have a business relationship with an individual and I can profit from that relationship, it does not necessarily mean that this person is my friend,”Soupios says. “Real friendship is when two individuals share the same soul. It is a beautiful and uncharacteristically poetic image that Aristotle offers.”39.A) Is it possible to enjoy a peaceful life in a world that is increasingly challenged by threats and uncertainties from wars, terrorism, economic crises and a widespread outbreak of infectious diseases? The answer is yes, according to a new book The 10 Golden Rules: Ancient Wisdom from the Greek Philosophers on Living a Good Life. The book is co-authored by Long Island University's philosophy professor Michael Soupios and economics professor Panos Mourdoukoutas.40.L)“This is Aesop, the fabulist (寓言家), the man of these charming little tales, often told in terms of animals and animal relationships,”he says. “I think what Aesop was suggesting is that when you offer a good turn to another human being, one can hope that that good deed will come back and sort of pay a profit to you, the doer of the good deed. Even if there is no concrete benefit paid in response to your good deed, at the very least, the doer of the good deed has the opportunity to enjoy a kind of spiritually enlightened moment.”41.H)“This was the highest and most desirable form of pleasure and happiness for the ancient Epicureans,”Soupios says. “This is something that is very much well worth considering here in the modern era. I do not think that we spend nearly enough time trying to concentrate on achieving a sort of calmness, a sort of contentment in a mental and spiritual way, which was identified by these people as the highest form of happiness and pleasure.”42.C)Soupios, along with his co-author Panos Mourdoukoutas, developed their 10 golden rules by turning to the men behind that philosophy—Aristotle, Socrates, Epictetus and Pythagoras, among others. The first rule—examine your life—is the common thread that runs through the entire book. Soupios says that it is based on Plato's observation that the unexamined life is not worth living. “The Greeks are always concerned about boxing themselves in, in terms of convictions (信念),”he says. “So take a step back, switch off the automatic pilot and actually stop and reflect about things like our priorities, our values, and our relationships.”43.K)Instead, Soupios says, ancient wisdom urges us to do good. Golden Rule No. 10 for a good life is that kindness toward others tends to be rewarded.44.B)The wisdom of the ancient Greek philosophers is timeless, says Soupios. The philosophy professor says it is as relevant today as when it was first written many centuries ago. “There is no expiration (失效) date on wisdom,”he says. “There is no shelf life on intelligence. I think that things have become very gloomy these days, lots of misunderstanding, misleading cues, a lot of what the ancients would have called sophistry (诡辩). The nice thing about ancient philosophy as offered by the Greeks is that they tended to see life clear and whole, in a way that we tend not to see life today.”45.J)“This is Hesiod, of course, a younger contemporary poet, we believe, with Homer,”Soupios says. “Hesiod offers an idea—which you very often find in some of the world's great religions, in the Judeo-Christian tradition and in Islam and others—that in some sense, when you hurt another human being, you hurt yourself. That damaging other people in your community and in your life, trashing relationships, results in a kind of self-inflicted (自己招致的) spiritual wound.”Section C46. D) It usually draws different reactions from different age groups.47. A) It does not seem to create a generational divide.48. B) It helps with their mobility.49. A) The location of their residence.50. C) The wealthy.51. C) Their daily routine followed the rhythm of the natural cycle.52. B) It brought family members closer to each other.53. D) Pace of life.54. B) It is varied, abundant and nutritious.55. A) They enjoyed cooking as well as eating.四级第三套Section A26.M) provide27.A) abandoned28.I) frequent29.L) merely30.C) biased31.G) dependent32.F) dampens33.E) commitment34.N) understandably35.O) unrealisticallySection B36.［F］In contrast, the recent surge in world grain prices is trend-driven, making it unlikely to reverse without a reversal in the trends themselves. On the demand side, those trends include the ongoing addition of more than 70 million people a year, a growing number of people wanting to move up the food chain to consume highly grain-intensive meat products, and the massive diversion （转向）of U.S. grain to the production of bio-fuel.37.［K］In response to those restrictions, grain-importing countries are trying to nail down long-term trade agreements that would lock up future grain supplies. Food-import anxiety is even leading to new efforts by food-importing countries to buy or lease farmland in other countries. In spite of such temporary measures, soaring food prices and spreading hunger in many other countries are beginning to break down the social order.38.［C］As demand for food rises faster than supplies are growing, the resulting food-price inflation puts severe stress on the governments of many countries. Unable to buy grain or grow their own, hungry people take to the streets. Indeed, even before the steep climb in grain prices in 2008, the number of failing states was expanding. If the food situation continues to worsen, entire nations will break down at an ever increasing rate. In the 20th century the main threat to international security was superpower conflict; today it is failing states.39.［L］Since the current world food shortage is trend-driven, the environmental trends that cause it must be reversed. We must cut carbon emissions by 80% from their 2006 levels by 2020, stabilize the world's population at eight billion by 2040, completely remove poverty, and restore forests and soils. There is nothing new about the four objectives. Indeed, we have made substantial progress in some parts of the world on at least one of these—the distribution of family-planning services and the associated shift to smaller families40.［B］I can no longer ignore that risk. Our continuing failure to deal with the environmental declines that are undermining the world food economy forces me to conclude that such a collapse is possible.41.［H］What about supply? The three environmental trends—the shortage of fresh water, the loss of topsoil and the rising temperatures—are making it increasingly hard to expand the world's grain supply fast enough to keep up with demand. Of all those trends, however, the spread of water shortages poses the most immediate threat. The biggest challenge here is in irrigation, which consumes 70% of the world's fresh water. Millions of irrigation wells in many countries are now pumping water out of underground sources faster than rainfall can refill them. The result is falling water tables （地下水位）in countries with half the world's people, including the three big grain producers—China, India and the U.S.42.［M］For many in the development community, the four objectives were seen as positive, promoting development as long as they did not cost too much. Others saw them as politically correct and morally appropriate. Now a third and far more significant motivation presents itself: meeting these goals may be necessary to prevent the collapse of our civilization. Yet the cost we project for saving civilization would amount to less than $200 billion a year, 1/6 of current global military spending. In effect, our plan is the new security budget.43.［J］As the world's food security falls to pieces, individual countries acting in their own self-interest are actually worsening the troubles of many. The trend began in 2007, when leading wheat-exporting countries such as Russia and Argentina limited or banned their exports, in hopes of increasing local food supplies and thereby bringing down domestic food prices. Vietnam banned its exports for several months for the same reason. Such moves may eliminate the fears of those living in the exporting countries, but they are creating panic in importing countries that must rely on what is then left for export.44.［L］Since the current world food shortage is trend-driven, the environmental trends that cause it must be reversed. We must cut carbon emissions by 80% from their 2006 levels by 2020, stabilize the world's population at eight billion by 2040, completely remove poverty, and restore forests and soils. There is nothing new about the four objectives. Indeed, we have made substantial progress in some parts of the world on at least one of these—the distribution of family-planning services and the associated shift to smaller families.45.［G］As incomes rise among low-income consumers, the potential for further grain consumption is huge. But that potential pales beside the never-ending demand for crop-basedfuels. A fourth of this year's U.S. grain harvest will go to fuel cars.Section C46. B) It weakens in one's later years.47. D) Some of them begin to decline when people are still young.48. C) They function quite well even in old age.49. D) can put what they have learnt into more effective use50. A) find ways to slow down our mental decline51. C) Scholars and policymakers have different opinions about it.52. A) Pre-K achievements usually do not last long.53. B) When it is made part of kids' education.54. D) She is a firm supporter of pre-K.55. C) Early intervention.Part ⅣTranslation四级第一套功夫(Kung Fu)是中国武术（martial arts）的俗称。
大学生英语四级真题-15(2021年-2022年)
2016年6月大学英语四级考试真题试卷二(完整版)Part I Writing (25 minutes)(请于正式开考后半小时内完成该部分，之后将进行听力考试) Directions:For this part, you are allowed 30 minutes to write a letter to express your thanks to your parents or any other family member upon making a memorable achievement．You should write at least 120 words but no more than 180 words.注意：此部分试题请在答题卡1上作答。
Part II Listening Comprehension (30 minutes)Section ADirections:In this section, you will hear three news reports. At the end of each news report, you will hear two or three questions. Both the news report and questions will be spoken only once. After you hear questions, you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A), B), C) and D). Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 1 with a single line through the centre.注意：此部分试题请在答题卡1上作答。
