single-chip microprocessors
SIGNALINTEGRITY（信号完整性）外文翻译
SIGNAL INTEGRITYRaymond Y. Chen, Sigrid, Inc., Santa Clara, CaliforniaIntroductionIn the realm of high-speed digital design, signal integrity has become a critical issue, and is posing increasing challenges to the design engineers. Many signal integr ity problems are electromagnetic phenomena in nature and hence related to the EMI/EMC discussions in the previous sections of this book. In this chapter, we will discuss what the typical signal integrity problems are, where they come from, why it is important to understand them and how we can analyze and solve these issues. Several software tools available at present for signal integrity analysis and current trends in this area will also be introduced.The term Signal Integrity (SI) addresses two concerns in the electrical design aspects – the timing and the quality of the signal. Does the signal reach its destination when it is supposed to? And also, when it gets there, is it in good condition? The goal of signal integrity analysis is to ensure reliable high-speed data transmission. In a digital system, a signal is transmitted from one component to another in the form of logic 1 or 0, which is actually at certain reference voltage levels. At the input gate of a receiver, voltage above the reference value Vih is considered as logic high, while voltage below the reference value Vil is considered as logic low. Figure 14-1 shows the ideal voltage waveform in the perfect logic world, whereas Figure 14-2 shows how signal will look like in a real system. More complex data, composed of a string of bit 1 and 0s, are actually continuous voltage waveforms. The receiving component needs to sample the waveform in order to obtain the binary encoded information. The data sampling process is usually triggered by the rising edge or the falling edge of a clock signal as shown in the Figure 14-3. It is clear from the diagram that the data must arrive at the receiving gate on time and settle down to a non-ambiguous logic state when the receiving component starts to latch in. Any delay of the data or distortion of the data waveform will result in a failure of the data transmission. Imagine if the signal waveform in Figure 14-2 exhibits excessive ringing into the logic gray zone while the sampling occurs, then the logic level cannot be reliably detected.SI ProblemsT ypical SI Problems“Timing” is everything in a high-speed system. Signal timing depends on the delay caused by the physical length that the signal must propagate. It also depends on the shape of the waveform w hen the threshold is reached. Signal waveform distortions can be caused by different mechanisms. But there are three mostly concerned noise problems:•Reflection Noise Due to impedance mismatch, stubs, visa and other interconnect discontinuities. •Crosstalk Noise Due to electromagnetic coupling between signal traces and visa.•Power/Ground Noise Due to parasitic of the power/ground delivery system during drivers’ simultaneous switching output (SSO). It is sometimes also called Ground Bounce, Delta-I Noise or Simultaneous Switching Noise (SSN).Besides these three kinds of SI problems, there is other Electromagnetic Compatibility or Electromagnetic Interference (EMC/EMI) problems that may contribute to the signal waveform distortions. When SI problems happen and the system noise margin requirements are not satisfied – the input to a switching receiver makes an inflection below Vih minimum or above Vil maximum; the input to a quiet receiver rises above V il maximum or falls below Vih minimum; power/ground voltage fluctuations disturb the data in the latch, then logic error, data drop, false switching, or even system failure may occur. These types of noise faults are extremely difficult to diagnose and solve after the system is built or prototyped. Understanding and solving these problems before they occur will eliminate having to deal with them further into the project cycle,and will in turn cut down the development cycle and reduce the cost[1]. In the later part of thischapter, we will have further investigations on the physical behavior of these noise phenomena, their causes, their electrical models for analysis and simulation, and the ways to avoid them.1. Where SI Problems HappenSince the signals travel through all kinds of interconnections inside a system, any electrical impact happening at the source end, along the path, or at the receiving end, will have great effects on the signal timing and quality. In a typical digital system environment, signals originating from the off-chip drivers on the die (the chip) go through c4 or wire-bond connections to the chip package. The chip package could be single chip carrier or multi-chip module (MCM). Through the solder bumps of the chip package, signals go to the Printed Circuit Board (PCB) level. At this level, typical packaging structures include daughter card, motherboard or backplane. Then signals continue to go to another system component, such as an ASIC (Application Specific Integrated Circuit) chip, a memory module or a termination block. The chip packages, printed circuit boards, as well as the cables and connecters, form the so-called different levels of electronic packaging systems, as illustrated in Figure 14-4. In each level of the packaging structure, there are typical interconnects, such as metal traces, visa, and power/ground planes, which form electrical paths to conduct the signals. It is the packaging interconnection that ultimately influences the signal integrity of a system.2. SI In Electronic PackagingTechnology trends toward higher speed and higher density devices have pushed the package performance to its limits. The clock rate of present personal computers is approaching gigahertz range. As signal rise-time becomes less than 200ps, the significant frequency content of digital signals extends up to at least 10 GHz. This necessitates the fabrication of interconnects and packages to be capable of supporting very fast varying and broadband signals without degrading signal integrity to unacceptable levels. While the chip design and fabrication technology have undergone a tremendous evolution: gate lengths, having scaled from 50 µm in the 1960s to 0.18 µm today, are projected to reach 0.1 µm in the next few years; on-chip clock frequency is doubling every 18 months; and the intrinsic delay of the gate is decreasing exponentially with time to a few tens of Pico-seconds. However, the package design has lagged considerably. With current technology, the package interconnection delay dominates the system timing budget and becomes the bottleneck of the high-speed system design. It is generally accepted today that package performance is one of the major limiting factors of the overall system performance.Advances in high performance sub-micron microprocessors, the arrival of gigabit networks, and the need for broadband Internet access, necessitate the development of high performance packaging structures for reliable high-speed data transmission inside every electronics system.Signal integrity is one of the most important factors to be considered when designing these packages (chip carriers and PCBs) and integrating these packages together.3、SI Analysis3.1. SI Analysis in the Design FlowSignal integrity is not a new phenomenon and it did not always matter in the early days of the digital era. But with the explosion of the information technology and the arrival of Internet age, people need to be connected all the time through various high-speed digital communication/computing systems. In this enormous market, signal integrity analysis will play a more and more critical role to guarantee the reliable system operation of these electronics products. Without pre-layout SI guidelines, prototypes may never leave the bench; without post-layout SI verifications, products may fail in the field. Figure 14-5 shows the role of SI analysis in the high-speed design process. From this chart, we will notice that SI analysis is applied throughout the design flow and tightly integrated into each design stage. It is also very common to categorize SI analysis into two main stages: reroute analysis and post route analysis.In the reroute stage, SI analysis can be used to select technology for I/Os, clock distributions, chip package types, component types, board stickups, pin assignments, net topologies, and termination strategies. With various design parameters considered, batch SI simulations on different corner cases will progressively formulate a set of optimized guidelines for physical designs of later stage. SI analysis at this stage is also called constraint driven SI design because the guidelines developed will be used as constraints for component placement and routing. The objective of constraint driven SI design at the reroute stage is to ensure that the signal integrity of the physical layout, which follows the placement/routing constraints for noise and timing budget, will not exceed the maximum allowable noise levels. Comprehensive and in-depth reroute SI analysis will cut down the redesign efforts and place/route iterations, and eventually reduce design cycle.With an initial physical layout, post route SI analysis verifies the correctness of the SI design guidelines and constraints. It checks SI violations in the current design, such as reflection noise, ringing, crosstalk and ground bounce. It may also uncover SI problems that are overlooked in the reroute stage, because post route analysis works with physical layout data rather than estimated data or models, therefore it should produce more accurate simulation results.When SI analysis is thoroughly implemented throughout the whole design process, a reliable high performance system can be achieved with fast turn-around.In the past, physical designs generated by layout engineers were merely mechanical drawings when very little or no signal integrity issues were concerned. While the trend of higher-speed electronics system design continues, system engineers, responsible for developing a hardware system, are getting involved in SI and most likely employ design guidelines and routing constraints from signal integrity perspectives. Often, they simply do not know the answers to some of the SI problems because most of their knowledge is from the engineers doing previous generations of products. To face this challenge, nowadays, a design team (see Figure 14-6) needs to have SI engineers who are specialized in working in this emerging technology field. When a new technology is under consideration, such as a new device family or a new fabrication process for chip packages or boards, SI engineers will carry out the electrical characterization of the technology from SI perspectives, and develop layout guideline by running SI modeling and simulation software [2]. These SI tools must be accurate enough to model individual interconnections such as visa, traces, and plane stickups. And they also must be very efficient so what-if analysis with alternative driver/load models and termination schemes can be easily performed. In the end, SI engineers will determine a set of design rules and pass them to the design engineers and layout engineers. Then, the design engineers, who are responsible for the overall system design, need to ensure the design rules are successfully employed. They may run some SI simulations on a few critical nets once the board is initially placed and routed. And they may run post-layout verifications as well. The SI analysis they carry out involves many nets. Therefore, the simulation must be fast, though it may not require the kind of accuracy that SI engineers are looking for. Once the layout engineers get the placement and routing rules specified in SI terms, they need to generate an optimized physical design based on these constraints. And they will provide the report on any SI violations in a routed system using SI tools. If any violations are spotted, layout engineers will work closely with design engineers and SI engineers to solve these possible SI problems.3.2.Principles of SI AnalysisA digital system can be examined at three levels of abstraction: log ic, circuit theory, and electromagnetic (EM) fields. The logic level, which is the highest level of those three, is where SI problems can be easily identified. EM fields, located at the lowest level of abstraction, comprise the foundation that the other levels are built upon [3]. Most of the SI problems are EM problems in nature, such as the cases of reflection, crosstalk and ground bounce. Therefore, understanding the physical behavior of SI problems from EM perspective will be very helpful. For instance, in the following multi-layer packaging structure shown in Figure 14-7, a switching current in via a will generate EM waves propagating away from that via in the radial direction between metal planes. The fields developed between metal planes will cause voltage variations between planes (voltage is the integration of the E-field). When the waves reach other visa, they will induce currents in those visa. And the induced currents in that visa will in turn generate EM waves propagating between the planes. When the waves reach the edges of the package, part of them will radiate into the air and part of them will get reflected back. When the waves bounce back and forth inside the packaging structure and superimpose to each other, resonance will occur. Wave propagation, reflection, coupling and resonance are the typical EM phenomena happening inside a packaging structure during signal transients. Even though EM full wave analysis is much more accurate than the circuit analysis in the modeling of packaging structures, currently, common approaches of interconnect modeling are based on circuit theory, and SI analysis is carried out with circuit simulators. This is because field analysis usually requires much more complicated algorithms and much larger computing resources than circuit analysis, and circuit analysis provides good SI solutions at low frequency as an electrostatic approximation.Typical circuit simulators, such as different flavors of SPICE, employ nodal analysis and solve voltages and currents in lumped circuit elements like resistors, capacitors and inductors. In SI analysis, an interconnect sometimes will be modeled as a lumped circuit element. For instance, a piece of trace on the printed circuit board can be simply modeled as a resistor for its finite conductivity. With this lumped circuit model, the voltages along both ends of the trace are assumed to change instantaneously and the travel time for the signal to propagate between the two ends is neglected. However, if the signal propagation time along the trace has to be considered, a distributed circuit