川大语言学考博真题
2010年四川大学英语专业(语言学)真题试卷答案
一、名词解释1 【正确答案】 Language as interaction involves not just vocal behavior but many kinds of behavior and to engage in face-to-face communication is to co-monitor with the other person on a behavioral continuum along which a succession of integrated events can be expected to occur.【试题解析】 (考查语言交际论的定义)2 【正确答案】 It refers to the use of language for the sheer joy of using it, such as singing or poetry writing.【试题解析】 (考查语言的娱乐功能)3 【正确答案】 Universal grammar holds that there are certain fundamental grammatical ideas which all humans possess without having to learn them, which acts as a way to explain how language acquisition works in humans by showing the most basic rules that all languages have to follow.【试题解析】 (考查普遍语法的定义)4 【正确答案】 Fricative consonant is produced when there is close approximation of two articulators so that the airstream is partially obstructed and turbulent airflow is produced, which includes[f],[v],[θ], and so on.【试题解析】 (考查摩擦音的定义)5 【正确答案】 IC analysis, short for Immediate Constituent Analysis, refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents—word groups(or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached.【试题解析】 (考查直接成分分析法)6 【正确答案】 Conceptual meaning, also called denotative meaning, involves the relationship between a linguistic unit and the nonlinguistic entities to which it refers. Forexample, a desk is a piece of furniture with a flat top and four legs, at which one reads and writes; and a dog is an animal kept as a pet, for guarding buildings, or for hunting.【试题解析】 (考查概念意义)7 【正确答案】 Radiation is a semantic process in which the primary meaning stands at the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it in every direction like rays. The meanings are independent of one another, but can all be traced back to the central meaning. For example, the primary meaning of the word "neck" is that part of a man or animal jointing the head to the body, but it can also mean the neck of an animal used as food. Therefore, we can say "neck" has developed through the process of radiation. Another example is the word " head". In the phrases like the head of a school, to come to a head, the word " head" has different meanings, but they all derive from special application of the central idea of head as a part of the body.【试题解析】 (考查词义辐射)8 【正确答案】 Performative verbs are verbs carried out simply by means of uttering them aloud. The uttering of the verbs is, or is a part of, the doing of the action. Performative verbs include "promise" ,"invite" /'apologize" , and so on. For example, when a judge sentences someone to jail time, the action is completed when he or she says, "I hereby sentence you to five years in prison," or in sentences like "I name this ship the Queen Elizabeth. "【试题解析】 (考查施为性动词)9 【正确答案】 Conversational implicature is proposed by H. P. Grice. It refers to a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims. In this sense, implicature is comparable to illocutionary force in speech act theory in that they are both concerned with the contextual side of meaning, or 言外之意 in Chinese. For example, the sentence "Mary had a baby and got married" strongly suggests that Mary had the baby before the wedding, but the sentence would still be strictly true if Mary had her baby after she got married. To make it clearer, we can see another Chinese examplein a film. A boy says to a girl “你不戴眼镜时很漂亮”, and the girl immediately responds “我戴眼镜时一定很丑了”. Now the boy may have reason to deny that the girl's interpretation is what he said. But he may not be able to deny in all fairness that this is, at least partly, what he implied.【试题解析】 (考查会话含义理论)10 【正确答案】 Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis suggests that our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express our unique ways of understanding the world. The hypothesis has two important points, linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity. The principle of linguistic relativity holds that the structure of a language affects the ways in which its speakers are able to conceptualize their world, i. e. their world view. One of the examples is that there are many words for "snow" in the Inuit language, and the other example is that there are many words for "horse" in the Mongolian language.【试题解析】 (考查语言相对论)二、词汇题11 【正确答案】assets→asset12 【正确答案】 burgl ar→burgle13 【正确答案】enthusiasm→enthuse14 【正确答案】greedy→greed15 【正确答案】hushed→hush16 【正确答案】automation→automate17 【正确答案】donation→donate18 【正确答案】escalator→escalate19 【正确答案】homesickness→homesick20 【正确答案】amusingly→amusing三、简答题21 【正确答案】 We have to teach culture in the language classroom because language is an indispensable carrier of culture. Culture finds a better representation through language use. A joint study of these two subjects will definitely broaden the horizon of the students' knowledge and enhance the study of language. The correlation highlights the pursuit of the relationship between the two.(2 points)Therefore, we have to keep in mind that it is a rather difficult job to know another culture. At the same time, we have to realize the fascinating role of cultural knowledge in language teaching.(1 point)In language teaching, we have to get the students familiar with cultural differences; to help the students transcend their own culture and see things as the members of the target culture will; and to emphasize the inseparability of understanding language and understanding culture through various classroom practices. All in all, successful mastery of a given language has much to do with an understanding of that culture.(2 points)【试题解析】考查文化在外语教学中的重要意义。
2013年四川大学英语专业(语言学)真题试卷答案
一、名词解释1 【正确答案】 Descriptive adequacy is achieved when a grammar not only produces correct explanations for raw linguistic data, but also produces correct explanations for the linguistic competence of the speaker and hearer.【试题解析】 (考查描述充分性)2 【正确答案】 Textual function refers to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text.【试题解析】 (考查语篇功能)3 【正确答案】 Illocutionary act refers to an utterance that accomplishes something in the act of speaking something.【试题解析】 (考查行事行为)4 【正确答案】 Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs have no natural relationship, while motivation refers to the extent to which the individual worksor strives to learn the language because of a desire to do so and the satisfaction experienced in this activity.【试题解析】 (考查语言的任意性和二语习得的动机)5 【正确答案】 Ideal speaker refers to the speaker who has mastered and internalized the linguistic rules of his native language, or in other words, a speaker of a language who has the ability to speak and understand the language in a grammatically-correct manner.【试题解析】 (考查理想说话者的定义)6 【正确答案】 Bound morpheme refers to those morphemes which cannot occur alone, such as the plural morpheme"-s"in "cats" and the negative morpheme "dis-" in "dislike".【试题解析】 (考查粘着语素)7 【正确答案】 Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words. For example, "breakfast" + "lunch"→"brunch" , "smoke" + "fog"→"smog".【试题解析】 (考查混成法)8 【正确答案】 Language use can be formal, neutral and casual in style. The stylistic features of words, which make words appropriate for appropriate situations, constitute stylistic meanings of words. For example, "father" is more formal than "dad" and "friend" is more formal than "buddy".【试题解析】 (考查文体含义)9 【正确答案】 Loanword refers to the process in which both form and meaning of the words are borrowed from other languages, with only a slight adaptation. For example, English borrowed "tea" from Chinese, "sputnik" from Russian.【试题解析】 (考查借词)10 【正确答案】 Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form. For example, different words may be identical in sound or spelling, or both. Such as "meet"—"meat", "pupil"(student)—"pupil"(the small round black area at the center of the eye).【试题解析】 (考查同音／同形异义现象)二、简答题11 【正确答案】 1．他喜欢假装自己是电子方面的专家。
四川大学古代文学考博试题
四川大学2010年攻读博士学位研究生入学考试试题一、分别指出下列文句、诗句、词句所属作者和篇（书）名。
（10分）1，桑之未落，其叶沃若。
于嗟鸠兮，无食桑葚。
于嗟女兮，无与士耽。
2，朝晦不知晦朔，蟪蛄不知春秋，此小年也。
楚之南有冥灵者，以五百岁为春，五百岁为秋；上古有大椿树，以八千岁为春，八千岁为秋，此大年也。
3，日出东南隅，照我秦氏楼。
秦氏有好女，自名为罗敷。
4，被褐出阊阖，高步追许由。
振动千仞冈，濯足万里流。
5，夫天地者，万物之逆旅也；光阴者，百代之过客也。
6，香稻啄馀鹦鹉粒，碧梧栖老凤凰枝。
7，文起八代之衰，道济天下之溺，忠犯人主之怒，而勇夺三军之帅。
8，长条故惹行客，似牵衣待话，别情无极。
9，碧云天，黄花地，西风紧，北雁南飞。
晓来谁染霜林醉，总是离人泪。
10，玉树歌残秋露，胭脂井坏寒蛰泣。
到如今只有蒋山青，秦淮碧。
二，简答题（20分，每小题10分）1，什么叫“四六”？结合苏轼等人作品简要谈谈宋四六的艺术特点。
2，宋代有哪几部诗话总集？试说出书名、编撰者、编排体例和文献价值。
三，论述题（任选一题，50分）1，阅读刘子健《略论南宋的重要性》两段话并根据提问说出你的看法。
（1）中国近八百年的文化，是以南宋为领导的模式，以江浙一带为重心。
（2）以这重心领导的文化模式，虽然起源于北宋，可是北宋在生长中，变化中，到南宋才又改变加定型。
问题：这两个相关的论断是否合理？南宋文化是否属于这一文化模式？宋代文学发展是否与这一文化模式发展同步？2，阅读刘再复《双典阅读笔记》两段话并根据提问说出你的看法：（1）终于意识到和《水浒传》的逻辑划清界限，和《三国演义》的逻辑划清界限，才有灵魂的健康，无论是对于自己还是自己出生的民族，都是如此。
（2）《水浒传》与《三国演义》是压在中国人身上心上的大山。
