克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(国际金融部分)课后习题答案(英文版)第一章
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第八版课后答案(英文)-Ch02.doc
Chapter 2World Trade: An Overview⏹Chapter OrganizationWho Trades with Whom?Size Matters: the Gravity ModelThe Logic of the Gravity ModelUsing the Gravity Model: Looking for AnomaliesImpediments to Trade: Distance, Barriers, and BordersThe Changing Pattern of World TradeHas the World Gotten SmallerWhat Do We Trade?Service OutsourcingDo Old Rules Still Apply?Summary⏹Key ThemesBefore entering into a series of theoretical models that explain why countries trade across borders and the benefits of this trade (Chapters 3–11), Chapter 2 considers the pattern of world trade which we observe today. The core idea of the chapter is the empirical model known as the gravity model. The gravity model is based on the observations that: (1) countries tend to trade with other nearby economies and (2) countries’ trade is proportional to their size. The model is called the gravity model as it is similar in form to the physics equation that describes the pull of one body on another as proportional to their size and distance.The basic form of the gravity equation is T ij=A⨯Y i⨯Y j/D ij. The logic supporting this equation is that large countries have large incomes to spend on imports and produce a large quantity of goods to sell as exports. This means that the larger either trade partner, the larger the volume of trade between them. At the same time, the distance between two trade partners can substitute for the transport costs that they face as well as proxy for more intangible aspects of a trading relationship such as the ease of contact for firms. This model can be used to estimate the predicted trade between two countries and look for anomalies in trade patterns. The text shows an example where the gravity model can be used to demonstrate the importance of national borders in determining trade flows. According to many estimates, the border between the U.S. and Canada has the impact on trade equivalent to roughly 2000 miles of distance. Other factors, such as tariffs, trade agreements, and common language can all affect trade and can be incorporated into the gravity model.The chapter also considers the way trade has evolved over time. While people often feel that the modern era has seen unprecedented globalization, in fact, there is precedent. From the end of the 19th century to World War I, the economies of different countries were quite connected. Trade as a share of GDP was higher in 1910 than 1960, and only recently have trade levels surpassed the pre World War trade. The nature of trade has change though. The majority of trade is in manufactured goods with agriculture and mineral products (and oil) making up less than 20% of world trade. Even developing countries now export primarily manufactures. In contrast, a century ago, more trade was in primary products as nations tended to trade for things that literally could not be grown or found at home. Today, the reasons for trade are more varied and the products we trade are ever changing (for example, the rise in trade of things like call centers). Th e chapter concludes by focusing on one particular expansion of what is “tradable”—the increase in services trade. Modern information technology has greatly expanded what can be traded as the person staffing a call center, doing your accounting, or reading your X-ray can literally be half-way around the world. While still relatively rare, the potential for a large increase in service outsourcing is an important part of how trade will evolve in the coming decades. The next few chapters will explain the theory of why nations trade.Answers to Textbook Problems1. We saw that not only is GDP important in explaining how much two countries trade, but also,distance is crucial. Given its remoteness, Australia faces relatively high costs of transporting imports and exports, thereby reducing the attractiveness of trade. Since Canada has a border with a largeeconomy (the U.S.) and Australia is not near any other major economy, it makes sense that Canada would be more open and Australia more self-reliant.2. Mexico is quite close to the U.S., but it is far from the European Union (EU). So it makes sense thatit trades largely with the U.S. Brazil is far from both, so its trade is split between the two. Mexico trades more than Brazil in part because it is so close to a major economy (the U.S.) and in partbecause it is a member of a free trade agreement with a large economy (NAFTA). Brazil is farther away from any large economy and is in a free trade agreement with relatively small countries.3. No, if every country’s GDP were to double, world trade would not quadruple. One way to see thisusing the example from Table 2-2 would simply be to quadruple all the trade flows in 2-2 and also double the GDP in 2-1. We would see that the first line of Table 2-2 would be—, 6.4, 1.6, 1.6. If that were true, Country A would have exported $8 trillion which is equal to its entire GDP. Likewise, it would have imported $8 trillion, meaning it had zero spending on its own goods (highly unlikely). If instead we filled in Table 2-2 as before, by multiplying the appropriate shares of the world economy times a country’s GDP, we would see the first line of Table 2-2 reads—, 3.2, 0.8, 0.8. In this case, 60% of Country A’s GDP is exported, the same as before. The logic is that while the world G DP has doubled, increasing the likelihood of international trade, the local economy has doubled, increasing the likelihood of domestic trade. The gravity equation still holds. If you fill in the entire table, you will see that where before the equation was 0.1 ⨯ GDP i⨯ GDP j, it now is 0.05 ⨯ GDP i⨯ GDP j. The coefficient on each GDP is still one, but the overall constant has changed.4. As the share of world GDP which belongs to East Asian economies grows, then in every traderelationship which involves an East Asian economy, the size of the East Asian economy has grown.This makes the trade relationships with East Asian countries larger over time. The logic is similar for why the countries trade more with one another. Previously, they were quite small economies, meaning that their markets were too small to import a substantial amount. As they became morewealthy and the consumption demands of their populace rose, they were each able to importmore. Thus, while they previously had focused their exports to other rich nations, over time, they became part of the rich nation club and thus were targets for one another’s exports. Again, using the gravity model, when South Korea and Taiwan were both small, the product of their GDPs was quite small, meaning despite their proximity, there was little trade between them. Now that they have both grown considerably, their GDPs predict a considerable amount of trade.5. As the chapter discusses, a century ago, much of world trade was in commodities that in many wayswere climate or geography determined. Thus, the UK imported goods that it could not make itself.This meant importing things like cotton or rubber from countries in the Western Hemisphere or Asia.As the UK’s climate and natural resource endowments were fairly similar to those in the rest of Europe, it had less of a need to import from other European countries. In the aftermath of the IndustrialRevolution, where manufacturing trade accelerated and has continued to expand with improvements in transportation and communications, it is not surprising that the UK would turn more to the nearby and large economies in Europe for much of its trade. This is a direct prediction of the gravity model.。
国际经济学克鲁格曼课后习题答案章完整版
国际经济学克鲁格曼课后习题答案章集团标准化办公室：[VV986T-J682P28-JP266L8-68PNN]第一章练习与答案1．为什么说在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要？答案提示：当生产处于生产边界线上，资源则得到了充分利用，这时，要想增加某一产品的生产，必须降低另一产品的生产，也就是说，增加某一产品的生产是有机会机本（或社会成本）的。
生产可能性边界上任何一点都表示生产效率和充分就业得以实现，但究竟选择哪一点，则还要看两个商品的相对价格，即它们在市场上的交换比率。
相对价格等于机会成本时，生产点在生产可能性边界上的位置也就确定了。
所以，在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要。
2．仿效图1—6和图1—7，试推导出Y商品的国民供给曲线和国民需求曲线。
答案提示：3．在只有两种商品的情况下，当一个商品达到均衡时，另外一个商品是否也同时达到均衡？试解释原因。
答案提示：4．如果生产可能性边界是一条直线，试确定过剩供给（或需求）曲线。
答案提示：5．如果改用Y商品的过剩供给曲线（B国）和过剩需求曲线（A国）来确定国际均衡价格，那么所得出的结果与图1—13中的结果是否一致？6．答案提示：国际均衡价格将依旧处于贸易前两国相对价格的中间某点。
7．说明贸易条件变化如何影响国际贸易利益在两国间的分配。
答案提示：一国出口产品价格的相对上升意味着此国可以用较少的出口换得较多的进口产品，有利于此国贸易利益的获得，不过，出口价格上升将不利于出口数量的增加，有损于出口国的贸易利益；与此类似，出口商品价格的下降有利于出口商品数量的增加，但是这意味着此国用较多的出口换得较少的进口产品。
对于进口国来讲，贸易条件变化对国际贸易利益的影响是相反的。
8．如果国际贸易发生在一个大国和一个小国之间，那么贸易后，国际相对价格更接近于哪一个国家在封闭下的相对价格水平？答案提示：贸易后，国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。
国际经济学(克鲁格曼)教材答案
Chapter 31．Home has 1200 units of labor available. It can produce two goods, apples and bananas. The unit labor requirement in apple production is 3, while in banana production it is 2. a ．Graph out the production possibilities frontier:b ．What is the opportunity cost of apples in terms of bananas?5.1=LbLa a a c ．In the absence of trade, what would the price of apples in terms of bananas be?In the absence of trade, since labor is the only factor of production and supply decisions aredetermined by the attempts of individuals to maximize their earnings in a competitive economy, only when Lb La b a /a a /P P =will both goods be produced. So 1.5 /P P b a =2．Home is as described in problem 1. There is now also another country, Foreign, with alabor force of 800. Foreign ’s unit labor requirement in apple production is 5, while in banana production it is 1.a ．Graph Foreign ’s production possibilities frontier:b ．Construct the world relative supply curve.Home's PPF 0200400600800200400600800Q apple Q banana Foreign's PPF0200400600800100080160240320400Q*apple Q*banana3．Now suppose world relative demand takes the following form: Demand for apples/demandfor bananas = price of bananas/price of apples.a ．Graph the relative demand curve along with the relative supply curve:a b b a /P P /D D =∵When the market achieves its equilibrium, we have 1b a )(D D -**=++=ba b b a a P P Q Q Q Q ∴RD is a hyperbola xy 1=b ．What is the equilibrium relative price of apples?The equilibrium relative price of apples is determined by the intersection of the RD and RScurves.RD: yx 1= RS: 5]5,5.1[5.1],5.0(5.0)5.0,0[=∈=⎪⎩⎪⎨⎧+∞∈=∈y y y x x x ∴25.0==y x∴2/=b P a P e ec ．Describe the pattern of trade.∵b a b e a e b a P P P P P P ///>>**∴In this two-country world, Home will specialize in the apple production, export apples and import bananas. Foreign will specialize in the banana production, export bananas and import apples.d ．Show that both Home and Foreign gain from trade.International trade allows Home and Foreign to consume anywhere within the coloredlines, which lie outside the countries ’ production possibility frontiers. And the indirect method, specializing in producing only one production then trade with other country, is a more efficient method than direct production. In the absence of trade, Home could gain three bananas by foregoing two apples, and Foreign could gain by one foregoing five bananas. Trade allows each country to trade two bananas for one apple. Home could then gain four bananas by foregoing two apples while Foreign could gain one apple by foregoing only two bananas. So both Home and Foreign gain from trade.4．