model, such as a cascaded R-L-C network, will be adopted to model the trace. To determine whether the distributed circuit model is necessary, the rule of thumb is – if the signal rise time is comparable to the round-trip propagation time, you need to consider using the distributed circuit model.For example, a 3cm long stripling trace in a FR-4 material based printed circuit board will exhibits 200ps propagation delay. For a 33 MHz system, assuming the signal rise time to be 5ns, the trace delay may be safely ignored; however, with a system of 500 MHz and 300ps rise time, the 200ps propagation delay on the trace becomes important and a distributed circuit model has to be used to model the trace. Through this example, it is easy to see that in the high-speed design, with ever-decreasing signal rise time, distributed circuit model must be used in SI analysis.Here is another example. Considering a pair of solid power and ground planes in a printed circuit board with the dimension of 15cm by 15cm, it is very natural to think the planes acting as a large, perfect, lumped capacitor, from the circuit theory point of view. The capacitor model C= erA/d, an electro-static solution, assumes anywhere on the plane the voltages are the same and all the charges stored are available instantaneously anywhere along the plane. This is true at DC and low frequency. However, when the logics switch with a rise time of 300ps, drawing a large amount of transient currents from the power/ground planes, they perceive the power/ground structure as a two-dimensional distributed network with significant delays. Only some portion of the plane charges located within a small radius of the switching logics will be able to supply the demand. And voltages between the power/ground planes will have variations at different locations. In this case, an ideal lumped capacitor model is obviously not going to account for the propagation effects. Two-dimensional distributed R-L-C circuit networks must be used to model the power/ground pair.In summary, as the current high-speed design trend continues, fast rise time reveals the distributed nature of package interconnects. Distributed circuit models need to be adopted to simulate the propagation delay in SI analysis. However, at higher frequencies, even the distributed circuit modeling techniques are not good enough, full wave electromagnetic field analysis based on solving Maxwell’s equations must come to play. As presen ted in later discussions, a trace will not be modeled as a lumped resistor, or a R-L-C ladder; it will be analyzed based upon transmission line theory; and a power/ground plane pair will be treated as a parallel-plate wave guide using radial transmission line theory.Transmission line theory is one of the most useful concepts in today’s SI analysis. And it is a basic topic in many introductory EM textbooks. For more information on the selective reading materials, please refer to the Resource Center in Chapter 16.In the above discussion, it can be noticed that signal rise time is a very important quantity in SI issues. So a little more expanded discussion on rise time will be given in the next section.信号完整性介绍在高速数字设计领域，信号完整性已经成为一个严重的问题，是造成越来越多的挑战的设计工程师。
一种新型的激光远场光斑直接测量技术_英文_
第32卷第11期 光电工程V ol.32, No.11 2005年11月 Opto-Electronic Engineering Nov, 2005文章编号：1003-501X(2005)11-0049-05Novel direct-detection scheme for measuring energy distributionof laser spots in outfieldZHU Zhen1，WANG Yong-zhou2，YI Ya-xing1，ZHANG Wen-pan1，FENG Liang1(1. No. 63892 Unit of People’s Liberation Army, Luoyang 471003, China；2. No. 63888 Unit of People’s Liberation Army, Luoyang 471003, China)Abstract：Measurement of the energy distribution of laser spots is an effective way in characterizing and diagnosing laser beam quality. After comparing conventional direct-detection and indirect-detection methods, a novel direct-detection scheme, which is based on detector-array controlled by single-chip microprocessors, is proposed. On the basis of analyzing key technologies such as data transmission and optical-electrical conversion, a block diagram of the system is proposed. In this system, a distributed structure was adopted which was composed of a host PC, a main microprocessor and lower microprocessors. This system is capable of measuring the parameters of laser beam in outfield such as size and shape of the spot, the energy of pulse and its distribution etc. It is suitable for most of lasers with repetition rate ranging from single pulse to several hundred per second and different energy up to moderate-high level. The system is more accurate than any former systems.Key words：Laser spot；Outfield；Direct detection；Single-chip microprocessor一种新型的激光远场光斑直接测量技术朱震1，王永州2，易亚星1，张文攀1，冯亮1（1. 中国人民解放军63892部队，河南洛阳 471003；2. 中国人民解放军63888部队，河南洛阳 471003）摘要：激光远场光斑测量对描述激光束的远场性能，评价激光器以及系统的实际工作性能具有重要意义。
电气工程及其自动化专业外文文献英文文献外文翻译方面
1、 外文原文（复印件）A: Fundamentals of Single-chip MicrocomputerT h e sin gle -ch ip mi c ro co m p u t e r is t h e cu lm in at io n of b ot h t h e d e ve lo p me nt of t h e d ig ita l co m p u t e r a n d t h e i nte g rated c ircu it a rgu ab l y t h e to w mo st s ign if i cant i nve nt i o n s of t h e 20t h c e nt u ry [1].T h ese to w t yp e s of arch ite ct u re are fo u n d in s in gle -ch ip m i cro co m p u te r. S o m e e mp l oy t h e sp l it p ro gra m /d at a m e m o r y of t h e H a r va rd arch ite ct u re , s h o wn in -5A , ot h e rs fo l lo w t h e p h i lo so p hy, wid e l y ad a p ted fo r ge n e ral -p u rp o se co m p u te rs an d m i cro p ro ce ss o rs , of m a kin g n o l o g i ca l d i st in ct i o n b et we e n p ro gra m an d d ata m e m o r y as in t h e P rin c eto n a rch ite ct u re , sh o wn in -5A.In ge n e ra l te r m s a s in g le -ch ip m ic ro co m p u t e r is ch a ra cte r ized b y t h e in co r p o rat io n of all t h e u n its of a co mp u te r into a s in gle d e vi ce , as s h o w n in F i g3-5A-3.-5A-1A Harvard type-5A. A conventional Princeton computerProgrammemory Datamemory CPU Input& Output unitmemoryCPU Input& Output unitResetInterruptsPowerFig3-5A-3. Principal features of a microcomputerRead only memory (ROM).RO M is u su a l l y fo r t h e p e r m an e nt , n o n -vo lat i le sto rage of an ap p l i cat io n s p ro g ram .M a ny m i c ro co m p u te rs a n d m i cro co nt ro l le rs are inte n d ed fo r h i gh -vo lu m e ap p l i cat io n s a n d h e n ce t h e e co n o m i cal man u fa c t u re of t h e d e vi ces re q u ires t h at t h e co nt e nts of t h e p ro gra m me mo r y b e co mm i ed p e r m a n e nt l y d u r in g t h e m a n u fa ct u re of c h ip s . C lea rl y, t h i s imp l ies a r i go ro u s ap p ro a ch to ROM co d e d e ve lo p m e nt s in ce ch an ges can n o t b e mad e af te r m an u fa ct u re .T h i s d e ve l o p m e nt p ro ces s m ay i nvo l ve e mu l at i o n u sin g a so p h ist icated d e ve lo p m e nt syste m wit h a h ard wa re e mu l at i o n capab i l it y as we ll as t h e u s e of p o we rf u l sof t war e to o l s.So m e m an u fa ct u re rs p ro vi d e ad d it i o n a l ROM o p t io n s b y in clu d in g in t h e i r ran ge d e v ic es w it h (o r inte n d ed fo r u s e wit h ) u se r p ro g ram m a b le m e mo r y. T h e s im p lest of t h e se i s u su a l l y d e v i ce wh i ch can o p e rat e in a m i cro p ro ce s so r mo d e b y u s in g s o m e of t h e in p u t /o u t p u t l in es as an ad d res s a n d d ata b u s fo r a cc es sin g exte rn a l m e m o r y. T h is t yp e o f d e vi ce can b e h ave f u n ct i o n al l y as t h e s in gle ch ip m i cro co m p u t e r f ro m wh i ch it i s d e ri ved a lb e it wit h re st r icted I/O an d a m o d if ied exte rn a l c ircu it. T h e u s e of t h e se RO M le ss d e vi ces i s co mmo n e ve n in p ro d u ct io n circu i ts wh e re t h e vo lu m e d o e s n ot ju st if y t h e d e ve lo p m e nt co sts of cu sto m o n -ch ip ROM [2];t h e re ca n st i ll b e a si gn if i cant sav in g in I/O an d o t h e r ch ip s co m pared to a External Timing components System clock Timer/ Counter Serial I/O Prarallel I/O RAM ROMCPUco nve nt io n al m i c ro p ro ces so r b ased circ u it. M o re exa ct re p l a ce m e nt fo rRO M d e v ice s can b e o b tain ed in t h e fo rm of va ria nts w it h 'p i g g y-b a c k'E P ROM(E rasab le p ro gramm ab le ROM )s o cket s o r d e v ice s w it h E P ROMin stead of ROM 。
基于52单片机智能婴儿床的设计
为了给新生儿和父母带来方便，某些城市婴儿床已经达到70%的使用率，医学界的专家和家庭都深刻认识到新生儿早期看管的重要性，新生儿及其父母对智能婴儿床的需求会逐步增多[1]。
为婴儿创造一个安全、良好的生长环境，是每一个家庭应该尽到的责任和义务。
但是在现实生活中总会有各种不可避免的意外情况，影响着婴儿的健康。
比如，婴儿成长的环境温度和湿度，或者其它环境因素的细微变化，都可能会使婴儿生病，这就需要家长时刻去关注孩子的身边环境是否过热，是否又太冷，房间内的湿度是否能够达到要求，这些都是家长会关心的问题。
该设计就智能婴儿床周围的环境监测[2]，通过手机APP实现对婴儿身边环境的监控。
为了给婴儿一个相对放心的生长环境，使用智能婴儿床是必要的趋势[3]，无论在城市还是乡村都会有一定的市场需求。
因此对智能婴儿床的研究和发展是一个很有必要的现实课题[4]。
基于52单片机智能婴儿床的设计*马巧梅（宝鸡文理学院计算机学院，宝鸡721016）摘要：鉴于父母有在室内可以远离婴儿并照看婴儿，又须确保婴儿舒适度的需求，设计一款可通过单片机实现婴儿床周围智能信息处理的智能系统。
该系统以52单片机为核心控制器，通过WIFI技术实时发送采集的视频信息到Android手机客户端，通过手机端可以查看婴儿床周围的温度和湿度信息。
同时在婴儿床上内置一个GPS定位系统和超声波距离检测系统，监测婴儿床与父母之间的距离和室外婴儿床的实时位置信息。
该智能系统可以使父母在室内一定范围内，通过手机察看婴儿的一举一动，同时还可以观看婴儿身边的温湿度信息，从而帮助父母消除必须守护在婴儿旁边的困惑。
关键词：智能婴儿床；传感器；单片机；WIFI技术；GPS定位DOI编码：10.3969/j.issn.1002-2279.2017.05.019中图分类号：TP277.2文献标识码：B文章编号：1002-2279-（2017）05-0073-04Design of Smart Crib Based on52Single Chip MicrocomputerMa Qiaomei(College of Computer,Baoji University of Arts and Sciences,Baoji721016,China) Abstract:Given that parents can stay away from infants and care for infants indoors,they need to be sure that the baby's comfort is well.This intelligent system in paper can realize the intelligent information processing around the crib.The52single-chip microcomputer is considered as the core controller in this system,which sent video information via WiFi real-time to the Android client.The mobile terminals can monitor temperature and humidity information around the crib.In addition,a GPS and ultrasonic distance detection system is built into the crib to monitor the distance between the crib and parents,which also monitor the location of the crib.The intelligent system allows parents to stay indoors,and see the baby's every move through the mobile phone,as well as the temperature and humidity information around the crib,so as to help parents to solve the confusion of nursing.Key words:Smart crib;Sensor;Single chip microcomputer;Wireless Fidelity;Global position system*基金项目：国家青年科学基金资助项目(61402015)；陕西省教育厅专项科研计划项目（15jk1022,15JK1022）；陕西省宝鸡市科技计划项目（16RKX1-3）；宝鸡文理学院校级重点项目（ZK2017011）作者简介：马巧梅(1983—)，女，陕西省榆林市人，硕士，讲师，主研方向：物联网工程，网络与信息安全。
单片机_英语
• BCD (binary coded decimal) 二进制编 码的十进制数
• IR • IRQ
(infrared radiation) 红外辐射 (interrupt request) 中断请求
• JFET (junction field effect transistor) 结型场效应晶体管
• DUT (device under test) 被测器件 • ESD (electro-static discharge) 静电放 电 • HTL (high threshold logic) 高阈值逻辑 电路
• LSI (large scale integration) 大规模 集成电路
• MOS (metal oxide semiconductor) 金属氧化物半导体 • OCS (optical communication system) 光通讯系统
THANK YOU
单片机怎么翻 译
？？？
几种翻译
• 信息学专业词典：single chip computer. • 汉英计算机词汇：monolithic（单片 ） processor • 汉英计算机大词典：single-chip microcomputer，Single Chip Micyoco
Unit9中出Fra bibliotek的• FPGA Field-programmable Gate Arrays 现场可编程门阵列 • ASIC Application-specific ICs专用 集成电路
• GPP General-purpose Microprocessors (GPPS)通用微处理器
EDA中出现的,,,
• CPLD Complex Programmable Logic Device复杂可编程逻器件 • EPLD（Erasable Programmable Logic Device）可擦除可编辑逻辑器 件 • PAL Programmable Array Logic 可变阵列逻辑
单片机基础毕业设计外文翻译
本科生毕业设计（论文）外文翻译毕业设计题目：外文题目：Fundamentals of Single-chip Microcomputer 译文题目：单片机基础学院：信息科学与工程学院专业班级：电子信息工程0802班学生姓名：指导教师：外文原文Fundamentals of Single-chip MicrocomputerDr. Dobbs MacintoshJournalAbstractT h e s i n gl e-chi p m i c r o com pu t er i s t h e cul m i na t i on of bo t h t h e d e v el opm e nt o f t h e di gi t al c om p ut e r a nd t h e i nt e gra t e d c i r c ui t a rgu a b l y t h e t ow m o st s i gn i fi c ant i nv en t i on s of t h e 20t h ce n t u r y .T h es e t o w t yp e s o f a rc hi t e c t u r e a r e fo un d i n s i n gl e-c hi p m i c r o com pu t e r.S om e e m p l o y t h e s pl i t p ro gr a m/d at a m em o r y o f t h e H a r v a rd a r ch i t e ct u r e, s ho wn i n F i g.3-5A-1, ot h er s f o l l o w t he p hi l o so ph y,w i d e l y a d a p t ed f o r ge n e r al-pu rp os e com p ut e rs and m i c r op r oc e s s o rs,of m ak i n g n o l o gi c al di s t i nc t i on be t w ee n p ro gr a m a n d d at a m em o r y a s i n t h e P r i n c et on ar c hi t e ct u r e.In ge n e r a l t er m s a si n gl e-c hi p m i cro c om put e r i s c ha r ac t e ri z ed b y t h e i n co r po r at i o n o f al l t h e u ni t s o f a c om put e r i n t o a s i n gl e d e vi c e.Keyword: Single-chip Microcomputer ROM RAM Programming Algorithm Features• Compatible with MCS-51™ Products• 4K Bytes of In-System Reprogrammable Flash Memory– Endurance: 1,000 Write/Erase Cycles• Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 24 MHz• Three-level Program Memory Lock• 128 x 8-bit Internal RAM• 32 Programmable I/O Lines• Two 16-bit Timer/Counters• Six Interrupt Sources• Programmable Serial Channel• Low-power Idle and Power-down ModesDescriptionThe AT89C51 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcomputer with 4Kbytes of Flash programmable and erasable read only memory (PEROM). The deviceis manufactured using Atmel’s high-density nonvolatile memory technology and iscompatible with the industry-standard MCS-51 instruction set and pinout. Theon-chipFlash allows the program memory to be reprogrammed in-system or by a conventionalnonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a versatile 8-bit CPU with Flashon a monolithic chip, the Atmel AT89C51 is a powerful microcomputer which providesa highly-flexible and cost-effective solution to many embedded control applications.The AT89C51 provides the following standard features: 4Kbytes of Flash, 128 bytes of RAM, 32 I/O lines, two 16-bittimer/counters, a five vector two-level interrupt architecture,a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator and clock circuitry.In addition, the AT89C51 is designed with static logicfor operation down to zero frequency and supports twosoftware selectable power saving modes. The Idle Modestops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters,serial port and interrupt system to continue functioning. ThePower-down Mode saves the RAM contents but freezesthe oscillator disabling all other chip functions until the nexthardware reset.Pin ConfigurationsBlock DiagramPin DescriptionVCCSupply voltage.GNDGround.Port 0Port 0 is an 8-bit open-drain bi-directional I/O port. As anoutput port, each pin can sink eight TTL inputs. When 1sare written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as highimpedanceinputs.Port 0 may also be configured to be the multiplexed loworderaddress/data bus during accesses to external programand data memory. In this mode P0 has internalpullups.Port 0 also receives