问题：刘再复所说的《水浒传》和《三国演义》的逻辑分别指向什么？“双典”为何如“大山”？你如何理解“双典”？2009年中国古代文学一，分别指出下列文、诗、词、曲句所属作者和篇（书）名。
四川大学考博英语真题及答案精编版
2014年四川大学考博英语入学考试试题考生请注意：1．本试题共5大题，共12页，请考生注意检查，考试时间为180分钟。
2．1-70题答案请填写在机读卡相应处，否则不给分。
3．翻译和作文请答在答题纸上，答在试题上不给分。
书写要求字迹清楚、工整。
I．Reading Comprehension (30%; one mark each)Directions: Read the following six passages. Answer the questions below each passage by choosing [A], [B], [C], or [D]. Write your answers on the Answer Sheet.Passage OneIn general, our society is becoming one of giant enterprises directed by a bureaucratic management in which man becomes a small, well-oiled cog in the machinery. The oiling is done with higher wages, Nell-ventilated factories and piped music, and by psychologists and “human-relations” experts; yet all this oiling does not alter the fact that man has become powerless, that he is bored with it. In fact, the blue and the white-collar workers have become economic puppets who dance to the tune of automated machines and bureaucratic management.The worker and employee are anxious, not only because they might find themselves out of a job; they are anxious also because they are unable to acquire any real satisfaction of interesting life. They live and die without ever having confronted the fundamental realities of human existence as emotionally and intellectually independent and productive human beings.Those higher up on the social ladder are no less anxious. Their lives are no less empty than those of their subordinates. They are even more insecure in some respects. They are in a highly competitive race. To be promoted or to fall behind is not a matter of salary but even more a matter of self-respect. When they apply for their first job, they are tested for intelligence as well as for the right mixture of submissiveness and independence. From the moment on they are tested again and again-by the psychologists, for whom testing is a big business, and by their superiors, who judge their behavior, sociability, capacity to get along, etc. This constant needto prove that one is as good as or better than one’s fellow-competitor creates constant anxiety and stress, the very causes of unhappiness and illness.Am I suggesting that we should return to the preindustrial mode of productionor to nineteenth-century “free enterprise” capitalism? Certainly not. Problems the never solved by returning to a stage which one has already outgrown. I suggest transforming our social system form, a bureaucratically managed industrialism in which maxima, production and consumption are ends in themselves, into a humanistindustrialism in which man and full development of his potentialities-those of all love and of reason-are the aims of social arrangements. Production and consumption should serve only as means to this end and should be prevented from ruling man.1. By “a well-oiled cog in the machinery” the author intends to deliver the idea that man is ____.[A] a necessary part of the society though each individual’s function is negligible[B] working in complete harmony with the rest of the society[C] an unimportant part in comparison with the rest of the society[D] a humble component of the society, especially when working smoothly2. The real cause of the anxiety of the workers and employees is that ____.[A] they are likely to lose their jobs[B] they have no genuine satisfaction or interest in life[C] they are faced with the fundamental realities of human existence[D] they are deprived of their individuality and independence3. From the passage we can conclude that real happiness of life belongs to those____.[A] who are at the bottom of the society[B] who are higher up in their social status[C] who prove better than their fellow-competitors[D] who could dip fir away from this competitive world4. To solve the present social problems the author puts forward a suggestion that we should ____.[A] resort to the production mode of our ancestors[B] offer higher wages to the workers and employees[C] enable man to fully develop his potentialities[D] take the fundamental realities for granted5. The author’s attitude towards industrialism might best be summarized as one of ____.[A] approval [B] dissatisfaction[C] suspicion [D] susceptibilityPassage TwoThe government-run command post in Tunis is staffed around the clock by military personnel, meteorologists and civilians. On the wall are maps, crisscrossed with brightly colors arrows that painstakingly track the fearsome path of the enemy.What kind of invader gives rise to such high-level monitoring? Not man, not beast, but the lowly desert locust（蝗虫）. In recent moths, billions of the 3-inch-long winged warriors have descended on Algeria, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia, blackening the sky and eating up crops and vegetation. The insect invasion, the worst in 30 years, is already creating great destruction in the Middle East and is now treating southern Europe. The current crisis began in late 1985 near the Red Sea. Unusually rainy weather moistened the sands of the Sudan, making them ideal breeding grounds for the locust, which lays its eggs in the earth. The insect onslaught threatens to create yet another African famine. Each locust can eat its weight (not quite a tenth of an ounce) in vegetation every 24 hours. A good-size swarm of 50 billion insects eats up 100,000 tons of grass, trees and crops in a single night.All $150 million may be needed this year. The U.S. has provided two spraying planes and about 50,000 gal. of pesticide. The European Community has donated $3.8 million in aid and the Soviet Union, Canada, Japan and China have provided chemical-spraying aircraft to help wipe out the pests. But relief efforts are hampered by the relative mildness of approved pesticides, which quickly lose their deadly punch and require frequent replications. The most effective locust killer Dieldrin has been linked to cancer and is banned by many Western countries and some of the affected African nations. More than 5 million acres have been dusted with locust-killing chemicals; another 5 million will be treated by the end of June.On May 30, representatives of Tunisia, Algeria, Libya, Morocco and Mauritania will meet in Algiers to discuss tactics to wipe out the ravenous swarms. The move is an important step, but whatever plan is devised, the locust plague promised to get worse before the insects can be brought under control.6. The main idea of the first sentence in the passage is that ____.[A] the command post is stationed with people all the time.[B] the command post is crowded with people all the time.[C] there are clocks around the command post.[D] the clock in the command post is taken care of by the staff.7. The favorable breeding ground for the locust is ____.[A] rich soil.[B] wet land[C] spaces covered crops and vegetation[D] the Red Sea8. People are alert at the threat of the locust because ____.[A] the insects are likely to create another African famine.[B] the insects may blacken the sky.[C] the number of the insects increases drastically.[D] the insects are gathering and moving in great speed.9. Which of the following is true?[A] Once the pesticides are used, locust will die immediately.[B] Relief efforts are proved most fruitful due to the effectiveness of certain pesticides.[C] Dieldrin, the most effective locust killer, has been widely accepted in many countries.[D] Over 10 million acres of affected area will have been treated with locust-killingchemicals by the end of June.10. The purpose for affected nations to meet in Algiers on May 30 is ____.[A] to devise antilocust plans.[B] to wipe out the swarms in two years.[C] to call out for additional financial aid from other nations.[D] to bring the insects under control before the plague gets worse.Passage ThreeThe London 2012 sustainability watchdog embroiled in a row over the sports ship of the Olympic Stadium by Dow Chemical is to push the International Olympic Committee to appoint an “ethics champion” for future Games.The Commission for a Sustainable London 2012 has been bruised by criticism over Dow’s sponsorship of the wrap that will surround the Olympic stadium, particularly since commissioner Meredith Alexander last month resigned in protest.Campaigners believe that Dow has ongoing liabilities relating to the 1984 Bhopal disaster that resulted in the deaths of an estimated 20,000 people and the serious injury of tens of thousands more. Dow, which bought the owner of the plant in 2001, insists that all liabilities have been settled in full.Commission chairman Shaun McCarthy said that its tight sustainability remit did not extend to acting as moral guardian of the Olympic movement but that it would press for such a role to be created when evaluating sponsors for future Games.In addition to sponsoring the 7m pounds wrap that will surround the Olympic Stadium, Dow has a separate 100m dollars sponsorship deal with the IOC that was signed in 2010.But McCarthy also defended the commission’s role in evaluating the Dow deal, after Amnesty International wrote to London 2012 chairman Lord Coe to raise the issue.