Suppose that instead of 1200 workers, Home had 2400. Find the equilibrium relative price. What can you say about the efficiency of world production and the division of the gains from trade between Home and Foreign in this case?RD: yx 1= RS: 5]5,5.1[5.1],1(1)1,0[=∈=⎪⎩⎪⎨⎧+∞∈=∈y y y x x x ∴5.132==y x ∴5.1/=b P a P e eIn this case, Foreign will specialize in the banana production, export bananas and import apples. But Home will produce bananas and apples at the same time. And the opportunity cost of bananas in terms of apples for Home remains the same. So Home neither gains nor loses but Foreign gains from trade.5．Suppose that Home has 2400 workers, but they are only half as production in both industries as we have been assuming, Construct the world relative supply curve and determine the equilibrium relative price. How do the gains from trade compare with those in the case described in problem 4?In this case, the labor is doubled while the productivity of labor is halved, so the ＂effective labor＂remains the same. So the answer is similar to that in 3. And both Home and Foreign can gain from trade. But Foreign gains lesser compare with that in the case 4.6．”Korean workers earn only $ an hour; if we allow Korea to export as much as it likes to the United States, our workers will be forced down to the same level. You can’t import a $5 shirt without importing the $ wage that goes with it.” Discuss.In fact, relative wage rate is determined by comparative productivity and the relative demand for goods. Korea’s low wage reflects the fact that Korea is less productive than the United States in most industries. Actually, trade with a less productive, low wage country can raise the welfare and standard of living of countries with high productivity, such as United States. Sothis pauper labor argument is wrong.7．Japanese labor productivity is roughly the same as that of the United States in the manufacturing sector (higher in some industries, lower in others), while the United States, is still considerably more productive in the service sector. But most services are non-traded. Some analysts have argued that this poses a problem for the United States, because our comparative advantage lies in things we cannot sell on world markets. What is wrong with this argument?The competitive advantage of any industry depends on both the relative productivities of the industries and the relative wages across industries. So there are four aspects should be taken into account before we reach conclusion: both the industries and service sectors of Japan and U.S., not just the two service sectors. So this statement does not bade on the reasonable logic. 8．Anyone who has visited Japan knows it is an incredibly expensive place; although Japanese workers earn about the same as their . counterparts, the purchasing power of their incomes is about one-third less. Extend your discussing from question 7 to explain this observation. (Hint: Think about wages and the implied prices of non-trade goods.) The relative higher purchasing power of U.S. is sustained and maintained by its considerably higher productivity in services. Because most of those services are non-traded, Japanese could not benefit from those lower service costs. And U.S. does not have to face a lower international price of services. So the purchasing power of Japanese is just one-third of their U.S. counterparts.9．How does the fact that many goods are non-traded affect the extent of possible gains from trade?Actually the gains from trade depended on the proportion of non-traded goods. The gains will increase as the proportion of non-traded goods decrease.10．We have focused on the case of trade involving only two countries. Suppose that there are many countries capable of producing two goods, and that each country has only one factor of production, labor. What could we say about the pattern of production and in this case? (Hint: Try constructing the world relative supply curve.)Any countries to the left of the intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves export the good in which they have a comparative advantage relative to any country to the right of the intersection. If the intersection occurs in a horizontal portion then the country with that price ratio produces both goods.Chapter 41． In the United States where land is cheap, the ratio of land to labor used in cattle rising ishigher than that of land used in wheat growing. But in more crowded countries, where land is expensive and labor is cheap, it is common to raise cows by using less land and more labor than Americans use to grow wheat. Can we still say that raising cattle is land intensive compared with farming wheat? Why or why not?The definition of cattle growing as land intensive depends on the ratio of land to labor used inproduction, not on the ratio of land or labor to output. The ratio of land to labor in cattle exceeds the ratio in wheat in the United States, implying cattle is land intensive in the United States. Cattle is land intensive in other countries too if the ratio of land to labor in cattle production exceeds the ratio in wheat production in that country. The comparison between another country and the United States is less relevant for answering the question.2． Suppose that at current factor prices cloth is produced using 20 hours of labor for eachacre of land, and food is produced using only 5 hours of labor per acre of land.a. Suppose that the economy ’s total resources are 600 hours of labor and 60 acres ofland. Using a diagram determine the allocation of resources.5TF LF /TF LF /QF)(TF / /QF)(LF aTF / aLF 20TC LC /TC LC /QC)(TC / /QC)(LC aTC / aLC =⇒===⇒==We can solve this algebraically since L=LC+LF=600 and T=TC+TF=60. The solution is LC=400, TC=20, LF=200 and TF=40.b. Now suppose that the labor supply increase first to 800, then 1000, then 1200 hours. Using a diagram like Figure4-6, trace out the changing allocation of resources. Labor Land ClothFoodLCLF TCTFtion).specializa (complete 0.LF 0,TF 1200,LC 60,TC :1200L 66.67LF 13.33,TF 933.33,LC 46.67,TC :1000L 133.33LF 26.67,TF 666.67,LC 33.33,TC :800L ===============c. What would happen if the labor supply were to increase even further?At constant factor prices, some labor would be unused, so factor prices would have tochange, or there would be unemployment.3. “The world ’s poorest countries cannot find anything to export. There is no resource thatis abundant — certainly not capital or land, and in small poor nations not even labor is abundant.” Discuss.The gains from trade depend on comparative rather than absolute advantage. As to poor countries, what matters is not the absolute abundance of factors, but their relative abundance. Poor countries have an abundance of labor relative to capital when compared to more developed countries.4. The U.S. labor movement — which mostly represents blue-collar workers rather thanprofessionals and highly educated workers — has traditionally favored limits on imports form less-affluent countries. Is this a shortsighted policy of a rational one in view of the interests of union members? How does the answer depend on the model of trade?In the Ricardo ’s model, labor gains from trade through an increase in its purchasing power. This result does not support labor union demands for limits on imports from less affluent countries.In the Immobile Factors model labor may gain or lose from trade. Purchasing power in terms of one good will rise, but in terms of the other good it will decline.The Heckscher-Ohlin model directly discusses distribution by considering the effects of trade on the owners of factors of production. In the context of this model, unskilled U.S. labor loses from trade since this group represents the relatively scarce factors in this country. The results from the Heckscher-Ohlin model support labor union demands for import limits. 5. There is substantial inequality of wage levels between regions within the United States. Labor Land Cloth Food0l 800 0l 1000 0l 1200For example, wages of manufacturing workers in equivalent jobs are about 20 percent lower in the Southeast than they are in the Far West. Which of the explanations of failure of factor price equalization might account for this? How is this case different from the divergence of wages between the United States and Mexico (which is geographically closer to both the . Southeast and the Far West than the Southeast and Far West are to each other)?When we employ factor price equalization, we should pay attention to its conditions: both countries/regions produce both goods; both countries have the same technology of production, and the absence of barriers to trade. Inequality of wage levels between regions within the United States may caused by some or all of these reasons.Actually, the barriers to trade always exist in the real world due to transportation costs. And the trade between U.S. and Mexico, by contrast, is subject to legal limits; together with cultural differences that inhibit the flow of technology, this may explain why the difference in wage rates is so much larger.6.Explain why the Leontief paradox and the more recent Bowen, Leamer, andSveikauskas results reported in the text contradict the factor-proportions theory.The factor proportions theory states that countries export those goods whose production is intensive in factors with which they are abundantly endowed. One would expect the United States, which has a high capital/labor ratio relative to the rest of the world, to export capital-intensive goods if the Heckscher-Ohlin theory holds. Leontief found that the United States exported labor-intensive goods. Bowen, Leamer and Sveikauskas found that the correlation between factor endowment and trade patterns is weak for the world as a whole.The data do not support the predictions of the theory that countries' exports and imports reflect the relative endowments of factors.7.In the discussion of empirical results on the Heckscher-Ohlin model, we noted thatrecent work suggests that the efficiency of factors of production seems to differ internationally. Explain how this would affect the concept of factor price equalization.If the efficiency of the factors of production differs internationally, the lessons of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory would be applied to “effective factors” which adjust for the differences in technology or worker skills or land quality (for example). The adjusted model has been found to be more successful than the unadjusted model at explaining the pattern of trade between countries. Factor-price equalization concepts would apply to the effective factors. A worker with more skills or in a country with better technology could be considered to be equal to two workers in another country. Thus, the single person would be two effective units of labor. Thus, the one high-skilled worker could earn twice what lower skilled workers do and the price of one effective unit of labor would still be equalized.chapter 81. The import demand equation, MD, is found by subtracting