the code bytes during Flash programming,and outputs the code bytes during programverification. External pullups are required during program verification.Port 1Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pullups.The Port 1 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs.When 1s are written to Port 1 pins they are pulled high bythe internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs,Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pullups.Port 1 also receives the low-order address bytes during Flash programming and verification.Port 2Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pullups.The Port 2 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs.When 1s are written to Port 2 pins they are pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pullups.Port 2 emits the high-order address byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory that use 16-bit addresses (MOVX @DPTR). In this application, it uses strong internal pullups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit addresses (MOVX @ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register.Port 2 also receives the high-orderaddress bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verification.Port 3Port 3 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pullups.The Port 3 output buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs.When 1s are written to Port 3 pins they are pulled high by the internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs,Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled low will source current (IIL) because of the pullups.Port 3 also serves the functions of various special features of the AT89C51 as listed below:Port 3 also receives some control signals for Flash programmingand verification.ALE/PROGAddress Latch Enable output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash programming.In normal operation ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6the oscillator frequency, and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external Data Memory.If desired, ALE operation can be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during a MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode.PSENProgram Store Enable is the read strobe to external program memory.When theAT89C51 is executing code from external programmemory, PSEN is activated twice each machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data memory.EA/VPPExternal Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH.Note, however, that if lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset. EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming, for parts that require 12-volt VPP.XTAL1Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.XTAL2Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.Oscillator CharacteristicsXTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively,of an inverting amplifier which can be configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Figure 1. Either a quartz crystal or ceramic resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be left unconnected while XTAL1 is driven as shown in Figure 2. There are no requirements on the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to the internal clocking circuitry is through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and maximum voltage high and low time specifications must be observed.Idle ModeIn idle mode, the CPU puts itself to sleep while all the onchip peripherals remain active. The mode is invoked by software. The content of the on-chip RAM and all the special functions registers remain unchanged during this mode. The idle mode can be terminated by any enabled interrupt or by a hardware reset. It should be noted that when idle is terminated by a hard ware reset, the device normally resumes programexecution,from where it left off, up to two machine cycles before the internal reset algorithm takes control. On-chip hardware inhibits access to internal RAM in this event, but access to the port pins is not inhibited. To eliminate the possibility of an unexpected write to a port pin when Idle is terminated by reset, the instruction following the one that invokes Idle should not be one that writes to a port pin or to external memory.Figure 1. Oscillator ConnectionsFigure 2. External Clock Drive ConfigurationPower-down ModeIn the power-down mode, the oscillator is stopped, and the instruction that invokes power-down is the last instruction executed. The on-chip RAM and Special Function Registers retain their values until the power-down mode is terminated. The only exit from power-down is a hardware reset. Reset redefines the SFRs but does not change the on-chip RAM. The reset should not be activated before VCC is restored to its normal operating level and must be held active long enough to allow the oscillator to restart and stabilize.Program Memory Lock BitsOn the chip are three lock bits which can be left unprogrammed (U) or can be programmed (P) to obtain the additional features listed in the table below.When lock bit 1 is programmed, the logic level at the EA pin is sampled and latched during reset. If the device is powered up without a reset, the latch initializes to a random value, and holds that value until reset is activated. It is necessary that the latched value of EA be in agreement with the current logic level at that pin in order for the device to function properly.Programming the FlashThe AT89C51 is normally shipped with the on-chip Flash memory array in the erased state (that is, contents = FFH) and ready to be programmed. The programming interface accepts either a high-voltage (12-volt) or a low-voltage (VCC) program enable signal. The low-voltage programming mode provides a convenient way to program theAT89C51 inside the user’s system, while the high-voltage programming mode is compatible with conventional thirdparty Flash or EPROM programmers. The AT89C51 is shipped with either the high-voltage or low-voltage programming mode enabled. The respective top-side marking and device signature codes are listed in the following table.The AT89C51 code memory array is programmed byte-bybyte in either programming mode. To program any nonblank byte in the on-chip Flash Memory, the entire memory must be erased using the Chip Erase Mode.Programming Algorithm: Before programming the AT89C51, the address, data and control signals should be set up according to the Flash programming mode table and Figure 3 and Figure 4. To program the AT89C51, take the following steps.1. Input the desired memory location on the address lines.2. Input the appropriate data byte on the data lines.3. Activate the correct combination of control signals.4. Raise EA/VPP to 12V for the high-voltage programming mode.5. Pulse ALE/PROG once to program a byte in the Flash array or the lock bits. The byte-write cycle is self-timed and typically takes no more than 1.5 ms.Repeat steps 1 through 5, changing the address and data for the entire array or until the end of the object file is reached.Data Polling: The AT89C51 features Data Polling to indicate the end of a write cycle. During a write cycle, an attempted read of the last byte written will result in the complement of the written datum on PO.7. Once the write cycle has been completed, true data are valid on all outputs, and the next cycle may begin. Data Polling may begin any time after a write cycle has been initiated.Ready/Busy: The progress of byte programming can also be monitored by theRDY/BSY output signal. P3.4 is pulled low after ALE goes high during programming to indicate BUSY. P3.4 is pulled high again when programming is done to indicate READY.Program Verify: If lock bits LB1 and LB2 have not been programmed, the programmed code data can be read back via the address and data lines for verification. The lock bits cannot be verified directly. Verification of the lock bits is achieved by observing that their features are enabled.Chip Erase: The entire Flash array is erased electrically by using the proper combination of control signals and by holding ALE/PROG low for 10 ms. The code array is written with all “1”s. The chip erase operation must be executed before the code memory can be re-programmed.Reading the Signature Bytes: The signature bytes are read by the same procedure as a normal verification of locations 030H, 031H, and 032H, except that P3.6 and P3.7 must be pulled to a logic low. The values returned are as follows.(030H) = 1EH indicates manufactured by Atmel(031H) = 51H indicates 89C51(032H) = FFH indicates 12V programming(032H) = 05H indicates 5V programmingProgramming InterfaceEvery code byte in the Flash array can be written and the entire array can be erasedby using the appropriate combination of control signals. The write operation cycle is selftimed and once initiated, will automatically time itself to completion. All major programming vendors offer worldwide support for the Atmel microcontroller series. Please contact your local programming vendor for the appropriate software revision.外文资料翻译译文单片机基础摘要：单片机是电脑和集成电路发展的巅峰，有据可查的是它们也是20世纪最意义的两大发明。
有关锂电池的中英文翻译巴
锂电池充电器的设计介绍根据其尺寸，重量和能量储存优点，锂- 离子可再充电电池正在被用于许多的应用领域。
这些电池已经被考虑为优先的电池于手提式计算机的应用移置NiMH 和NiCad 电池而且行动电话正在飞快地成为锂电池的第二个主要的市场。
理由是明显的。
锂- 离子的电池提供很多的好处对与终端消费者。
对于手提式计算机来说锂- 离子电池在相同条件和大小并减少重量的情况下能够提供比NiCad 和NiMH 更为持久的电力。
相同的优点对于蜂窝电话更是真实的。
一个电话能被做得更小和更轻如果使用李- 离子的电池的话而不牺牲续航时间。
当锂- 离子的电池费用降下来的话甚至更多的应用将会转变到这一个更轻巧和更小巧的技术上来。
当消费者一直要求方便的时候，市场的趋势表明一个持续不断的增长在所有的可再充电的电池中。
根据以前市场的资料大约在1997 年的时候表明大约二亿个锂-离子电芯将会被装船运送相比较于600 百万个NiMH 的电芯。
然而有必要说明的是三个NiMH 的电芯相当于一个锂- 离子的电芯在被包裹为电池包装的时候。
因此，真实的体积对两者来说是非常接近一样的。
1997 年也被标记为第一年锂- 离子作为电池类型用于在大多数的手提式的计算机中移置NiMH 为高端领域中。
资料显示1997 年在欧洲和日本电池电芯市场表现出一个变化对于锂- 离子在多数的电话的应用中。
锂- 离子的电池是一种令人兴奋的电池技术必须给于高度的关注。
要想了解这些新的电池，这设计引导者解释这些原则，要价需求以及符合这些需求的线路。
随着越来越多的手持式电器的出现，对高性能、小尺寸、重量轻的电池充电器的需求也越来越大。
电池技术的持续进步也要求更复杂的充电算法以实现快速、安全的充电。
因此需要对充电过程进行更精确的监控，以缩短充电时间、达到最大的电池容量，并防止电池损坏。
AVR 已经在竞争中领先了一步，被证明是下一代充电器的完美控制芯片。
Atmel AVR 微处理器是当前市场上能够以单片方式提供Flash、EEPROM 和10 位ADC的最高效的8 位RISC 微处理器。
光有源器件和无源器件的英文
IntroductionElectronic devices, the backbone of modern technology, rely on a diverse array of components that function in concert to process, transmit, and store information. These components can be broadly classified into two distinct categories: active and passive electronic devices. Each category exhibits unique characteristics, functionalities, and roles within electronic circuits, contributing to the overall performance and efficiency of various systems. This comprehensive analysis delves into the fundamental principles, operational mechanisms, applications, and comparative perspectives of active and passive electronic components, providing a thorough understanding of their significance in the realm of electronics.Active Electronic ComponentsActive electronic components are the driving force behind any circuit, as they possess the ability to control, amplify, or generate electrical signals without relying solely on the input signal. They require an external source of energy, typically in the form of a DC power supply, to perform their designated functions. The primary distinguishing feature of active components is their capacity to introduce gain, which refers to the amplification of an input signal's voltage, current, or power. The most common examples of active components include transistors (bipolar junction transistors, field-effect transistors), integrated circuits (ICs), diodes, and vacuum tubes.1. **Operational Principles**: Active components manipulate electrical signals through the control of electron flow. For instance, transistors employ the principles of charge carrier injection and modulation to amplify or switch signals. Diodes, on the other hand, utilize the property of asymmetric conductivity to allow current flow predominantly in one direction. Integrated circuits incorporate multiple active and passive components on a single chip, enabling complex signal processing and control functions.2. **Applications**: Active components find widespread use in virtually allswitches, oscillators, and logic gates in digital circuits. ICs are integral to microprocessors, memory chips, and analog-to-digital converters, enabling computing, communication, and control systems. Diodes are employed in rectifiers, voltage regulators, and signal demodulation circuits. Vacuum tubes, although less prevalent today, still have niche applications in high-power amplifiers, radio transmitters, and specialized audio equipment.3. **Advantages**: Active components offer several advantages, such as signal amplification, voltage and current regulation, non-linear signal processing, and the ability to create complex logical operations. They enable the creation of highly efficient and miniaturized electronic systems, thanks to advancements in IC technology.Passive Electronic ComponentsPassive electronic components, in contrast, do not require a source of external energy for their operation. They simply respond to the applied electrical signals, storing, dissipating, or redirecting energy without introducing gain. The primary passive components include resistors, capacitors, inductors, transformers, and various types of connectors and cables.1. **Operational Principles**: Passive components rely on fundamental electrical properties to perform their functions. Resistors impede current flow based on Ohm's Law, converting electrical energy into heat. Capacitors store electrical energy in an electric field, releasing it when required, while inductors store energy in a magnetic field and oppose changes in current. Transformers utilize electromagnetic induction to transfer energy between circuits with different voltage levels, while connectors and cables facilitate the transmission of signals without significant attenuation or distortion.2. **Applications**: Passive components are ubiquitous in electronic circuits, serving essential roles in filtering, impedance matching, signal coupling, power distribution, and timing. Resistors are used for voltage division, current limiting, and pull-up/pull-down configurations. Capacitorssmoothing power supplies, and resonant circuits. Transformers are critical in power supply isolation, stepping up or down voltages, and signal coupling across different impedances. Connectors and cables ensure reliable signal transmission in various systems, from consumer electronics to large-scale industrial installations.3. **Advantages**: Passive components offer simplicity, reliability, and cost-effectiveness. They do not generate noise or consume power, making them ideal for signal conditioning and energy management tasks. Moreover, their non-reactive nature simplifies circuit analysis and design.Comparative PerspectivesWhile both active and passive components are indispensable in electronic circuits, their roles and characteristics differ significantly:1. **Energy Consumption**: Active components consume power to perform their functions, whereas passive components do not. This distinction influences power budgeting, thermal management, and battery life considerations in electronic designs.2. **Signal Amplification**: Active components can amplify signals, whereas passive components cannot. This capability is crucial for signal processing, long-distance transmission, and overcoming inherent signal losses in electronic systems.3. **Complexity**: Active components, particularly ICs, can integrate vast numbers of active and passive elements on a single chip, enabling highly complex and sophisticated circuits. Passive components, while essential, generally contribute to the circuit's overall simplicity and ease of maintenance.4. **Noise Generation**: Active components, due to their internal processes, can introduce noise into a circuit, which may need to be mitigated through careful design and filtering. Passive components, being inherently non-amplifying, tend to produce less noise.Conclusionblocks of modern electronics, each playing a unique and indispensable role in shaping the functionality and performance of electronic systems. While active components, with their signal amplification and energy-consuming nature, drive the core processing and control functions, passive components provide essential support through energy storage, signal conditioning, and power distribution. Understanding the operational principles, applications, and comparative perspectives of these components is vital for engineers and designers seeking to create efficient, reliable, and high-performance electronic devices and systems.。