“What has been lost in all of this story is that a really excellent, sustainable product has been procured, we looked at Locog’s examination of Dow Chemical’s current corporate responsibility policies and, again, Dow achieved that highest score in that evaluation. We verified that.” said McCarthy.“As far as the history is concerned and issues around Bhopal, there is no doubt Bhopal was a terrible disaster and snore injustice was done to the victims. Who is responsible for that injustice is a matter for the courts and a matter for others. We have a specific remit and terms of reference that we operate under and we have operated diligently under those terms.”The commission will on Thursday release its annual review. It finds that “good press” has been made to wands many of Locog’s sustainability target, but that “major challenges” remain.In particular, the commission found that there was no coherent strategy to achieve a 20% reduction in carbon emissions after an earlier scheme to use renewable energy feel through when a wind turbine on the site proved impractical.“We had conversations with Locog over a year ago about this and said they had to demonstrate how they were going to achieve at least 20% carbon reductions through energy conservation if they’re not going to do it through renewable energy,”said McCarthy. “There are some good initiatives, but quite frankly they just haven’t done it.”11. Why was Dow’s sponsorship criticized according to the passage?[A] The products are not sustainable.[B] It was related to Bhopal disaster.[C] It bribed the London Olympic committee.[D] It can’t reduce 20% of the carbon emission.12. What is Paragraph 4 mainly about?[A] Commission’s role[B] Commission’s achievements[C] Commission’s complaints[D] Commission’s defense13. Which of the following words can best replace the underlined word “row” (Para.1)?[A] line [B] argument[C] boating [D] course14. What is one of the challenges of the sustainability target mentioned in the passage?[A] Ethic champion of the games.[B] Reduction in carbon emissions.[C] The wind turbine proved to be impractical.[D] Renewable energy is not available.15. Which of the following can best summarize the passage?[A] Commission defends its own role in evaluating controversial.[B] Dow’s way to the 2012 London Olympic Games.[C] Campaign against Dow’s sponsorship.[D] IOC’s review on the controversy.Passage FourAs Facebook dominates the news with its initial public offering, activists are seizing the moment to pressure the company to add some estrogen and ethnicity to its white-male board.A women’s rights group called Ultraviolet, which has been running an online petition that claims to have attracted more than 50,000 signatures, is escalating its push, posting a new YouTube video called “Do Women Have a Future at Facebook?”. The video shows photos of successful women such as Hillary Clinton getting their heads cropped off the replaced with the smiling face of Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg.“Facebook has grown off the backs of women, who make up the majority of its users and are responsible for the majority of sharing and fan activity on the site,” the group says in a blurb accompanying the video. An all-male board, the group says, is “not just wrong, it’s bad for business”. A related campaign, called Face It, criticizes the lack of ethnic diversity on the seven-member board. “seven white men: That’s ridiculous,” the group says on its homepage, along side headshots of the men. The campaign, which lists dozens of human-rights groups and corporate executives as supporters, also has its own YouTube video. Called “Face it, Facebook”, the video cites a recent Zuckerberg letter to investors that says:“Facebook was not originally created to be a company. It was built to accomplish a social mission-to make the world more open and connected.”That message is at odds with the pale-faced board, activists say. Susan Stautberg, co-chairwoman of Women Corporate Directors, an organization for female corporate board members, says Zuckerberg’s thinking is flawed. “If you’re trying to expand a company globally, then you want someone on the board who has built a global brand,” she says. “Most of these guys on Facebook’s board all have the same skills-they’re mostly from Silicon Valley and Washington. You want someone who has worked in China and India and rising markets. You want someone who has marketedto women. When you’re putting together a board, you don’t want your best friends, you want the best people.”Having zero female directors does not appear to be a good business plan, research shows. Companies with women on the board perform substantially better than companies with all-mall boards, according to a 2011 study of Fortune 500 companies conducted by the research group Catalyst. The study showed that over the course of four to five years, companies with three or more female board members, on average, outperformed companies with no female board members by 84 percent when it came to return on sales and by 60 percent when it came to return on invested capital.Facebook may secretly be on the lookout for a female board member, according to a recent Bloomberg report. Citing unnamed sources, Bloomberg said Facebook had enlisted the corporate-recruitment firm Spencer Stuart to help seek some diversity. Spencer Stuary says it does not comment on clients due to confidentiality agreements.16. Which of the following descriptions is CORRECT about the Ultraviolet Group?[A] It is a non-government organization.[B] It is appealing for “more female roles in big corporations like Facebook” throughthe Internet.[C] It has the support of many female celebrities such as Hillary Clinton.[D] It is getting more and more support from the society.17. Which of the following descriptions is INCORRECT about the campaign “Face It”?[A] It pointed out the irrational composition of Facebook’s board of directors.[B] The campaign has plenty of human-rights supporters.[C] It indicated the original objective of Zuckerberg’s establishment of Facebook.[D] It is constantly using other media devices to support Facebook.18. The underlined phrase “at odds with” in the fourth paragraph has the closest meaning of ____.[A] against all odds [B] supported by[C] disagree with [D] waifs and strays19. According to Susan Stauberg, a well-performed business should _____.[A] have a complex system of management.[B] possess the most market globally.[C] have your best and close friends as your board members.[D] have a diverse board member in which everyone has his/her own specialtiesand can contribute different skills into the corporation.20. What will probably happen to Facebook?[A] The corporation will turn to Spencer Stuart for recruiting more female board members.[B] The corporation will dominate the news because its worldwide popularity.[C] The corporation will gradually lose its users because it does not have femaleboard members.