the home supply equation from the home demand equation. This results in MD = 80 - 40 x P. Without trade, domestic prices and quantities adjust such that import demand is zero. Thus, the price in the absence of trade is2.2. a. Foreign's export supply curve, XS, is XS = -40 + 40 x P. In the absence of trade, the price is 1.b. When trade occurs export supply is equal to import demand, XS = MD. Thus, using theequations from problems 1 and 2a, P = , and the volume of trade is 20.3. a. The new MD curve is 80 - 40 x (P+t) where t is the specific tariff rate, equal to . (Note: in solving these problems you should be careful about whether a specific tariff or ad valorem tariff is imposed. With an ad valorem tariff, the MD equation would be expressed as MD =80-40 x (1+t)P). The equation for the export supply curve by the foreign country is unchanged. Solving, we find that the world price is $, and thus the internal price at home is $. The volume of trade has been reduced to 10, and the total demand for wheat at home has fallen to 65 (from the free trade level of70). The total demand for wheat in Foreign has gone up from 50 to 55.b. andc. The welfare of the home country is best studied using the combined numerical andgraphical solutions presented below in Figure 8-1. Home SupplyHome Demanda b c d e P T =1.7550556070QuantityPrice P W =1.50P T*=1.25where the areas in the figure are:a: 55 (55-50) .5(55-50) (65-55) .5(70-65) (65-55) surplus change: -(a+b+c+d)=. Producer surplus change: a=. Government revenue change: c+e=5. Efficiency losses b+d are exceeded by terms of trade gain e. [Note: in the calculations for the a, b, and d areas a figure of .5 shows up. This is because we are measuring the area of a triangle, which is one-half of the area of the rectangle defined by the product of the horizontal and vertical sides.]4. Using the same solution methodology as in problem 3, when the home country is very small relative to the foreign country, its effects on the terms of trade are expected to be much less. The small country is much more likely to be hurt by its imposition of a tariff. Indeed, this intuition is shown in this problem. The free trade equilibrium is now at the price $ and the trade volume is now $.With the imposition of a tariff of by Home, the new world price is $, the internal home price is $, home demand is units, home supply is and the volume of trade is . When Home is relatively small, the effect of a tariff on world price is smaller than when Home is relatively large. When Foreign and Home were closer in size, a tariff of .5 by home lowered world price by 25 percent, whereas in this case the same tariff lowers world price by about 5 percent. The internal Home price is now closer to the free trade price plus t than when Home was relatively large. In this case, the government revenues from the tariff equal , the consumer surplus loss is , and the producer surplus gain is . The distortionary losses associated with the tariff (areas b+d) sum to and the terms of trade gain (e) is . Clearly, in this small country example the distortionary losses from the tariff swamp the terms of trade gains. The general lesson is the smaller the economy,the larger the losses from a tariff since the terms of trade gains are smaller.5. The effective rate of protection takes into consideration the costs of imported intermediate goods. In this example, half of the cost of an aircraft represents components purchased from other countries. Without the subsidy the aircraft would cost $60 million. The European value added to the aircraft is $30 million. The subsidy cuts the cost of the value added to purchasers of the airplane to $20 million. Thus, the effective rate of protection is (30 - 20)/20 = 50%.6. We first use the foreign export supply and domestic import demand curves to determine the new world price. The foreign supply of exports curve, with a foreign subsidy of 50 percent per unit, becomes XS = -40 + 40(1+ x P. The equilibrium world price is and the internal foreign price is . The volume of trade is 32. The foreign demand and supply curves are used to determine the costs and benefits of the subsidy. Construct a diagram similar to that in the text and calculate the area of the various polygons. The government must provide - x 32 = units of output to support the subsidy. Foreign producers surplus rises due to the subsidy by the amount of units of output. Foreign consumers surplus falls due to the higher price by units of the good. Thus, the net loss to Foreign due to the subsidy is + - = units of output. Home consumers and producers face an internal price of as a result of the subsidy. Home consumers surplus rises by 70 x .3 + .5 (6= while Home producers surplus falls by 44 x .3 + .5(6 x .3) = , for a net gain of units of output.7. At a price of $10 per bag of peanuts, Acirema imports 200 bags of peanuts. A quota limiting the import of peanuts to 50 bags has the following effects:a. The price of peanuts rises to $20 per bag.b. The quota rents are ($20 - $10) x 50 = $500.c. The consumption distortion loss is .5 x 100 bags x $10 per bag = $500.d. The production distortion loss is .5 x50 bags x$10 per bag = $250.。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（国际金融部分）课后习题答案（英文版）第一章
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（国际金融部分）课后习题答案（英文版）第一章CHAPTER 1INTRODUCTIONChapter OrganizationWhat is International Economics About?The Gains from TradeThe Pattern of TradeProtectionismThe Balance of PaymentsExchange-Rate DeterminationInternational Policy CoordinationThe International Capital MarketInternational Economics: Trade and MoneyCHAPTER OVERVIEWThe intent of this chapter is to provide both an overview of the subject matter of international economics and to provide a guide to the organization of the text. It is relatively easy for an instructor to motivate the study of international trade and finance. The front pages of newspapers, the covers of magazines, and the lead reports of television news broadcasts herald the interdependence of the U.S. economy with the rest of the world. This interdependence may also be recognized by students through their purchases of imports of all sorts of goods, their personal observations of the effects of dislocations due to international competition, and their experience through travel abroad.The study of the theory of international economics generates an understanding of many key events that shape our domesticand international environment. In recent history, these events include the causes and consequences of the large current account deficits of the United States; the dramatic appreciation of the dollar during the first half of the 1980s followed by its rapid depreciation in the second half of the 1980s; the Latin American debt crisis of the 1980s and the Mexico crisis in late 1994; and the increased pressures for industry protection against foreign competition broadly voiced in the late 1980s and more vocally espoused in the first half of the 1990s. Most recently, the financial crisis that began in East Asia in 1997 andspread to many countries around the globe and the Economic and Monetary Union in Europe have highlighted the way in which various national economies are linked and how important it is for us to understand these connections. At the same time, protests at global economic meetings have highlighted opposition to globalization. The text material will enable students to understand the economic context in which such events occur.Chapter 1 of the text presents data demonstrating the growth in trade and increasing importance of international economics. This chapter also highlights and briefly discusses seven themes which arise throughout the book. These themes include: 1) the gains from trade;2) the pattern of trade; 3) protectionism; 4), the balance of payments; 5) exchange rate determination; 6) international policy coordination; and 7) the international capital market. Students will recognize that many of the central policy debates occurring today come under the rubric of one of these themes. Indeed, it is often a fruitful heuristic to use current events to illustrate the force of the key themes and arguments which are presentedthroughout the text.。
克鲁格曼国际经济学课后答案
克鲁格曼国际经济学课后答案【篇一：克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(国际金融)习题答案要点】lass=txt>第12章国民收入核算和国际收支1、如问题所述，gnp仅仅包括最终产品和服务的价值是为了避免重复计算的问题。
在国民收入账户中，如果进口的中间品价值从gnp中减去，出口的中间品价值加到gnp中，重复计算的问题将不会发生。
例如：美国分别销售钢材给日本的丰田公司和美国的通用汽车公司。
其中出售给通用公司的钢材，作为中间品其价值不被计算到美国的gnp中。
出售给日本丰田公司的钢材，钢材价值通过丰田公司进入日本的gnp，而最终没有进入美国的国民收入账户。
所以这部分由美国生产要素创造的中间品价值应该从日本的gnp中减去，并加入美国的gnp。
2、（1）等式12-2可以写成ca?(sp?i)?(t?g)。
美国更高的进口壁垒对私人储蓄、投资和政府赤字有比较小或没有影响。
（2）既然强制性的关税和配额对这些变量没有影响，所以贸易壁垒不能减少经常账户赤字。
不同情况对经常账户产生不同的影响。
例如，关税保护能提高被保护行业的投资，从而使经常账户恶化。
（当然，使幼稚产业有一个设备现代化机会的关税保护是合理的。
）同时，当对投资中间品实行关税保护时，由于受保护行业成本的提高可能使该行业投资下降，从而改善经常项目。
一般地，永久性和临时性的关税保护有不同的效果。
这个问题的要点是：政策影响经常账户方式需要进行一般均衡、宏观分析。
3、（1）、购买德国股票反映在美国金融项目的借方。
相应地，当美国人通过他的瑞士银行账户用支票支付时，因为他对瑞士请求权减少，故记入美国金融项目的贷方。
这是美国用一个外国资产交易另外一种外国资产的案例。
（2）、同样，购买德国股票反映在美国金融项目的借方。
当德国销售商将美国支票存入德国银行并且银行将这笔资金贷给德国进口商（此时，记入美国经常项目的贷方）或贷给个人或公司购买美国资产（此时，记入美国金融项目的贷方）。
最后，银行采取的各项行为将导致记入美国国际收支表的贷方。
克鲁格曼 教材《国际经济学》(国际金融)习题答案要点2
《国际经济学》（国际金融）习题答案要点第12章 国民收入核算与国际收支1、如问题所述，GNP 仅仅包括最终产品和服务的价值是为了避免重复计算的问题。
在国民收入账户中，如果进口的中间品价值从GNP 中减去，出口的中间品价值加到GNP 中，重复计算的问题将不会发生。
例如：美国分别销售钢材给日本的丰田公司和美国的通用汽车公司。
其中出售给通用公司的钢材，作为中间品其价值不被计算到美国的GNP 中。
出售给日本丰田公司的钢材，钢材价值通过丰田公司进入日本的GNP ，而最终没有进入美国的国民收入账户。
所以这部分由美国生产要素创造的中间品价值应该从日本的GNP 中减去，并加入美国的GNP 。
2、（1）等式12-2可以写成()()p CA S I T G =-+-。
美国更高的进口壁垒对私人储蓄、投资和政府赤字有比较小或没有影响。
（2）既然强制性的关税和配额对这些变量没有影响，所以贸易壁垒不能减少经常账户赤字。
不同情况对经常账户产生不同的影响。
例如，关税保护能提高被保护行业的投资，从而使经常账户恶化。
（当然，使幼稚产业有一个设备现代化机会的关税保护是合理的。
）同时，当对投资中间品实行关税保护时，由于受保护行业成本的提高可能使该行业投资下降，从而改善经常项目。
一般地，永久性和临时性的关税保护有不同的效果。
这个问题的要点是：政策影响经常账户方式需要进行一般均衡、宏观分析。
3、（1）、购买德国股票反映在美国金融项目的借方。
相应地，当美国人通过他的瑞士银行账户用支票支付时，因为他对瑞士请求权减少，故记入美国金融项目的贷方。
这是美国用一个外国资产交易另外一种外国资产的案例。
（2）、同样，购买德国股票反映在美国金融项目的借方。
当德国销售商将美国支票存入德国银行并且银行将这笔资金贷给德国进口商（此时，记入美国经常项目的贷方）或贷给个人或公司购买美国资产（此时，记入美国金融项目的贷方）。
最后，银行采取的各项行为将导致记入美国国际收支表的贷方。
国际经济学克鲁格曼英文版