Questions 1 to 2 are based on the conversation you have just heard.1. A）How college students can handle their psychological problems．B）Why college students are more likely to have stress problems．C）Why sufficient sleep is important for college students．D）How college students can improve their sleep habits．2．A）It is not easy to improve one’s sleep habits．B）It is not good for students to play video games．C）Making last．minute preparations for tests may be less effective than sleeping．D）Students who are better prepared generally get higher scores in examinations Questions 3 to 4 are based on the conversation you have just heard.3. A）Whether adequate investment is being made to improve airport facilitiesB）Whether the British Airports Authority should sell off some of its assets．C）Whether the Spanish company could offer better service．D）Whether more airports should be built around London．4. A）Poor ownership structure．C）Lack of innovation and competition．B）Inefficient management．D）Lack of runway and terminal capacity．Questions 5 to 7 are based on the conversation you have just heard.5. A）Study the effects of nicotine on young smokers．B）Set a limit to the production of their cigarettes．C）Take steps to reduce nicotine in their products．D）Report the nicotine content of their cigarettes．6．A）The biggest increase in nicotine content tended to be in brands young smokers like．B）Brands which contain higher nicotine content were found to be much morepopular．C）Tobacco companies refused to discuss the detailed nicotine content of their products．D）Big tobacco companies were flank with their customers about the hazards of smoking ．7．A）They will pay more attention to the quality of their products．B）They were not prepared to comment on the cigarette study．C）They promised to reduce the nicotine content in cigarettes．D）They have not fully realized the harmful effect of nicotine．Section BDirections: In this section, you will hear two long conversations. At the end of each conversation, you will hear four questions. Both the conversation and the questions will be spoken only once. After you hear a question, you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A), B), C) and D). Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 1 with a single line through the centre.Questions 8 to 11 are based on the conversation you have just heard.8. A）Holland．B）Indonesia．C）England．D）Sweden．9．A）Talking with her boyfriend in Dutch．B）Getting a coach who can offer real help．C）Acquiring the necessary ability to socialize．D）Learning a language where it is not spoken．10．A）Practicing reading aloud as often as possible．B）Listening to language programs on the radio．C）Trying to speak it as much as one can．D）Making friends with native speakers．11．A）It provides opportunities for language practice．B）It trains young people’s leadership abilities．C）It offers various courses with credit points．D）It creates an environment for socializing ．Questions 12 to 15 are based on the conversation you have just heard.12. A）A sense of freedom driving gives．B）Rules and regulations for driving ．C）The role policemen play in traffic safety．D）The impact of engine design on road safety．13. A）Make cars with automatic control．B）Make cars with higher standards．C）Make cars that are less powerful．D）Make cars that have better brakes．14．A）They follow traffic rules closely．B）They keep within speed limits．C）They like to go at high speed．D）They tend to drive responsibly．15. A）It is a bad idea．B）It is as effective as speed bumps．C）It is not useful．D）It should be combined with education．Section CDirections:In this section, you will hear three passages of lectures or talks followed by three or four questions. The recordings will be played only once. After you hear a question,you must choose the best answer from the four choices marked A), B), C) and D). Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet 1 with a single line through the centre.Questions 16 to 18 are based on the passage you have just heard.16. A）The card got damaged．B）The card was found invalid．C）The card reader broke down unexpectedly．D）The card reader failed to do the scanning．17．A）By seeking help from the card reader maker Verifone．B）By covering the credit card with a layer of plastic．C）By calling the credit card company for confirmation．D）By typing the credit card number into the cash register．18．A）Produce many low-tech fixes for high．tech failures．B）Give birth to many new technological inventions．C）Change the lifestyle of many Americans．D）Affect the sales of high．tech appliances．Questions 19 to 21 are based on the passage you have just heard.19. A）They vary among different departments．B）They leave much room for improvement．C）They are determined by the advising board．D）They are set by the dean of the graduate school．20. A）By consulting the examining committee．B）By reading the Bulletin of Information．C）By visiting the university’s website．D）By contacting the departmental office．21．A）They are harder to meet than those for undergraduates．B）They specify the number of credits students must earn．C）They have to be approved by the examining committee．D）They are the same among various divisions of the university．Questions 22 to 25 are based on the passage you have just heard.22. A）Ph．D.candidates in dieting．B）Students majoring in nutrition．C）Students in health classes．D）Middle and high school teachers．23. A）Its overemphasis on thinness．B）Its changing criteria for beauty．C）Its mistaken conception of nutrition．D）Its overestimate of the effect of dieting．24．A）To demonstrate the magic effect of dieting on women．B）To explain how computer images can be misleading．C）To prove that technology has impacted our culture．D）To illustrate her point that beauty is but skin deep．25．A）To help students rid themselves of bad living habits．B）To establish an emotional connection with students．C）To promote her own concept of beauty．D）To persuade girls to stop dieting．Part ⅢReading Comprehension (40 minutes)Section ADirections: In this section, there is a passage with ten blanks. You are required to select one word for each blank from a list of choices given in a word bank following the passage. Read the passage through carefully before making your choices, Each choice in the bank is identified by a letter. Please mark the corresponding letter for each item on Answer Sheet 2 with a single line through the centre. You may not use any of the words in the bank more than once.Questions 26 to 35 are based on the following passage.Signs barring cell—phone use are a familiar sight to anyone who has ever sat in a hospital waiting room．But the (26)_______ popularity of electronic medical records has forced hospital．based doctors to become (27)_______ on computers throughout the day,and desktops—which keep doctors from bedsides—are (28)_______ giving way to wireless devices．As clerical loads increased，“something had to (29)_______ ．and that was always face time with patients．”says Dr．Bhakti Patel．a former chief resident in the University of Chicago’s intenal-medicine program．In fall 2010，she helped (30)_______ a pilot project in Chicago to see if the iPad could improve working conditions and patient care．The experiment was so (31)_______ that all internal．medicine residents at the university now get iPads when they begin the program．Johns Hopkins’internal．medicine program adopted the same (32)_______ in 2011．Medical schools at Yale and Stanford now have paperless．iPad-based curriculums．“You’11 want an iPad just so you can wear this”is the slogan for one of the new lab coats (33)_______ with large pockets to accommodate tablet computers．A study of the University of Chicago iPad project found that patients got tests and (34)_______ faster if they were cared for by iPad．equipped residents．Many patients also (35)_______a better understanding of the illnesses mat landed them in the hospital in the first place．(35)_______ and relieve stress, which can also help learning. So while it may seem as if kids are just exercising their bodies when they"re running around, they may actually be exercising their brains as well.注意：此部分试题请在答题卡2上作答。
经济危机和我作文英语
经济危机和我作文英语题目，The Impact of Economic Crisis on Me。
Introduction:Economic crises are significant events that can have profound effects on individuals, communities, and nations. They often bring about financial instability, unemployment, and social unrest. In this essay, I will explore the impact of economic crises on me personally, reflecting on how such turbulent times have shaped my experiences and perspectives.Body:1. Personal Financial Struggles:During economic crises, financial hardships become more pronounced. For me, this meant grappling with jobinsecurity and reduced income. Witnessing my family's financial stress and uncertainty about our future left alasting impression on me. I had to adapt to a more frugal lifestyle and learn the value of budgeting and saving money from a young age.2. Educational Challenges:Economic downturns can also impact educational opportunities. As resources become scarce, accessingquality education becomes increasingly difficult. I faced obstacles in pursuing my academic goals due to limited financial resources and the need to prioritize other expenses. However, these challenges fostered resilience and resourcefulness in me, as I sought alternative means to continue my education despite the odds.3. Career Ambitions:The job market is greatly affected by economic crises, with layoffs and hiring freezes becoming commonplace. As I entered the workforce, I encountered fierce competition and limited job prospects. Navigating through this challenging landscape required determination and flexibility. I had toadapt my career aspirations to align with market demands and explore unconventional paths to achieve my professional goals.4. Psychological Impact:Beyond the tangible effects, economic crises can take a toll on mental health. The constant stress of financial instability and uncertainty about the future can lead to anxiety and depression. I experienced periods of emotional distress and insecurity during such times, grappling with feelings of inadequacy and fear of failure. However, I also learned to prioritize self-care and seek support from loved ones to cope with these challenges.Conclusion:In conclusion, economic crises have had a profound impact on me, shaping my experiences, values, and aspirations. While these turbulent times have presented numerous challenges, they have also fostered resilience, resourcefulness, and empathy. As I continue to navigatethrough life's uncertainties, I carry with me the lessons learned from overcoming adversity during times of economic turmoil.。
经济危机的影响和危害英语作文
经济危机的影响和危害英语作文The Impact and Hazards of Economic Crises。
An economic crisis refers to a period of severe economic instability characterized by a sharp decline in economic activity, business failures, high unemployment rates, and financial panic. Such crises can have far-reaching consequences, affecting various aspects of society and individuals' lives. In this article, we will explore the impact and hazards of economic crises.Firstly, economic crises have a significant impact on employment. During a crisis, businesses face financial difficulties and often resort to cost-cutting measures, including layoffs and hiring freezes. This leads to a rise in unemployment rates, leaving many individuals without a stable source of income. The resulting financial strain on households can lead to a decrease in consumer spending, further exacerbating the economic downturn.Secondly, economic crises have adverse effects on public finances. Governments often experience a decline in tax revenues due to reduced economic activity and increased unemployment. This, coupled with the need for increased spending on social welfare programs to support those affected by the crisis, can lead to budget deficits and a rise in public debt. Governments may be forced to implement austerity measures, such as reducing public services and increasing taxes, to regain fiscal stability.Moreover, economic crises impact financial markets and institutions. Stock markets often experience sharp declines, leading to significant losses for investors. Financial institutions may face liquidity problems and struggle to meet their obligations, resulting in bank failures and a loss of confidence in the banking system. The collapse of financial institutions can have a domino effect, causing further economic instability and hindering the flow of credit to businesses and individuals.Additionally, economic crises have social consequences. The increase in unemployment rates and financial hardships can lead to social unrest and politicalinstability. In times of crisis, individuals may experience heightened stress, anxiety, and a decline in mental health. The strain on social support systems, such as healthcare and welfare services, can further exacerbate these issues, making it difficult for individuals to access the necessary support and resources.Furthermore, economic crises can have long-term effects on economic growth and development. The disruption to business operations, reduced investment, and decreased consumer spending can hinder economic recovery and slow down long-term growth. The effects of a crisis can be felt for years, as businesses struggle to regain their financial footing and individuals face difficulties in finding stable employment.In conclusion, economic crises have wide-ranging impacts and hazards. They affect employment, public finances, financial markets, and institutions, as well as social well-being and long-term economic growth. It is crucial for governments and policymakers to implement effective measures to mitigate the impact of economic crises and support individuals and businesses during these challenging times. By fostering stability and resilience, societies can better navigate and recover from economic crises.。
