英语专业必备!胡壮麟语言学笔记汇总
胡壮麟语言学教程期末考试复习专用笔记(老师画的重点-自己整理的)
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 Arbitrariness1.3.2 Duality1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 Displacement1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. What is contextualism?“Contextualism” is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from, or reduce it to, observable context: the “situational context” and the “linguistic context”. Every utterance occurs in a particular spatial-temporal situation, as the following factors are related to the situational context: (1) the speaker and the hearer; (2) the actions they are performing at the time; (3) various external objects and events;(4) deictic features. The “linguistic context” is another aspect of contextualism. It considers the probability of one word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another, which forms part of the meaning, and an important factor in communication.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions: According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 Informative1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily tochange the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive function1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content. 1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to tal k about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the languageof all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics,Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say thatthe linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronicstudy. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competenceis stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics –the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis ofseveral factors. The most important of these factors are: 1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford E nglish” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.A chart of English consonantsManner of articulation Place of articulationBilabial Labio-dental Dental Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar GlottalStopNasalFricativeApproximantLateralAffricateIn many cases there are two sounds that share the same place and manner of articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearing on the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop [s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal [n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral [j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative [r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally, three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-high and mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips – various degrees of lip rounding or spreading.4. The position of the soft palate – raised for oral vowels, and lowered for vowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.] Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[], CV2[], CV3[], CV4[], CV5[], CV6[], CV7[], CV8[].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for a give position: CV9 –CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want to know, you may consult the textbook p. 47. – icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced withoutany noticeable change in vowel quality.Vowel glides: Vowels where there is an audible change ofquality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as onedistinctive vowel of a particular language but really involvestwo vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[] high front tense unrounded vowel []high back lax rounded vowel[] central lax unrounded vowel [] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulationof two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more likethe following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known asanticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays theinfluence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, itis perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonantsbecome nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a languagesystematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. in English, when the phoneme // occurs at the beginning of the word like peak //, it is said with a little puff of air, it isaspirated. But when // occurs in the word like speak //, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Both the aspirated [] in peak and the unaspirated [=] in speak have the same phonemic function, i.e. they are both heard and identified as // and not as //; they are both allophones of the phoneme //.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation. Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation. Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change isconditioned or triggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a preceding sound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspects to it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; a set of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless / __________ voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies the environment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicates the position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used todescribe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be //. It shouldn’t be // or // according to this principle.Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different formsin actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map –maps, mouse –mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If the morphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” and word “theminimum free form,” the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. Variable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow – follows –following –followed. Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical words Grammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introduced into linguistic analysis.(1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,” the negative marker “not,” and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by,” “do up,” “look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of their unique properties, which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class.(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements for different elements in a sentence. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.(4) Determiners: Determiners refer to words which are usedbefore the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has. Determiners can be divided into three subclasses: predeterminers, central determiners and postdeterminers.3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 Morpheme and morphologyMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.3.2.2 Types of morphemes1. Free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes. Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.2. Root, affix and stemA root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed. An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that partof the word left when all the affixes are removed. In the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the root nation. All words contain a root morpheme. A root may be free or bound. E.g. black in blackbird, blackboard and blacksmith; -ceive in receive, conceive and perceive. A few English roots may have both free and bound variants. E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tence form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. E.g. friend- in friends and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root anda derivational affix.3. Inflectional affix and derivational affix Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tellthe difference between them with the following ways:(1) Inflectional affixes very often add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, John’s, etc. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single word. In contrast, derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning. E.g. cite, citation, etc.(2) Infle ctional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter.(3) Inflectional affixes are often conditioned by nonsemantic linguistic factors outside the word they attach to but within the phrase or sentence. E.g. the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the internet.” is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence, whereas derivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions.E.g. The choice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want to talk about the property “clever” or we want to talk about “the state of being clever.”(4) In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final. E.g. drums, walks, etc. Butderivational affixes can be prefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher, etc.3.2.3 Inflection and word formation1. InflectionInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.2. Word formationWord formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound) and derivational type (derivation).(1) CompoundCompounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room, simple-minded, wedding-ring, etc.The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is deverbal, that is, it is derived from a verb. Consequently, it is also called a verbal compound or a synthetic compound. Usually, the first member is a participant of the process verb.。