国际经济学克鲁格曼英文版Here is an essay on the topic of "International Economics by Krugman (English Version)" with a word count of over 600 words.The field of international economics has long been dominated by the influential works of renowned economist Paul Krugman. His English-language publications have had a profound impact on the understanding and analysis of global economic dynamics. Krugman's seminal contributions have challenged traditional theories and offered new perspectives that have reshaped the way we conceptualize the complexities of the international economic landscape.At the core of Krugman's work lies a deep understanding of the intricate interplay between trade, investment, and economic growth. His groundbreaking research has shed light on the role of comparative advantage, economies of scale, and imperfect competition in shaping the patterns of global trade and commerce. Krugman's insights have been instrumental in redefining the conventional wisdom regarding the benefits and drawbacks of free trade, highlighting the nuanced and multifaceted nature of international economic integration.One of Krugman's most significant contributions is his analysis of the geography of trade and the emergence of economic agglomerations. By examining the spatial distribution of economic activity, he has challenged the traditional notion of homogeneous and evenly distributed production. Krugman's work has shown how the clustering of industries and the concentration of economic resources can lead to the development of regional hubs and centers of innovation, with profound implications for policymakers and business leaders alike.Moreover, Krugman's work has addressed the complex dynamics of exchange rate fluctuations and their impact on international competitiveness. His models and theories have provided a deeper understanding of the factors that drive exchange rate movements, the consequences of currency misalignments, and the implications for trade balances and global financial stability. This knowledge has been instrumental in informing policy decisions and guiding the efforts of central banks and governments in managing exchange rate regimes.Krugman's contributions extend beyond the realm of trade and finance. His work on the relationship between economic growth and development has shed light on the challenges faced by developing countries in their pursuit of prosperity. By exploring the role oftechnology, human capital, and institutional frameworks, Krugman has offered insights into the drivers of economic development and the policy interventions that can foster inclusive and sustainable growth.Furthermore, Krugman's influence has reached beyond the academic sphere, as his writings have sought to bridge the gap between economic theory and public policy. His accessible and engaging style has made complex economic concepts more comprehensible to a wider audience, empowering policymakers, business leaders, and the general public to engage in informed discussions and debates on the pressing issues of the global economy.In conclusion, the work of Paul Krugman, as articulated in his English-language publications, has been pivotal in shaping the field of international economics. His groundbreaking research, innovative theories, and thought-provoking analyses have challenged conventional wisdom and pushed the boundaries of our understanding of the intricate web of global economic interactions. Krugman's contributions have not only advanced academic discourse but have also informed policy decisions and public discourse, ultimately contributing to a more informed and nuanced understanding of the dynamics of the international economy.。
克鲁格曼国际经济学答案（英文）
Overview of Section IInternational Trade TheorySection I of the text is comprised of six chapters: Chapter 2 Labor Productivity and Comparative Advantage: The Ricardian Model Chapter 3 Specific Factors and Income Distribution Chapter 4 Resources and Trade: The Heckscher-Ohlin Model Chapter 5 The Standard Trade Model Chapter 6 Economies of Scale, Imperfect Competition, and International Trade Chapter 7 International Factor Movements T Section I Overview Section I of the text presents the theory of international trade. The intent of this section is to explore the motives for and implications of patterns of trade between countries. The presentation proceeds by introducing successively more general models of trade, where the generality is provided by increasing the number of factors used in production, by increasing the mobility of factors of production across sectors of the economy, by introducing more general technologies applied to production, and by examining different types of market structure. Throughout Section I, policy concerns and current issues are used to emphasize the relevance of the theory of international trade for interpreting and understanding our economy. Chapter 2 gives a brief overview of world trade. In particular, it discusses what we know about the quantities and pattern of world trade today. The chapter uses the empirical relationship known as the gravity model as a framework to describe trade. This framework describes trade as a function of the size of the economies involved and their distance. It can then be used to see where countries are trading more or less than expected. The chapter also notes the growth in world trade over the previous decades and uses the previous era of globalization (pre-WWI) as context for today’s experience. Chapter 3 introduces you to international trade theory through a framework known as the Ricardian model of trade. This model addresses the issue of why two countries would want to trade with each other. This model shows how mutually-beneficial trade arises when there are two countries, each with one factor of production which can be applied toward producing each of two goods. Key concepts are introduced, such as the production possibilities frontier, comparative advantage versus absolute advantage, gains from trade, relative prices, and relative wages across countries. 4 Krugman/Obstfeld • International Economics: Theory and Policy, Seventh Edition Chapter 4 introduces what is known as the classic Heckscher-Ohlin model of international trade. Using this framework, you can work through the effects of trade on wages, prices and output. Many important and intuitive results are derived in this chapter including: the Rybczynski Theorem, the Stolper-Samuelson Theorem, and the Factor Price Equalization Theorem. Implications of the Heckscher-Ohlin model for the pattern of trade among countries are discussed, as are the failures of empirical evidence to confirm the predictions of the theory. The chapter also introduces questions of political economy in trade. One important reason for this addition to the model is to consider the effects of trade on income distribution. This approach shows that while nations generally gain from international trade, it is quite possible that specific groups within these nations could be harmed by this trade. This discussion, and related questions about protectionism versus globalization, becomes broader and even more interesting as you work through the models and different assumptions of subsequent chapters. Chapter 5 presents a general model of international trade which admits the models of the previous chapters as special cases. This “standard trade model” is depicted graphically by a general equilibrium trade model as applied to a small open economy. Relative demand and relative supply curves are used to analyze a variety of policy issues, such as the effects of economic growth, the transfer problem, and the effects of trade tariffs and production subsidies. The appendix to the chapter develops offer curve analysis. While an extremely useful tool, the standard model of trade fails to account for some important aspects of international trade. Specifically, while the factor proportions Heckscher-Ohlin theories explain some trade flows between countries, recent research in international economics has placed an increasing emphasis on economies of scale in production and imperfect competition among firms. Chapter 6 presents models of international trade that reflect these developments. The chapter begins by reviewing the concept of monopolistic competition among firms, and then showing the gains from trade which arise in such imperfectly competitive markets. Next, internal and external economies of scale in production and comparative advantage are discussed. The chapter continues with a discussion of the importance of intra-industry trade, dumping, and external economies of production. The subject matter of this chapter is important since it shows how gains from trade arise in ways that are not suggested by the standard, more traditional models of international trade. The subject matter also is enlightening given the increased emphasis on intra-industry trade in industrialized countries. Chapter 7 focuses on international factor mobility. This departs from previous chapters which assumed that the factors of production available for production within a country could not leave a country’s borders. Reasons for and the effects of international factor mobility are discussed in the context of a one-factor (labor) production and trade model. The analysis of the international mobility of labor motivates a further discussion of international mobility of capital. The international mobility of capital takes the form of international borrowing and lending. This facilitates the discussion of inter-temporal production choices and foreign direct investment behavior. 。
国际经济学(克鲁格曼)课后习题答案1-8章
第一章练习与答案1．为什么说在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要？答案提示：当生产处于生产边界线上，资源则得到了充分利用，这时，要想增加某一产品的生产，必须降低另一产品的生产，也就是说，增加某一产品的生产是有机会机本（或社会成本）的。
生产可能性边界上任何一点都表示生产效率和充分就业得以实现，但究竟选择哪一点，则还要看两个商品的相对价格，即它们在市场上的交换比率。
相对价格等于机会成本时，生产点在生产可能性边界上的位置也就确定了。
所以，在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要。
2．仿效图1—6和图1—7，试推导出Y商品的国民供给曲线和国民需求曲线。
答案提示：3．在只有两种商品的情况下，当一个商品达到均衡时，另外一个商品是否也同时达到均衡？试解释原因。
答案提示：4．如果生产可能性边界是一条直线，试确定过剩供给（或需求）曲线。
答案提示：5．如果改用Y商品的过剩供给曲线（B国）和过剩需求曲线（A 国）来确定国际均衡价格，那么所得出的结果与图1—13中的结果是否一致？答案提示：国际均衡价格将依旧处于贸易前两国相对价格的中间某点。
6．说明贸易条件变化如何影响国际贸易利益在两国间的分配。
答案提示：一国出口产品价格的相对上升意味着此国可以用较少的出口换得较多的进口产品，有利于此国贸易利益的获得，不过，出口价格上升将不利于出口数量的增加，有损于出口国的贸易利益；与此类似，出口商品价格的下降有利于出口商品数量的增加，但是这意味着此国用较多的出口换得较少的进口产品。
对于进口国来讲，贸易条件变化对国际贸易利益的影响是相反的。
7．如果国际贸易发生在一个大国和一个小国之间，那么贸易后，国际相对价格更接近于哪一个国家在封闭下的相对价格水平？答案提示：贸易后，国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。
8．根据上一题的答案，你认为哪个国家在国际贸易中福利改善程度更为明显些？答案提示：小国。
9*．为什么说两个部门要素使用比例的不同会导致生产可能性边界曲线向外凸？答案提示：第二章答案1．根据下面两个表中的数据，确定（1）贸易前的相对价格；（2）比较优势型态。
克鲁格曼国际经济学答案
Chapter 61.For each of the following examples, explain whether this is a case of external or internaleconomies of scale:a.Most musical wind instruments in the United States are produced by more than adozen factories in Elkhart, Indiana.b.All Hondas sold in the United States are either imported or produced in Marysville,Ohio.c.All airframes for Airbus, Europe’s only producer of large aircraft, are assembled inToulouse, France.d.Hartford, Connecticut is the insurance capital of the northeastern United States.External economies of scale: Cases a and d. The productions of these two industries concentrate in a few locations and successfully reduce each industry's costs even when the scale of operation of individual firms remains small. External economies need not lead to imperfect competition. The benefits of geographical concentration may include a greater variety of specialized services to support industry operations and larger labor markets or thicker input markets.Internal economies of scale: Cases b and c. Both of them occur at the level of the individual firm. The larger the output of a product by a particular firm, the lower its average costs. This leads to imperfect competition as in petrochemicals, aircraft, and autos.2.In perfect competition, firm set price equal to marginal cost. Why isn’t this possiblewhen there are internal economies of scale?Unlike the case of perfectly competitive markets, under monopoly marginal revenue is not equal to price. The profit maximizing output level of a monopolist occurs where marginal revenue equals marginal cost. Marginal revenue is always less than price under imperfectly competitive markets because to sell an