经济危机对普通人的影响的英语作文
经济危机对普通人的影响的英语作文The Impact of Economic Crises on Ordinary PeopleEconomic crises can have a profound impact on the lives of ordinary people, often leading to significant challenges and hardships. These crises can manifest in various forms, such as recessions, financial market crashes, or widespread unemployment, and can have far-reaching consequences that extend beyond the immediate financial realm.One of the primary ways in which economic crises affect ordinary people is through job loss or job insecurity. When businesses struggle to maintain profitability, they often resort to layoffs or downsizing, leaving many individuals without a steady source of income. This can lead to financial instability, making it difficult for families to meet their basic needs, such as paying rent, utilities, and purchasing necessary goods and services. The loss of a job can also have psychological and emotional consequences, as individuals grapple with feelings of uncertainty, stress, and a loss of purpose.Furthermore, economic crises can also lead to a reduction in government spending and the implementation of austerity measures, which can have a direct impact on the provision of public services. This can include cuts to healthcare, education, social welfare programs, and infrastructure projects, all of which are essential for the well-being of ordinary people. The reduction in these services can exacerbate the challenges faced by individuals and families, particularly those who rely on these services the most.Another significant impact of economic crises on ordinary people is the erosion of personal savings and investments. When financial markets experience volatility or decline, individuals may see their retirement savings, investment portfolios, and other assets lose significant value. This can lead to a decline in overall wealth, making it more difficult for people to plan for their future, save for emergencies, or achieve their financial goals.The consequences of economic crises can also extend to the realm of housing and real estate. During times of economic hardship, housing prices may decline, and mortgagedefaults may rise, leading to a wave of foreclosures and evictions. This can disrupt the lives of ordinary people, forcing them to find alternative living arrangements and potentially disrupting their children's education, social connections, and overall sense of stability.In addition to the direct financial and economic impacts, economic crises can also have significant social and psychological consequences. The stress and uncertainty associated with job loss, financial instability, and the erosion of personal savings can lead to increased levels of anxiety, depression, and other mental health challenges. This can have a ripple effect on families and communities, as individuals struggle to cope with the emotional andsocial impacts of the crisis.In conclusion, the impact of economic crises on ordinary people is multifaceted and can have far-reaching consequences. From job loss and financial instability tothe erosion of public services and personal savings, the effects of these crises can be profound and long-lasting.It is essential for governments, policymakers, and communities to work together to develop strategies andinterventions that can mitigate the impact of economic crises on ordinary people and support their resilience and recovery.经济危机对普通人的影响经济危机可能对普通人的生活产生深远的影响,常常会带来重大的挑战和困境。
大学生经济压力英语作文
大学生经济压力英语作文Here is an English essay on the economic pressure faced by university students, with a word count of over 1000 words:University students today face significant economic pressure as the cost of higher education continues to rise while the job market remains highly competitive. From tuition fees and textbook expenses to the costs of living and maintaining a social life, the financial burdens on students can be overwhelming and negatively impact their academic performance and overall well-being.One of the primary economic challenges for university students is the rising cost of tuition. Over the past few decades, tuition fees at both public and private universities have skyrocketed, making a college education increasingly unaffordable for many students and their families. According to the College Board, the average annual cost of tuition and fees for the 2022-2023 academic year was $27,560 at private nonprofit four-year institutions and $10,740 at public four-year institutions for in-state students. These figures represent a significant financial burden, especially for students from low-income or middle-class backgrounds who may not have access to substantial financial aid or scholarships.In addition to tuition, university students also face the high costs of textbooks and other educational materials. Textbook prices have risen at a rate far exceeding inflation, with the average student spending over $1,200 per year on course materials. The exorbitant cost of textbooks can force students to make difficult choices, such as foregoing the purchase of required materials or seeking out less expensive alternatives like used or digital versions, which may not provide the same level of educational value.Beyond the direct costs of tuition and textbooks, university students also face the challenges of affording the expenses associated with daily living. The cost of housing, food, transportation, and other essential expenses can quickly add up, putting a significant strain on a student's budget. According to a report by the U.S. Department of Education, the average annual cost of room and board for undergraduate students was $12,080 at public four-year institutions and $13,620 at private nonprofit four-year institutions in the 2020-2021 academic year. These figures, coupled with the rising costs of groceries, utilities, and other necessities, can make it difficult for students to make ends meet, particularly if they are not receiving adequate financial support from their families or government aid programs.The economic pressure faced by university students can also havesignificant implications for their academic performance and overall well-being. Students who are constantly worried about their financial situation may find it challenging to focus on their studies and maintain a healthy work-life balance. This can lead to increased stress, anxiety, and even depression, all of which can negatively impact a student's ability to succeed in their academic pursuits.Moreover, the financial constraints faced by university students can limit their ability to participate in extracurricular activities, which are often essential for personal growth, career development, and building a well-rounded college experience. From joining student organizations and attending campus events to participating in internships and study abroad programs, these enriching opportunities can be out of reach for students who are struggling to cover their basic living expenses.To address the economic pressure faced by university students, a multifaceted approach is needed. Governments, educational institutions, and private organizations must work together to develop and implement policies and programs that provide greater financial support and resources to students. This may include increasing the availability and accessibility of scholarships, grants, and low-interest student loans, as well as implementing measures to control the rising costs of tuition, textbooks, and other educational materials.Additionally, universities can play a crucial role in supporting their students' financial well-being by offering on-campus jobs, career counseling services, and financial literacy programs to help students manage their finances more effectively. By providing these resources and support systems, universities can help alleviate the economic pressure faced by their students and create an environment that is more conducive to academic success and personal growth.Furthermore, students themselves can take proactive steps to mitigate the financial challenges they face. This may involve seeking out part-time employment, applying for scholarships and grants, and learning how to budget and manage their finances more efficiently. By developing these essential life skills, students can better navigate the economic realities of university life and position themselves for long-term financial stability and success.In conclusion, the economic pressure faced by university students is a significant and multifaceted challenge that requires a collaborative effort to address. From the rising costs of tuition and textbooks to the expenses of daily living, the financial burdens on students can have far-reaching consequences for their academic performance, personal well-being, and overall college experience. By implementing comprehensive solutions and providing greater financial support and resources, we can help alleviate the economic pressure faced byuniversity students and ensure that a high-quality education remains accessible and attainable for all.。
经济危机有关的英语作文
经济危机有关的英语作文标题，The Impact of Economic Crisis: Challenges and Opportunities。
In recent years, the global economy has experienced numerous challenges, leading to widespread concerns about economic stability. This essay examines the impact of economic crises, explores their causes, effects, and potential solutions, and discusses the opportunities that can arise from such adversity.Introduction:Economic crises are complex phenomena that have profound effects on societies, economies, and individuals worldwide. Whether triggered by financial mismanagement, geopolitical tensions, or external shocks, these crises often result in widespread unemployment, poverty, and social unrest.Causes of Economic Crises:There are various factors that can contribute to the onset of an economic crisis. One common cause is financial speculation, where investors engage in risky behaviors that destabilize markets. Additionally, excessive debt levels, both at the individual and national levels, can strain financial systems and lead to crises. Furthermore, external factors such as natural disasters or geopolitical conflicts can disrupt economic activity and exacerbate existing vulnerabilities.Effects of Economic Crises:The effects of economic crises are far-reaching and multifaceted. In the short term, they often result in job losses, reduced consumer spending, and declines in asset values. As businesses struggle to stay afloat, layoffs become common, leading to increased poverty and inequality. Moreover, governments may be forced to implement austerity measures to address fiscal deficits, further exacerbating social tensions.Solutions to Economic Crises:Addressing economic crises requires a coordinatedeffort from governments, international organizations, and the private sector. One key strategy is to strengthen financial regulations to prevent excessive risk-taking and speculative behavior. Additionally, governments can implement fiscal stimulus measures to boost economicactivity and create jobs. Furthermore, investing in education, infrastructure, and technology can help foster long-term economic growth and resilience.Opportunities Arising from Economic Crises:While economic crises pose significant challenges, they also present opportunities for innovation and reform. During times of crisis, governments and businesses are often forced to reevaluate their priorities and adopt more sustainable practices. For example, the 2008 financial crisis prompted regulatory reforms aimed at preventing future crises and improving transparency in financialmarkets. Similarly, the COVID-19 pandemic has accelerated digital transformation and remote work trends, paving the way for a more flexible and resilient economy.Conclusion:In conclusion, economic crises are complex phenomena that have profound effects on societies and economies worldwide. While they pose significant challenges, they also present opportunities for innovation and reform. By addressing the root causes of crises and implementing proactive measures, we can build a more resilient and inclusive global economy for the future.。