语言学教程最经典笔记(胡壮麟版)
W e e k1.T h e N a t u r e o f H u m a n L a n gFerdinand de Saussure (1857,11 – 1913,2 ), a Swiss linguist whose ideas laid a foundation for many significant developments in linguistics in the 20th century and widely considered to be one of the fathers of 20th-century linguistics, said in 1916:“Language is a system of signs that express ideas, and is therefore comparable to a system of writing…”Edward Sapir (1884, 1-1939, 2), a German-born American anthropologist- linguist, said in 1921:“Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotion and desires by means of voluntarily produced symbols.”Bernard Bloch (1907–1965) and George Trager(1906–1992), American linguists, said in 1942:"A language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols by means of which a social group cooperates."Noam Chomsky (1928- ) an American linguist, said in 1957:“A set (finite or infinite) of sentences, each finite in length and constructed out of a finite set of elements.”R.A. Hall (1911–1997), an American linguist and specialist in the Romance languages, said in 1968:“The institution whereby humans communicate and interact with each other by means of habitually used oral- auditory arbitrary symbols.”A language is the system of symbols with the most general meanings of any used by humans.The perceptible portions of linguistic symbols are articulatory gestures, transmitted one after another usually as sounds.They are used to communicate or store information, or even to design and think.★The definition that most linguists agree:Language is a s y s t e m of arbitrary v o c a l s y m b o l s used for h u m a n c o m m u n i c a t i o n.In the sense of our linguistic study, it is generally held that:Language is a system—It is made up of units, functions, and relations.Language is a set of symbols—It involves signs, which are sequences of sounds, those can be transferred into vocal signs.Language is vocal—In linguistics, language is first of all speech, meaningful vocal sounds.Language is human—In the study of this course, language is restricted to human natural language.Language is communication—The chief purpose of language.Of all the aptitudes and behaviors which characterize human beings, language is the most uniquely human, and quite possibly the most important. Language is a capacity that distinguishes human beings from other creatures.Major Design Features of Human LanguageArbitrariness Words and their meaning have no a priori connection. We cannot tell from the sound structure which meaning is behind it. Duality of patterning Language has two levels of structure: at the level of sound and at the level of meanings, and these two levels of structure are independent of one another.Productivity Language has the capacity to generate an infinite variety of messages, including messages that have never been said before. Displacement Language is able to refer to things that are removed from the speaker in both time and space.Traditional (Cultural) transmission Language is learned through cultural transmission, typically from parents and older siblings, children build their grammar of language by inference from a limited sample of sentences.Interchangability Individuals can both receive and transmit messages.Functions of LanguageLanguage as a means of communication: Communication of information, ideas,feelings and emotionThe cognitive and social functions of language behavior: the former refers to the transmission of propositional, or factual, information and discursive reasoning or “cogitation”; the second to the establishment and maintenance of social rapport.※Some descriptionsThe well-known model of the functions of language introduced by the Russian-American linguist, Roman Jakobson in "Linguistics and Poetics“, Jakobson's model of the functions of language distinguishes six elements, or factors of communication, that are necessary forcommunication to occur:※Briefly, these six functions can be described as follows:(1)the referential function is oriented toward the context (the dominant function in a message like 'Water boils at 100 degrees');(2) the emotive function is oriented toward the addresser (as in the interjections 'Bah!' and 'Oh!');(3) the conative function is oriented toward the addressee (imperatives and apostrophes);(4) the phatic function serves to establish, prolong or discontinue communication [or confirm whether the contact is still there] (as in 'Hello?');(5) the metalingual function is used to establish mutual agreement on the code (for example, a definition);(6) the poetic function(e.g., 'Smurf'), puts 'the focus on the message for its own sake' [Jakobson, 1960, p. 356]Three Basic Functions of Language1. Informative language function: essentially, the communication of information.a. The informative function affirms or denies propositions, as in science.b. This function is used to describe the world or reason about it (e.g.., whether a state of affairs is true or false).c. These sentences have a truth value; hence, they are important for logic.2. Expressive language function: reports feelings or attitudes of the writer (or speaker), or of the subject, or evokes feelings in the reader (or listener).a. Poetry is one of the best examples, but much of, perhaps most of, ordinary language discourse isthe expression of emotions, feelings or attitudes.b. Two main aspects are generally noted: (1) to evoke certain feelings and (2) to express feelings.c. Expressive discourse, qua expressive discourse, is best regarded as neither true or false.e.g., Shakespeare's King Lear's lament, "Ripeness is all!" Even so, the nature of "fictional statements" is an interesting area of inquiry.3. Directive language function: language used for the purpose of causing or preventing overt actions.a. The directive function is most commonly found in commands and requests.b. Directive language is not normally considered true or false (although a logic of commands have been developed).c. Example: "Close the windows." The Origin of languageThe origin of language is still mystery. Scholars over the centuries have been interested in it because man and language are so closely related that they believed that if we know how and when language originated we would probably know how and when man arose as well. There are beliefs throughout the world that language is a gift from God to mankind. One of such beliefs is found in the Holy Bible.The Book of Genesis 2:19-20 has God give Adam the task of assigning names to all the animals and plants he had in Eden.God said, 'They are a single people, all having one language, and this is the first thing they do! Now nothing they plan to do will be unattainable for them! Come, let us descend and confuse their speech, so that one person will not understand another's speech'. (Book of Genesis 11:1-9)God punished human presumption in building the Tower of Babel by confusing the tongues of the builders.The observed variety of humanlanguages is a consequence of that divine judgment.Some Hypotheses that try to explain the origins of human languageThe "ding-dong" hypothesis This hypothesis places the origin of human language in onomatopoeia: the various imitative sounds that humans make to mimic the sounds of the world around them. So boom becomes a word for thunder, and oink for a pig.The "bow-wow" hypothesis Similar to the "ding-dong" hypothesis, this one has humans forming their first words by imitating animal sounds.The "pooh-pooh" hypothesis According to this hypothesis, the first words developed from sighs of pleasure, moans of pain, and other semi-involuntary cries or exclamations. These vocalisms then became the names of the phenomena that made people say them.The “ta-ta” hypothesis Charles Darwin lent his authority to this hypothesis. According to this, human language represents the use of oral gestures that began in imitation of hand gestures that were already in use for communicationThe Indian-born British neurologist Vilayanur S. Ramachandran’s(拉马钱兰)research into synesthesia(心理联感) and sound symbolism （语音象征）would seem to support this hypothesis.语音象征指语言在长期使用的过程中，依据语言符号象似性的原理，某些语音常用于表示某种意思，给人某种语义联想，这些语音似乎具有了自己固定的象征含义。