extra unit of output the firm must lower the price of all units, not just the marginal one.3.It is often argued that the existence of increasing returns is a source of conflict betweencountries, since each country is better off if it can increase its production in those industries characterized by economies of scale. Evaluate this view in terms of both the monopolistic competition and the external economy models.Both internal economies of scale (which may lead to monopolistic competition) and external economies of scale could lead to increasing returns.By concentrating the production of each good with economies of scale in one country rather than spreading the production over several countries, the world economy will use the same amount of labor to produce more output.In the monopolistic competition model, the concentration of labor benefits the host country.The host country can capture some monopoly rents. But the rest of the world may hurt and have to face higher prices on its consumption goods.In the external economies case, such monopolistic pricing behavior is less likely since imperfectly competitive markets are less likely.4.Suppose the two countries we considered in the numerical example on pages 132-135were to integrate their automobile marker with a third country with an annual market for 3.75 million automobiles. Find the number of firms, the output per firm, and theprice per automobile in the new integrated market after trade.15.8n X 1c P c AC 2=⇒==−−→−+=+==n S Fb S n bn X F AC PHowever, since you will never see 0.8 firms, there will be 15 firms that enter the market, not16 firms since the last firm knows that it can not make positive profits. The rest of the solution is straight-forward. Using X=S/n, output per firm is 41,666 units. Using the price equation, and the fact that c=5,000, yields an equilibrium price of $7,000.5. Evaluate the relative importance of economies of scale and comparative advantage incausing the following:a. Most of the world ’s aluminum is smelted in Norway or Canada.b. Half of the world ’s large jet aircraft are assembled in Seattle.c. Most semiconductors are manufactured in either the United States or Japan.d. Most Scotch whiskey comes from Scotland.e. Much of the world ’s best wine comes from France.a. The relatively few locations for production suggest external economies of scale in production. If these operations are large, there may also be large internal economies of scale in production.b. Since economies of scale are significant in airplane production, it tends to be done by a small number of (imperfectly competitive) firms at a limited number of locations. One such location is Seattle, where Boeing produces.c. Since external economies of scale are significant in semiconductor production, semiconductor industries tend to be concentrated in certain geographic locations. If, for some historical reason, a semiconductor is established in a specific location, the export of semiconductors by that country is due to economies of scale and not comparative advantage.d. "True" scotch whiskey can only come from Scotland. The production of scotch whiskey requires a technique known to skilled distillers who are concentrated in the region. Also, soil and climactic conditions are favorable for grains used in local scotch production. This reflects comparative advantage.e. France has a particular blend of climactic conditions and land that is difficult to reproduce elsewhere. This generates a comparative advantage in wine production.6. There are some shops in Japan that sell Japanese goods imported back from the UnitedStates at a discount over the prices charged by other Japanese shops. How is this possible?The Japanese producers employ price discrimination across United States and Japanesemarkets, so that the goods sold in the United States are much cheaper than those sold in Japan. It may be profitable for other Japanese to purchase these goods in the United States, incur any tariffs and transportation costs, and resell the goods in Japan. Clearly, the price differential across markets may lead to such profitable chance.7. Consider a situation similar to that in Figure 6-9, in which two countries that canproduce a good are subject to forward-falling supply curves. In this case, however, suppose that the two countries have the same costs, so that their supply curves are identical.a. What would you expect to be the pattern of international specialization and trade?What would determine who produces the good?Suppose two countries that can produce a good are subject to forward-falling supply curves and are identical countries with identical curves. If one country starts out as a producer of a good, i.e. it has a head start even as a matter of historical accident, then all production will occur in that particular country and it will export to the rest of the world. b. What are the benefits of international trade in this case? Do they accrue only to thecountry that gets the industry?Consumers in both countries will pay a lower price for this good when externaleconomies are maximized through trade and all production is located in a single market. In the present example, no single country has a natural cost advantage or is worse off than it would be under autarky.8. It is fairly common for an industrial cluster to break up and for production to move tolocations with lower wages when the technology of the industry is no longer rapidly improving —when it is no longer essential to have the absolutely most modern machinery, when the need for highly skilled workers has declined, and when being at the cutting edge of innovation conveys only a small advantage. Explain this tendency of industrial clusters to break up in terms of the theory of external economies.External economies are important for firms as technology changes rapidly and as the“cutting edge” moves quickly with frequent innovations. As this pr ocess slows, manufacturing becomes more normal and standard and there is less advantage brought by external economies. Instead, firms look for low cost production locations. Since external economies are no longer important, firms find little advantage in being clustered and it is likely that low-wage locations will be chosen.chapter 81. The import demand equation, MD , is found by subtracting the home supply equation from the home demand equation. This results in MD = 80 - 40 x P. Without trade, domestic prices Q P,CD AC AC External Economics and Specializationand quantities adjust such that import demand is zero. Thus, the price in the absence of trade is 2.2. a. Foreign's export supply curve, XS , is XS = -40 + 40 x P. In the absence of trade, the price is 1.b. When trade occurs export supply is equal to import demand, XS = MD . Thus, using theequations from problems 1 and 2a, P = 1.50, and the volume of trade is 20.3. a. The new MD curve is 80 - 40 x (P+t) where t is the specific tariff rate, equal to 0.5. (Note: in solving these problems you should be careful about whether a specific tariff or ad valorem tariff is imposed. With an ad valorem tariff, the MD equation would be expressed as MD =80-40 x (1+t)P). The equation for the export supply curve by the foreign country is unchanged. Solving, we find that the world price is $1.25, and thus the internal price at home is $1.75. The volume of trade has been reduced to 10, and the total demand for wheat at home has fallen to 65 (from the free trade level of 70). The total demand for wheat in Foreign has gone up from 50 to 55.b. andc. The welfare of the home country is best studied using the combined numerical andgraphical solutions presented below in Figure 8-1.P T =1.7550556070QuantityPrice P W =1.50P T*=1.25where the areas in the figure are:a: 55(1.75-1.50) -.5(55-50)(1.75-1.50)=13.125b: .5(55-50)(1.75-1.50)=0.625c: (65-55)(1.75-1.50)=2.50d: .5(70-65)(1.75-1.50)=0.625e: (65-55)(1.50-1.25)=2.50Consumer surplus change: -(a+b+c+d)=-16.875. Producer surplus change: a=13.125. Government revenue change: c+e=5. Efficiency losses b+d are exceeded by terms of trade gain e. [Note: in the calculations for the a, b, and d areas a figure of .5 shows up. This is because we are measuring the area of a triangle, which is one-half of the area of the rectangle defined by the product of the horizontal and vertical sides.]4. Using the same solution methodology as in problem 3, when the home country is very small relative to the foreign country, its effects on the terms of trade are expected to be much less. The small country is much more likely to be hurt by its imposition of a tariff. Indeed, this intuition is shown in this problem. The free trade equilibrium is now at the price $1.09 and the trade volume is now $36.40.With the imposition of a tariff of 0.5 by Home, the new world price is $1.045, the internal homeprice is $1.545, home demand is 69.10 units, home supply is 50.90 and the volume of trade is 18.20. When Home is relatively small, the effect of a tariff on world price is smaller than when Home is relatively large. When Foreign and Home were closer in size, a tariff of .5 by home lowered world price by 25 percent, whereas in this case the same tariff lowers world price by about 5 percent. The internal Home price is now closer to the free trade price plus t than when Home was relatively large. In this case, the government revenues from the tariff equal 9.10, the consumer surplus loss is 33.51, and the producer surplus gain is 21.089. The distortionary losses associated with the tariff (areas b+d) sum to 4.14 and the terms of trade gain (e) is 0.819. Clearly, in this small country example the distortionary losses from the tariff swamp the terms of trade gains. The general lesson is the smaller the economy, the larger the losses from a tariff since the terms of trade gains are smaller.5. The effective rate of protection takes into consideration the costs of imported intermediate goods. In this example, half of the cost of an aircraft represents components purchased from other countries. Without the subsidy the aircraft would cost $60 million. The European value added to the aircraft is $30 million. The subsidy cuts the cost of the value added to purchasers of the airplane to $20 million. Thus, the effective rate of protection is (30 - 20)/20 = 50%.6. We first use the foreign export supply and domestic import demand curves to determine the new world price. The foreign supply of exports curve, with a foreign subsidy of 50 percent per unit, becomes XS= -40 + 40(1+0.5) x P. The equilibrium world price is 1.2 and the internal foreign price is 1.8. The volume of trade is 32. The foreign demand and supply curves are used to determine the costs and benefits of the subsidy. Construct a diagram similar to that in the text and calculate the area of the various polygons. The government must provide (1.8 - 1.2) x 32 = 19.2 units of output to support the subsidy. Foreign producers surplus rises due to the subsidy by the amount of 15.3 units of output. Foreign consumers surplus falls due to the higher price by7.5 units of the good. Thus, the net loss to Foreign due to the subsidy is 7.5 + 19.2 - 15.3 = 11.4 units of output. Home consumers and producers face an internal price of 1.2 as a result of the subsidy. Home consumers surplus rises by 70 x .3 + .5 (6x.3) = 21.9 while Home producers surplus falls by 44 x .3 + .5(6 x .3) = 14.1, for a net gain of 7.8 units of output.7. At a price of $10 per bag of peanuts, Acirema imports 200 bags of peanuts. A quota limiting the import of peanuts to 50 bags has the following effects:a. The price of peanuts rises to $20 per bag.b. The quota rents are ($20 - $10) x 50 = $500.c. The consumption distortion loss is .5 x 100 bags x $10 per bag = $500.d. The production distortion loss is .5 x50 bags x$10 per bag = $250.。