怎么写经济危机的作文英语
怎么写经济危机的作文英语Introduction:Economic crises have been a recurring feature throughout history, impacting nations and individuals alike. Writing a composition on this topic requires a clear understanding of the causes, effects, and potential solutions to these downturns. This essay will explore the multifaceted nature of economic crises, their global implications, and the stepsthat can be taken to mitigate their impact.Body Paragraph 1: Understanding Economic CrisesBegin by defining what an economic crisis is and how it differs from a regular economic downturn. Discuss the various types of economic crises, such as recessions, depressions, and financial crises. Mention key historical examples, such as the Great Depression or the 2008 Global Financial Crisis, to provide context.Body Paragraph 2: Causes of Economic CrisesDelve into the factors that contribute to economic crises. This could include speculative bubbles, high levels of debt, currency devaluation, and policy failures. Explain how a combination of these factors can lead to a crisis, usingreal-world examples to illustrate your points.Body Paragraph 3: Effects on the Global EconomyDiscuss the ripple effects of economic crises on the global stage. Highlight the impact on employment rates, consumerconfidence, business closures, and international trade. Consider the role of global institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank in addressing these crises.Body Paragraph 4: Societal ImpactsExamine the social consequences of economic downturns, including increased poverty, income inequality, and social unrest. Discuss how these crises can exacerbate existing social issues and lead to long-term challenges for communities and nations.Body Paragraph 5: Responses and SolutionsPropose various strategies to address and recover from economic crises. This could involve fiscal and monetary policies, international cooperation, and structural reforms. Evaluate the effectiveness of different approaches and discuss the importance of proactive measures to preventfuture crises.Conclusion:Summarize the key points made in the essay, emphasizing the complexity and global reach of economic crises. Conclude with a call to action for policymakers, economists, andindividuals to work together to build more resilient economies that can withstand future downturns.Remember to use clear and concise language, provide evidence to support your arguments, and maintain a logical flow of ideas throughout your composition. Additionally, ensure thatyou cite any sources you use to support your points, adhering to proper academic writing standards.。
生于盛世何其有幸作文
生于盛世何其有幸作文英文回答：Being born in a prosperous era is truly a stroke of luck. It provides us with countless opportunities and advantages that previous generations could only dream of. Growing up in a time of peace, economic growth, and technological advancements has undoubtedly shaped my lifein numerous ways.First and foremost, the abundance of resources and opportunities available to me has allowed me to pursue my passions and interests. Whether it be in the field of education, sports, or the arts, I have been able to explore various avenues and discover my true potential. For instance, I have had the privilege of receiving a quality education, which has equipped me with the knowledge and skills necessary to succeed in today's competitive world.Moreover, living in a prosperous era has also providedme with a sense of security and stability. Unlike previous generations who had to endure wars, economic crises, and social unrest, I have grown up in a time of relative peace and stability. This has allowed me to focus on personal growth and development, without the constant fear of external threats. For example, I have been able to pursue my dreams without the fear of my country being torn apart by conflicts.Additionally, the advancements in technology have revolutionized the way we live and communicate. Theinternet and social media have connected people from all corners of the world, allowing us to exchange ideas, collaborate, and learn from one another. This interconnectedness has broadened my horizons and exposed me to diverse perspectives and cultures. As a result, I have become more open-minded and tolerant, appreciating the beauty of diversity.However, it is important to acknowledge that living in a prosperous era also comes with its own set of challenges and responsibilities. The pressure to succeed and excel inevery aspect of life can be overwhelming at times. The competition is fierce, and the expectations are high. This can lead to immense stress and anxiety, as we constantly strive to meet the standards set by society. It is crucialto find a balance between ambition and well-being, ensuring that we take care of our mental and physical health.中文回答：生于盛世实在是一种幸运。
关于末日的英语话题作文
关于末日的英语话题作文Title: The Impending Apocalypse: A Reflection on Humanity's Response。
In the annals of human history, the concept of the apocalypse has been a recurring motif, captivating our imagination and stirring existential questions about our collective fate. Whether through religious prophecies, scientific predictions, or cultural narratives, the idea of an impending doomsday scenario has permeated our consciousness. In this essay, we will explore the diverse perspectives on the apocalypse, its potential causes, and humanity's response to this existential threat.Firstly, it is essential to acknowledge the multifaceted nature of the apocalypse. While religious traditions often depict it as a divine reckoning or judgment day, scientists warn of catastrophic events such as asteroid impacts, climate change-induced disasters, or technological cataclysms. Additionally, popular culture hasromanticized and dramatized the apocalypse through literature, films, and video games, shaping our perception of this phenomenon.One of the most pressing concerns regarding the apocalypse is its potential causes. Climate change, driven by human activities such as deforestation and the burning of fossil fuels, poses a significant threat to our planet's ecosystems and could lead to widespread environmental degradation and resource depletion. Moreover, advances in technology, particularly in the fields of artificial intelligence and biotechnology, raise ethical and existential questions about the unintended consequences of our scientific progress.In the face of these existential threats, humanity's response has been both remarkable and concerning. On one hand, there are concerted efforts by governments, international organizations, and grassroots movements to address issues such as climate change through mitigation and adaptation strategies. Renewable energy initiatives, conservation efforts, and sustainable development goalsdemonstrate a growing awareness of the need for collective action to preserve our planet for future generations.However, there are also significant obstacles to overcome in our response to the apocalypse. Political inertia, vested interests, and geopolitical tensions often hinder progress on crucial issues such as climate change mitigation and nuclear disarmament. Moreover, the unequal distribution of resources and vulnerabilities exacerbates the impact of environmental and socio-economic crises on marginalized communities, highlighting the need for equity and social justice in our response to the apocalypse.Furthermore, the psychological impact of living in the shadow of the apocalypse cannot be underestimated. Existential angst, eco-anxiety, and nihilism are increasingly prevalent in contemporary society, reflecting a sense of powerlessness and despair in the face of existential threats. However, there is also resilience, solidarity, and hope evident in human responses to adversity, suggesting that our capacity for adaptation and innovation may yet prevail in the face of the apocalypse.In conclusion, the apocalypse represents both a profound existential challenge and an opportunity for reflection and transformation. Whether it manifests as a natural disaster, a technological singularity, or acultural paradigm shift, the apocalypse compels us to confront our mortality, reevaluate our values, and consider the legacy we leave for future generations. By fostering resilience, solidarity, and stewardship of our planet, we can navigate the uncertainties of the apocalypse and forge a more sustainable and compassionate future for humanity.。
经济压力英文作文
经济压力英文作文Living under economic pressure is tough. It feels like there's always something hanging over your head, whetherit's bills, debts, or just the constant worry about making ends meet.Every day, it's a struggle to keep up with the rising cost of living. Prices seem to go up for everything, from groceries to gas to rent. It's hard to stay afloat when the expenses keep piling up.The pressure to succeed in your career is overwhelming. There's this constant fear of losing your job, or not being able to find a better one. It's a cutthroat world out there, and the competition is fierce.It's not just about the present, but also the future. The pressure to save for retirement, for your kids' education, for unexpected emergencies – it's never-ending. It feels like no matter how hard you work, you'll neverhave enough.The stress of economic pressure can take a toll on your mental and physical health. It's exhausting to constantly worry about money, and it's hard to find relief when it feels like there's no end in sight.Despite all the challenges, there's a resilience that comes with living under economic pressure. It forces you to be resourceful, to find creative ways to make ends meet. It teaches you to appreciate the little things, and to never take anything for granted.In the end, living under economic pressure can be a struggle, but it can also be a source of strength. It's a reminder of how resilient and adaptable we can be, and a testament to the power of perseverance.。
经济发展信任危机英语作文
Economic development is a critical aspect of a nations progress,but it can sometimes be marred by trust crises.These crises can arise from various factors such as financial scandals,economic downturns,or political instability.Here are some points to consider when discussing the impact of trust crises on economic development:1.Loss of Investor Confidence:Trust crises can lead to a significant loss of investor confidence.When investors lose faith in a countrys economy,they may withdraw their investments,leading to capital flight and a decrease in foreign direct investment.2.Market Volatility:Economic trust crises can result in increased market volatility.This can affect stock markets,currency values,and the overall stability of the financial system, making it difficult for businesses to plan for the future.3.Consumer Spending:A lack of trust in the economy can lead to reduced consumer spending.When people are uncertain about the economic future,they tend to save more and spend less,which can slow down economic growth.4.Unemployment:Trust crises can lead to business closures and job losses.As businesses struggle to maintain profitability,they may need to downsize or shut down, leading to increased unemployment rates.ernment Intervention:In response to a trust crisis,governments may need to intervene to stabilize the economy.This can involve measures such as increasing public spending,lowering interest rates,or implementing stimulus packages.6.LongTerm Economic Impact:Trust crises can have longlasting effects on an economy. The recovery process can be slow,and the damage to the economys reputation may take years to repair.7.Social Unrest:Economic instability can lead to social unrest,as people become disillusioned with the governments ability to manage the economy.This can result in protests,strikes,and even political upheaval.8.International Reputation:A trust crisis can damage a countrys international reputation, making it more difficult to attract international business and partnerships.9.Policy Changes:In response to a trust crisis,governments may need to implement new policies or regulations to restore confidence.This can include measures to increase transparency,combat corruption,and improve economic management.10.Rebuilding Trust:The process of rebuilding trust in the economy is crucial for recovery.This involves not only economic measures but also efforts to improve public perception and confidence in the governments ability to manage the economy effectively.In conclusion,trust crises can have farreaching implications for economic development. It is essential for governments,businesses,and individuals to work together to restore trust and ensure a stable and prosperous economic future.。