[D] None of the above.Passage FiveFor this generation of young people, the future looks bleak. Only one in six is working full time. Three out of five live with their parents or other relatives. A large majority-73 percent-think they need more education to find a successful career, but only half of those say they will definitely enroll in the next few years. No, they are not the idle youth of Greece or Spain or Egypt. They are the youth of America, the world’s richest country, who do not have college degrees and aren’t getting them anytime soon. Whatever the sob stories about recent college graduates spinning their wheels as baristas or clerks, the situation for their less-educated peers is far worse. For this group, finding work that pays a living wage and offers some sense of security has been elusive.Despite the continuing national conversation about whether college is worth it given the debt burden it entails, most high school graduates without college degrees said they believe they would be unable to get good jobs without more education.Getting it is challenging, though, and not only because of formidable debt levels. Ms. McClour and her husband, Andy, have two daughters under 3 and another due next month. She said she tried enrolling in college classes, but the workload became too stressful with such young children. Mr. McClour works at a gas station. He hates his work and wants to study phlebotomy, but the nearest school is an hour and half away.Many of these young people had been expecting to go to college since they started high school, perhaps anticipating that employers would demand skills high schools do not teach. Just one in ten high school graduates without college degrees said they were “extremely well prepared by their high school to succeed in their job after graduation.” These young people worried about getting left behind and were pessimistic about reaching some of the milestones that make up the American dream. More than half-56 percent-of high school graduates without college diplomas said that their generation would have less financial success than their parents. About the same share believed they would find work that offered health insurance within that time frame. Slightly less than half of respondents said the next few years would bring work with good job security or a job with earnings that were high “enough to lead a comfortable life”. They were similarly pessimistic about being able to start a family or buy a home.The online survey was conducted between March 21 and April 2, and covered a nationally representative survey of 544 high school graduates from the classes of 2006-11 who did not have bachelor’s degrees. The margin of sampling error wasplus or minus 5 percentage points.21. What does the underlined phrase “spinning their wheels” mean in Paragraph 1?[A] fastening the pace [B] confusing the situation[C] asking for help [D] scooting out22. What will the high school graduates probably do according to the article?[A] Find jobs right after graduation.[B] Receive further study in college.[C] Go to join the national conversation.[D] Pay for the debt.23. What does the story of “Andy and Ms. McClour” try to inform us?[A] They both prefer making money to education.[B] Colleges do not accept students who are married and have children.[C] Although people are eager to join in the college, life burden may block in the way.[D] None of the above.24. What is the financial outlook for this generation compared with their parents?[A] They have a prosperous outlook compared with the last generation.[B] Their financial situation is not as successful as their parents.[C] It depends on how hard they work and their educational background.[D] Not mentioned in the article.25. What can we infer from the last sentence?[A] The online survey is done nationally.[B] The result of the survey is completely trustworthy.[C] There is more or less inaccuracy of the survey.[D] The survey will have a continuous part coming soon.Passage SixSome 60 years ago, George Orwell wrote an allegorical novel, called Nineteen Eighty-Four, to describe life in a futuristic Britain under a one party police-sate presided over by an all-powerful figure known as Big Brother. One of the fealures of the nasty world described by Orwell was its systematic misuse of language, which went by the name of “Newspeak”. By re-defining words and endlessly repeating them, the Ministry of Truth through the Thought Police was able to control what people thought, and through that, their actions. Language was instrumental in destroying the culture.The same technique is being used by different people today, with similar effects. In all areas of public administration, the words “spouse”, “husband” and “wife” have been replace by the word “partner”, although the words are subtly but substantially different in meaning, and convey different realities. In some schools and university departments, feminist ideologues have dictated that the personal pronoun “he” must not be used, and is replaced by the word “they”, which means something different. The word “homophobic”, which just a few years ago was used to describe a person who supported vigilante action against homosexuals, is now being used to describe anyone who defends the universal definition of marriage.Although the transformation of language is seen most obviously around social issues, it is also being used systematically to shape political debate. So, we are told that the federal government is introducing a Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme, which is newspeak for its new carbon tax. The fact is that the new tax is not remotely concerned with “carbon pollution” at all, but rather with emissions of the gas CO2 which is not a pollutant by any credible definition, but rather, an essential building block in every cell in every living plant and creature. By the government’s own admission, it will not lead to any reduction in CO2 levels, either in Australia or globally. And the Carbon Pollution Reduction Scheme is being introduced in Australia at the same time the government is expanding exports of coal, which is virtually 100 percent carbon, to countries such as China.We live in a society in which the ordinary meaning of words is being systematically manipulated by spin-doctors and ideologues, as a means of changing the way people think, and, more fundamentally, the way they act. Language is an important part of the culture wars. For those of us who see this as a challenge to the foundations of society, it is important that we identify the problem and expose it.It is clearly preferable to avoid using the new debased, transformed language of the politically-correct left, although this can be difficult in situations where constant usage has already normalized it, as has happened with the term “same-sex marriage”. The alternative phrase, “same-sex unions”, has a different meaning. When such terms are used, they should be identified for what they are: a form of linguistic dishonesty, designed to undermine existing institutions and transform them.26. Which of the following descriptions is INCORRECT about George Orwell’s allegorical novel Nineteen Eighty-Four?[A] It describes a story that happens in the future.[B] One of the features in the novel is the misuse of language.[C] It is the most famous detective novel in the world.[D] It was written in the 20th century.27. Which of the following is NOT mentioned as an example of misuse of language?[A] Feminists insist “he” be replaced by “they”.[B] “Partner” has taken the place of “husband” and “wife”.[C] “Homophobic” is now being employed to refer to defend conventionalunderstanding of marriage.[D] The meaning of “literacy” is no longer restricted to the ability to read and write.28. The example of carbon pollution is used to illustrate _______.[A] transformation of language is usually seen in social issues.[B] transformation of language is also tracked in political debate.[C] transformation of language is generated in the age of information.[D] transformation of language is legitimate to a certain extent.29. The underlined word “credible” in Para. 3 means ______.[A] reliable [B] correct[C] beneficial [D] provable30. According to the passage, transformed language serves to _______.[A] make people sound fashionable[B] change the way people think and act[C] eliminate discrimination against minorities[D] None of the aboveII. Vocabulary (10%; 0.5 mark each)31. The town was flooded when the river burst its banks. To make it worse, thestorm _____ outside.[A] raided [B]ragged [C] raged [D]reaped32. My new laptop can _____ information much more quickly than my old computer.[A] proceed [B] precede [C] produce [D] process33. The country’s failure to abide by the Kyoto Protocol was _____ in all newspapers.[A] announced [B] denounced [C] renounced [D] trounced34. The company has _____ over three decades into a multi-million dollar organization.[A] evolved [B] revolved [C] involved [D] devolved35. We would like to _____ our customers of the best possible service.[A] assure [B] ensure [C] insure [D] ensue36. The government has promised to offer 10 million of emergency food aid to help______ the famine in this region.[A] release [B] relate [C] reveal [D]relieve37. The course _____ two years’ training into six intensive months.[A] impresses [B] compresses [C] depresses [D] represses38. Make sure you pour the juice into the glass without _____ it.[A] splitting [B] spilling [C] spinning [D] spitting39. The vast majority of people in any culture _____ to the established standard of that culture.[A] confine [B] conform [C] confront [D] confirm40. Tom pointed out that the living standard of urban and _____ people continued to improve.[A] remote [B] municipal [C] rural [D] provincial41. The Egyptians _____ an area almost equal to France and Spain combined.