(完整版)克鲁格曼国际经济学答案
Chapter 61.For each of the following examples, explain whether this is a case of external or internaleconomies of scale:a.Most musical wind instruments in the United States are produced by more than adozen factories in Elkhart, Indiana.b.All Hondas sold in the United States are either imported or produced in Marysville,Ohio.c.All airframes for Airbus, Europe’s only producer of large aircraft, are assembled inToulouse, France.d.Hartford, Connecticut is the insurance capital of the northeastern United States.External economies of scale: Cases a and d. The productions of these two industries concentrate in a few locations and successfully reduce each industry's costs even when the scale of operation of individual firms remains small. External economies need not lead to imperfect competition. The benefits of geographical concentration may include a greater variety of specialized services to support industry operations and larger labor markets or thicker input markets.Internal economies of scale: Cases b and c. Both of them occur at the level of the individual firm. The larger the output of a product by a particular firm, the lower its average costs. This leads to imperfect competition as in petrochemicals, aircraft, and autos.2.In perfect competition, firm set price equal to marginal cost. Why isn’t this possiblewhen there are internal economies of scale?Unlike the case of perfectly competitive markets, under monopoly marginal revenue is not equal to price. The profit maximizing output level of a monopolist occurs where marginal revenue equals marginal cost. Marginal revenue is always less than price under imperfectly competitive markets because to sell an extra unit of output the firm must lower the price of all units, not just the marginal one.3.It is often argued that the existence of increasing returns is a source of conflict betweencountries, since each country is better off if it can increase its production in those industries characterized by economies of scale. Evaluate this view in terms of both the monopolistic competition and the external economy models.Both internal economies of scale (which may lead to monopolistic competition) and external economies of scale could lead to increasing returns.By concentrating the production of each good with economies of scale in one country rather than spreading the production over several countries, the world economy will use the same amount of labor to produce more output.In the monopolistic competition model, the concentration of labor benefits the host country.The host country can capture some monopoly rents. But the rest of the world may hurt and have to face higher prices on its consumption goods.In the external economies case, such monopolistic pricing behavior is less likely since imperfectly competitive markets are less likely.4.Suppose the two countries we considered in the numerical example on pages 132-135were to integrate their automobile marker with a third country with an annual market for 3.75 million automobiles. Find the number of firms, the output per firm, and theprice per automobile in the new integrated market after trade.15.8n X 1c P c AC 2=⇒==−−→−+=+==nS Fb S n bn X F AC P However, since you will never see 0.8 firms, there will be 15 firms that enter the market, not16 firms since the last firm knows that it can not make positive profits. The rest of the solution is straight-forward. Using X=S/n, output per firm is 41,666 units. Using the price equation, and the fact that c=5,000, yields an equilibrium price of $7,000.5.Evaluate the relative importance of economies of scale and comparative advantage incausing the following:a.Most of the world’s aluminum is smelted in Norway or Canada.b.Half of the world’s large jet aircraft are assembled in Seattle.c.Most semiconductors are manufactured in either the United States or Japan.d.Most Scotch whiskey comes from Scotland.e.Much of the world’s best wine comes from France.a. The relatively few locations for production suggest external economies of scale in production. If these operations are large, there may also be large internal economies of scale in production.b. Since economies of scale are significant in airplane production, it tends to be done by a small number of (imperfectly competitive) firms at a limited number of locations. One such location is Seattle, where Boeing produces.c. Since external economies of scale are significant in semiconductor production, semiconductor industries tend to be concentrated in certain geographic locations. If, for some historical reason, a semiconductor is established in a specific location, the export of semiconductors by that country is due to economies of scale and not comparative advantage.d. "True" scotch whiskey can only come from Scotland. The production of scotch whiskey requires a technique known to skilled distillers who are concentrated in the region. Also, soil and climactic conditions are favorable for grains used in local scotch production. This reflects comparative advantage.e. France has a particular blend of climactic conditions and land that is difficult to reproduce elsewhere. This generates a comparative advantage in wine production.6.There are some shops in Japan that sell Japanese goods imported back from the UnitedStates at a discount over the prices charged by other Japanese shops. How is this possible?The Japanese producers employ price discrimination across United States and Japanesemarkets, so that the goods sold in the United States are much cheaper than those sold in Japan. It may be profitable for other Japanese to purchase these goods in the United States, incur any tariffs and transportation costs, and resell the goods in Japan. Clearly, the price differential across markets may lead to such profitable chance.7.Consider a situation similar to that in Figure 6-9, in which two countries that canproduce a good are subject to forward-falling supply curves. In this case, however, suppose that the two countries have the same costs, so that their supply curves are identical.a.What would you expect to be the pattern of international specialization and trade?What would determine who produces the good?QP,CD AC AC External Economics and SpecializationSuppose two countries that can produce a good are subject to forward-falling supply curves and are identical countries with identical curves. If one country starts out as a producer of a good, i.e. it has a head start even as a matter of historical accident, then all production will occur in that particular country and it will export to the rest of the world.b.What are the benefits of international trade in this case? Do they accrue only to thecountry that gets the industry?Consumers in both countries will pay a lower price for this good when externaleconomies are maximized through trade and all production is located in a single market. In the present example, no single country has a natural cost advantage or is worse off than it would be under autarky.8.It is fairly common for an industrial cluster to break up and for production to move tolocations with lower wages when the technology of the industry is no longer rapidly improving—when it is no longer essential to have the absolutely most modern machinery, when the need for highly skilled workers has declined, and when being at the cutting edge of innovation conveys only a small advantage. Explain this tendency of industrial clusters to break up in terms of the theory of external economies.External economies are important for firms as technology changes rapidly and as the“cutting edge” moves quickly with frequent innovations. As this process slows, manufacturing becomes more normal and standard and there is less advantage brought by external economies. Instead, firms look for low cost production locations. Since external economies are no longer important, firms find little advantage in being clustered and it is likely that low-wage locations will be chosen.chapter 81.The import demand equation, MD , is found by subtracting the home supply equation from the home demand equation. This results in MD = 80 - 40 x P. Without trade, domestic pricesand quantities adjust such that import demand is zero. Thus, the price in the absence of trade is 2.2.a.Foreign's export supply curve, XS , is XS = -40 + 40 x P. In the absence of trade, the price is 1.b.When trade occurs export supply is equal to import demand, XS = MD . Thus, using theequations from problems 1 and 2a, P = 1.50, and the volume of trade is 20.3.a.The new MD curve is 80 - 40 x (P+t) where t is the specific tariff rate, equal to 0.5. (Note: in solving these problems you should be careful about whether a specific tariff or ad valorem tariff is imposed. With an ad valorem tariff, the MD equation would be expressed as MD =80-40 x (1+t)P). The equation for the export supply curve by the foreign country is unchanged. Solving, we find that the world price is $1.25, and thus the internal price at home is $1.75. The volume of trade has been reduced to 10, and the total demand for wheat at home has fallen to 65 (from the free trade level of 70). The total demand for wheat in Foreign has gone up from 50 to 55.b.andc. The welfare of the home country is best studied using the combined numerical andgraphical solutions presented below in Figure 8-1.P T =1.7550556070QuantityPrice P W =1.50P T*=1.25where the areas in the figure are:a: 55(1.75-1.50) -.5(55-50)(1.75-1.50)=13.125b: .5(55-50)(1.75-1.50)=0.625c: (65-55)(1.75-1.50)=2.50d: .5(70-65)(1.75-1.50)=0.625e: (65-55)(1.50-1.25)=2.50Consumer surplus change: -(a+b+c+d)=-16.875. Producer surplus change: a=13.125. Government revenue change: c+e=5. Efficiency losses b+d are exceeded by terms of trade gain e. [Note: in the calculations for the a, b, and d areas a figure of .5 shows up. This is because we are measuring the area of a triangle, which is one-half of the area of the rectangle defined by the product of the horizontal and vertical sides.]4. Using the same solution methodology as in problem 3, when the home country is very small relative to the foreign country, its effects on the terms of trade are expected to be much less. The small country is much more likely to be hurt by its imposition of a tariff. Indeed, this intuition is shown in this problem. The free trade equilibrium is now at the price $1.09 and the trade volume is now $36.40.With the imposition of a tariff of 0.5 by Home, the new world price is $1.045, the internal homeprice is $1.545, home demand is 69.10 units, home supply is 