坚韧战遍天涯的英语作文
Resilience is a quality that allows individuals to withstand adversity and emerge stronger from challenging situations.It is the ability to bounce back from setbacks and maintain a positive outlook despite the odds.In this essay,we will explore the concept of resilience and its importance in various aspects of life.Firstly,resilience is crucial for personal growth and development.When faced with difficulties,resilient individuals are more likely to learn from their experiences and use them as opportunities for selfimprovement.They are not easily discouraged by failure but instead view it as a stepping stone towards success.This mindset fosters a growth mindset,where individuals believe that their abilities can be developed through dedication and hard work.Secondly,resilience plays a vital role in the workplace.Employees who possess this quality are better equipped to handle stress and adapt to changes in their work environment.They are more likely to take on challenges and find innovative solutions to problems.Resilient employees also tend to have better relationships with their colleagues, as they are more understanding and supportive during tough times.In addition,resilience is essential for maintaining strong relationships.Life is full of ups and downs,and having the ability to bounce back from difficult situations can help individuals maintain a positive outlook in their relationships.Resilient people are more likely to communicate effectively,empathize with others,and offer support when needed. This,in turn,strengthens the bonds between people and fosters a sense of trust and understanding.Moreover,resilience is particularly important in the face of adversity.Natural disasters, economic crises,and personal tragedies are all situations that can test an individuals resilience.Those who possess this quality are better equipped to cope with such challenges and find ways to overcome them.They are more likely to maintain hope and find meaning in difficult circumstances,which can inspire others to do the same.Furthermore,resilience can be cultivated and developed over time.There are several strategies that individuals can employ to build their resilience,such as setting realistic goals,maintaining a strong support network,and practicing selfcare.By focusing on these areas,individuals can enhance their ability to bounce back from setbacks and navigate lifes challenges with greater ease.In conclusion,resilience is a vital quality that enables individuals to navigate lifes challenges with grace and determination.It is a key component of personal growth, workplace success,strong relationships,and the ability to overcome adversity.Bycultivating resilience,individuals can unlock their full potential and lead more fulfilling lives.。
经济独立的英语作文
Economic independence is a crucial aspect of personal development and societal progress.It refers to the ability of an individual to support themselves financially without relying on others.This concept is not only about having a steady income but also about managing ones finances effectively to achieve a stable and secure life.Importance of Economic Independence1.SelfReliance:Economic independence fosters selfreliance,which is essential for personal growth and confidence.It allows individuals to make decisions based on their needs and desires,without the need for external approval or support.2.Financial Stability:It provides a sense of financial stability,reducing the stress associated with financial uncertainty.This stability is vital for longterm planning,such as buying a home,starting a family,or planning for retirement.3.Freedom of Choice:Economic independence gives individuals the freedom to choose their lifestyle,pursue their passions,and make significant life decisions without financial constraints.4.Contribution to Society:Economically independent individuals contribute more effectively to the economy by paying taxes,investing,and participating in the workforce, which in turn promotes societal growth and development.Steps to Achieve Economic Independencecation and Skill Development:Invest in education and skill development to enhance employability and increase earning potential.2.Career Planning:Plan a career path that aligns with personal interests and market demand,ensuring a steady and fulfilling source of income.3.Budgeting and Financial Planning:Create a budget to track income and expenses,and develop a financial plan to save and invest wisely.4.Debt Management:Manage debt responsibly by prioritizing debt repayment and avoiding unnecessary borrowing.5.Emergency Fund:Establish an emergency fund to cover unexpected expenses, reducing the need for financial assistance during crises.6.Investment:Learn about different investment options and invest in assets that can generate passive income and grow over time.7.Continuous Learning:Stay updated with financial literacy and market trends to make informed decisions and adapt to economic changes.Challenges and Solutions1.Job Market Competition:The competitive job market can be a challenge.Solution: Continuous skill enhancement and networking can improve job prospects.2.Economic Instability:Economic downturns can affect job security and income. Solution:Diversify income sources and maintain a flexible financial plan.3.Lifestyle Inflation:The temptation to spend more as income increases can hinder savings.Solution:Maintain a disciplined approach to spending and prioritize saving and investing.4.Financial Illiteracy:Lack of financial knowledge can lead to poor financial decisions. Solution:Seek education on personal finance and consult with financial advisors.ConclusionEconomic independence is a journey that requires dedication,planning,and discipline.It empowers individuals to lead a life of choice and contributes to a more robust and resilient society.By taking proactive steps towards financial literacy,career development, and prudent financial management,one can achieve and maintain economic independence.。
危机危害英文作文
危机危害英文作文Crisis can cause great harm to individuals, communities, and even entire nations. It can lead to loss of life, destruction of property, and disruption of daily life. The impact of a crisis can be long-lasting, affecting people's physical and mental health, as well as their economic and social well-being.In times of crisis, people may experience feelings of fear, anxiety, and uncertainty. They may struggle to cope with the sudden changes and challenges that the crisis brings. This can lead to a decline in mental health, with increased rates of depression, anxiety, and post-traumatic stress disorder.One of the most immediate dangers of a crisis is therisk to human life. Natural disasters, such as earthquakes and hurricanes, can cause widespread destruction and result in the loss of many lives. Similarly, public health crises, such as pandemics, can lead to a high number of fatalitiesif not properly managed.The economic impact of a crisis can be devastating, leading to job losses, business closures, and financial hardship for individuals and families. This can createlong-term challenges for communities, as they struggle to recover and rebuild in the aftermath of the crisis.In addition to the physical and economic harm, crises can also have a significant impact on social structures and relationships. They can lead to social disintegration, breakdown of trust, and increased tension and conflict within communities. This can further exacerbate the challenges of recovery and rebuilding.The harm caused by a crisis is not limited to the immediate aftermath, but can have long-term consequencesfor individuals and communities. It is important for governments, organizations, and individuals to work together to mitigate the impact of crises and support those affected in their recovery.。
全球变暖的优缺点英语作文
Global warming, a phenomenon that has been a topic of heated debate and concern worldwide, presents both advantages and disadvantages that are worth examining. Here is a look at some of the pros and cons associated with this environmental issue.Advantages of Global Warming:1. Agricultural Benefits: In some regions, warmer temperatures can extend the growing season for crops, potentially increasing agricultural yields. This can be particularly beneficial for colder climates where the growing season is typically short.2. Access to Resources: The melting of polar ice caps and glaciers can open up new shipping routes and make previously inaccessible natural resources more available for exploitation, such as oil, minerals, and fresh water.3. Economic Opportunities: The shift in climate can create new economic opportunities in sectors like tourism, as warmer temperatures make traditionally cold regions more attractive destinations.4. Reduced Heating Costs: Warmer winters can lead to a decrease in energy consumption for heating, potentially saving individuals and businesses money on energy bills.5. Biodiversity Changes: While many species struggle with the changes, some species may benefit from the new conditions, leading to shifts in biodiversity that could be advantageous for certain ecosystems.Disadvantages of Global Warming:1. Rising Sea Levels: One of the most significant consequences of global warming is the melting of polar ice, which leads to rising sea levels. This can result in the loss of coastal land, flooding of lowlying areas, and displacement of communities.2. Extreme Weather Events: Global warming is linked to an increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events such as hurricanes, droughts, and heatwaves, which can cause widespread destruction and loss of life.3. Health Risks: Warmer temperatures can exacerbate the spread of diseases, particularly those carried by insects like mosquitoes, leading to a rise in illnesses such as malaria and dengue fever.4. Ecosystem Disruption: Many species are unable to adapt to the rapid changes inclimate, leading to a loss of biodiversity as habitats are altered or destroyed. This can disrupt food chains and lead to the extinction of species.5. Economic Costs: The costs associated with dealing with the effects of global warming, such as rebuilding after natural disasters, adapting infrastructure, and managing health crises, can be astronomical.6. Agricultural Challenges: While some regions may see benefits, others may face reduced crop yields due to droughts, heat stress, and changes in precipitation patterns, leading to food shortages and increased prices.7. Social and Political Instability: The impacts of global warming can lead to conflicts over resources, particularly water, and can exacerbate existing social and political tensions.In conclusion, while there may be some shortterm advantages to global warming, the longterm disadvantages far outweigh them. The potential for irreversible damage to the environment and human societies is a compelling argument for immediate and sustained action to mitigate the effects of global warming.。
现代人压力大的原因英语作文