[A] dwell [B] settle [C] reside [D] inhabit42. I’m going to have to take these clothes off, for I’m _____ to the skin![A] dipped [B] soaked [C] immersed [D] submerged43. The WHO has to come up with new and effective measures to _____ his nextmove in the game.[A] limit [B] cut [C] curb [D] keep44. My grandfather sat back in his chair for a few minutes to _____ his next move in the game.[A] think [B] ponder [C] reflect [D] dwell45. At this school we aim to _____ the minds of all the students by reading.[A] cultivate [B] instruct [C] teach [D] coach46. Most doctors _____ on a diet which contains a lot of fat.[A] criticize [B] object [C] oppose [D] frown47. Since you intend to sell your house, how will you _____ of all the furniture?[A] disapprove [B] discard [C] dispose [D] disregard48. The politicians were discussing the best way to _____ democracy and prosperityin their country.[A] hinder [B] foster [C] linger [D] quote49. Only one member of the committee _____ from the final report.[A] dissented [B] crawled [C] whispered [D] redeemed50. We always try to _____ him with financial assistance if necessary.[A] dazzle [B] sanction [C] accommodate [D] terminateIII. Cloze (10%; 0.5 mark each)The term “quality of life” is difficult to define. It (51) a very wide scope such as living environment, health, employment, food, family life, friends, education, material possessions, leisure and recreation, and so on. (52) speaking, the quality of life, especially (53) seen by the individual, is meaningful in terms of the degree (54) which these various areas of life are available or provide (55) for the individual.As activity carried (56) as one thinks fit during on e’s spare time, leisure has the following (57): relaxation, recreation and entertainment, and personal development. The importance of these varies according to the nature of one’s job and one’s life style. (58), people who need to (59) much energy in their work will find relaxation most (60) in leisure. Those with a better education and in professional occupations may (61) more to seek recreation and personal development (e.g.(62) of skills and hobbies) in leisure.The specific use of leisure (63) from individual to individual. (64) the same leisure activity may be used differently by different individuals. Thus, the following are possible uses of television watching, a (65) leisure activity, a change of experience to provide (66) from the stress and strain of work; to learn more about what is happening in one’s environment; to provide an opportunity for understanding oneself by (67) other people’s life experiences as (68) in the programs.Since leisure is basically self-determined, one is able to take (69) his interests and preferences and get (70) in an activity in ways that will bring enjoyment and satisfaction.51. [A] composes [B] consists [C] covers [D] constitutes52. [A] Basically [B] Frankly [C] Primarily [D] Generally53. [A] when [B] as [C] while [D] which54. [A] to [B] as [C] of [D] in55. [A] satisfaction [B] information [C] respect [D] admiration56. [A] out [B] through [C] away [D] off。
各校语言学考博真题
2007年中国人民大学语言学及应用语言学考博试题语言学理论（100分）1.配价理论中的“配价”的性质，有人说其属于语法范畴，有人说其属于语义范畴，还有人说其属于句法——语义范畴，你的看法是什么？（30分）2.如何看待社会语言学所提出的“共时的变异反映历时的发展？”（30分）3.如何看待留学生的语言错误，对“有错必纠”和“有错不纠”有何看法？（40分）4.说说形式主义语言学、功能语言学、认知语言学的主张和特点（40分）汉语语法分析（100分）1.词语的再分类与句法分析的关系。
（30分）2.对“我偷了他一本书”这种句型如何看待，是双宾句还是单宾句，你的看法是什么？（30分）（打碎了他三个杯子）3.N1VN2（如“服装加工厂”和“汽车修理厂”）这种名词结构，有人说N1是V的前置宾语，有人说N1是受事成分，但是都有例外。
请你以此为研究对象，写一个论文提纲，包括研究的目的、方法和步骤等。
（40分）2008年人民大学语言学及应用语言学考博专业课试题语言学理论1.结合汉语实际论述语法形式和语法意义之间的关系（30分）2.结合汉语实际论述语言变异和语言变化的关系（30分）3.对外汉语教学方向选做第一题：（1）试论功能语言学对对外汉语教学的启发和影响（40分）（2）现代汉语中，934个汉字就能占到常用汉字的90%以上，那么如果掌握了这934个汉字，是不是就可以读懂书刊、报纸、网页等90%以上的内容呢？汉语语法分析：1．试论语法单位的同一性以及对词类划分的影响（30分）2．结合汉语实际，试论“语义指向”在现代汉语语法中的应用（30分）3．现代汉语中，常常说“时间还早着呢”，“她还小着呢”，却不能说“*时间还晚着呢”，“*她还大着呢”，为什么？人大2009现代汉语专业试题语言学理论1.探探你对“任意性”与“象似性”的认识（30分）2.为什么说变异理论是社会语言学最有价值的理论（30分）3.选做题（40）（1）谈谈结构主义、认知语言学、功能主义理论对对外汉语教学的启发。
新编川大语言学考博真题(供参考)
2009年语言学理论一名词解释。
1.配价：“配价”是当今语法理论体系中最重要的问题之一，所谓“价”（valency），是借用化学中的术语，主要考察某一成分有多少个同现成分，亦即某一成分必须有多少个强制性搭配成分。
最早把“价”理论引进语法研究领域的是法国语言学家Lucien Tesnuere，当初是为了研究一个动词能支配多少种不同性质的名词性词语，动词的“价”就就定于动词所支配的不同性质的名词性词语的数目。
配价理论思想认为，动词是一个句子的中心（支配词regissant），它支配着句子中别的成分，而动词本身不受其他任何成分的支配。
只接受动词支配的的有“名词词组”和“副词词组”，其中名词词组形成“行动元(actant)”，副词词组形成“状态元(circonstant)”。
从理论上说，句子中的状态元可以是无限多，但行动元不得超过三个，即主语、宾语1和宾语2。
由此可以将动词分为一价动词、二价动词和三价动词。
动词有配价的问题，后来经过研究，发现形容词和名词等也有配价问题。
我们可以说：利用动词与不同性质的名词之间、形容词与不同性质的名词之间、名词中隐含谓词与不同性质的名词之间的配价关系来研究、解释语法现象，这种研究和分析的手段就称之为“配价分析”。
根据配价分析理论，汉语中的动词可以分为零价动词，表自然现象的词；一价动词，即一般的不及物动词；二价动词，即一般的及物动词；三价动词，即双宾动词。
在中国最早利用配价理论与方法来研究汉语的是朱德熙先生关于“动词语+的”结构的分析。
利用配价理论及方法我们可以对汉语中的一些歧义现象进行分析，也可一解释一些用其他理论不好解释或不能完善解释的语法现象。
关于配价的性质长期以来有几种不同的观点：一是认为配价是建立在句法基础上的语法范畴。
以句法概念来说明“价”，该动词分布性质所要求的必要数量就是它的价数。
二是认为配价是语义平面的概念，提出的谓词的配价是以谓词的意义为基础的，谓词的意义决定了与之同现的必要成分。
英语语言博士试题及答案
英语语言博士试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共20分）1. The word "phenomenon" is most closely related to which of the following?A. PhenomenaB. PhenomenalC. PhenomenonD. Phenomenology2. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of the English language?A. FlexibilityB. Global reachC. Limited vocabularyD. Rich in idiomatic expressions3. The concept of "semantics" in linguistics refers to the:A. Study of language soundsB. Study of language meaningsC. Study of language structureD. Study of language change4. The term "morphology" is associated with the study of:A. Word formationB. Sentence structureC. Language acquisitionD. Language change over time5. In the context of sociolinguistics, "code-switching" refers to:A. Switching between different languagesB. Changing the tone of voiceC. Using different dialectsD. Alternating between formal and informal language6. The "phoneme" is the smallest unit of sound that can:A. Change the meaning of a wordB. Be heard by the human earC. Be written downD. Be pronounced by a speaker7. "Pragmatics" is the study of:A. The meaning of words in a sentenceB. The context in which language is usedC. The rules of grammarD. The physical properties of speech sounds8. The "passive voice" in English is used to:A. Emphasize the actionB. Emphasize the receiver of the actionC. Describe the action in detailD. Highlight the time of the action9. "Syntactic ambiguity" occurs when a sentence can be:A. Heard in different waysB. Written in different waysC. Interpreted in more than one wayD. Pronounced in different ways10. The term "register" in linguistics refers to:A. A specific languageB. A specific style of language useC. A specific set of vocabularyD. A specific set of grammar rules二、简答题（每题10分，共30分）1. Explain the difference between "prescriptive" and "descriptive" approaches in linguistics.2. Describe the process of language acquisition in children and the role of "input" and "interaction" in this process.3. Discuss the impact of globalization on the English language, including the emergence of new varieties and the spread of English as a global lingua franca.三、论述题（每题25分，共50分）1. Analyze the role of language in shaping cultural identity and the challenges faced by minority languages in a globalized world.2. Discuss the principles of translation and the challenges of translating literary works from one language to another, including the issues of cultural context and idiomatic expressions.四、案例分析题（共30分）Analyze the following dialogue between two speakers, identifying the use of language, the social context, and the implications of their conversation.Speaker A: "You know, I've been thinking about moving to a new city. I hear the job opportunities are great there." Speaker B: "Oh, really? But don't you think you'll miss your family and friends? And what about the cultural differences?"答案：一、选择题1. A2. C3. B4. A5. A6. A7. B8. B9. C10. B二、简答题1. Prescriptive linguistics focuses on the "correct" use of language and often seeks to enforce rules, while descriptive linguistics aims to describe how language is actually used by speakers without making judgments about correctness.2. Language acquisition in children is a natural process that involves exposure to language (input) and interaction with caregivers and peers. Input provides the child withlinguistic data, while interaction helps the child to understand the social and communicative functions of language.3. Globalization has led to the spread of English as a global lingua franca, facilitating international communication and trade. It has also resulted in the emergence of new varieties of English, such as World Englishes, which are influenced by local languages and cultures.三、论述题1. Language is a fundamental part of cultural identity, shaping how individuals perceive themselves and their placein the world. Minority languages face challenges such as language shift, where speakers adopt the dominant languagefor economic or social reasons, and a lack of resources and recognition, which can lead to language endangerment or extinction.2. Translation。