胡壮林语言学重要章节笔记总结
第一章、绪论Introduction1、语言学的主要分支是什么。
每个分支的研究对象是什么？Linguistics mainly involves the following branches:General linguistics, which is the study of language as a whole and which deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study Phonetics, which studies the sounds that are used in linguistic communication Phonology, which studies how sounds are put together and used in communication Morphology, which studies the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words Syntax, which studies how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences Semantics, which is the study of meaning in language.Pragmatics, which is the study of meaning not in isolation, but in context of use Sociolinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to society Psycholinguistics, which is the study of language with reference to the workings of mind. Applied linguistics, which is concerned about the application of linguistic findings in linguistic studies; In a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.Other related branches are anthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguistics.2、现代语言学与传统语法有什么区别？Traditional grammar is prescriptive; it is based on "high "(religious, literary) written language . It sets models for language users to follow. But Modern linguistics is descriptive; its investigations are based on authentic, and mainly spoken language data. It is supposed to be scientific and objective and the task of linguists is supposed to describe the language people actually use, whether it is "correct" or not.3、什么叫共时研究？什么叫历时研究？The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in rime, while a diachronic study of language is a historical study; it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.4、人类语言的甄别性特征是什么？1) Arbitrariness 。
（完整版）胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解
（完整版）胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解（语音）【圣才出品】
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解（语音）【圣才出品】第2章语音2.1 复习笔记本章要点:1. Speech Organs发音器官2. Distinction, Classification and the Criteria of Description between Constants and Vowels辅音和元音的区别、分类及描写规则3. Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcriptions协同发音和语音转写4. Phonemes and Allophones音位和音位变体5. Phonological Processes, Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features音系过程、音系规则和区别特征6. Syllable Structure, Stress and Intonation音节结构、重音和语调常考考点：1. 语音学语音学的定义；发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的定义、发音部位、发音方法和分类；英语元音的定义和分类、基本元音；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；语音标记，国际音标；严式与宽式标音法。
2. 音系学音系学的定义；音系学与语音学的联系和区别；音素、音位、音位变体、最小对立体、自由变体的定义；音位理论；自由变异；音位的对立分布与互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音）；音高和语调。
本章内容索引：I. The Definition of Phonetics and Phonology1. Phonetics2. Three Major Research Fields of Phonetics3. PhonologyII. Speech Organs1. Speech organs2. Voiceless sounds3. Voiced sounds4. IPAIII. Consonants and Vowels1. Definition2. Consonants(1) Manner of Articulation and Place of Articulation(2) Classification of Consonants3. Vowel(1) Cardinal vowels(2) Criteria of vowel description(3) Monophthongs, Diphthongs and TriphthongsIV. Coarticulation and Phonetic Transcriptions1. Coarticulation2. Phonetic TranscriptionV. Phonemes and Allophones1. Phoneme2. AllophonesVI. Phonological Processes and Distinctive Features1. Phonological processes2. Assimilation3. Distinctive featuresVII. Suprasegmentals1. Suprasegmental features2. The Syllable Structure3. Stress4. Intonation and ToneI. The Definition of Phonetics and Phonology (语音学和音系学的定义)1. Phonetics (语音学)Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.语音学研究语音的发生、传递和感知。
胡壮麟语言学笔记
胡壮麟语言学笔记胡壮麟语言学笔记偶然得到，好的话顶个哦，我是新手，多多指教哦嘿嘿，由于不知道怎么传文件，就这么打上来吧不好意思呵呵胡壮麟的语言学笔记1. What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary（随意的）vocal （发音的，口头的）symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic（固有的，内在的，本质的）connection between a work (like“book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”:“book” in English, “livre” in French, “shu” in Chinese. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primarymedium for all human languages. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term“human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.2. What are design features of language?“Design features” here refer to the defining properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality（二元性）, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission（文化传播）and interchangeability（可交换性）3. What is arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”,“roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compoundedto be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either.“Type” and “write” are opaque（不透明的，难理解的，晦涩的）or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.4. What is duality?Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fact that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al., language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language. A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged andrearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality.5. What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard“A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed with an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called“rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky). 6.What is displacement?“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to realand unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn’t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for a bone to be lost. The bee’s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisitiondevice”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog’s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by thepack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf’s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.8. What is interchangeability?Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. Though some people suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable. Some male birds, however, utter some calls which females do not (or cannot). When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can hardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are) “speaking” and which listening.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six “designfeatures” which animal communication systems do not have, at least not in the true sense of them. Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees. Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to do so.10. What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and performative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art . M .A. K. Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three“Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual.11. What is the phatic function?The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts(rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g.“How are you?” “Fine,thanks.”) is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don’t answer his“Hi”, you ruin your friendship.12. What is the directive function?The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e. g.,“Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J. Austin and J. Searle’s“Indirect speech act theory” at least, servethe purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!” 13. What is the informative function?Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labelled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P. Grice’s “Cooperative Principle”,one ought not to violate the “Maxim ofQuality”, when he is informing at all.14. What is the interrogative function?When language is used to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech acttheory”, may have this function as well, e.g.,“I’d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demand no answer, at least not thereader’s/listener’s answer.15. What is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I’m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker’s own attitudes.16. What is the evocative function?The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is , for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes(not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, orimposing it on, your listener. That’s also the case with the other way round.17. What is the performative function?This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. The judge’s imprisonment sentence, the president’s war or independence declaration, etc., are performatives.18. What is linguistics?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems ofcommunication in their societies or communities.19. What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant to the study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.20. What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, pragmatics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, psycholinguistics etc.21. What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The description of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled“On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration.22. What is speech and what is writing?No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary, because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Geneticallychildren learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represe。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记第四章