现代人压力大的原因英语作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1The modern world is filled with numerous challenges and responsibilities that can lead to high levels of stress and pressure for individuals. There are several factors contributing to the increased stress levels among people in today's society.One of the main reasons for the high levels of stress in modern times is the fast-paced and competitive nature of the world we live in. With advancements in technology and communication, people are constantly connected and expected to be available around the clock. This constant pressure to perform and deliver results can be overwhelming for many individuals, leading to stress and anxiety.Another significant factor contributing to high levels of stress is the increasing demands of work and career. In today's highly competitive job market, individuals are expected to work long hours, meet tight deadlines, and continuously upgrade their skills in order to stay ahead. This can lead to burnout andexhaustion, as individuals struggle to balance the demands of their work with their personal lives.Moreover, the societal expectations of success and achievement also play a role in the stress levels of modern individuals. There is a constant pressure to excel in all aspects of life, whether it be in their careers, relationships, or personal goals. This pressure to meet society's standards of success can be overwhelming and lead to feelings of inadequacy and failure.Furthermore, the prevalence of social media and the comparison culture it fosters can also contribute to high levels of stress among individuals. People often compare themselves to others on social media, leading to feelings of envy, insecurity, and self-doubt. This constant comparison can amplify feelings of stress and inadequacy, as individuals strive to measure up to unrealistic standards set by others.In addition, the fast-paced and consumer-driven nature of modern society can also contribute to stress levels. People are constantly bombarded with advertisements and messages that encourage them to buy more, do more, and be more. This constant pressure to consume and achieve can lead to feelings of dissatisfaction and inadequacy, as individuals struggle to keep up with the demands of society.In conclusion, the modern world is filled with numerous challenges and pressures that can lead to high levels of stress among individuals. Factors such as the fast-paced and competitive nature of society, the demands of work and career, societal expectations of success, the comparison culture fostered by social media, and the consumer-driven nature of society all contribute to the increased stress levels in today's world. It is important for individuals to recognize these factors and take steps to manage their stress levels in order to lead a healthy and balanced life.篇2The modern world is filled with stress and pressure, causing many people to feel overwhelmed and anxious. There are several reasons why modern people are under so much pressure:1. Workload: In today's fast-paced world, many people are expected to juggle multiple responsibilities at work. Deadlines are shorter, expectations are higher, and the competition is fierce. This can create a high level of stress and pressure for individuals trying to meet their job demands.2. Financial pressures: With the rising cost of living and stagnant wages, many people are struggling to make ends meet.The fear of not being able to pay bills or provide for their families can create a lot of stress and anxiety.3. Social media: While social media has many benefits, such as staying connected with friends and family, it can also be a source of stress. People often compare their lives to others online, leading to feelings of inadequacy and low self-esteem.4. Technology: While technology has made our lives easier in many ways, it has also created new stressors. Constant connectivity means that people are expected to be available at all times, leading to a feeling of being always "on" and never truly able to relax.5. Health concerns: With the rise of chronic illnesses and mental health issues, many people are under a lot of pressure to take care of their health. The pressure to maintain a healthy lifestyle can create stress and anxiety for individuals trying to stay fit and healthy.In conclusion, the modern world is filled with stress and pressure for many people. It's important to recognize these pressures and take steps to manage them, whether through self-care practices, seeking support from others, or making lifestyle changes. By addressing the root causes of stress andpressure, individuals can take control of their mental and physical well-being.篇3Modern life is full of challenges and pressures that can cause stress and anxiety for many people. There are several reasons why modern people are under so much pressure.Firstly, the fast-paced nature of modern life means that people are constantly rushing from one task to another. Whether it's work, school, or family commitments, there is always something demanding our attention and time. This can lead to feelings of overwhelm and burnout as we struggle to keep up with everything.Secondly, the rise of technology and social media has created a culture of comparison and perfectionism. People are constantly bombarded with images of success and happiness on social media, leading to feelings of inadequacy and self-doubt. The pressure to always look perfect, have a successful career, and maintain a thriving social life can be overwhelming for many.Thirdly, the uncertain and unpredictable nature of the modern world can also contribute to stress and anxiety. Economic instability, political turmoil, and global crises like theCOVID-19 pandemic can all add to feelings of insecurity and fear about the future. The constant barrage of negative news and information can take a toll on people's mental health andwell-being.In addition, the increasing demands of work and personal life can make it difficult for people to find time for self-care and relaxation. Many people feel pressured to constantly be productive and achieve more, leading to a cycle of overwork and exhaustion. This lack of balance and downtime can lead to feelings of burnout and mental health issues.Overall, the combination of the fast-paced nature of modern life, the pressure to be perfect, the uncertainty of the world, and the demands of work and personal life all contribute to the high levels of stress and anxiety that many people experience. It's important for individuals to prioritize their mental health and well-being, and take steps to reduce stress and find ways to cope with the pressures of modern life.。
经济困境英文作文
经济困境英文作文英文：Recently, I have found myself in an economic predicament. It seems that no matter what I do, I can't seem to get ahead financially. I have been struggling to make ends meet and find myself constantly worrying about money.One of the biggest issues I am facing is a lack of job opportunities. Despite my best efforts, I have been unable to find a steady job that pays enough to cover my expenses. This has led to a lot of stress and anxiety, as I am constantly worried about how I am going to pay my bills and put food on the table.Another problem I am facing is a lack of financial education. I have never been taught how to manage my money effectively, and as a result, I often find myself making poor financial decisions. For example, I might spend moneyon things I don't really need, or I might take out loanswith high interest rates that I can't afford to pay back.Despite these challenges, I am determined to find a way to overcome my economic predicament. I have started to educate myself about personal finance, and I am actively seeking out new job opportunities. I am also trying to be more mindful of my spending habits and make smarterfinancial decisions.中文：最近，我发现自己陷入了经济困境。
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Paper presented atThe Population Association of America2001Annual Meeting(Session106“Violence,Stress,and Health”).March28-31,2001WashingtonEconomic Crises,Stress and Mortalityin RussiaNatalia S.Gavrilova*,Galina N.Evdokushkina**,Victoria G.Semyonova**,Leonid A.Gavrilov*(*)Center on Aging,NORC/University of Chicago,1155East60th Street,Chicago,IL60637(**)Central Research Institute of Public Health and Informatics,Moscow,Russia.Address for correspondence:Dr.Natalia S.Gavrilova,Center on AgingNORC/University of Chicago1155East60th Street,Chicago,IL60637Fax:(773)256-6313;Phone:(773)256-6359E-mail:nsgavril@AbstractIn1992and1998Russia experienced two economic crises that led to dramatic impoverishment of population,social anxiety,and followed by mortality surges.This study analyzes age-and sex-specific mortality from violent causes in Russia after the 1992and1998economic crises,using official statistical data.Accidents,injuries and alcohol poisoning demonstrated the most rapid relative increase in mortality for both sexes during the first1992crisis.Suicide mortality surge was particularly high in males while homicide dynamics was relatively similar for both sexes.The response to the1998 crisis was different:the relative rate of homicide increase was particularly high among women while suicide dynamics did not demonstrate profound sex differences.Our findings suggest that the effects of the first crisis are related to stress and self-directed violence,while the second crisis is associated with violence against other persons (especially women).Further study of homicide and suicide mortality found specific responses to crisis of different age groups in the case of suicide mortality and the leading role of alcohol consumption in homicide mortality.Analysis of gender differences in suicide and homicide mortality showed increasing disadvantage of working age males in the case of suicides and increasing disadvantage of young females in the case of homicides.Factor analysis of violent mortality revealed3major underlying factors explaining over92percent of variation in external mortality which can be related to alcohol,violence,and stress.The effect of alcohol factor on violent mortality is dominating although its role in the recent years decreased while two other factors increased after1992.Thus,violence and stress are the issues of major concern in explaining the most recent tendencies of mortality increase from violent causes. Supported in part by the grant from the MacArthur Foundation.IntroductionIn1992and1998Russia experienced two serious economic crises accompanied with drop in personal income and rapid impoverishment.In both cases,adverse economic changes were followed by mortality increase.From1992to1994life expectancy of Russian males dropped from63.8to57.7years. Female life expectancy dropped from74.4years to71.2years.This decrease in life expectancy coincided in time with the introduction of painful economic experiments ('reforms')in Russia,leading to a rapid decrease in real wages and pensions,nearly complete loss of personal savings,and a tremendous increase in the poverty rate.The main causes of death that contributed to this mortality decline were diseases of the circulatory system,accidents,poisoning and injuries,diseases of the respiratory system. After1995mortality in Russia demonstrated slow but stable decrease.However,in August1998Russia experienced another economic crisis(crash of the banking system) resulting in mass impoverishment.Shortly after this crisis mortality started to grow again and male life expectancy dropped from61.0in1998to59.7years in1999,while female life expectancy dropped from72.6to71.9years.In both cases population at working ages appeared to be the most vulnerable age group while children and the elderly were not significantly affected(Notzon et al.,1998).The first economic crisis in Russia(called also a"shock therapy")occurred in1992 after political decision to accomplish a rapid transition to market economy.The first step in this direction was a complete abolition of price control by the government.As a result, consumer prices grew3.5times faster than wages in1992(1st quarter,Goskomstat, 1993)and exploded by2500%for the entire1992calendar year(Klugman,Braithwaite, 1998).The gross domestic product(GDP)fell more than40percent during1991-96as a result of output collapse(EBRD,1997;Klugman,Braithwaite,1998).The number of poor households in Russia rose sharply after early1993,reaching a record35percent of the population living below the official poverty line by the end of1995(Klugman, Braithwaite,1998;Zohoori et al.,1998).The average real earnings fell by one-half in 1992and then stabilized around this low level(Klugman,Braithwaite,1998).Shortly after the beginning of economic reforms,Russia experienced a significant and steep rise in