2023年四川大学独家真题
四川大学2023年博士硕士英语入学考试试题考生请注意：1. 本试题共5大题，共11页，请考生注意检杏.考试时间为180分钟2. 1-70题答案请填写在机读卡对应处，否则不给分。
3. 翻译和作文题答在答题纸上，答在试题上不给分。
书写规定字迹消楚、工整。
I. Reading Comprehension (30%; one mark each)Directions: Read the following six passages. Answer the questions below each passage by choosing [A], [B], [C], or [D]. Write your answers on the Answer Sheet.Passage OneWhen a person begins a mediated or immediate encounter, he already stands in some kind of social relationship to the others concerned, and expects to stand in a given relationship to them after the particular encounter ends. This, of course, is one of the ways in which social contacts are geared into the wider society. Much of the activity occurring during an encounter can be understood as an effort on everyone’s part to get through the occasion and all the unanticipated and unintentional events that can cast participants in an undesirable light, without disrupting the relationships of the participants. And if relationships are in the process of change，the object will be to bring the encounter to a satisfactory close without altering the expected course of development. The perspective nicely accounts, for example, for the littleceremonies of greeting and farewell which occur when people begin a conversational encounter or depart from one. Greetings provide a way of showing that a relationship is still what it was at the termination of the previous co-participation, and, typically, that this relationship involves sufficient suppression of hostility for the participants temporarily to drop their guards and talk. Farewells sum up the effect of the encounter upon the relationship and show what the participants may expect of one another when they next meet. The enthusiasm of greetings compensates for the weakening of the relationship caused by the absence just terminated, while the enthusiasm of farewells compensates the relationship for the harm that is about to be done to it by separation.It seems to be a characteristic obligation of many social relationships that each of the members guarantees to support a given face for the other members in given situations. To prevent disruption of these relationships, it is therefore necessarily for each member to avoid destroying the others’ face. At the same time, it is often the person’s social relationship with others that leads him to participate in certain encounters with them, where incidentally he will be dependent upon them for supporting his face. Furthermore, in many relationships, the members come to share a face, so that in the presence of third parties an improper act on the part of one member becomes a source of acute embarrassment to the other members. A social relationship, then, can be seen as a way in which the person is more than ordinarilyforced to trust his self-image and face to the tact and good conduct of others.1 .The last word of the first sentence, nam ely “ends' is most likely B .[A] a noun, meaning “purposes” or “objectives”[B] a verb, meaning “comes to a finish”[C] a postpositional adj ective, meaning “finishing”[D] an adjective, meaning “purposeful”2. According to the author, if any unexpected difficulties occur in a social contact,B .[A] the relationships between the participants break up[B] those who participate will be in an unintentional event[C] all participants would try to maintain their relationships|D] the participants will certainly get through an activity3. Which of the following is NOT an idea of the author? C[A] The participants hope their relationship would be the same as they met last.[B] Greetings are just as important as farewells in a social encounter.[C] Before every greeting there is always sufficient hostility to suppress.[D] If their relationship changes, the participants want it to change as they hoped.4. The last sentence of the second paragraph means that . A[A] one’s self-image is dependent on how others behave[B] face and self-image are two different kinds of relationships[C] social relationship is something that is forced on all participants[D] to get along well with others is a process of giving each other face5. The best title for this passage may well be . A[A] Face and Social Relationship [B] How to Conduct Socially[C] Greetings and Farewells [D] Conversational SociologyPassage Two（Tips:出现人名字旳地方用笔圈出来，数字用笔圈出来）The poet William Blake wrote in the early nineteenth century: “Great things are done when men and mountains meet.”Great things indeed were done on Mount Everest in May of 1996. Also poignant things, foolish things, deadly things：Hundreds of climbers from eleven different expeditions were on the mountain ---- thirty-one near the summit ---- when a freakish and fierce-some storm blew in. Eight climbers perished, the highest one-day death toll since the first expedition tried to reach the top of the world’s tallest peak in 1921.Adventurers have always sought challenges: deeper jungles, wider oceans, newer worlds. But mountains have been special. Perhaps it’s their size, the ir power, their resistance to conquest. In Patrick Meyers’s play K2, a marooned climber on the Himalaya peak that gives the play its name delivers this li ne: “Mountains are metaphors.” And so they are. Climbers search not just for summits but also forthemselves. They reach up to reach in.That helps explain why Everest has been enveloped by “Mountain Madness，” the name of a Seattle company that offers guided tours of the peak for about $65,000 (plus airfare to Nepal). New technology and equipment have also helped: lighter gear, warmer clothing, better radios and telephones. And the adventure can be shared, practically in real time, with Internet browsers around the world.But the community of high-mountain explorers now is gripped by soul-searching and second-guessing. Everest, after all, is not a theme peak. Some of the dead were experienced guides who lost their lives trying to save less agile amateurs. Said Mark Bryant, editor of Outside Magazines:“Some of us have been asking: Is it right that an average climber can order an ascent of Everest out of a catalog?” An Australian mountaineer, Tim McCartney-Snape, told the Associated Press: “Some things should remain sacred, and Everest is one of them. Even the strongest and toughest have found it can be extremely difficult just existing at that altitude, without other people depending on you.On Everest, dependency can lead to heroism and to tragedy. One frostbitten amateur, Seaborne Weathers of Dallas, was plucked from a rocky ledge at 22,000 feet by a Nepalese army helicopter — an act of incredible bravery. And Rob Hall, a guide who had climbed Everest several times, stayed on its slope with a dying customer.After learning they were hopelessly trapped, Hall managed to place a satellite telephone call to his pregnant wife, Jan, in New Zealand. “Hey, look,” he told her, “don’t worry about me.” At that moment, Hall remembered Harold, the character in K2 who muses: “Understanding has no meaning. Holding on, just holding on, that has meaning. Like Harold, he knew the mountain was still a mountain. Still a goal. Still a dream. And he couldn’t hold on. Rob Hall died before rescuers could reach him.6. Which of the following statement s best describes the author’s point of view?[A] Amateurs should not be encouraged to climb Mount Everest.[B] Guided tours of Mount Everest have become a source of enormous profits.[C] In the past, Mount Everest has made heroes out of ordinary men and women.[D] Mount Everest should remain a metaphor to be talked about.7. The sentence “They reach up to reach in”may be best paraphrased by “”[A] To know the inherent meaning of a mountain, one needs to climb up to the top[B] In conquering the mountain, one finds a proof of oneself[C] Mountaineers must climb upward in order to climb inside it[D] One needs to climb up to the top to see why a mountain is metaphorical8. All of the following statements are true EXCEPT .[A] Mountain climbing can have a live report simultaneously[B] Mountaineers can be located instantly during their climbing[C] New technology significantly reduces risks and dangers in mountain climbing {D} It is more dangerous to have someone depending on you during mountain climbing9. In the last paragraph, Harold’s saying “Understanding has no meaning” means.