Chapter 4 Syntax1. Immediate Constituent Analysis (直接成分分析法)DefinitionIt may be defined as: the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents---word groups (or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. However, for the sake of convenience, in practice we usually stop at the level of word. The immediate constituent analysis of a sentence may be carried out with brackets or with a tree diagram.直接成分分析法先把句子分析为直接成分---词组（或短语），再把这些直接成分依次切分，得到各自的直接成分，层层切分，直到最终成分为止。
实际操作中，为了方便，通常切到词为止。
直接成分分析法可以用括弧或树形图表示。
Advantages：Through IC analysis, the internal structure of a sentence may be demonstrated clearly, ambiguities, if any, will be revealed. 通过IC分析法，句子的内在结构可以清晰地展示出来，如果有歧义，也会被揭示出来。
Problems①At the beginning, some advocators insisted on binary divisions. Any construction, at anylevel, will be cut into two parts. But this is not always possible.开始的时候，一些提倡者坚持二元切分。
(完整版)胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点全解
《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
胡壮麟语言学教程期末考试复习专用笔记(老师画的重点,自己整理的)
英语专业的，自己整理的，期末考试完了，把这个放在网上给大家分享一下。
希望对大家有所帮助！Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can becalled design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 Arbitrariness1.3.2 Duality1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 Displacement1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.What is contextualism?“Contextualism” is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from, or reduce it to, observable context: the “situational context” and the “linguistic context”. Every utterance occurs in a particular spatial-temporal situation, as the following factors are related to the situational context: (1) the speaker andthe hearer; (2) the actions they are performing at the time; (3) various external objects and events; (4) deictic features. The “linguistic context” is ano ther aspect of contextualism. It considers the probability of one word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another, which forms part of the meaning, and an important factor in communication.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 Informative1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing ofchildren, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive function1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling ora chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, butthe language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded ina language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics,Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to saythat the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time wouldbe synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language inconcrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s p erformance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics –the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics –the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system ofsymbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows noregional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.A chart of English consonantsManner of articulation Place of articulationBilabial Labio-dental Dental Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar GlottalStopNasalFricativeApproximantLateralAffricateIn many cases there are two sounds that share the same place and manner of articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearing on the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop [s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal [n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral [j] palatal approximant [h] glottal fricative [r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally, three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-high and mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips –various degrees of lip rounding or spreading.4. The position of the soft palate – raised for oral vowels, and lowered for vowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.]Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[], CV2[], CV3[], CV4[], CV5[], CV6[], CV7[], CV8[].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for a give position: CV9 –CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want to know, you may consult the textbook p. 47. –icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.Vowel glides: Vowels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[] high front tense unrounded vowel [] high back lax rounded vowel[] central lax unrounded vowel [] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units. Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as anarrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation. 2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. in English, when the phoneme // occurs at the beginning of the word like peak //, it is said with a little puff of air, it is aspirated. But when // occurs in the word like speak //, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Both the aspirated [] in peak and the unaspirated [=] in speak have the same phonemic function, i.e. they are both heard and identified as // and not as //; they are bothallophones of the phoneme //.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rules The changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is conditioned or triggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a preceding sound. Consequently, we cansay that any phonological process must have three aspects to it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; a set of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless / __________ voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies the environment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicates the position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binaryfeatures are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be //. It shouldn’t be // or // according to this principle.Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of alanguage that can be distinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected.E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map –maps, mouse – mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that canconstitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. T ake the word chairman for example. If the morphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of aword: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” and word “the minimum free form,” the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. Variable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant.E.g. follow –follows –following –followed. Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical words Grammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, actionand quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class words Closed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introduced into linguistic analysis. (1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,” the negative marker “not,” and the subordinate units in p hrasal verbs, such as “get by,” “do up,” “look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded asverbs. Because of their unique properties, which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class.(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements for different elements in a sentence. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.(4) Determiners: Determiners refer to words which are used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has. Determiners can be divided into three subclasses: predeterminers, central determiners and postdeterminers.3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 Morpheme and morphologyMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.3.2.2 Types of morphemes1. Free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is,those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes.Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.2. Root, affix and stemA root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed. An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. In the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the root nation. All words contain a root morpheme. A root may be free or bound. E.g. black in blackbird, blackboard and blacksmith; -ceive in receive, conceive and perceive. A few English roots may have both free and bound variants.E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tence form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound. A stem is any morpheme orcombination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. E.g. friend- in friends and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and a derivational affix.3. Inflectional affix and derivational affix Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with the following ways:(1) Inflectional affixes very often add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, John’s, etc. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single word. In contrast, derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning. E.g. cite,citation, etc.(2) Inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter. (3) Inflectional affixes are often conditioned by nonsemantic linguistic factors outside the word they attach to but within the phrase or sentence. E.g. the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the internet.” is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence, whereas derivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions. E.g. The choice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want to talk about the property “clever” or we want to talk about “the state of being clever.”(4) In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final. E.g. drums, walks, etc. But derivational affixes can be prefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher, etc.3.2.3 Inflection and word formation1. Inflection。
英语学习胡壮麟语言学详细笔记
Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规那么在语言交际中的表达。
(完整word版)胡壮麟语言学教程笔记、重点
《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。
胡壮麟语言学笔记无私分享英语
胡壮麟语言学笔记无私分享（全；免“支持”版：）《语言学教程》重难点学习提示第一章??语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。
第二章? ?? ?语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。
第三章? ?? ?语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。
第四章? ???音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。
第五章? ? 词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。
第六章? ? 词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。
第七章??句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。
第八章? ?语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。
第九章? ?语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章??语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。
英语专业必备!胡壮麟语言学笔记汇总
Chapter 1 Invitations to linguistics1.2 what is languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols for human communication1.3 design features of languagearbitrariness: there is no connection between the words; sound and its meaningduality: the property of having two levels of structurescreativity(productivity): users can produce sentences they have never heard before. Its potential to create endless sentences by recursiveness.displacement: language can be used to refer to the context removed from the immediate situation of the speakers.cultural transmission: language is passed o through teaching and learning , rather than by instinct.1.4 origin of languageThe bow-wow theory: imitate the sounds of animalThe pooh-pooh theory: instinctive sounds of joy, ager and painThe yo-he-ho theory: rhythmic grunts produced when working1.5 functions of language1.5.1 the main functions of language:Descriptive functions: cognitive or referential or propositional function. Primary function of language. , to convey factual informationExpressive function: emotive or attitudinal function, supplies users’ feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values.Social function: interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people1.5.2 according to Jakobson:Emotive: addresser 表达情感Conative: addressee 导致动作的发生Referential: context描述客观事实Poetic: message语言本身的美Phatic communication: contact建立社会关系Metalinguistic: code make clear the meaning of language itself1.5.3 according to Halliday this system contains three macrofunctionsIdeational: to organize the speaker or writer’s experience of the real or imaginary world. 达意功能指组织说话者或作者现实或虚伪世界的体验，即语言指称实际或虚伪的人，物，动作，事件，状态等Interpersonal: to indicate, establish or maintain social relationships between people.人际功能表明，建立，或维持人与人之间的社会关系，包括称谓形式，情感，语言功能等。
胡壮麟语言学教程期末考试复习专用笔记(老师画地重点-自己整理地)
Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 Arbitrariness1.3.2 Duality1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 Displacement1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings. What is contextualism?“Contextualism” is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from, or reduce it to, observable context: the “situational context” and the “linguistic context”. Every utterance occurs in a particular spatial-temporal situation, as the following factors are related to the situational context: (1) the speaker and the hearer; (2) the actions they are performing at the time; (3) various external objects and events;(4) deictic features. The “linguistic context” is another aspect of contextualism. It considers the probability of one word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another, which forms part of the meaning, and an important factor in communication.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions: According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 Informative1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily tochange the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive function1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content. 1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to tal k about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, but the languageof all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning – morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics,Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to say thatthe linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time would be synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronicstudy. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language in concrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competenceis stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s performance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics –the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis ofseveral factors. The most important of these factors are: 1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford E nglish” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.A chart of English consonantsManner of articulation Place of articulationBilabial Labio-dental Dental Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar GlottalStopNasalFricativeApproximantLateralAffricateIn many cases there are two sounds that share the same place and manner of articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearing on the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal [n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral [j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative [r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally, three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-high and mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips – various degrees of lip rounding or spreading.4. The position of the soft palate – raised for oral vowels, and lowered for vowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.] Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels areA set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for a give position: CV9 –CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want to know, you may consult the textbook p. 47. – icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced withoutany noticeable change in vowel quality.Vowel glides: Vowels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RPhigh back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonantsbecome nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a languagesystematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. in English, when the pn peak and the2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation. Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation. Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change isconditioned or triggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a preceding sound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspects to it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; a set of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless / __________ voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies the environment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicates the position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used todescribe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correctaccording to this principle.Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different formsin actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected. E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map –maps, mouse –mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. Take the word chairman for example. If the morphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of a word: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” and word “theminimum free form,” the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. Variable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant. E.g. follow – follows –following –followed. Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical words Grammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introduced into linguistic analysis.(1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,” the negative marker “not,” and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by,” “do up,” “look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs. Because of their unique properties, which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class.(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements for different elements in a sentence. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.(4) Determiners: Determiners refer to words which are usedbefore the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has. Determiners can be divided into three subclasses: predeterminers, central determiners and postdeterminers.3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 Morpheme and morphologyMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.3.2.2 Types of morphemes1. Free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is, those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes. Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.2. Root, affix and stemA root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed. An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that partof the word left when all the affixes are removed. In the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the root nation. All words contain a root morpheme. A root may be free or bound. E.g. black in blackbird, blackboard and blacksmith; -ceive in receive, conceive and perceive. A few English roots may have both free and bound variants. E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tence form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. E.g. friend- in friends and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root anda derivational affix.3. Inflectional affix and derivational affix Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tellthe difference between them with the following ways:(1) Inflectional affixes very often add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, John’s, etc. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single word. In contrast, derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning. E.g. cite, citation, etc.(2) Infle ctional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter.(3) Inflectional affixes are often conditioned by nonsemantic linguistic factors outside the word they attach to but within the phrase or sentence. E.g. the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the internet.” is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence, whereas derivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions.E.g. The choice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want to talk about the property “clever” or we want to talk about “the state of being clever.”(4) In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final. E.g. drums, walks, etc. Butderivational affixes can be prefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher, etc.3.2.3 Inflection and word formation1. InflectionInflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.2. Word formationWord formation refers to the process of word variations signaling lexical relationships. It can be further subclassified into the compositional type (compound) and derivational type (derivation).(1) CompoundCompounds refer to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as ice-cream, sunrise, paper bag, railway, rest-room, simple-minded, wedding-ring, etc.The head of a nominal or an adjectival endocentric compound is deverbal, that is, it is derived from a verb. Consequently, it is also called a verbal compound or a synthetic compound. Usually, the first member is a participant of the process verb.。
胡壮麟语言学教程第5版笔记和考研真题详解
胡壮麟语⾔学教程第5版笔记和考研真题详解胡壮麟《语⾔学教程》（第5版）笔记和考研真题详解第1章 语⾔学导论1.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. The definition and the design features of language语⾔的定义与特征2. The origin and the function of language语⾔的起源和功能3. Main branches of linguistics study语⾔学研究的范围和内容4. Important distinctions in Linguistics语⾔学的⼀些重要区分本章考点：1. 有关语⾔的常考考点语⾔的定义；语⾔的基本特征(任意性、⼆重性、多产性、移位性、⽂化传递和互换性)；语⾔的功能(提供信息、⼈际交往、施为、表达情感、寒暄、娱乐、元语⾔)；语⾔的起源(神授说，⼈造说(“汪汪”，“噗噗”，“哟-嘿-吼”理论)，进化说)等。
2. 有关语⾔学的常考考点(1) 语⾔学的定义，现代语⾔学与传统语法学研究的三个显著区别。
(2) 语⾔学研究的四个原则及其简要说明。
语⾔学中⼏组重要区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义。
(3) 普通语⾔学的主要分⽀学科及各⾃的研究范畴。
(4) 宏观语⾔学及应⽤语⾔学的主要分⽀及各⾃的研究范畴。
本章内容索引：I. Definition of languageII. Design features of language1. Arbitrariness2. Duality3. Creativity4. Displacement5. Cultural Transmission6. InterchangeabilityIII. Origin of language1. The Biblical account2. The bow-wow theory3. The pooh-pooh theory4. The yo-he-ho theory5. The evolution theoryIV. Functions of language1. Informative function2. Interpersonal function3. Performative function4. Emotive function5. Phatic function6. Recreational function7. Metalingual functionV. Definition of linguisticsVI. Branches of linguistics1. Microlinguistics2. MacrolinguisticsVII. Important concepts and their distinctions1. Descriptive vs. Prescriptive2. Synchronic vs. Diachronic3. Langue vs. Parole3. Langue vs. Parole4. Competence vs. Performance5. Traditional Grammar vs. Modern Grammar6. Linguistic Potential vs. Actual Linguistic BehaviorI. The definition of language (语⾔的定义)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition has revealed five essential factors of language: systematic, arbitrary, vocal, symbolic and most importantly human-specific.语⾔是⼈类以⼝头交流的任意的符号系统。
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Chapter 1 Invitations to linguistics1.2 what is languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols for human communication1.3 design features of languagearbitrariness: there is no connection between the words; sound and its meaningduality: the property of having two levels of structurescreativity(productivity): users can produce sentences they have never heard before. Its potential to create endless sentences by recursiveness.displacement: language can be used to refer to the context removed from the immediate situation of the speakers.cultural transmission: language is passed o through teaching and learning , rather than by instinct.1.4 origin of languageThe bow-wow theory: imitate the sounds of animalThe pooh-pooh theory: instinctive sounds of joy, ager and painThe yo-he-ho theory: rhythmic grunts produced when working1.5 functions of language1.5.1 the main functions of language:Descriptive functions: cognitive or referential or propositional function. Primary function of language. , to convey factual informationExpressive function: emotive or attitudinal function, supplies users’ feelings, preferences, prejudices, and values.Social function: interpersonal function, serves to establish and maintain social relations between people1.5.2 according to Jakobson:Emotive: addresser 表达情感Conative: addressee 导致动作的发生Referential: context描述客观事实Poetic: message语言本身的美Phatic communication: contact建立社会关系Metalinguistic: code make clear the meaning of language itself1.5.3 according to Halliday this system contains three macrofunctionsIdeational: to organize the speaker or writer’s experience of the real or imaginary world. 达意功能指组织说话者或作者现实或虚伪世界的体验，即语言指称实际或虚伪的人，物，动作，事件，状态等Interpersonal: to indicate, establish or maintain social relationships between people.人际功能表明，建立，或维持人与人之间的社会关系，包括称谓形式，情感，语言功能等。