带有只读存储器的单片机集成电路中英文翻译
英文原文：Microcontroller Integrated Circuit with Read Only Memory Microcontroller integrated circuit comprises a processor core which exchanges data with at least one data processing and storage device. The integrated circuit comprises a mash-programmed read only memory containing a generic program such as a test program which can be executed by the microcontroller. The genetic program includes a basic function for writing data into the data progressing or storage device or devices .The write function is used to load a downloading program. Because a downloading program is not permanently stored in the read only memory. the microcontroller can be tested independently of the application program .and remains standard with regard to the type of memory component with which it can be used in a system.In a microprocessor based system the processing will be performed in the microprocessor itself. The storage will be by means of memory circuits and the communication of information into and out of the system will be by means of special input/output(I/O) circuits. It would be impossible to identify a particular piece of hardware which performed the counting in a microprocessor based clock because the time would be stored in the memory and incremented at regular intervals but the microprocessor. However, the software which defined the system‟s behavior would contain sections that performed as counters. The apparently rather abstract approach to the architecture of the microprocessor and its associated circuits allows it to be very flexible in use, since the system is defined almost entirely software. The design process is largely one of software engineering, and the similar problems of construction and maintenance which occur in conventional engineering are encountered when producing software.Microcomputers use RAM (Random Access Memory) into which data can be written and from which data can be read again when needed. This data can be read back from the memory in any sequence desired, and not necessarily the same order in whi ch it was written, hence the expression …random‟ access memory. Another type of ROM (Read Only Memory) is used to hold fixed patterns of information which cannot be affected by the microprocessor; these patterns are not lost when power is removed and are normally used to hold the program which defines the behavior of a microprocessor based system. ROMs can be read like RAMs, but unlike RAMs they cannot be used to store variable information. Some ROMs have their data patterns put in during manufacture, while others are programmable by the user by means of special equipment and are called programmable ROMs. The widely used programmable ROMs are erasable by means of special ultraviolet lamps and are referred to as EPROMs, short for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memories. Other new types of device can be erased electrically without the need for ultraviolet light, which are called Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memories, EEPROMs.The microprocessor processes data under the control of the program, controlling the flow of information to and from memory and input/output devices. Some input/output devices are general-purpose types while others are designed forcontrolling special hardware such as disc drives or controlling information transmission to other computers. Most types of I/O devices are programmable to some extent, allowing different modes of operation, while some actually contain special-purpose microprocessors to permit quite complex operations to be carried out without directly involving the main microprocessor.Another major engineering application of microcomputers is in process control. Here the presence of the microcomputer is usually more apparent to the user because provision is normally made for programming the microcomputer for the particular application. In process control applications the benefits lf fitting the entire system on to single chip are usually outweighed by the high design cost involved, because this sort lf equipment is produced in smaller quantities. Moreover, process controllers are usually more complicated so that it is more difficult to make them as single integrated circuits. Two approaches are possible; the controller can be implemented as a general-purpose microcomputer rather like a more robust version lf a hobby computer, or as a …packaged‟ system, signed for replacing controllers based on older technologies such as electromagnetic relays. In the former case the system would probably be programmed in conventional programming languages such as the ones to9 be introduced later, while in the other case a special-purpose language might be used, for example one which allowed the function of the controller to be described in terms of relay interconnections, In either case programs can be stored in RAM, which allows them to be altered to suit changes in application, but this makes the overall system vulnerable to loss lf power unless batteries are used to ensure continuity of supply. Alternatively programs can be stored in ROM, in which case they virtually become part of t he electronic …hardware‟ and are often referred to as firmware.To be more precise ,the invention concerns a microcontroller integrated circuit .A microcontroller is usually a VLSI(Very Large Scale Integration) integrated circuit containing all or most of the components of a “computer”. Its function is not predefined but depends on the program that it executes.A microcontroller necessarily comprises a processor core including a command sequence (which is a device distributing various control signals to the instructions of a program),an arithmetic and logic unit (for processing the data) and registers(which are specialized memory units).The other components of the “computer” can be either internal or external to the microcontroller, however, In other words ,the other component are integrated into either the microcontroller or auxiliary circuits.These other components of the “computer”are data processing and storage devices, for example read only or random access memory containing the program to be executed, clocks and interfaces(serial or parallel).As a general rule ,a system based on a microcontroller therefore comprises a microchip containing the microcontroller, and a plurality of microchips containing the external data processing and storage devices which are not integrated into the microcontroller. A microcontroller-based system of this kind comprises, for example, one or more printed circuit boards on which the microcontroller and the other components are mounted.It is the application program, I, e, the program which is executed by the microcontroller, which determines the overall operation of the microcontroller system. Each application program is therefore specific to a separate application.In most current application the application program is too large to be held in the microcontroller and is therefore stored in a memory external to the microcontroller, This program memory, which has only to be read , not written, is generally a reprogrammable read only memory(REPROM).After the application program has been programmed in memory and then started in order to be executed by the microcontroller, the microcontroller system may not function a expected.In the last unfavorable situation this is a minor dysfunction of the system and the microcontroller is still able to dialog with a test station via a serial or parallel interface, This test station is then able to determin the nature of the problem and indicates precisely the type of correction(software and physical) to be applied to the system foe it to operate correctly.Unfortunately, most dysfunctions of microcontroller-based system result in a total system lock-up, preventing any dialog with a test station. It is then impossible to determine the type of fault,i,e.whether it is a physical fault(in the microcontroller itself,in an external read only memory, in a peripheral device,on a bus,etc ) or a software fault( I,e. an error in the application program). The troubleshooting technique usually employed in these cases of total lock-up is based on the use of sophisticated test devices requiring the application of probes to the pins of the various integrated circuits of the microcontroller-based system under test.There are various problem associated with the use of such test devices for troubleshooting a microcontroller-based system. The probes used in these test devices are very fragile, difficult to apply because of the small size of the circuit and their close packing,and may not make good contact with the circuit.Also, because of their high cost, these test devices are not mass produced. Consequently, faulty microcontroller-based systems can not be repaired immediately, wherever they happen to be located at the time, but must first be returned to a place where a test device is available. Troubleshooting a microcontroller-based system in this way is time-consuming, irksome and costly.To avoid the need for direct action on the microcontroller-based system each time the application program executed by the microcontroller of the system is changed, it is standard practice to use a downloadable read only memory to store the application program, a loading program being written into a mask-programmed read only memory of the microcontroller, The mask-programmed read only memory of the microcontroller is integrated into the microcontroller and programmed once and for all during manufacture of the microcontroller.To change the application program the microcontroller is reset by running the downloading program. This downloading program can then communicate with a workstation connected to the microcontroller by an appropriate transmission line, this workstation the new application program to be written into the microcontroller, The downloading program receives the new application program and loads it into a readonly memory external to the microcontroller.Although this solution avoids the need for direct action on the microcontroller=based system (which would entail removing from the system the reprogrammable read only memories containing the application program, writing into these memories the new application program using an appropriate programming device and then replacing them in the system), it nevertheless has a major drawback, namely specialization of the microcontroller during manufacture.Each type of reprogrammable memory is associated with a different downloading program because the programming parameters (voltage to be applied, duration for which the voltage is to be applied) vary with the technology employed, The downloading program is written once and for all into the mask-programmed internal memory of the microcontroller and the latter is therefore restricted to using memory components of the type for which this downloading program was written. In other words,the microcontroller is not a standard component and this increases its cost of manufacture.One object of the invention is to overcome these various drawbacks of the prior art, To be more precise, an object of the invention is to provide a microcontroller circuit which can verify quickly, simply, reliably and at low cost the operation of a system based on the microcontroller.Another object of the invention is to provide a microcontroller integrated circuit which can accurately locate the defective component or components of a system using the microcontroller in the event of dysfunction of the system.A further object of the invention is to provide a microcontroller integrated circuit which avoids the need for direct action on the microcontroller-based system to change the application program, whilst remaining standard as regards the type of memory component with which it can be used in a system.译文：带有只读存储器的单片机集成电路单片机集成电路包含一个处理器内核，它至少通过一种数据处理或存储设备来交换数据，集成电路包含一个只读掩模存储器，其中像测试程序一样的通用程序能被单片机执行。
数字时钟外文翻译