total age-specific mortality that resulted in the fall of life expectancy to57.6 years for males and to71.2years for females in1994(see Table1).The losses in life expectancy were more than5years for males and3years for females compared to the life expectancy in pre-crisis1991.These decreases are beyond the peacetime experience of any industrialized country.Current life expectancy in Russia is lower than in China and even less than in some countries of Africa(see Table1).Thus,the shock effect of"shock therapy"was achieved,but no therapy was provided.Table1about hereThis phenomenon received significant attention in a number of papers(Ellman,1994; Gavrilova et al.,1997;Notzon et al.,1998;Leon et al.,1997;Leon,Shkolnikov,1998;Shkolnikov et al.,1996a;1996b;1998;Tulchinsky,Varavikova,1997;Walberg et al., 1998),which showed that diseases of the circulatory system,injuries,and diseases of the respiratory system were the major causes of death contributing to the decrease in life expectancy in Russia after1991.Although previous studies provided important information on the magnitude of mortality changes and on major causes of the decrease in life expectancy,these studies have not addressed changes in mortality with a more detailed cause-of-death breakdown. Also,previous research focused mainly on analyses of life expectancy or age-adjusted mortality as integral demographic indicators,while age-specific mortality trajectories were not analyzed in detail.In addition to that,mortality changes after the second1998 economic crisis were not yet analyzed.The purpose of this paper is to study in more detail the response of mortality from suicides and homicides to the1992and1998Russian economic crises.A special emphasis in this study is placed on the analysis of gender-and age-specific mortality trends and on the roles of alcohol and stress in mortality fluctuations.Data and MethodsOfficial data on mortality provided by Russian State Statistical Committee(Goskomstat), include deaths by cause,sex,five-year age group,for each single calendar year of death, together with corresponding population denominators.Population age distributions for years1991-98were presented by the Goskomstat five-year age estimates adjusted for migration at the beginning of the year(Leon et al.,1997).The corresponding mid-year populations were calculated on the basis of two adjacent population age distributions.The Goskomstat cause-of-death classification has not changed since1988.Although the current classification is based on the9th revision of the International Classification of Diseases(WHO,1977-1978),there are differences between the International and Russian classifications,especially for cardiovascular diseases.In this study,we focused our attention on two violent causes of death:suicides(Russian code173)and homicides (Russian code174)because both causes of death played the leading role in the recent mortality surge in Russia.Data for homicide and suicide mortality were available since 1988and data for mortality from external causes of death were available since1981.The age-specific mortality rates that are used in this paper are the result of our calculations,based on official statistics(numbers of deaths and corresponding population denominators).Age-standardized(age-adjusted)mortality rates were calculated using the direct method of age adjustment(Chiang,1978).The standard population chosen was the WHO"new"European standard population(see WHO,1992).Data QualityThe rapid and sharp changes in mortality experienced by Russia in recent decades have generated some concerns about the quality of Russian vital statistics.Most of authors who worked with Russian mortality data admitted that recent mortality fluctuations in Russia are not artifactual and population estimates and death counts are accurate enoughto ensure correct statistical analyses(Notzon et al.,1998;Leon et al.,1997;Bennett et al., 1998;Andreev,1999).Wasserman and Varnik(1998)conducted a study of the reliability of statistics on violent death and suicide in the republics of the former USSR. They concluded that mortality data were reliable for Russia,Ukraine,and Belarus.The completeness of death reporting in Russia is rather high except for the North Caucasus Republics and the Republic of Tuva(Andreev,1999).Unspecified diagnoses("senility without mention of psychosis"or"symptoms and other unspecified conditions")which often serve as a measure of quality for cause-of-death statistics,comprised only4.4per cent of all medical certificates in1996(Andreev,1999).On the other hand,the quality of cause-of-death coding is not always high(Notzon et al.,1998;Andreev,1999),and the last audit of the accuracy in reporting causes of death was conducted in Russia only in 1982(see Shkolnikov et al.,1996a).The autopsies were performed on33.2per cent of all deaths in1996(Andreev,1999).For violent causes,the main concern is the increase in mortality from"injuries undetermined whether accidentally or purposely inflicted"(Russian code175)or simply "undetermined injuries".This term could be used to conceal some cases of homicide and suicide in order to avoid criminal investigation(Wasserman,Varnik,1998).Male mortality from this cause increased dramatically after the"shock therapy"in1992 reaching its maximum in1994.We found that in Moscow,with its relatively high proportion of unregistered migrants,homeless,and refugees,the"undetermined injuries" for males exceeded any other cause of violent mortality in1994.Thus,while the population estimates and death counts are reasonably accurate,the quality of death coding is less satisfactory.This deficiency can bias the estimates of violent mortality and lead to mortality underestimation for some causes(especially for homicide and suicide deaths which may be assigned to"undetermined injuries").To cope with this problem, we included in our analysis the whole class of external mortality which is less influenced by misclassification bias.Another problem of the Russian mortality statistics is the increase in the proportion of deaths with undefined(not stated)ages during the crisis.Although the contribution of such deaths is not substantial for total mortality(0.25%in1991and1.19%in1994for males),it is much higher for mortality from violent deaths(0.73%in1991and2.59%in 1994for males).The latter fact can affect the proper estimation of demographic indicators dependent on age distribution.Despite the problems listed above,most researchers studying mortality in Russia admit that the quality of Russian vital statistics is good enough,with nearly94%of all deaths being medically certified(Leon et al.,1997;Notzon et al.,1998;Wasserman,Varnik, 1998;Andreev,1999).One of the arguments supporting the acceptable quality of Russian statistics is the temporal stability of cancer mortality in1992-95against the background of a dramatic increase in total mortality(Leon et al.,1997).Also,the standard rules of cause-of-death coding in Russia ensure comparability of regional cause-specific mortality statistics.The mandatory internal passport system ensures a low level of age misreporting in death certificates,although age information in census data(denominators)may be less accurate because of self-reporting bias.Nevertheless,there is every reason to believe thatthe quality of Russian mortality data,although not perfect,is reasonably good for conducting demographic analyses.Two Economic Crises and the Patterns of Mortality Increase from Violent Causes of DeathTemporary changes in life expectancy after1991demonstrate a three-stage pattern.In the first stage(immediately after1992),when response to the sharp changes in life style and living standards was particularly acute,mortality rapidly increased reaching a peak in 1994.In the second stage,mortality was gradually decreasing until1998although it did not reach the initial pre-crisis levels.In the third stage,which is not yet finished, mortality increased again as a response to the1998financial crisis.Coincidence in timing for both economic crises(resulted in rapid impoverishment of population)and subsequent mortality hikes gives us a reason to suggest possible causal link between these events.Mortality from diseases of the circulatory system and violent deaths demonstrated very strong response to economic crisis,while mortality from neoplasms did not change during this period(Leon et al.,1997;Gavrilova et al.,1997;Notzon et al.,1998; Shkolnikov et al.,1996a;1996b;1998).The secular stability of mortality from neoplasms could be expected from the nature of these diseases(long-term multistage process)and also indicates that the fluctuations in other causes of death are not caused by errors in population estimates(denominator problem)(Leon et al.,1997).During the first health crisis,mortality from violent deaths moved from the third to the second place for males,replacing mortality from neoplasms,while for women violent causes remained the third major cause of death.Mortality from violent causes started to increase rapidly in 1992and reached its maximum values in1994.The only exception was mortality from transport accidents,including traffic accidents(Russian codes160-162,see Gavrilova et al.,2001).Cause-specific mortality changes after the second crisis(1998)were not yet well studied,so we tried to analyze these changes in more detail.The results of our study are presented in Table2.It shows the age-adjusted mortality rates for major causes of death and their relative increase after the crises of1992and 1998.It looks like the mortality increase after1998did not reach its maximum yet and may continue in future.After the first crisis,the causes of death demonstrated the highest rate of increase were injuries,infectious diseases,and respiratory diseases for males and injuries,infectious diseases and cardiovascular diseases for females.During the first crisis(1992-94)the violent causes of death(accidents,injuries and poisoning)had the highest rate of growth for both sexes and the role of alcohol-related mortality was especially important.Many researchers now believe that psychological stress after rapid impoverishment was the main cause of the first wave of mortality increase in90s. Although we do not have direct evidence that psychological stress was the major cause of mortality increase in1992-94,there are some indications that support this explanation. Population surveys demonstrated that the decrease in personal income in1992-94was not accompanied with malnutrition or starvation.In addition to that,age groups that aretraditionally more vulnerable to the decline in living condition-children and the elderly-did not demonstrate substantial growth of mortality.The increase in total mortality was observed mainly for the persons of working ages who experienced rapid changes in their income,social status,and occupation.We will return to the stress-related hypothesis of mortality crisis in Russia later in this paper.Table2about hereWhen we compare the increase of mortality after the second economic crisis of1998,the most striking difference is a rapid growth of mortality from infectious and respiratory diseases with relatively slow growth of violent deaths.This second crisis is characterized by unprecedented jump in tuberculosis mortality and substantial growth of alcohol-related mortality.A distressing feature of the recent mortality changes is the increasing mortality from some infectious diseases(e.g.,tuberculosis,sexually transmitted diseases) that were previously essentially under control(Vishnevsky,1998).More important role of infectious diseases in the recent mortality crisis does not mean that psychological stress did not contribute to the mortality increase.Increase in mortality from circulatory diseases,some behavior-related causes(suicide,homicide,accidental poisoning by alcohol),and gastric ulcer(by7percent for males)indicates that psychological stress may be also a contributing factor in the second mortality crisis.Data presented in Table2also demonstrate that after the first crisis suicide mortality surge was particularly high in males while homicide dynamics was relatively similar for