Textual function: to organize written or spoken texts in such a manner that they are coherent within themselves and fit the particular situation in which they are used.组篇功能指组成书面或或口头的语篇，这些语篇内部连贯，并适用于所用的特定场景。
1.6 what is linguistics:The scientific study of language1.9 important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive：aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use . describe how things are Prescriptive: 规范性aims to lay down rules for correct and standard behavior in using language, to tell people what they should say and what they should not saySynchronic: the description of a language at some point of timeDiachronic: the description of a language at a period of timeSpeech：is prior to writing , and it plays a more important role in terms of informationWriting: should be taught and learned in schoolsLangue: an abstract linguistic system shared by all members of speech communityParole: the realization of langue in actual useCompetence：the ideal users’s knowledge of his rules of his languagePerformance: the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Traditional grammar: is prescriptive and tend to emphasize the importance of written wordModern grammar: descriptive, regard spoken language as primary, not the written.Chapter 2 Speech soundsPhonetics: the study of speech sounds, the production, transmission and perception of speech sounds. Phonology: it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. It studies sound patterns, how sounds are combined together. The study od speech sounds is divided into three main areas,each dealing with one part of the process.1).Articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds.发音语音学2).Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds声学语音学3).Perceptual or auditory phonetics: is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.听觉语音学2.3 phone, phoneme, allophonePhone: is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds that we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Individual sounds as they occur in speech.Phoneme：the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. is a phonological unit; it is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context.Allophone: any of the different forms of a phoneme. the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environment are called allophone2.4 consonantsConsonants: are speech sounds where obstruction of airstream is blocked somewhere in the mouth or throat to different degrees, voiced or voiceless.V owels: are speech sounds which the airstream from the lungs is not blocked in any way in the mouth or throat, and which is usually pronounced with vibration of the vocal cords, too. no obstruction, voiced2.5 suprasegmental featuresThe phonetic features that occur above the level of the segments are called suprasegmental features Syllable: a unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.The syllable structureStress: it refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable1)at the word level: the location of stress in english distinguishes meaning2)At the sentence level: the relative force given to the components of a sentence.Tone: pitch variation, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Intonation: when pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation.补充：1.Sequential rules: the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language2.phonemic contrast: if they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonetic contrast单个音的关系，属于不同的phonemeComplementary distribution: the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution变体之间是互补的关系Minimal pair：音串eg: kill till bill willChapter 3 Lexicon 词典3.1.3 closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class : is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles and others.Open-class: is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited.3.2 the formation of word3.2.1 morpheme and morphologyMorpheme : the minimal units of meaning. A morpheme cannot be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.Morphology: the part of he grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure. The systematic study of morpheme3.2.2 types of morpheme1) free morpheme: a morpheme which can be a word by itselfBound morpheme: a morpheme that must be attached to another one2)root: the base form of a word that cannot be further be analyzed without destroying its meaning. 词根Affix: a collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme(the root or stem), so affix is naturally bound. 词缀Stem: is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.3)inflectional affix(inflectional morpheme): 屈折词素less productive than derivational morpheme , they serve to produce different forms of a single lexeme词位, such as friends, boys; do not change the word class of the word they attach to; are mostly suffixes, which are always word final, 给的单词添加词缀或根据语言的语法规则以其他方式改变词形的过程，the process of adding an affix to a word or changing it in some way according to the rules of the grammar of a language.Derivational affix(Derivational morpheme): 派生词素very productive in making new words, such as recite-recitation; change the lexical meaning; both be prefixes and suffixes,such as online, suburban, slaver, teacher.将词缀加入其他单词或词素以构成新词的方法the formation of new words by adding affixes toother words or morphemes.3.2.3 inflection: indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes, such as number, person, aspect, etcWord formation: the process of how words are formed. Can be further divided into two sub-types1)compound(compositional type): those words that consist of ore than one lexical morpheme, or the way tojoin two separate words to produce a single form, such as sunrise, paperbag2)derivation(derivational type): shows a relationship between roots and affixes. Such as unconscious,national; can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged3.2.4Sememe: the smallest component of meaningMorpheme: the smallest meaningful unit in grammarPhoneme: the smallest meaningful unit of soundAllomorph: different forms of a morpheme3.3 lexical change3.3.1 lexical change properCoinage(invention): many new lexical items are cioned outright to fit some purposes; come directly from technological and economic activities. Such as kodak, ylon, cokeClipped word(abbreviation): some words are the abbreviations of longer words or phrases. Such as exam-examination, fridge-refridgeratorBlending: some words are formed by combining some part of words.Such as smog-smoke fog, brunch-lunch breakfastAcronyms: some words are the initial part of several words. Such as CEOBack-formation: an unusually abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by delecting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. Such as gangling-gangle, editor-edit Analogical creation: the coexistence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the combination of some english verbs.Borrowing: when two culture come to contact, the word may be borrowed from one country to another one. Such as testa, coconut, tea3.3.2 morpho-syntactical change1)morphological change2)syntactical change3.3.3 semantic change1) broadening: a process to extend or elevate the meaning from its originally specific sense to a relatively general one. Holiday2) arrowing: the original meaning of a word can be narrowed or restricted to a specific sense. Meat3) meaning shift: marshal 马夫-元帅4) class shift:5) folk etymology: the change of the from of a word od phrase.3.3.4 phonological change: changes in sound leading to changes in form1)loss: refer to the disappearance of the very sound as a phoneme in the phonological system2) addition: sounds may also be added to the original sound sequence.Strike-sutoraiki3) metathesis: a process involving a change in the sequence of soundsBird-brid3)assimilation: 同化3.3.5 orthographic change:Vp-up sunne-sun sate-satChapter 4 From word to textSyntax: the study of how word combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences4.1 syntactic relations4.1.1 positional relation: sequential arrangement of words in a languageSyntagmatic relation: (F de Saussure)横组合关系Horizonal relationChain relation4.1.2 relation of substitutability1)the relationship that linguistic units have with others that could be substituted for them in the sentence Saussure: associative relations(联想关系)Hjemslev: paradigmatic relations(纵聚合关系)Vertical/choice relations(垂直选择关系)4.1.3 relation of co-occurrence: the words of different sets of clauses may permit , or require, the occurrence ofa word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence4.2 grammatical construction and its constituents4.2.1 grammatical construction: any syntactic constructExternal syntax of a construction: the property of the construction as