[A] determination is more vital than thinking[B] persistence and action require reasoning[C] one should avoid misunderstanding the situation[D] it is meaningless to think in mountaineering10. Most likely, the author of this passage is .. [A] a historian [B] a mountaineer[C] a tourist guide [D] a reporterPassage 3The Hertz Corporation, the U.S. Air Force, Hyatt Hotels Corporation, the City of Dallas, and the Neiman-Marcus Group, Inc., have one thing in common----all have purchased the services of Feedback Plus. Feedback Plus is an agency that dispatches professiona l shoppers who pose as customers. These “mystery” shoppers visit the client’s business, purchase products or services and report back to the client on the quality of service they receive. The City of Dallas hired Feedback Plus to see how car-pound employees treat citizens picking up their cars. The Air Force is usingprofessional shoppers to assess customer service at their on-base supply stores. Banks, hospitals, and public utilities are also hiring mystery shoppers. Vickie Henry, chief executive of Feedba ck Plus, notes that many similar firms compete for client’s business, and service really differentiates one firm from another. Although Henry has a database of 8,800 people who serve as professional shoppers, she sometimes assumes the role of mystery shopper herself. During a recent visit to an upscale women's apparel store, she observed the type of customer service most companies attempt to avoid. None of the many salespeople on the sales floor said hello when she entered the store. When she removed a skirt from a clothing rack, none of the salespeople approached her. Finally, several minutes after entering the store, Henry approached a salesperson and asked to use the dressing room. Needless to say, service at this firm did not receive high marks from Feedback Plus.As organizations experience increased competition for clients, patients, and customers, awareness of the importance of public contact increases. They are giving new attention to the old adage “First impressions are lasting impressions.” Research indicates that initial impressions do indeed tend to linger. Therefore, a positive first impression can set the stage for a long-term relationship.We are indebted to Susan Bixler, president of Professional Image, Inc., and author of Professional Presence, for giving us a better understanding of what it means to possess professional presence. Professional presence is a dynamic blend ofpoise, self-confidence, control and style that empowers us to be able to command respect in any situation. Once acquired, it permits us to be perceived as self-assured and thoroughly competent. We project a confidence that others can quickly perceive the first time they meet us.Bixler points out that, in most cases, the credentials we present during a job interview or when we are being considered for a promotion are not very different from those of other persons being considered, [t is oar professional presence that permits us to rise above the crowd. Debra Benton, a career consultant, says, “Any boss with a choice of two people with equal qualifications will choose the one with style as well as substance.” Learning to create a professional presence is one of the most valuable skills we can acquire.The development of professional presence begins with a full appreciation of the power of first impressions. The tendency to form impressions quickly at the time of an initial meeting illustrates what social psychologists call a primacy effect in the way people perceive one another. The general principle is that first impressions establish the mental framework within which a person is viewed, and later evidence is either ignored or reinterpreted to coincide with this framework.11. For all of the following walks of life EXCEPT the the professional presence has beendiscussed in this passage.[A] economic [B] military[C] academic [D] medical12. The underlined word “apparel” in the first paragraph means ““[A] apparatus [B] cosmetics[C] clothing [D] specialty13. Which of the following statements can be inferred from the passage?[A] No first impressions would ever change in the later contacts.[B] How one composes oneself determines how one is evaluated by others.[C] Social psychology is a science that stipulates the principles for social behaviors.[D] Opportunities in jobs or promotions are for those who differ from their competitors.14. The underlined word : “poise” in the third paragraph means:[A] proper comportment [B]desirable position[C] careful pause [D] positive assurance15. Which of the following is likely to be the title of this article?[A] The Power of First Impression[B] The Primacy Effect in Marketing[C] Social Psychology in Business[D] The Importance of FeedbackPassage FourYou can’t drive if you’re blind, or blind drunk, but an alarming number of Americans find themselves, at least occasionally, driving in a blind rage. “It’s a major social issue，”says Dr. Ricardo Martinez, administrator of the National Highway Traffic Safe ty Administration. “A 3,000-pound car in the hands of rude, hostile person is a lethal weapon.”A report on “road rage” to be released this week by the American Automobiles Association concluded that “motorists ... are increasingly being shot, stabbed, beaten, and run over for i nane reasons.” And inanity is not confined to young louts in “Baywatch” T-shirt: young men are by far the most common perpetrators, but middle-aged men and women can be equally big jerks. The most common manifestation of road rage was aggressive tailgating, followed by headlight flashing, “obscene gestures”, blocking other vehi cles, and verbal abuse. Drivers have been assaulted with weapons ranging from partially eaten burritos to canes (“a favorite with the elderly and disabled”）to golf clubs ---- and other vehicles, including buses, bulldozers, forklifts, and military tanks. “In terms of fatal crashes, drunks are a much bigger menace,”says David Willis, president of the AAA Foundation of Traffic Safety. “But the average motorist doesn’t encounter a drunk very often, while in a place like Washington, D.C., at least once a week yo u’ll have an encounter with some crazy guy on the road.”Naturally, the phenomenon has given rise to its own therapeutic movement, whose leading practitioner is a Whittier, California, psychologist named Arnold Nerenburg. Nerenburg, who calls himself “America’s Road Rage Therapist”, has identified four stimuli that provoked road rage. The most common is feeling endange red by someone else’s driving --- for example, when another driver cuts you off or follows too closely. Others are resentment at being forced to slow down, righteous indignation at someone who breaks traffic rules or steals your parking space and ----perhaps the most dangerous, because it opens the door to an escalating exchange of hostilities ----anger at another driver who takes his own road rage out on you.The fact that most drivers are mutual strangers contributes to the volatility of highway confrontations. “There’s a deep psychological urge to release aggress ion against an anonymous other,” Nerenburg says.Road-rage therapy tends toward the common-sensical---- “Take a deep breath and just let it go,” Nerenburg recommends. But it might help to consider that you might not be all that anonymous to the other driver. One of his patients realized the depth of his problem after he yelled an obscenity at the woman in the next car ----who turned out to be his boss s wife.16 .Which of the following statements is true according to the passage?[A] More and more Americans are using their cars to express their anger.[B] Old people and women are milder in temperament during driving.[C] Common sense might be the basis for overcoming road rage.[D] If people know each other, road rage would not happen.17. According to American Automobile Association, the people are more likely than all the others to be road-angered.[A] young [B] middle-aged[C]old [D] handicapped18. Which of the following is a justifiable cause for road rage, according to Dr. Nerenburg?[A] Another driver fails to observe a traffic law.[B] The parking space is occupied by another car.[C] The lane is taken by a slowly-moving car.[D] Another driver flashes the head-light.19. The underlined word “lethal” in the first paragraph means:[A] powerful [B] illegal[C] dangerous [D] deadly20. What might be the deep problem that one of Nerenburg’s patients had realized?[A] He faces a lawsuit of sex harassment.[B] He is in danger of being fired.[C] He will be fined by traffic police.