外文资料翻译之邯郸勺丸创作L ED using digital tube digital display its high-brightness, indicating the advantages of intuitive intelligence is widely used in areas such as equipment and household appliances. AT89C52This article describes a single-chip microcomputer as the core, to a total of anode high-brightness LED L ED as a display composed of seven figures show that the practical design of multi-function electronic clocks, the clock shows a week, hour, minute, second, it can be switched to year, month, day showed that the whole point of music at the same time and from time to time the alarm time and other functions can also be used for electronic stopwatch.Clock circuit is the heart of the computer, which controls the rhythm of the work of the computer is through the completion of complex sequential circuits function in different directions.Clock, since it was invented that day on, people's lives has become an indispensable tool, especially in this era of efficient, the clock is in the human production and living, learning and other fields is widely. However, with the passage of time, people not only to the requirements of the clock is getting higher andhigher precision, and functional requirements for the clock more and more, the clock has not only a tool used to display time, in many practical applications It also needs to be able to achieve more other functions. Features such as alarm clock, calendar display, temperature measurement function, humidity measurements, voltage measurements, frequency measurements, have been under-voltage alarm function. Digital clocks to the people's production and life has brought great convenience, but also greatly expands the time feature the original clocks. Such as regular auto-alarm, Automatic time-ling, time process automation, from time to time broadcast, from closed-circuit automatic lights, oven timer switch, on-off power equipment, electrical and even a variety of timing is automatically enabled, all of which are based on digital clocks and watches based. It can be said that the design of the significance of multi-function Digital Clock Digital Clock is not just itself, a greater significance of the multi-function digital clock in a number of real-time control systems. In many practical applications, as long as the digital clock circuit of the programs and hardware to a certain degree of modification could be useful for real-time control system, which applied to the actual work and production to. Thus, digital clock and to expand its applications,has a very practical significance.With the development of human civilization, science and technology, there is the request of the clock continues to improve. Clock has not only seen as a tool to display the time, in many practical applications also need to be able to achieve more other functions. High-precision, multifunction, small size, low power consumption, is the development trend of the modern clock. In this trend, digital clock, multifunction clock has become the modern design of the production of research-led direction. This article is based on this design direction for the control of a single-chip core design requirements of a multi-function indicators in line with the digital clock.The design is based on the principle of single-chip technology to chip AT89C52single-chip microcomputer as the core controller, through the production of hardware and software procedures for the preparation, design to produce a multi-functional digital clock system. The clock system mainly by clock module, alarm module, the ambient temperature detection module, liquid crystal display module, control module and the keyboard signal prompted module. System is simple and clear user interface that can 4V ~ 7V DC power under normal operation. Able to accurately display time (display format hh: mm: seconds seconds, 24-hour system), maybe time to adjust at any time, with clock time settings, alarm on / off, only to make functions, where the clock to measure the ambient temperature and displayed. Hardware and software design into the guiding ideology, give full play to the single-chip features, most of the functions through software programming to achieve, the circuit is simple and clear, high system stability. At the same time, the clock system also has the power of small, low cost, and highly practical. System components as a result of less use, single-chip occupied by the I / O port not more than, the system has a certain degree of scalability.Clock design is no theory of discrete logic, programmable logic, or using full-custom silicon devices of any digital design, in order to successfully operate and reliable clock is crucial. Poor design of the clock in the limits of temperature, voltage deviation or the manufacturing process will result in the case wrong, and debugging difficult, spending a lot. In the design of FPGA / CPLD clock when several types of commonly used. Clock can be divided into the following four types: global clock, clock gating, multi-level logic clock clock and volatility. Multi-clock system to include the above-mentioned four types of any combination of the clock.No matter what methods are the real circuitclock tree can not achieve the ideal assumption that the clock, so we must be based on an ideal clock, the clock real work to build a model to analyze the circuit, so as to make the circuit performance and the practical work as expected . Clock in the actual model, we have to consider the spread of clock-tree skew, vertical jump and absolute bias and other uncertainties.To register, the clock was working along the arrival of the data terminal when it should have been stable, so as to ensure that the work along the sampling clock to the accuracy of the data, this data preparation time that we call set-up time (setup time). Data should also be working along the clock to maintain over a period of time, this period of time known as the hold time (hold time).Global clock for a design project, the global clock (or clock synchronous) is the simplest and most predictable clock. In the PLD / FPGA design of the clock the best options are: by a dedicated global clock input pins of a single master clock-driven clock design projects to each flip-flop. As long as possible should be used in the design of global clock projects. PLD / FPGA has a dedicated global clock pins, the device is directly connected to each register. Global clock to provide such a device in the shortest possible delay to the output clock.Clock-gated in many applications, the entire design of the overall use of external clock is not possible or practical. With the product of PLD logic array clock (that is, the clock is generated by the logic), to allow arbitrary function alone all trigger clock. However, when you use the array clock, the clock should be carefully analyzed the function, in order to avoid glitches.Usually constitute the array clock clock-gated. Clock gating often interface with the microprocessor, and used the address to write to control the pulse line. However, when using combination of flip-flop when the clock function, usually there is a clock-gated. If the following conditions, such as clock gating can be as reliable as global clock work: Drive the clock logic must contain only one "and" the door or a "or" gate. If any additional work in some state of logic, the competition will be the burr.A logic gate input as the actual clock, and the logic gate must be of all other input as the address or control lines, in relation to their compliance with the establishment and maintenance of clock time bound.Multi-level logic generated clock when the clock-gating logic of the combination of more than one (or more than the individual "and" doors or "or" gate), the evidence of thereliability of the design of the project has become very difficult. Even if the prototype or simulation results show that there is no static dangerous, but in fact the risk may still exist. In general, we should not use multi-level combinational logic to clock the flip-flop in the PLD design.Traveling-wave clock clock another popular use of traveling-wave circuit is the clock, that is, the output of a flip-flop used as a clock input of another flip-flop. If careful design, traveling-wave clock can be the same as the global clock to work reliably. However, the traveling-wave clock made from time to time with the calculation of the circuit becomes very complicated. Line-wave traveling-wave clock flip-flop of the chain have a greater clock time between the offset and exceed the worst case the set-up time, hold time and clock to the output circuit of the delay, allowing the system to the actual slowed down.Multi-clock system, many system requirements within the same multi-PLD clock. The most common example is the two asynchronous interfaces between microprocessors, or microprocessors and asynchronous communication channel interface. As the clock signal between the two requirements to establish and maintain a certain time, so that the above application from time to time the introduction ofadditional constraints. They also requested that some asynchronous synchronization signal.In many applications, only the synchronization of asynchronous signals is not enough, when the system of two or more non-homologous clock, the data it is difficult to establish and maintain the time to be assured that we will face the complex matter of time . The best way is to all non-homologous clock synchronization. PLD internal use of the lock loop (PLL or DLL) is a very good, but not all of PLD with a PLL, DLL, and chip PLL with most expensive, so unless there are special requirements, the general occasions PLL can not use with the PLD.At this time we need to take to enable the use of the D flip-flop-side, and the introduction of a high-frequency clock.采纳L ED 数码管的数字显示以其亮度高、显示直观等优点被广泛应用于智能仪器及家用电器等领域. 本文介绍一种以AT89C52单片机为核心,以共阳极高亮度L ED 数码管作为显示器件组成7 位数字显示的实用多功能电子时钟的设计,该时钟可显示星期、时、分、秒,也可切换为年、月、日显示,同时具有整点音乐报时及按时闹钟等功能,也可作电子秒表使用.时钟电路是计算机的心脏, 它控制着计算机的工作节奏就是通过复杂的时序电路完成份歧的指令功能的.时钟, 自从它被发明的那天起, 就成为人们生活中必不成少的一种工具, 尤其是在现在这个讲究效率的年代, 时钟更是在人类生产、生活、学习等多个领域获得广泛的应用.然而随着时间的推移, 人们不单对时钟精度的要求越来越高, 而且对时钟功能的要求也越来越多, 时钟已不单仅是一种用来显示时间的工具, 在很多实际应用中它还需要能够实现更多其它的功能.诸如闹钟功能、日历显示功能、温度丈量功能、湿度丈量功能、电压丈量功能、频率丈量功能、过欠压报警功能等.钟表的数字化给人们的生发生活带来了极年夜的方便, 而且年夜年夜地扩展了钟表原先的报时功能.诸如按时自动报警、按时自动打铃、时间法式自动控制、按时广播、自动起闭路灯、按时开关烘箱、通断动力设备、甚至各种按时电气的自动启用等, 所有这些, 都是以钟表数字化为基础的.可以说, 设计多功能数字时钟的意义已不只在于数字时钟自己, 更年夜的意义在于多功能数字时钟在许多实时控制系统中的应用.在很多实际应用中, 只要对数字时钟的法式和硬件电路加以一定的修改, 即可以获得实时控制的实用系统, 从而应用到实际工作与生产中去.因此, 研究数字时钟及扩年夜其应用, 有着非常现实的意义.随着人类科技文明的发展, 人们对时钟的要求在不竭地提高.时钟已不单仅被看成一种用来显示时间的工具, 在很多实际应用中它还需要能够实现更多其它的功能.高精度、多功能、小体积、低功耗, 是现代时钟发展的趋势.在这种趋势下, 时钟的数字化、多功能化已经成为现代时钟生产研究的主导设计方向.本文正是基于这种设计方向, 以单片机为控制核心, 设计制作一个符合指标要求的多功能数字时钟.本设计基于单片机技术原理, 以单片机芯片AT89C52作为核心控制器, 通过硬件电路的制作以及软件法式的编制, 设计制作出一个多功能数字时钟系统.该时钟系统主要由时钟模块、闹钟模块、环境温度检测模块、液晶显示模块、键盘控制模块以及信号提示模块组成.系统具有简单清晰的把持界面, 能在4V～7V直流电源下正常工作.能够准确显示时间（显示格式为时时：分分：秒秒, 24小时制）, 可随时进行时间调整, 具有闹钟时间设置、闹钟开/关、止闹功能, 能够对时钟所在的环境温度进行丈量并显示.设计以硬件软件化为指导思想, 充沛发挥单片机功能, 年夜部份功能通过软件编程来实现, 电路简单明了, 系统稳定性高.同时, 该时钟系统还具有功耗小、本钱低的特点, 具有很强的实用性.由于系统所用元器件较少, 单片机所被占用的I/O口未几, 因此系统具有一定的可扩展性.时钟设计无沦是用离散逻辑、可编程逻辑, 还是用全定制硅器件实现的任何数字设计, 为了胜利地把持, 可靠的时钟是非常关键的.设计不良的时钟在极限的温度、电压或制造工艺的偏差情况下将招致毛病的行为, 而且调试困难、花销很年夜.在设计FPGA/CPLD时通常采纳几种时钟类型.时钟可分为如下四种类型：全局时钟、门控时钟、多级逻辑时钟和摆荡式时钟.多时钟系统能够包括上述四种时钟类型的任意组合.无论采纳何种方式, 电路中真实的时钟树也无法到达假定的理想时钟, 因此我们必需依据理想时钟, 建立一个实际工作时钟模型来分析电路, 这样才可以使得电路的实际工作效果和预期的一样.在实际的时钟模型中, 我们要考虑时钟树传布中的偏斜、跳变和绝对垂直的偏差以及其它一些不确定因素.对寄存器而言, 那时钟工作沿到来时它的数据端应该已经稳定, 这样才华保证时钟工作沿采样到数据的正确性, 这段数据的预备时间我们称之为建立时间（setup time）.数据同样应该在时钟工作沿过去后坚持一段时间, 这段时间称为坚持时间（hold time）.全局时钟对一个设计项目来说, 全局时钟(或同步时钟)是最简单和最可预测的时钟.在PLD/FPGA设计中最好的时钟方案是：由专用的全局时钟输入引脚驱动的单个主时钟去钟控设计项目中的每一个触发器.只要可能就应尽量在设计项目中采纳全局时钟.PLD/FPGA都具有专门的全局时钟引脚, 它直接连到器件中的每一个寄存器.这种全局时钟提供器件中最短的时钟到输出的延时.门控时钟在许多应用中, 整个设计项目都采纳外部的全局时钟是不成能或不实际的.PLD具有乘积项逻辑阵列时钟（即时钟是由逻辑发生的）, 允许任意函数独自地钟控各个触发器.然而, 当你用阵列时钟时, 应仔细地分析时钟函数, 以防止毛刺.通经常使用阵列时钟构成门控时钟.门控时钟经常同微处置器接口有关, 用地址线去控制写脉冲.然而, 每当用组合函数钟控触发器时, 通常都存在着门控时钟.如果符合下述条件, 门控时钟可以象全局时钟一样可靠地工作：驱动时钟的逻辑必需只包括一个“与”门或一个“或”门.如果采纳任何附加逻在某些工作状态下, 会呈现竞争发生的毛刺.逻辑门的一个输入作为实际的时钟, 而该逻辑门的所有其它输入必需当做地址或控制线, 它们遵守相对时钟的建立和坚持时间的约束.多级逻辑时钟当发生门控时钟的组合逻辑超越一级(即超越单个的“与”门或“或”门)时, 证设计项目的可靠性变得很困难.即使样机或仿真结果没有显示出静态险象, 但实际上仍然可能存在着危险.通常, 我们不应该用多级组合逻辑去钟控PLD设计中的触发器.行波时钟另一种流行的时钟电路是采纳行波时钟, 即一个触发器的输出用作另一个触发器的时钟输入.如果仔细地设计, 行波时钟可以象全局时钟一样地可靠工作.然而, 行波时钟使得与电路有关的按时计算变得很复杂.行波时钟在行波链上各触发器的时钟之间发生较年夜的时间偏移, 而且会超越最坏情况下的建立时间、坚持时间和电路中时钟到输出的延时, 使系统的实际速度下降.多时钟系统许多系统要求在同一个PLD内采纳多时钟.最罕见的例子是两个异步微处置器器之间的接口, 或微处置器和异步通信通道的接口.由于两个时钟信号之间要求一定的建立和坚持时间, 所以, 上述应用引进了附加的按时约束条件.它们也会要求将某些异步信号同步化.在许多应用中只将异步信号同步化还是不够的, 当系统中有两个或两个以上非同源时钟的时候, 数据的建立和坚持时间很难获得保证, 我们将面临复杂的时间问题.最好的方法是将所有非同源时钟同步化.使用PLD内部的锁项环（PLL或DLL）是一个效果很好的方法, 但不是所有PLD都带有PLL、DLL, 而且带有PLL功能的芯片年夜多价格昂贵, 所以除非有特殊要求, 一般场所可以不使用带PLL的PLD.这时我们需要使用带使能真个D触发器, 并引入一个高频时钟.创作时间：二零二一年六月三十日。
3-电气工程及其自动化专业 外文文献 英文文献 外文翻译
3-电气工程及其自动化专业外文文献英文文献外文翻译1、外文原文(复印件)A: Fundamentals of Single-chip MicrocomputerThe single-chip microcomputer is the culmination of both the development of the digital computer and the integrated circuit arguably the tow most significant inventions of the 20th century [1].These tow types of architecture are found in single-chip microcomputer. Some employ the split program/data memory of the Harvard architecture, shown in Fig.3-5A-1, others follow the philosophy, widely adapted for general-purpose computers and microprocessors, of making no logical distinction between program and data memory as in the Princeton architecture, shown in Fig.3-5A-2.In general terms a single-chip microcomputer is characterized by the incorporation of all the units of a computer into a single device, as shown in Fig3-5A-3.ProgramInput& memoryOutputCPU unitDatamemoryFig.3-5A-1 A Harvard typeInput&Output CPU memoryunitFig.3-5A-2. A conventional Princeton computerExternal Timer/ System Timing Counter clock componentsSerial I/OReset ROMPrarallelI/OInterrupts RAMCPUPowerFig3-5A-3. Principal features of a microcomputerRead only memory (ROM).ROM is usually for the permanent,non-volatile storage of an applications program .Many microcomputers and microcontrollers are intended for high-volume applications and hence the economical manufacture of the devices requires that the contents of the program memory be committed permanently during the manufacture of chips . Clearly, this implies a rigorous approach to ROM code development since changes cannot be made after manufacture .This development process may involve emulation using a sophisticated development system with a hardware emulation capability as well as the use of powerful software tools.Some manufacturers provide additional ROM options by including in their range devices with (or intended for use with) user programmablememory. The simplest of these is usually device which can operate in a microprocessor mode by using some of the input/output lines as an address and data bus for accessing external memory. This type of device can behave functionally as the single chip microcomputer from which itis derived albeit with restricted I/O and a modified external circuit. The use of these ROMlessdevices is common even in production circuits where the volume does not justify the development costs of custom on-chip ROM[2];there canstill be a significant saving in I/O and other chips compared to a conventional microprocessor based circuit. More exact replacement for ROM devices can be obtained in the form of variants with 'piggy-back' EPROM(Erasable programmable ROM )sockets or devices with EPROM instead of ROM 。
电子密码锁中英文对照外文翻译文献