a wholeInternal syntax of a construction: a description of the constructions’s make-up4.2.1 immediate constituentsConstituents: a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit.Immediate constituent analysis: IC analysis, proposed by American structuralist. The goal and consequence of IC analysis is to analyze a linguistic expression into a hierarchically defined series of constituents.4.2.3 endocentric and exocentric constructions4.2.3.1 endocentric: is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents. There is definable center or head.These two oldest stone bridgesWill be leavingVery lateExocentric: the opposite of endocentric. Refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, no definable center or headThe boy smiledHe hid behind the doorHe kicked the ballJohn seemed angry4.2.4 coordination and subordinationCoordinate construction: 并列结构，more than one headGirls and boys came, ate and leftDown the stairs and out the door beautiful and expensiveJane loves jim and jim loves janeSubordinate construction: one headThe three small children the book left on the shelfWill have been leaving hot beyond enduranceComplement clause: 补足语I do not think you are rightAdjunct or adverbial clause: 状语从句He cleaned the blackboard before I read the noteRelative clause: 定语从句The man I love must be responsible4.3 syntactic function: shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is usedSubject: 主语Predicate:谓语Object:宾语4.3.4 the relation between classes and functionsA class item can perform several functionsA function can be fulfilled by several classes4.4 category: refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense. Eg: noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, etc, more specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units. The category of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, aspect, voice, etc;4.4.1 number: mostly a category of noun and pronounDog-dogs I wish-he wishes4.4.2 gender: mostly a category of noun and pronounActor-actress waiter-waitress4.4.3 case: a grammatical category that shows the function of the noun or noun phrase in a sentence.4.4.4 agreement: the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories4.5 phrase：短语Clause: 从句Dependent clause从属从句: because I was late, they went without meIndependent clause独立子句: I love you and you love meFinite clause: 限定性从句Non-finite clause：非限定性从句Sentence: 句子Simple sentence: 只有一个谓语Compound sentence: 复合句、并列句Complex sentence: 复杂句4.6 recursiveness递归性Coordination并列关系and subordination主从关系Conjoining合并: refers to the process where one clause is coordinated or conjoined to another, and but or Embedding嵌入: refers to the means by which one clause is included in a sentence, eg：the man I love must be responsibleHypotactic 主从结构，从属关系and paratactic并列的4.7 beyond the sentenceText linguistics: 篇章语言学Discourse analysis: 话语分析4.7.1 sentential connection:Hypotactic relations: 从属关系I don't like the party. So I won’t take part in itParatactic relations: 并列关系The door is open.4.7.2 cohesion衔接一种语义上的概念，衔接是“存在于语篇中并使之成为语篇的意义之间的联系-Would you like an apple? -yes, I would like a small one.Chapter 5 MeaningSemantics: the study of meaning of linguistic units, words, and sentences in particular.1.naming theory: words are just labels or names for things, which is proposed by Plato2.conceptualism theory: semantic trianglesymbol(word):linguistic elements----------------------referent(object):the object in the worldthought(concept)words—concept—objectsthis theory relates words and things through the mediation of concepts of the mindthere is no direct link between a linguistic form and wha it refers to；rather in the interpretation of meaning that they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.3.contextualism(J.R forth)we should know a word by the company it keeps; meaning is based on context. the meaning of a word is its use in languagesituational context and linguistic context4.behaviorism theory（Leonard Bloomfield）: refers to the situation in which the speaker utters it and theresponse it calls forth in the hearer.Stimulus—language—responseI’m thi rstyStimulus—response-------stimulus—response5.1 meaning of “meaning”5.1.1 conceptual meaning: basic meaning1) denotation: the entity which has the abstract properties; the object a word refers to2) connotation: the abstract properties of the entity a word denotes5.1.2 connotative meaning: implied meaning5.1.3 social meaning: what is communicated of the social circumstances of language use5.1.4 affective meaning: what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer5.1.5 reflected meaning：what is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression. Human language is a tool of social intercourse.5.1.6 collocative meaning: what is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another wordHe is a pretty man. She is a handsome girl.5.1.7 thematic meaning: what is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.My sister is at the door. At door is my sister5.2 the referential theory所指理论The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to , or stands for itSense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of linguistic form, the collection of all its features. The abstract properties.Reference: what a linguistic form refers to in a real and physical world. The concrete entities having theseproperties.5.3 sense relations:5.3.1 synonymy: the sameness or close similarity of meaning1)absolute synonyms: 维生素-维他命激素-荷尔蒙2)relative synonyms:3)dialectal synonyms: used in different region4)Stylistic synonyms: differing in style5)Emotive synonyms:differ in the emotion and evaluating meaning.6) collocational synonyms: accuse of charge with7)semantically different synonyms: amaze astound5.3.2 antonymy: relation of semantic oppositionGradable antonyms: old and young middle-agedComplementary antonyms: 互补反义关系alive and dead male and female Converse antonyms: 相反反义关系father and son teacher and student 5.3.3 hyponymy: 上下义关系: the sense relation between a more generalMore inclusive wordSuperordinate:广义词Hyponyms: more specific words.补充：homonymy: 同音异义词Same in sound: homophones leak/leek piece-peaceSame in spelling:homographs lead/lead tear/tearSame in sound/spelling: complete homonyms fast scalePolysemy: 一词多义table5.4 componential analysis: analyze word meaningAdvantages: it better accounts for sense relations between wordsEg man(human, adult , male)It better accounts for sense relations between sentencesX is synonymous with y x is inconsistent with yX entails y x presuppose yX is a contradiction x is semantically anomalousKill=cause die=become5.5 sentence meaning: includes word meaning and sentence structureThe dog bit the man john, said mary, was a snobThe man bit the dog mary, said john, was a snob5.5.1 an integrated theory 整体理论Compositionality: 复合性原则：the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined is usually known as the principle of compositionality5.5.2 logical semantics: 逻辑性原则1)Propositional logic:命题逻辑the study of the truth conditions for proposition假如P是正确的，则P的反命题是错的5.5.3 predicate logic: 谓词逻辑，studies the internal structure of simple propositionsJohn is a man. John is argument while man is the predicateChapter 6 Language and cognition6.1 cognition: in psychology it is used to refer to the mental processes of an individual; is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.6.2 psycholinguistics: the study of psychological aspects of language; it usually studies the psychological states and mental activity associated with the use of language6.2.1 language acquisition: possessing a language is the quintessentially human trait.1) holophrastic stage:独词句阶段：独词句阶段是语言习得的第一阶段2) two-word stage: 双子句阶段3) stage of three-word utterances4)fluent grammatical conversation stage6.2.2 language comprehension1) word recognition:2)comprehension of sentences3)comprehension of context6.2.3 language production1) access to words: how speakers generate single words?2) generation of sentences3)written language production6.3 cognitive linguistics: a newly established approach to the study of language6.3.1 construal解释说明and construal operationsConstrual: the ability to conceive and portray the same situation in alternate ways through specificity, different mental scanning, directionality, vantage point, figure-ground segregation etcConstrual operations: conceptualizing process used in language process by human beings.1)attention/salience显著2)judgment/comparison: have to do with judging something by comparing it to something else.There’s a cat(figure) on the mat(ground)3)perspective/situatedness置身所在，情境性look at that look at this6.3.2 categorization:分门别类the process of classifying our experiences into different categories based on commonalities and differences主客观相互作用对事物进行分类的过程。