50.90 and the volume of trade is 18.20. When Home is relatively small, the effect of a tariff on world price is smaller than when Home is relatively large. When Foreign and Home were closer in size, a tariff of .5 by home lowered world price by 25 percent, whereas in this case the same tariff lowers world price by about 5 percent. The internal Home price is now closer to the free trade price plus t than when Home was relatively large. In this case, the government revenues from the tariff equal 9.10, the consumer surplus loss is 33.51, and the producer surplus gain is 21.089. The distortionary losses associated with the tariff (areas b+d) sum to 4.14 and the terms of trade gain (e) is 0.819. Clearly, in this small country example the distortionary losses from the tariff swamp the terms of trade gains. The general lesson is the smaller the economy, the larger the losses from a tariff since the terms of trade gains are smaller.5. The effective rate of protection takes into consideration the costs of imported intermediate goods. In this example, half of the cost of an aircraft represents components purchased from other countries. Without the subsidy the aircraft would cost $60 million. The European value added to the aircraft is $30 million. The subsidy cuts the cost of the value added to purchasers of the airplane to $20 million. Thus, the effective rate of protection is (30 - 20)/20 = 50%.6. We first use the foreign export supply and domestic import demand curves to determine the new world price. The foreign supply of exports curve, with a foreign subsidy of 50 percent per unit, becomes XS= -40 + 40(1+0.5) x P. The equilibrium world price is 1.2 and the internal foreign price is 1.8. The volume of trade is 32. The foreign demand and supply curves are used to determine the costs and benefits of the subsidy. Construct a diagram similar to that in the text and calculate the area of the various polygons. The government must provide (1.8 - 1.2) x 32 = 19.2 units of output to support the subsidy. Foreign producers surplus rises due to the subsidy by the amount of 15.3 units of output. Foreign consumers surplus falls due to the higher price by7.5 units of the good. Thus, the net loss to Foreign due to the subsidy is 7.5 + 19.2 - 15.3 = 11.4 units of output. Home consumers and producers face an internal price of 1.2 as a result of the subsidy. Home consumers surplus rises by 70 x .3 + .5 (6 x.3) = 21.9 while Home producers surplus falls by 44 x .3 + .5(6 x .3) = 14.1, for a net gain of 7.8 units of output.7. At a price of $10 per bag of peanuts, Acirema imports 200 bags of peanuts. A quota limiting the import of peanuts to 50 bags has the following effects:a.The price of peanuts rises to $20 per bag.b. The quota rents are ($20 - $10) x 50 = $500.c. The consumption distortion loss is .5 x 100 bags x $10 per bag = $500.d. The production distortion loss is .5 x50 bags x$10 per bag = $250.。
克鲁格曼国际经济学答案
CHAPTER 15PRICE LEVELS AND THE EXCHANGE RATE IN THE LONG RUNANSWERS TO TEXTBOOK PROBLEMS1. Relative PPP predicts that inflation differentials are matched by changes in theexchange rate. Under relative PPP, the franc/ruble exchange rate would fall by95 percent with inflation rates of 100 percent in Russia and 5 percent inSwitzerland.2. A real currency appreciation may result from an increase in the demand fornontraded goods relative to tradables which would cause an appreciation of the exchange rate since the increase in the demand for nontradables raises their price, raising the domestic price level and causing the currency to appreciate.In this case exporters are indeed hurt, as one can see by adapting the analysis in Chapter 3. Real currency appreciation may occur for different reasons, however, with different implications for exporters' incomes. A shift in foreign demand in favor of domestic exports will both appreciate the domestic currency in real terms and benefit exporters. Similarly, productivity growth in exports is likely to benefit exporters while causing a real currency appreciation.If we consider a ceterus paribus increase in the real exchange rate, this is typically bad for exporters as their exports are now more expensive to foreigners which may reduce foreign export demand. In general, though, we need to know why the real exchange rate changed to interpret the impact of the change.3. a. A tilt of spending towards nontraded products causes the real exchange rate toappreciate as the price of nontraded goods relative to traded goods rises (the real exchange rate can be expressed as the price of tradables to the price of nontradables).b. A shift in foreign demand towards domestic exports causes an excess demandfor the domestic country's goods which causes the relative price of these goods to rise; that is, it causes the real exchange rate of the domestic country to appreciate.4. Relative PPP implies that the pound/dollar exchange rate should be adjusted tooffset the inflation difference between the United States and Britain during the war. Thus, a central banker might compare the consumer price indices in the United States and the U.K. before and after the war. If America's price level had risen by 10 percent while that in Britain had risen by 20 percent, relative PPP would call for a pound/dollar exchange rate 10 percent higher than before the war--a 10 percent depreciation of the pound against the dollar.A comparison based only on PPP would fall short of the task at hand,however, if it ignored possible changes in productivity, productive capacity or in relative demands for goods produced in different countries in wake of the war. In general, one would expect large structural upheavals as a consequence of the war. For example, Britain's productivity might have fallendramatically as a result of converting factories to wartime uses (and as a result of bombing). This would call for a real depreciation of the pound, that is, a postwar pound/dollar exchange rate more than 10% higher than the prewar rate.5. The real effective exchange rate series for Britain shows an appreciation of thepound from 1977 to 1981, followed by a period of depreciation. Note that the appreciation is sharpest after the increase in oil prices starts in early 1979; the subsequent depreciation is steepest after oil prices soften in 1982. An increase in oil prices increases the incomes received by British oil exporters, raising their demand for goods. The supply response of labor moving into the oil sector is comparable to an increase in productivity which also causes the real exchange rate to appreciate. Of course, a fall in the price of oil has opposite effects. (Oil is not the only factor behind the behavior of the pound's real exchange rate. Instructors may wish to mention the influence of Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher's stringent monetary policies.)6. The announcement puzzle is that interest rates rise when the market learnsmoney supply growth has been higher than expected (and fall in the opposite case), in contrast to what a simple money-market equilibrium analysis might seem to suggest. Were this phenomenon due to higher expected inflation, we would expect to see the dollar depreciate against foreign currencies, since the expectation of future currency depreciation is one result of higher expected inflation. As demonstrated in the previous chapter, a depreciation of the expected future exchange rate causes the spot rate today to depreciate. If, however, nominal rates are higher because the market expects the Fed to adjust for excessive money growth by tightening, then the higher nominal interest rates reflect a decrease in money supply as banks adjust for expected lower high-powered money in the future. In this case, we would expect to see an appreciation of the currency. Thus, the foreign exchange market can help us distinguish between the two competing explanations for the phenomenon. In fact, Engel and Frankel found that in the early 1980s, the dollar tended to appreciate after unexpectedly high monetary growth was announced and depreciate in the opposite case. This implies expectations regarding Fed action are the likely cause of the increase in nominal interest rates.7. A permanent shift in the real money demand function will alter the long-runequilibrium nominal exchange rate, but not the long-run equilibrium real exchange rate. Since the real exchange rate does not change, we can use the monetary approach equation, E = (M/M*)·{L(R*,Y*)/L(R,Y)}. A permanent increase in money demand at any nominal interest rate leads to a proportional appreciation of the long-run nominal exchange rate. Intuitively, the level of prices for any level of nominal balances must be lower in the long run for money market equilibrium. The reverse holds for a permanent decrease in money demand. The real exchange rate, however, depends upon relative prices and productivity terms which are not affected by general price-level changes.8. The mechanism would work through expenditure effects with a permanenttransfer from Poland to The Czech Republic appreciating the zloty (Czech currency) in real terms against the koruna (Polish currency) if (as is reasonableto assume) the Czechs spent a higher proportion of their income on Czech goods relative to Polish goods than did the Poles.9. As discussed in the answer to question 8, the zloty appreciates against thekoruna in real terms with the transfer from Poland to The Czech Republic if the Czechs spend a higher proportion of their income on Czech goods relative to Polish goods than did the Poles. The real appreciation would lead to a nominal appreciation as well.10. Since the tariff shifts demand away from foreign exports and toward domesticgoods, there is a long-run real appreciation of the home currency. Absent changes in monetary conditions, there is a long-run nominal appreciation as well.11. The balanced expansion in domestic spending will increase the amount ofimports consumed in the country that has a tariff in place, but imports cannot rise in the country that has a quota in place. Thus, in the country with the quota, there would be an excess demand for imports if the real exchange rate appreciated by the same amount as in the country with tariffs. Therefore, the real exchange rate in the country with a quota must appreciate by less than in the country with the tariff.12. A permanent increase in the expected rate of real depreciation of the dollaragainst the euro leads to a permanent increase in the expected rate of depreciation of the nominal dollar/euro exchange rate, given the differential in expected inflation rates across the US and Europe. This increase in the expected depreciation of the dollar causes the spot rate today to depreciate. 