电子密码锁中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)2THE DESIGN OF MATRIX KEYBOARD AND LCD DISPLAY BASED ON MCUAbstractThe development of microelectronics technology and industrial measure requirement bring a good opportunity for development and research system，which makes it a broad prospects. The equipment has the advantages of small size, single power supply and a variety of output voltage leads it has a special module. Through the analysis of the hardware structure, we can summarizes each module needs.For example,we often go through the keys to realize the control of the electronic device. Small to watch mobile phone, to the TV computer, to a variety of complex instruments, all need to realize various operations through the buttons. This design is an important part of step for the further research，using buttons to control the display，include some modules like LCD 1602 liquid crystal display，4*4 matrix keyboard，STC89C52single-chip microcomputer and other bine with the Proteus software，the simulation results are displayed on the LCD in 1602 type of data.KEY WORDS: Single-chip; LCD 1602 liquid crystal display; 4*4 Matrix keyboard31 IntroductionWith the development of economy and the progress of science and technology, Microprocessors and peripheral chips have developed rapidly. The newest development of the integrated technology is the CPU chip and external. Like the program memory, data memory, parallel, serial, I/O timing / counter, interrupt controller and other control components are integrated in a chip—single chip. SCM has a manufacturing process CMOS, The smaller lithography process improves integration which make the chip space smaller, lower cost, lower working voltage, lower power consumption. Adopts double CPU structure, increasing the width of data bus, improve the speed and the ability of data processing, a pipeline structure, improve the processing and computing speed, in order to meet the needs of real-time control and processing. To increase the storage capacity, the internal EPROM EPPROM, secure program, to improve the driving capability of parallel port, in order to reduce the peripheral driving chip, increase the logic function and control the external I/O port flexibility. Peripheral in serial mode based expansion; peripheral circuit internal installation is an obvious trend to connect the internet. Reliability and application level is getting higher and higher. Some high-end microcontroller and launched in recent years also contains many special function unit, Such as A/D4converter, modem, communication controller, PLL, DMA, floating point unit etc.So,as we add some external expansion of the circuit and channel interface it can constitute a variety of computer applications, such as industrial control systems, data acquisition system, automatic test system, intelligent instrument, intelligent interface, function module etc. With MCU development and complete structure,SCM has become a powerful tool and will have a higher level and broader development.2 Design of the whole structure of systemThis design is based on single-chip, include matrix keyboard and LCD display module. Single-chip is the first model to select the appropriate target, function, reliability, cost, accuracy and speed control system. According to the actual situation of the topic selection, configuration management model different mainly from the following two aspects: First, supply chain management has strong anti-interference ability; second, SCM has a higher price. For information input module, keyboard selection can use economic benefits and meet the requirements of the 4*4 key matrix keyboard can realize multi function key requirements. As for the output module, using LCD 1602 liquid crystal display module, liquid crystal to achieve key information processing functions after the show. The circuit of the system is required by AT89C51 chip, clock circuit, reset circuit, driving circuit, scanning line5driving circuit and LCD1602 LCD screen. 4*4 matrix keyboard accessof P1.0 —P1.7,LCD 1602 screen to access P0.0—P0.7.3 System hardware circuit design3.1 Liquid crystal moduleThe principle of liquid crystal display is the use of physical properties of liquid crystal, The display control area voltage, power is displayed, it can display graphics. Liquid crystal display with thin thickness, suitable for large scale integrated circuit directly driven, easy to realize full color display characteristics, has been widely used in many fields of portable computer, digital camera, PDA mobile communication tools etc.1602 liquid crystal is also called the 1602 character LCD, which is a special used to display letters, numbers, symbols of the LCD module. It is composed of a plurality of 5X7 or 5X11 dot matrix character components, each dot matrix character who can display a character, there is a distance between the interval of each, there are intervals between each line, played the character spacing and row spacing, and because of this it is not well display graphics (with custom CGRAM, show the effect is not good). 1602 LCD refers to the display of the content for the 16X2, which can display two lines, 16 characters per line (LCD moduledisplay characters and numbers).63.2 Matrix keyboard module1. Key characteristicsThe keyboard is composed of a number of separate keys, press and release key is through the closed mechanical contact and off to achieve, because of the elastic action of mechanical contact, in the closing and the opening of the moment has a dither. Jitter must be eliminated, include software and hardware elimination.2．Scanning principleFirst determine whether a key is closed, and then one by one scan to further determine which button closure;(1) D0 ~ D3 output 0, level detection line D4 to D7. If the D4 - level D7 all high, said no key was pressed. If the D4 - level D7 is not all high, said the key was pressed.(2) If no key closure, return the scanning. If there is a button closure, in column by column scanning, closed key key number to find out. The D0=0, D1 ~ D3=1, D4 ~ D7 level, if D4=0, said the K1 key is pressed; similarly, if the D5 ~ D7=0, K5 respectively, K9, K13 key is down; if the D4 ~ D7=1, said that without a key is pressed. Then the D1=0, D0, D2, D3 was 1, the scanning of the second columns, which were carried on, until the closure of the key found.4 Software design7The software design mainly consists of keyboard scanning procedures, write instruction code program of LCD module, LCD module display data initialization code written subroutine, liquid crystal display module, liquid crystal display a character subroutine, time delay subroutine and so on. Programming for each module, software programming ended, Keil software was used for debugging, when the various parts of the program debugging is correct, according to the source sequence of calls, the parts together, compile, compile successfully downloaded to the mcu. The result is when the user presses a key, LCD display of the button is pressed after the realization of functional parameters corresponding to the. When the system power supply, P1 port scan cycle and the key button debounce, after completion of input through the SCM processing, output in the P0 port, through the liquid crystal display program content, complete system function.5 ConclusionWith the continuous development of high and new technology, the miniaturization and the miniaturization of electronic products has been achieved. And all kinds of new technology, as a single field of the new method, the development trend of new products and symbol -- intelligent significantly is one of the trends in development. The module design display microcontroller matrix keyboard and LCD, make us understand8to this technology innovation, through in-depth study on this technology, we can master the use in other areas, such as the design of electronic password lock, adjustment and control of indoor temperature and humidity, field access control system design etc.. Technological progress and economic development are the main themes of the present era, the improvement of people's living standard is bound to the requirements of electronic products increase, the design of any a small system is for a foundation, design of system innovation, the hardware, software integration, method and technology of virtual display and soft measurement artificial intelligence, I firmly believe that our life will be more colourful.9基于单片机的矩阵键盘与液晶显示的设计摘要微电子技术的发展和工业测量的需求，给系统的开发及深入研究带来了良好的契机，发展前景广阔。
计算机的发展历史以及计算机的现状和发展趋势
学号：*************题目计算机的发展历史及趋势学院文理学院专业计算机应用技术班级1004姓名王平指导教师许老师2011年11月26日计算机的现状和发展趋势摘要：本文主要介绍了计算机硬件的发展历史以及计算机的现状和发展趋势，指出了计算机的众多类别及其用途。
介绍了计算机硬件设备的发展历史以及计算机在现实社会中的具体应用范围，并且指出计算机自发明以来在人类社会中的地位逐步提高，并且将不断提高。
最后阐释了其未来的发展趋势。
引言：自四十年代电子计算机问世以来，计算机科学发展迅速，应用领域不断扩展由于计算机的普及与广泛应用，现代社会正朝着高度信息化，自动化方向发展。
随着计算机硬件的不断成熟，成本不断降低，计算机逐渐成为了社会必不可少的支柱力量。
计算机的硬件设备的飞速发展是支持计算机本身不断升级改造的根本力量，其中比如制造计算机的根本元件，CPU的制造工艺等等，而未来的计算机的发展趋势呢？？或许我们还无法确定，但是我们确定一点，计算机是未来必不可少的工具抑或是类人智能。
1.计算机的类别、发展历史及其发展趋势计算机的发明给人类的历史添上了重重的一笔。
自1946年2月15日标志现代计算机诞生的ENIAC(Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)在费城公诸于世。
标志着新的时代的到来，计算机的发明给人类的社会带来了巨大的变化，同时也促进了计算机本身的发展、变革。
1.1计算机的类别1.1.1微型计算机（微机，Microcomputer）：简称“微型机”、“微机”，也称“微电脑”。
由大规模集成电路组成的、体积较小的电子计算机。
由微处理机(核心)、存储片、输入和输出片、系统总线等组成。
特点是体积小、灵活性大、价格便宜、使用方便。
微型计算机(Microcomputer)是指以微处理器为基础，配以内存储器及输入输出(I／0)接口电路和相应的辅助电路而构成的裸机。
把微型计算机集成在一个芯片上即构成单片微型计算机(Single Chip Microcomputer)。
机械毕业设计英文外文翻译485微处理器
MicroprocessorsA microprocessor is a computation engine that is fabricated on a single chip. The first microprocessor was the Intel 4004, introduced in 1971 .The 4004 was not very powerful – all it could do was add and subtract, and it could only do that 4 bits at a time. But it was amazing that everything was on one chip. Prior to the 4004, engineers built computers either from collections of chips or from discrete components. The 4004 powered one of the first portable electronic calculators.The first microprocessor to make it into a home computer was the Intel 8080, a complete 8-bit computer on the chip, introduced in 1974. The first microprocessor to make a real splash in the market was the Intel 8088 , introduced in 1979 and incorporated into the IBM PC. The PC market moved from the 8088 to the 80286 to the 80386 to the 80486 to the Pentium to the Pentium II to the Pentium III to the Pentium 4. All of these microprocessors are made by Intel and all of them are improvements on the basic design of the 8088. The Pentium 4 can execute any piece of code that ran on the original 8088, but it does it about 5,000 times faster!The following table shows the differences between the different processors that Intel has introduced over the years.Table1.2From this table you can see that, in general, there is a relationship between clock speed and MIPS. The maximum clock speed is a function of the manufacturing process and delays within the chip. There is also a relationship between the number of transistors and MIPS. For example, the 8088 clocked at 5 MHz but only executed at 0.33 MIPS(about one instruction per 15 clock cycles). Modern processors can often execute at a rate of two instructions per clock cycle. That improvement is directly related to the number oftransistors on the chip.Inside a Microprocessor A microprocessor executes a collection of machine instructions that tell the processor what to do. Based on the instruction, a microprocessor does three basic things:1. Using its ALU (Arithmetic/Logic Unit), a microprocessor can perform mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Modern Microprocessors contain complete floating point processors that can perform extremely sophisticated operations on large floating point numbers.2. A microprocessor can move data from one memory location to another.3. A microprocessor can make decisions and jump to a new set of instructions based on those decisions.These may be very sophisticated things that a microprocessor does, but those are its three basic activities. The following diagram shows an extremely simple microprocessor capable of doing those three things:This microprocessor has an address bus that sends an address to memory, a data bus that can send data to memory or receive data from memory, an RD (read) and WR (write) line to tell the memory whether it wants to set or get the addressed location, a clock line that lets a clock pulse sequence the processor and a reset[4] line that resetsthe program counter to zero (or whatever) and restarts execution. And let’s assume that both the address and data buses are 8 bits wide here.Here are the components of this simple microprocessor (Figure 1.1):Figure 1.11.Registers A, B and C are simply latches made out of flip – flops.2.The address latch is just like registers A, B and C.3.The program counter is a latch with the extra ability to increment by 1 when told to do so, and also to reset to zero when told to do so.4.The ALU could be as simple as an 8 - bit adder, or it might be able to add, subtract, multiply and divide 8 – bit values. Let’s assume the latter here.5.The test register is a special latch that can hold values from comparisons performed in the ALU. An ALU can normally compare twonumbers and determine if they are equal, if one is greater than the other, etc. The test register can also normally hold a carry bit from the last stage of the adder. It stores these values in flip-flops and then the instruction decoder can use the values to make decisions.6.There are six boxes marked “3-State” in the diagram. These are tri-state buffers[5]. A tri-state buffer can pass a 1, a 0 or it can essentially disconnect its output. A tri-state buffer allows multiple outputs to connect to a wire, but only one of them to actually drive a 1 or a 0 onto the line.7.The instruction register and instruction decoder are responsible for controlling all of the other components.Although they are not shown in this diagram, there would be control lines from the instruction decoder that would:1.T ell the A register to latch the value currently on the data bus2.T ell the B register to latch the value currently on the data bus3.T ell the C register to latch the value currently on the data bus4.T ell the program counter register to latch the value currently on the data bus5.T ell the address register to latch the value currently on the data bus6.T ell the instruction register to latch the value currently on the data bus7.T ell the program counter to increment8.T ell the program counter to reset to zero9.A ctivate any of the six tri-state buffers (six separate lines)10.Tell the ALU what operation to perform11.Tell the test register to latch the ALU’s test bibs12.Activate the RD line13.Activate the WR lineComing into the instruction decoder are the bits from the test register and the clock line, as well as the bits from the instruction register.RAM and ROM the address and data buses, as well as the RD and WR lines connect either to RAM or ROM-generally both. In our sample microprocessor, we have an address bus 8 bits wide and a data bus 8 bits wide. That means that the microprocessor can address (28) 256 bytes of memory, and it can read or write 8 bits of the memory at a time. Let’s assume that this simple microprocessor has 128 bytes of ROM starting at address 0 and 128 bytes of RAM starting at