both sexes.The response to the1998crisis was different:the relative rate of homicide increase was particularly high among women while suicide dynamics did not demonstrate profound gender differences.Our findings indicate that the effects of the first crisis are more related to self-directed violence,while the second crisis is associated with increasing violence against other persons(especially women).The most dramatic increase in violent mortality is observed for mortality from accidental poisoning by alcohol(see Table2).This cause of death became more common in1994than homicide and traffic accidents.Mortality from alcohol poisoning also shows the most rapid decrease after1994.Mortality from homicide follows similar temporary pattern as mortality from alcohol poisoning(Gavrilova et al.,2001).This similarity implies some relation between these two causes of death.At the same time,homicide mortality demonstrates a slower decline after1994compared to the mortality from alcohol poisoning which suggests an additional,non-alcohol component in this type of violent death.Suicide mortality increased dramatically after1992and continued to be the main cause of violent death for males in Russia.After1994,this cause of death demonstrated a slow but steady decline in mortality with another increase in1999.These results support the hypothesis that alcohol consumption(in addition to psychological stress)may be an important underlying factor of violent mortality.It may be argued,however,that there is no difference between these two factors since alcohol consumption is merely one of the pathways through which social stress achieves a pathophysiological manifestation.This argument may be valid for the Western societies with different pattern of alcohol drinking(McKee et al.,2001).In Russia drinking ofhigh amounts of alcohol(in the form of binge drinking)is a part of life style for a considerable number of males(and less educated males in particular).This drinking habit usually include gathering on weekends(Chenet et al.,1998)with a company of friends(or even strangers),so that such drinking may be considered as a specific kind of "entertainment"not necessarily related to stress.This controversy generated different views on the nature of mortality increase after1992.Some researchers consider social stress as a major determinant of this increase(Shapiro,1997;Shkolnikov et al.,1998b; Vlassov,1999)while others believe that this increase in mortality was caused by simple increase of access to alcohol products(Vichnevsky,2000).Alcohol and Stress Related Hypotheses of the Observed Mortality Surge Following the"shock therapy,"views on the underlying causes of the mortality crisis gradually evolved.Initially,researchers proposed multiple explanations for the observed mortality increase:poor lifestyle(alcoholism,smoking),environmental catastrophe, economic impoverishment,widening social inequality,legacy of the communist system, deterioration of the health system,and malnutrition(Feshbach,1995;Chen et al.,1996; Cockerham,1997;Notzon et al.,1997).Although poor life style,a deteriorating of health care system,and environment are important in explaining the rather high baseline mortality observed in1991,they could not explain the mortality hike in1992-94.The hypothesis that the increase in alcohol consumption is a major cause of the observed mortality upsurge in1992-1994has received significant attention(Ryan,1995; Leon et al.,1997;Notzon et al.,1998;Leon,Shkolnikov,1998;Vichnevsky,2000).The rise in alcohol consumption undoubtedly contributed to the rapid increase in mortality from violent causes of death(Nemtzov,Shkolnikov,1999).Some authors considered increase in the alcohol consumption after the end of anti-alcohol campaign as one of the major causes of the mortality upsurge in1992-94(Leon et al.,1997;Notzon et al.,1998; Leon,Shkolnikov,1998).On one hand,these conclusions proved to be correct(see Table2).On the other hand,the increase in mortality during1992-94was not a simple return to the situation that occurred before the anti-alcohol campaign.Shkolnikov et al. (1996)has demonstrated that the increase in life expectancy in1985-88(during anti-alcohol campaign)was achieved mostly due to a decrease in violent deaths(especially for males),while the decrease in life expectancy after1992included substantial cardiovascular ing the the latter fact,some researchers challenged the view that alcohol might be a major factor in the Russian mortality crisis of the1990s (Bobak,Marmot,1999).Later McKee et al.(2001)provided convincing evidence that increase in cardiovascular mortality could be related to increase in alcohol consumption which is a cause sudden cardiac death in middle-aged men.It is interesting to compare alcohol-related mortality in Russia with data on alcohol consumption obtained from the Russian Longitudinal Monitoring Survey,RLMS (Zohoori et al.,1998;1999).According to the survey data,the mean daily amount of alcohol consumption for adult males increased by August of1993with a38%increase over the1992level,but did not change significantly until November1998.For females,the mean daily amount of alcohol consumption gradually increased reaching maximum in August1993with subsequent gradual decrease to the initial values by1998.Thus,the patterns of alcohol consumption in1992-98obtained by the survey are not consistent with the patterns of alcohol-related mortality(rapid increase with peak in1994and rapid decrease afterwards).We believe that RLMS data reflect alcohol consumption among the "normal"resident population,but it is unlikely that this survey covered marginal groups of the population:homeless,institutionalized persons or heavy alcoholics who could not be interviewed in a regular way.These marginal groups may be responsible for almost 50%of total alcohol consumption(Nemtsov and Shkolnikov,1999)and seems responsible for the majority of alcohol-related deaths.Also,the estimates of annual alcohol consumption based on RLMS data were almost three times lower than other three independent estimates based on the official statistics(Nemtsov and Shkolnikov,1999; Nemtsov,2000)suggesting that RLMS did not cover marginal groups of the population with heavy alcohol consumption.This may be particularly true for women who normally do not drink much(and RLMS data suggest this fact),but demonstrated the same pattern of alcohol-related mortality as men.Recently,researchers have begun to pay more attention to the role of stress as a major cause of mortality crisis(Shapiro,1997;Shkolnikov et al.,1998b;Vlassov,1999). Studies of regional mortality in Russia have showed that the mortality increase after the economic crisis was related to the pace of economic changes,crime rate,and social inequality rather than the average level of personal income or sales of alcohol(Walberg et al.,1998).Another study of regional mortality has demonstrated a strong negative influence of high divorce rate on mortality from violent causes(Becker,Hemley,1998). Kennedy et al.(1998)have studied the role of social capital in the regional differences in Russian mortality using a regression model which included a set of proxy indicators of social capital.They found strong links between age-adjusted sex-specific mortality and such proxy measures of social capital as the level of distrust in local government, disinterest in politics,crime rate,and divorce rate(Kennedy et al.,1998).These studies demonstrate that psychological stress,social disadaptation,and disintegration,and loss of social capital have played a significant role in the recent mortality increase(Shkolnikov et al.,1998;Walberg et al.,1998;Kennedy et al.,1998),while the role of such traditional economic indicators as poverty and unemployment have been far less important (Shkolnikov et al.,1998;Walberg et al.,1998;Zoohuri et al.,1998).However,the estimates of economic indicators in Russia are not particularly accurate and reliable. Also,the divorce and crime rates may be again strongly related to increased alcohol consumption.Population surveys demonstrated that the rapid decline in living standards did not affect mortality rates directly through mass malnutrition or starvation(Shkolnikov et al.,1998; Zohoori et al.,1999).Moreover,children and the elderly who should be more vulnerable to malnutrition and often are the first victims of economic crisis in other countries (Palloni,Hill,1997)were much less affected compared to adults.Increase in mortality predominantly among working ages provides some support to the stress-related hypothesis.According to this hypothesis,it is more likely that increase in mortality was one of the first manifestations of stress experienced by the population after rapidimpoverishment and change in living conditions in1992(Shapiro,1995;Shkolnikov et al.,1998).Loss of traditional sources of income and personal savings forced the active part of the population to change their traditional life style.In many cases,these life style changes resulted in deviant behavior,including increased alcohol consumption,suicides, and homicides.The observed two-stage dynamics of mortality in1991-98(acute stage and recovery)fits the typical stress-related pattern(Braunstein,Toister,1981).After the period of initial acute response to stress(1992-94),people adapted to the changing living conditions,found ways to make additional income,and mortality began to decline.At this moment,the available data do not provide a convincing support in favor of stress-related hypothesis over alcohol related one and vice versa.In addition to that,it seems that the selection processes also played some role in the initial mortality increase:the most vulnerable groups of the population(heavy alcohol drinkers in our case)show increased mortality during the crisis periods(Palloni,Hill,1997).For example,mortality from acute poisoning by alcohol demonstrated a very rapid decrease after its initial hike that is more consistent with the selection of heavy drinkers rather than with their adaptation when a slower recovery would be expected(Nemtsov,Shkolnikov,1999).In this study we tried to separate the role of alcohol and stress in the recent mortality crisis using data on age-and sex-specific mortality from homicide and suicide.Age-Specific Changes in Violent Mortality after the First and the Second Economic CrisisAnalysis of age-specific mortality is important for understanding what particular age groups are the most vulnerable during the economic crisis.Our previous studies of violent mortality in Russia demonstrated that pre-retirement ages(50-59years)appear to be the most vulnerable after1992and showed the most acute response in violent mortality to economic changes(Gavrilova et al.,2001).The retirement age in Russia is 60years for men and55years for women.People of pre-retirement ages lost almost all their personal savings.Because of their age,they had no hope of creating new savings for impending retirement.This group of people is particularly at risk to lose their jobs and has the smallest chance of finding a new one.This group also experienced the highest loss in social ranking when the prestige of many previously respectable professions(physicians,scientists,teachers,etc.)vanished.More detailed analysis of violent causes of death demonstrated that this acute response of pre-retirement ages was mainly due to the surge of mortality from alcohol poisoning that occurred mainly at ages 45-55years(both for males and females).Despite the common belief that the elderly is the most vulnerable part of population,there is no significant change in violent mortality for the age groups older than70years.The mortality dynamics at younger ages(15-25 years)raises the most concern.Mortality from violent deaths in this age group increased after1994,but in contrast to the middle age groups,it did not decline significantly after 1994(Gavrilova et al.,2001).Moreover,mortality of young people from suicide and homicide(females)remained virtually unchanged since1994.Thus,in contrast to the common wisdom,teenagers and younger adults seem more sensitive to the Russian economic crisis than the elderly.。