13. Suppose there is a temporary fall in the real exchange rate in an economy, thatis the exchange rate appreciates today and then will depreciate back to its original level in the future. The expected depreciation of the real exchange rate, by real interest parity, causes the real interest rate to rise. If there is no change in the expected inflation rate then the nominal interest rate rises with the rise in the real exchange rate. This event may also cause the nominal exchange rate to appreciate if the effect of a current appreciation of the real exchange rate dominates the effect of the expected depreciation of the real exchange rate. 14. International differences in expected real interest rates reflect expected changesin real exchange rates. If the expected real interest rate in the United States is 9 percent and the expected real interest rate in Europe is 3 percent then there is an expectation that the real dollar/euro exchange rate will depreciate by 6 percent (assuming that interest parity holds).15. The initial effect of a reduction in the money supply in a model with stickyprices is an increase in the nominal interest rate and an appreciation of the nominal exchange rate. The real interest rate, which equals the nominal interest rate minus expected inflation, rises by more than the nominal interest rate since the reduction in the money supply causes the nominal interest rate to rise and deflation occurs during the transition to the new equilibrium. The real exchange rate depreciates during the transition to the new equilibrium (whereits value is the same as in the original state). This satisfies the real interest parity relationship which states that the difference between the domestic and the foreign real interest rate equals the expected depreciation of the domestic real exchange rate -- in this case, the initial effect is an increase in the real interest rate in the domestic economy coupled with an expected depreciation of the domestic real exchange rate. In any event, the real interest parity relationship must be satisfied since it is simply a restatement of the Fisher equation, which defines the real interest rate, combined with the interest parity relationship, which is a cornerstone of the sticky-price model of the determination of the exchange rate.16. One answer to this question involves the comparison of a sticky-price with aflexible-price model. In a model with sticky prices, a reduction in the money supply causes the nominal interest rate to rise and, by the interest parity relationship, the nominal exchange rate to appreciate. The real interest rate, which equals the nominal interest rate minus expected inflation, increases both because of the increase in the nominal interest rate and because there is expected deflation. In a model with perfectly flexible prices, an increase in expected inflation causes the nominal interest rate to increase (while the real interest rate remains unchanged) and the currency to depreciate since excess money supply is resolved through an increase in the price level and thus, by PPP, a depreciation of the currency.An alternative approach is to consider a model with perfectly flexible prices.As discussed in the preceding paragraph, an increase in expected inflation causes the nominal interest rate to increase and the currency to depreciate, leaving the expected real interest rate unchanged. If there is an increase in the expected real interest rate, however, this implies an expected depreciation of the real exchange rate. If this expected depreciation is due to a current, temporary appreciation, then the nominal exchange rate may appreciate if the effect of the current appreciation (which rotates the exchange rate schedule downward) dominates the effect due to the expected depreciation (which rotates the exchange rate schedule in the upwards).17. Combining the Fisher relationship with the interest parity condition we findthat expected depreciation of the dollar/Swiss franc exchange rate equals the difference between U.S. and Swiss inflation rates less the difference between U.S. and Swiss real interest rates. The question states that the ex post difference between U.S. and Swiss real interest rates was positive between 1976 and 1980. Inspecting the data presented in figure 16-1 in the text demonstrates that U.S. inflation was consistently higher than Swiss inflation over this period. We, thus, expect that this period saw a consistent expected and actual depreciation of the dollar relative to the Swiss franc. Between 1981 and 1982 this pattern reverses with very high real U.S. interest rates, and comparable U.S. and Swiss inflation rates. This corresponds to the beginning of the dramatic appreciation of the dollar in 1981. The actual data are as follows; the average Swiss franc/dollar exchange rate in 1978 was 1.79, for 1979 1.66, for 1980 1.68, for 1981 1.96 and for 1982 2.03. Thus we see an appreciation of the Swiss franc between 1978 and 1980 followed by a dramatic depreciation of the Swiss franc from 1981 to 1982.。
期末复习用 《国际经济学》各章习题及答案
2.答：新古典经济学是 19 世纪 70 年代由“边际革命”开始而形成的一种经济 学流派。它在继承古典经济学经济自由主义的同时，以边际效用价值论代替了 古典经济学的劳动价值论，以需求为核心的分析代替了古典经济学以供给为核 心的分析。新古典学派主要包裹奥地利学派、洛桑学派、剑桥学派。认为边际 效用递减规律是理解经济现象的一个根本基础，利用这一规律可以解释买主面途之间的最佳配置等各种经济问题。
这是，A 国的提供曲线会发生什么变化？
第 3 章复习思考题参考答案 1．答： （1） 5X + 4Y = 20000 。 （2）封闭条件下，此国生产可能性边界的斜率是-5/4=PX/PY。因为 X 的国
际相对价格为 2，所以此国出口 X 进口 Y。出口 1000 个单位的 X 可以换得 2000 个单位的 Y。贸易三角形即可划出。
3.答：不是否定，而是相互补充。 4.答：保罗·克鲁格曼的贡献主要是对贸易模式和经济活动的区位等新贸易 理论的发展。1979 年克鲁格曼在《国际经济学杂志》发表了一篇经典论文《规 模报酬递增、垄断竞争和国际贸易》，论证了资源相似的两国也可以进行国际 贸易，且贸易可以发生在同一行业。克鲁格曼加入了规模经济、消费者喜好消 费的多样性等因素。1991 年克鲁格曼在《政治经济学杂志》上发表了一篇的开
7．自由贸易的利益。A 国稿纸的需求曲线方程为： QD = 350 − 0.5P 。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)课后习题详解
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（第8版）课后习题详解克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)课后习题详解第1章绪论本章不是考试的重点章节，建议读者对本章内容只作大致了解即可，本章没有相关的课后习题。
第1篇国际贸易理论第2章世界贸易概览一、概念题1>(发展中国家(developing countries)答:发展中国家是与发达国家相对的经济上比较落后的国家，又称“欠发达国家”或“落后国家”。
通常指第三世界国家，包括亚洲、非洲、拉丁美洲及其他地区的130多个国家。
衡量一国是否为发展中国家的具体标准有很多种，如经济学家刘易斯和世界银行均提出过界定发展中国家的标准。
一般而言，凡人均收入低于美国人均收入的五分之一的国家就被定义为发展中国家。
比较贫困和落后是发展中国家的共同特点。
2>(服务外包(service outsourcing)答:服务外包是指企业将其非核心的业务外包出去，利用外部最优秀的专业化团队来承接其业务，从而使其专注于核心业务，达到降低成本、提高效率、增强企业核心竞争力和对环境应变能力的一种管理模式。
20世纪90年代以来，随着信息技术的迅速发展，特别是互联网的普遍存在及广泛应用，服务外包得到蓬勃发展。
从美国到英国，从欧洲到亚洲，无论是中小企业还是跨国公司，都把自己有限的资源集中于公司的核心能力上而将其余业务交给外部专业公司，服务外包成为“发达经济中不断成长的现象”。
3>(引力模型(gravity model)答:丁伯根和波伊赫能的引力模型基本表达式为:其中，是国与国的贸易额，为常量，是国的国内生产总值，是国的国内生产总值，是两国的距离。
、、三个参数是用来拟合实际的经济数据。
引力模型方程式表明:其他条件不变的情况下，两国间的贸易规模与两国的GDP成正比，与两国间的距离成反比。
把整个世界贸易看成整体，可利用引力模型来预测任意两国之间的贸易规模。
另外，引力模型也可以用来明确国际贸易中的异常现象。
4>(第三世界(third world)答:第三世界这个名词原本是指法国大革命中的Third Estate(第三阶级)。
国际经济学克鲁格曼教材答案完整版
国际经济学克鲁格曼教材答案HUA system office room 【HUA16H-TTMS2A-HUAS8Q8-HUAH1688】Problems and Answers to Chapter 2Q1: Canada and Australia are (mainly) English-speaking countries with populations that are not too different in size (Canada’s is 60 percent larger). But Canadian trade is twice as large, relative to GDP, as Australia’s. Why should this be the case加拿大和澳大利亚都是英语国家，两国的人口规模也相当（加拿大多60%），但是相对各自的GDP而言，加拿大的贸易额是澳大利亚的两倍，为什么如此？A1:According to Gravity Model, GDP is not the only factor to explain the volume oftrade between two countries, because distance is also an important factor. Consideringthe distance, the transportation cost of Australia is relatively higher than that ofCanada, so the attractiveness of trade is reduced. However, Canada is close to theUSA which is a large economy while Australia is not close to any large economy,making Canada more open while Australia is more autarky.GDP 不是解释两国贸易量的唯一重要因素，距离也是至关重要的因素之一。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)课后习题详解
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（第8版）课后习题详解克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)课后习题详解第1章绪论本章不是考试的重点章节，建议读者对本章内容只作大致了解即可，本章没有相关的课后习题。
第1篇国际贸易理论第2章世界贸易概览一、概念题1>(发展中国家(developing countries)答:发展中国家是与发达国家相对的经济上比较落后的国家，又称“欠发达国家”或“落后国家”。
通常指第三世界国家，包括亚洲、非洲、拉丁美洲及其他地区的130多个国家。
衡量一国是否为发展中国家的具体标准有很多种，如经济学家刘易斯和世界银行均提出过界定发展中国家的标准。
一般而言，凡人均收入低于美国人均收入的五分之一的国家就被定义为发展中国家。
比较贫困和落后是发展中国家的共同特点。
2>(服务外包(service outsourcing)答:服务外包是指企业将其非核心的业务外包出去，利用外部最优秀的专业化团队来承接其业务，从而使其专注于核心业务，达到降低成本、提高效率、增强企业核心竞争力和对环境应变能力的一种管理模式。
20世纪90年代以来，随着信息技术的迅速发展，特别是互联网的普遍存在及广泛应用，服务外包得到蓬勃发展。
从美国到英国，从欧洲到亚洲，无论是中小企业还是跨国公司，都把自己有限的资源集中于公司的核心能力上而将其余业务交给外部专业公司，服务外包成为“发达经济中不断成长的现象”。
3>(引力模型(gravity model)答:丁伯根和波伊赫能的引力模型基本表达式为:其中，是国与国的贸易额，为常量，是国的国内生产总值，是国的国内生产总值，是两国的距离。
、、三个参数是用来拟合实际的经济数据。
引力模型方程式表明:其他条件不变的情况下，两国间的贸易规模与两国的GDP成正比，与两国间的距离成反比。
把整个世界贸易看成整体，可利用引力模型来预测任意两国之间的贸易规模。
另外，引力模型也可以用来明确国际贸易中的异常现象。
4>(第三世界(third world)答:第三世界这个名词原本是指法国大革命中的Third Estate(第三阶级)。
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
Chapter Organization
What is International Economics About?
The Gains from Trade
The Pattern of Trade
Protectionism
The Balance of Payments
Exchange-Rate Determination
International Policy Coordination
The International Capital Market
International Economics: Trade and Money
CHAPTER OVERVIEW
The intent of this chapter is to provide both an overview of the subject matter of international economics and to provide a guide to the organization of the text. It is relatively easy for an instructor to motivate the study of international trade and finance. The front pages of newspapers, the covers of magazines, and the lead reports of television news broadcasts herald the interdependence of the U.S. economy with the rest of the world. This interdependence may also be recognized by students through their purchases of imports of all sorts of goods, their personal observations of the effects of dislocations due to international competition, and their experience through travel abroad.
The study of the theory of international economics generates an understanding of many key events that shape our domestic and international environment. In recent history, these events include the causes and consequences of the large current account deficits of the United States; the dramatic appreciation of the dollar during the first half of the 1980s followed by its rapid depreciation in the second half of the 1980s; the Latin American debt crisis of the 1980s and the Mexico crisis in late 1994; and the increased pressures for industry protection against foreign competition broadly voiced in the late 1980s and more vocally espoused in the first half of the 1990s. Most recently, the financial crisis that began in East Asia in 1997 and
spread to many countries around the globe and the Economic and Monetary Union in Europe have highlighted the way in which various national economies are linked and how important it is for us to understand these connections. At the same time, protests at global economic meetings have highlighted opposition to globalization. The text material will enable students to understand the economic context in which such events occur.
Chapter 1 of the text presents data demonstrating the growth in trade and increasing importance of international economics. This chapter also highlights and briefly discusses seven themes which arise throughout the book. These themes include: 1) the gains from trade;
2) the pattern of trade; 3) protectionism; 4), the balance of payments; 5) exchange rate determination; 6) international policy coordination; and 7) the international capital market. Students will recognize that many of the central policy debates occurring today come under the rubric of one of these themes. Indeed, it is often a fruitful heuristic to use current events to illustrate the force of the key themes and arguments which are presented throughout the text.。