address 128.ROM stands for read-only memory. A ROM chip is programmed with a permanent collection of pre-set bytes. The address bus tells the ROM chip which byte to get and place on the data bus. When the RD line changes state, the ROM chip presents the selected byte onto thedata bus.RAM stands for random-access memory. RAM contains bytes of information, and the microprocessor can read or write to those bytes depending on whether the RD or WR line is signaled. One problem with today’s RAM chips is that they forget everything once the power goes off. That is why the computer needs ROM.By the way, nearly all computers contain some amount of ROM (it is possible to create a simple computer that contains no RAM-many microcontrollers do this by placing a handful of RAM bytes on the processor chip itself-but generally impossible to create one that contains no ROM). On a PC, the ROM is called the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System). When the microprocessor starts, it begins executing instructions it finds in the BIOS. The BIOS instructions do things like test the hardware in the machine, and then it goes to the hard disk to fetch the boot sector. This boot sector is another small program, and the BIOS stores it in RAM after reading it off the disk. The microprocessor then begins executing the boot sector’s instructions from RAM. The boot sector program will tell the microprocessor to fetch something else from the hard disk into RAM, which the microprocessor then executes, and so on. This is how the microprocessor loads and executes the entire operating system.Microprocessor Instructions Even the incredibly simplemicroprocessor shown here will have a fairly large set of instructions that it can perform. The collection of instructions is implemented as bit patterns, each one of which has a different meaning when loaded into the instruction register. Humans are not particularly good at remembering bit patterns, so a set of short words are defined to represent the different bit patterns. This collection of words is called the assembly language of the processor. An assembler can translate the words into their bit patterns very easily, and then the output of the assembler is placed in memory for the microprocessor to execute. If you use C language programming, a C compiler will translates the C code into assembly language.So now the question is, “How do all of these instructions look in ROM?”Each of these assembly language instructions must be represented by a binary number . These numbers are known as opcodes. The instruction decoder needs to turn each of the opcodes into a set of signals that drive the different components inside the microprocessor. Let’s take the ADD instruction as an example and look at what it needs to do:During the first clock cycle, we need to actually load the instruction. Therefore the instruction decoder needs to:Activate the tri-state buffer for the program counterActivate the RD lineActivate the data-in tri-state bufferLatch the instruction into the instruction registerDuring the second clock cycle, the ADD instruction is decoded. It needs to do very little:Set the operation of the ALU to additionLatch the output of the ALU into the C registerDuring the third clock cycle, the program counter is incremented (in theory this could be overlapped into the second clock cycle).Every instruction can be broken down as a set of sequenced operations like these that manipulate the components of the microprocessor in the proper order. Some instructions, like this ADD instruction, might take two or three clock cycles. Others might take five or six clock cycles.Microprocessor Performance The number of transistors available has a huge effect on the performance of a processor. As seen earlier, a typical instruction in a processor like an 8088 took 15 clock cycles to execute. Because of the design of the multiplier, it took approximately 80 cycles just to do one 16-bit multiplication on the 8088. With more transistors, much more powerful multipliers capable of single-cycle speeds become possible.More transistors also allow for a technology called pipelining[6]. In a pipelined architecture, instruction execution overlaps. So eventhough it might take five clock cycles to execute each instruction, there can be five instructions in various stages of execution simultaneously. That way it looks like one instruction completes every clock cycle.Many modern processors have multiple instruction decoders, each with its own pipeline. This allows for multiple instruction streams, which means that more than one instruction can complete during each clock cycle. This technique can be quite complex to implement, so it takes lots of transistors.The trend in processor design has been toward full 32-bit ALUs with fast floating point processors built in and pipelined execution with multiple instruction streams. There has also been a tendency toward special instructions that make certain operations particularly efficient. There has also been the addition of hardware virtual memory support and L1 caching on the processor chip. All of these trends push up the transistor count, leading to the multi-million transistor powerhouses available today. These processors can execute about one billion instructions per second!微处理器微处理器是建在一块芯片上的一个计算器，1971年因特尔公司推出世界上第一款微处理器Intel4004。
自动化专业英语考试整理版
翻译P。
1The voltage across a pure inductor is defined by Faraday’law，which states that the voltage across the inductor is proportional to the rate of change with time of the current through the inductor。
thus we have U=Ldi/dt.纯电感电压由法拉第定律定义，法拉第定律指出：电感两端的电压正比于流过电感的电流随时间的变化率.因此可得到：U=Ldi/dt 式中di/dt = 电流变化率，安培/秒；L = 感应系数, 享利。
P.3A three—phase electric circuit is energized by three alternating emfs of the same frequency and differing in time phase by 120 electrical degrees . 三相电压的产生三相电路可由三个频率相同在时间相位上相差120°电角度的电动势供电。
P.9One problem with electronic devices corresponding to the generalized amplifiers is that the gains,AU or AI ，depend upon internal properties of two-port system( ）。
This makes design difficult since these parameters usually vary from device to device ,as well as temperature 。
运算放大器像广义放大器这样的电子器件存在的一个问题就是它们的增益AU或AI取决于双端口系统(m、b、RI、Ro等）的内部特性。
电气工程专业英语复习资料
1、One type of electrical circuit is referred to as a series circuit. In a series circuit, there is only one path for current to flow. Since there is only one current path , the current flow is the same value in any part of the circuit. The voltages in the circuit depend on the resistance of the components in the circuit.（一个典型的电路称为串联电路。
在串联电路中，只能有一个电流流动的路径。
因此一个电流路径的电流流动，同时也是同一个电流值在其他部分的电路流动。
该电路中电压依赖电阻来改变的。
）2、When an AC source is connected to some type of load (当交流电源连接到某种类型的负荷),current direction （方向）changes several times in a given unit of time（给定时间）.交流电流的特点3、A circuit that employs a numerical signal (数字信号)in its operation is classified as a digital circuit. 数字电路定义4、When a NOT gate is combined with an AND gate or an OR gate, it is called a combination logic gate. A NOT-AND gate is called a NAND gate, which is an inverted AND gate. Mathmatically, the operation of a NAND gate is A*B=C. A combination NOT-OR, or OR, gate produces a negation of the OR function. Mathmatically the operation of a NOT gate is A+B=C. A1 appears at the output only when A is 0and B is 0.（当一个非门与与门或者一个或门结合，就称它为组合逻辑门。
单片机英文翻译
MCU development and applicationA microcontroller (or MCU) is a computer-on-a-chip. It is a type of microprocessor emphasizing self-sufficiency and cost-effectiveness, in contrast to a general-purpose microprocessor (the kind used in a PC).The majority of computer systems in use today are embedded in other machinery, such as telephones, clocks, appliances, vehicles, and infrastructure. An embedded system usually has minimal requirements for memory and program length and may require simple but unusual input/output systems. For example, most embedded systems lack keyboards, screens, disks, printers, or other recognizable I/O devices of a personal computer. They may control electric motors, relays or voltages, and read switches, variable resistors or other electronic devices. Often, the only I/O device readable by a human is a single light-emitting diode, and severe cost or power constraints can even eliminate that.In contrast to general-purpose CPUs, microcontrollers do not have an address bus or a data bus, because they integrate all the RAM and non-volatile memory on the same chip as the CPU. Because they need fewer pins, the chip can be placed in a much smaller, cheaper package.Integrating the memory and other peripherals on a single chip and testing them as a unit increases the cost of that chip, but often results in decreased net cost of the embedded system as a whole. (Even if the cost of a CPU that has integrated peripherals is slightly more than the cost of a CPU + external peripherals, having fewer chips typically allows a smaller and cheaper circuit board, and reduces the labor required to assemble and test the circuit board). This trend leads to design.A microcontroller is a single integrated circuit, commonly with the following features:central processing unit - ranging from small and simple 4-bitprocessors to sophisticated 32- or 64-bit processorsinput/output interfaces such as serial ports (UARTs)other serial communications interfaces like I²C, Serial Peripheral Interface and Controller Area Network for system interconnect peripherals such as timers and watchdog RAM for data storage ROM, EPROM, EEPROM or Flash memory for program storage clock generator - often an oscillator for a quartz timing crystal, resonator or RC circuit many include analog-to-digital converters .This integration drastically reduces the number of chips and the amount of wiring and PCB space that would be needed to produce equivalent systems using separate chips and have proved to be highly popular in embedded systems since their introduction in the 1970s.Some microcontrollers can afford to use a Harvard architecture: separate memory buses for instructions and data, allowing accesses to take place concurrently.The decision of which peripheral to integrate is often difficult. The Microcontroller vendors often trade operating frequencies and system design flexibility against time-to-market requirements from their customers and overall lower system cost. Manufacturers have to balance the need to minimize the chip size against additional functionality.Microcontroller architectures are available from many different vendors in so many varieties that each instruction set architecture could rightly belong to a category of their own. Chief among these are the 8051, Z80 and ARM derivatives.[citation needed]A microcontroller (also MCU or µC) is a functio nal computer system-on-a-chip. It contains a processor core, memory, and programmable input/output peripherals.Microcontrollers include an integrated CPU, memory (a small amount of RAM, program memory, or both) and peripherals capable of input and output.It emphasizes high integration, in contrast to a microprocessor which only contains a CPU (the kind used in a PC). In addition to the usual arithmetic and logic elements of a general purpose microprocessor, the microcontroller integrates additional elements such as read-write memory for data storage, read-only memory for program storage, Flash memory for permanent data storage, peripherals, and input/output interfaces. At clock speeds of as little as 32KHz, microcontrollers often operate at very low speed compared to microprocessors, but this is adequate for typical applications. They consume relatively little power (milliwatts or even microwatts), and will generally have the ability to retain functionality while waiting for an event such as a button press or interrupt. Power consumption while sleeping (CPU clock and peripherals disabled) may be just nanowatts, making them ideal for low power and long lasting battery applications.Microcontrollers are used in automatically controlled products and devices, such as automobile engine control systems, remote controls, office machines, appliances, power tools, and toys. By reducing the size, cost, and power consumption compared to a design using a separate microprocessor, memory, and input/output devices, microcontrollers make it economical to electronically control many more processes.The majority of computer systems in use today are embedded in other machinery, such as automobiles, telephones, appliances, and peripherals for computer systems. These are called embedded systems. While some embedded systems are very sophisticated, many have minimal requirements for memory and program length, with no operating system, and low software complexity. Typical input and output devices include switches, relays,solenoids, LEDs, small or custom LCD displays, radio frequency devices, and sensors for data such as temperature, humidity, light level etc. Embedded systems usually have no keyboard, screen, disks, printers, or other recognizable I/O devices of a personal computer, and may lack human interaction devices of any kind.It is mandatory that microcontrollers provide real time response to events in the embedded system they are controlling. When certain events occur, an interrupt system can signal the processor to suspend processing the current instruction sequence and to begin an interrupt service routine (ISR). The ISR will perform any processing required based on the source of the interrupt before returning to the original instruction sequence. Possible interrupt sources are device dependent, and often include events such as an internal timer overflow, completing an analog to digital conversion, a logic level change on an input such as from a button being pressed, and data received on a communication link. Where power consumption is important as in battery operated devices, interrupts may also wake a microcontroller from a low power sleep state where the processor is halted until required to do something by a peripheral event.Microcontroller programs must fit in the available on-chip program memory, since it would be costly to provide a system with external, expandable, memory. Compilers and assembly language are used to turn high-level language programs into a compact machine code for storage in the microcontroller's memory. Depending on the device, the program memory may be permanent, read-only memory that can only be programmed at the factory, or program memory may be field-alterable flash or erasable read-only memory.Since embedded processors are usually used to control devices, they sometimes need to accept input from the device they are controlling. This is the purpose of the analog to digital converter. Since processors arebuilt to interpret and process digital data, i.e. 1s and 0s, they won't be able to do anything with the analog signals that may be being sent to it by a device. So the analog to digital converter is used to convert the incoming data into a form that the processor can recognize. There is also a digital to analog converter that allows the processor to send data to the device it is controlling.In addition to the converters, many embedded microprocessors include a variety of timers as well. One of the most common types of timers is the Programmable Interval Timer, or PIT for short. A PIT just counts down from some value to zero. Once it reaches zero, it sends an interrupt to the processor indicating that it has finished counting. This is useful for devices such as thermostats, which periodically test the temperature around them to see if they need to turn the air conditioner on, the heater on, etc.Time Processing Unit or TPU for short. Is essentially just another timer, but more sophisticated. In addition to counting down, the TPU can detect input events, generate output events, and other useful operations.Dedicated Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) block makes it possible for the CPU to control power converters, resistive loads, motors, etc., without using lots of CPU resources in tight timer loops.Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) block makes it possible to receive and transmit data over a serial line with very little load on the CPU.SCM historySCM was born in the late 20th century, 70, experienced SCM, MCU, SOC three stages.First model1.SCM the single chip microcomputer (Single Chip Microcomputer) stage, mainly seeking the best of the best single form of embedded systemsarchitecture. "Innovation model" success, laying the SCM and general computer completely different path of development. In the open road of independent development of embedded systems, Intel Corporation contributed.2.MCU the micro-controller (Micro Controller Unit) stage, the main direction of technology development: expanding to meet the embedded applications, the target system requirements for the various peripheral circuits and interface circuits, highlight the object of intelligent control.It involves the areas associated with the object system, therefore, the development of MCU's responsibility inevitably falls on electrical, electronics manufacturers. From this point of view, Intel faded MCU development has its objective factors. In the development of MCU, the most famous manufacturers as the number of Philips Corporation. Philips company in embedded applications, its great advantage, the MCS-51 single-chip micro-computer from the rapid development of the micro-controller. Therefore, when we look back at the path of development of embedded systems, do not forget Intel and Philips in History. Embedded SystemsEmbedded system microcontroller is an independent development path, the MCU important factor in the development stage, is seeking applications to maximize the solution on the chip; Therefore, the development of dedicated single chip SOC trend of the natural form. As the microelectronics, IC design, EDA tools development, application system based on MCU SOC design have greater development. Therefore, the understanding of the microcontroller chip microcomputer can be, extended to the single-chip micro-controller applications.MCU applicationsSCM now permeate all areas of our lives, which is almost difficult to find traces of the field without SCM. Missile navigation equipment, aircraft,all types of instrument control, computer network communications and data transmission, industrial automation, real-time process control and data processing, extensive use of various smart IC card, civilian luxury car security system, video recorder, camera, fully automatic washing machine control, and program-controlled toys, electronic pet, etc., which are inseparable from the microcontroller. Not to mention the area of robot control, intelligent instruments, medical equipment was. Therefore, the MCU learning, development and application of the large number of computer applications and intelligent control of the scientists, engineers. SCM is widely used in instruments and meters, household appliances, medical equipment, aerospace, specialized equipment, intelligent management and process control fields, roughly divided into the following several areas:1. In the application of Intelligent InstrumentsSCM has a small size, low power consumption, controlling function, expansion flexibility, the advantages of miniaturization and ease of use, widely used instrument, combining different types of sensors can be realized Zhuru voltage, power, frequency, humidity, temperature, flow, speed, thickness, angle, length, hardness, elemental, physical pressure measurement. SCM makes use of digital instruments, intelligence, miniaturization, and functionality than electronic or digital circuits more powerful. Such as precision measuring equipment (power meter, oscilloscope, various analytical instrument).2. In the industrial control applicationWith the MCU can constitute a variety of control systems, data acquisition system. Such as factory assembly line of intelligent control3. In Household Appliancescan be said that the appliances are basically using SCM, praise from the electric rice, washing machines, refrigerators, air conditioners, colorTV, and other audio video equipment, to the electronic weighing equipment, varied, and omnipresent.4. In the field of computer networks and communications applications MCU general with modern communication interface, can be easy with the computer data communication, networking and communications in computer applications between devices had excellent material conditions, are basically all communication equipment to achieve a controlled by MCU from mobile phone, telephone, mini-program-controlled switchboards, building automated communications call system, train radio communication, to the daily work can be seen everywhere in the mobile phones, trunked mobile radio, walkie-talkies, etc..5. Microcomputer in the field of medical device applicationsSCM in the use of medical devices is also quite extensive, such as medical respirator, the various analyzers, monitors, ultrasound diagnostic equipment and hospital beds, etc. call system.6. In a variety of major appliances in the modular applications Designed to achieve some special single specific function to be modular in a variety of circuit applications, without requiring the use of personnel to understand its internal structure. If music integrated single chip, seemingly simple function, miniature electronic chip in the net (the principle is different from the tape machine), you need a computer similar to the principle of the complex. Such as: music signal to digital form stored in memory (like ROM), read by the microcontroller, analog music into electrical signals (similar to the sound card).In large circuits, modular applications that greatly reduce the volume, simplifies the circuit and reduce the damage, error rate, but also easy to replace.7. Microcontroller in the application field of automotive equipment SCM in automotive electronics is widely used, such as a vehicle enginecontroller, CAN bus-based Intelligent Electronic Control Engine, GPS navigation system, abs anti-lock braking system, brake system, etc.. In addition, the MCU in business, finance, research, education, national defense, aerospace and other fields has a very wide range of applications.单片机的发展和应用单片机即单片微型计算机，是把中央处理器、存储器、定时/计数器、输入输出接口都集成在一块集成电路芯片上的微型计算机。
电脑的发展英语作文
电脑的发展英语作文Computer Evolution。
The computer has come a long way since its humble beginnings in the 1940s. The first computers were massive, room-filling machines that were used for complex calculations. Today, computers are small enough to fit in our pockets and are used for a wide variety of tasks, from word processing to gaming.The first major breakthrough in computer development came in 1946 with the invention of the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer). The ENIAC was the first general-purpose electronic computer, and it was capable of performing 5,000 calculations per second. This was a major improvement over previous computers, which were onlycapable of performing a few hundred calculations per second.In the 1950s, the development of transistors led to the creation of smaller and more powerful computers.Transistors are small electronic switches that can be used to store and process information. The use of transistors allowed computers to be miniaturized and made them more affordable.In the 1960s, the development of integrated circuits (ICs) led to the creation of even smaller and more powerful computers. ICs are small chips that contain millions of transistors. The use of ICs allowed computers to be further miniaturized and made them even more affordable.In the 1970s, the development of microprocessors led to the creation of personal computers. Microprocessors are single-chip computers that contain all of the basic components of a computer. The development of microprocessors made it possible for anyone to own a computer, and it led to a boom in the computer industry.In the 1980s, the development of the graphical user interface (GUI) made computers easier to use. GUIs use icons and menus to represent files and programs, making it easier for users to navigate the computer. The developmentof the GUI also led to the development of new applications, such as word processors and spreadsheets.In the 1990s, the development of the internet led to a new era of computer use. The internet allowed computers to be connected to each other, and it made it possible for people to share information and collaborate on projects. The development of the internet also led to the development of new applications, such as web browsers and email.In the 2000s, the development of mobile computing led to the creation of smartphones and tablets. Mobile devices are small, portable computers that can be used for avariety of tasks, such as browsing the internet, checking email, and playing games. The development of mobile computing has made it possible for people to stay connected and productive while on the go.The development of computers has had a profound impact on society. Computers have made it possible to automate tasks, store and process information, and communicate with people around the world. The development of computers hasalso led to the creation of new industries and jobs.电脑的发展。
电脑的历史英语作文
电脑的历史英语作文Title: A Journey Through the History of Computers。
From the abacus to artificial intelligence, the history of computers is a fascinating journey marked by innovation, creativity, and technological advancement. Let's embark ona voyage through time to explore the evolution of computers.The earliest traces of computing can be found inancient civilizations, where devices like the abacus were used for arithmetic calculations. These rudimentary tools laid the foundation for more sophisticated inventions inthe centuries to come.The 19th century witnessed significant developments in mechanical computing devices. Charles Babbage, often regarded as the "father of the computer," designed the Analytical Engine, a mechanical device capable ofperforming various calculations. Although never fully realized during his lifetime, Babbage's ideas inspiredgenerations of inventors and laid the groundwork for modern computing.The 20th century heralded the dawn of electronic computers. In the 1940s, the ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) became the world's first programmable electronic computer. Occupying a large room and comprising thousands of vacuum tubes, ENIAC was a landmark achievement in computing history, paving the way for electronic digital computers.The invention of the transistor in the late 1940s revolutionized the field of computing. Transistors replaced bulky vacuum tubes, making computers smaller, faster, and more reliable. This paved the way for the development of mainframe computers in the 1950s and 1960s, which were used primarily by large organizations for data processing tasks.The 1970s witnessed the advent of the microprocessor, a single-chip CPU that brought computing power to the masses. Companies like Intel and Motorola pioneered the development of microprocessors, leading to the birth of the personalcomputer (PC). The Altair 8800, released in 1975, is often credited as the first commercially successful personal computer, sparking a revolution in computing accessibility.The 1980s saw the rise of iconic personal computer systems such as the Apple II and the IBM PC. These machines popularized graphical user interfaces (GUIs) and introduced users to applications like word processing and spreadsheets. The release of the Macintosh in 1984 marked a significant milestone with its innovative graphical interface and mouse input device.The 1990s witnessed the proliferation of the internet, fundamentally changing the way people communicate, access information, and conduct business. The World Wide Web, invented by Sir Tim Berners-Lee in 1989, transformed the internet into a user-friendly platform accessible to people worldwide. This era also saw the emergence of powerful desktop computers capable of multimedia processing and 3D graphics rendering.The 21st century has been characterized by rapidadvancements in computing power, storage, and connectivity. The proliferation of smartphones and tablets has made computing ubiquitous, allowing people to access information and services on the go. Cloud computing has revolutionized the way data is stored, processed, and accessed, enabling scalable and cost-effective solutions for businesses and individuals alike.Artificial intelligence (AI) has emerged as a transformative technology, enabling computers to perform tasks that were once thought to be exclusive to human intelligence. From voice assistants to self-driving cars,AI is reshaping industries and redefining the possibilities of computing.Looking ahead, quantum computing holds the promise of unprecedented computational power, potentially revolutionizing fields such as cryptography, drug discovery, and materials science. As we continue to push theboundaries of what is possible, one thing remains certain: the history of computers is a testament to human ingenuity, creativity, and the relentless pursuit of innovation.In conclusion, the history of computers is a testament to human ingenuity and innovation. From the abacus to artificial intelligence, each milestone has contributed to shaping the modern world and has paved the way for future advancements. As we continue to push the boundaries of what is possible, it's essential to reflect on the journey that has brought us to where we are today and to appreciate the countless individuals who have contributed to the evolution of computing.。