[D] He falls ill and has to see a doctor.Passage FiveMost people, asked if they can think without -speech, would probably answer, “Yes, but it is not easy for me to do so. Still I know it can be done.” Language is but a garment! But what if language is not so much a garment as a prepared road or groove? It is, indeed, in the highest degree likely that language is an instrument originally put to uses lower than the conceptual plane and that thought arises as a refined interpretation of its content. The product grows, in other words, with the instrument and the thought may be no more conceivable, in its genesis and daily practice, without speech than is mathematical reasoning practicable without the lever of an appropriate mathematically symbolism. No one believes that even the most difficult mathematical proposition is inherently dependent on an arbitrary set of symbols, but it is impossible to suppose that the human mind is capable of arriving at or holding such a proposition without the symbolism.The writer, for one, is strongly of the opinion that the feeling entertained by so many that they can think, or even reason, without language is an illusion. The illusion seems to be due to a number of factors. The simplest of these is the failure to distinguish between imagery and thought. As a matter of fact, no sooner do we try to put an image into conscious relation with another than we find ourselves slippinginto a silent flow of words. Thought may be a natural domain apart from the artificial one of speech, but speech would seem to the only road we know of that leads to it.21. In the first line, the underlined phrase can best be replaced by[A] most of the people [B] more people[C] more than one people [D] many people22. In line 3, the word ‘groove” is probably closest in meaning to[A] later growth [B] designated slot[C] particular path [D] ready-made viaduct23. Which of the following statements would the author of the passage agree?[A] Thought came into being earlier than language[B] It is language that makes conceptual thought possible[C] Thought is no different from mathematics because it depends on symbolism[D] Both thought and language are the interpretation of propositions.24. Which of the following statements is true according to the author?[A] The imagery is the precondition of thought[B] Thought has to be bore in words.[C] Imagery is an explanation of words.[D] Once we use words, we make mistakes.25. The idea of this passage is held by[A]some people including the writer.[B] the writer himself alone[C] most people but the writer[D] one of the people other than the writerPassage SixStrikes and strikebreaking, lockouts and boycotts, all pit one side against the other in labor disputes. Ultimately, the negative effects of such actions ---- including resentment, fear, and distrust ---- linger for months or years after a dispute has been resolved.Increasingly, more productive techniques such as mediation and arbitration are being used to settle disagreements between labor and management. Either one may come into play before a labor contract expires or after some other strategy, such as a strike, has proven ineffective.Mediation is the use of a neutral third party to assist management and the union during their negotiations. This third party (the mediator) listens to both sides, trying to find common ground for agreement. The mediator also tries to encourage communication between the two sides to promote compromise, and generally keep the negotiation moving. Initially, the mediator may meet privately with each side. Eventually, however, the goal is to get the two sides to settle their differences at the bargaining table.Unlike mediation, the arbitration step involves a formal hearing. Just as it maybe the final step in a grievance procedure, it may also be used in contract negotiations when the two sides cannot agree on one or more issues. At this point, the arbitrator hears the formal positions of both parties on outstanding, unresolved issues. The arbitrator then analyzes these positions and makes a decision on the possible resolution of the issues. If both sides have agreed in advance that the arbitration will be binding, that means they must accept the arbitrator’s d ecision.If mediation and arbitration are unsuccessful, then according to the Taft-Hartley Act, the president of the United States can obtain a temporary injunction to prevent or to stop a strike if it would endanger national health or security.26. According to the author, with the solution of a labor crisis[A] the tension between labor and management can continue[B] labor and management do not trust each other any more[C] the negative effect of actions like strike would be resolved[D] a long time is needed to bring the dispute to an end27. To resolve a labor dispute, one should[A] resort to mediation or arbitration from the start[B] make sure that the labor contract expires[C] take other steps before going to mediation or arbitration[D] strike first and then accept mediation or arbitration28. Which of the following is true of mediation?[A] The mediator makes final decisions after meeting with both sides.[B] To avoid bias, the mediator cannot meet either side in advance.[C] The primary task is to help both sides bargain with each other.[D] The mediator can be a representative from either the labor or the management.29. The pre-condition for an arbitration to be authoritative is that[A] both sides agree in advance to abide by the decision made[B] a formal hearing must be conducted just like in a court trial[C] the decision is focused on the most outstanding and unresolved issues[D] there is no bargaining allowed by arbitration，unlike mediation30. In the last sentence, the underlined word “injunction” most likely refers to[A] a formal declaration [B] a subpoena[C] a lawsuit protocol [D] an official orderVI Vocabulary (10%; 0-5 mark each)31. Dr. Norman Bethune came from Canada to help the Chinese people in their war against Japanese aggression.[A] in the way [B] all the way [C] along the way [D] by the way32. Throughout history, he who knows the art of war uses force only as the last[A] resort [B] rescue [C] refrain [D] recant33. After a careful investigation and evaluation，the city hall decided to the old house.[A] dismantle [B] destroy [C] demolish [D] delineate34. The monument was so small that it appears to be more for than for memorial.[A] significance [B] indifference [C] oblivion [D] memory35. Millions of years ago the Vesuvian volcano destroyed Pompeii, but today it is[A] dormant [B] Pacifying [C] ignited [D] pictured36. Because humans have to talk about the limitless world by means of limited language sounds, there is a great between the world and language.[A] apathy [B]anomaly [C] asymmetry [D] agnosticism37. If an organism is quite successful in getting used with the environment that is new to it, we say that the organism is very[A] agile [B] adjustable [C] adoptive [D] adaptive38. When we do Planning, we Should take a11 relevant factors into consideration in order to as much as possible the difficult cases or even failures.[A] forestall [B] forerun [C] foretell [D] forecast39. is the practice of putting yourself in a position of another person in order to understand his/her feelings.[A] affectionate [B]empathy[C] pathology [D] affiliation40. In schools and universities, some courses are compulsory, which one has to take, while the others are( ) , either freely of as required.[A] optimal [B] opaque [C] optical [D] optional41. When one applies for a job position, one needs to ( ) one's resume, describing one's educational as well as working experiences.[A] submit [B] subject [C] submerge [D] subside42. As industry grew，so ( ) did the need for more and more skilled industrial workers.[A] much [B] as to [C] too [D] as for43. The rescue team worked hard to search for the missing mountaineers, ( ) the heavy and icy snowstorm.[A] in spite [B] despite [C] although [D] disregard44. “Breaking Bad” is the most thrilling TV drama series ( ) I have watched in several years.[A] as [B] what [C] which [D] that45. The revised feasibility report handed in by the draft team is good enough, ( )a few spelling errors on some pages.[A] except for [B] except that [C] excepting [D] except46. It is mandatory that the engineering project ( ) accomplished by the end of this year.[A] is [B] has been [C] be [D] will be47. ( ) the advice from the councilor, we would not have finished the task so smoothly.[A] out of [B] what with [C] but for [D] instead of48. The traffic accident has claimed 5 lives, the cause of which is still ( ) investigation.[A] under [B] beyond [C] for [D] beneath49. Even though the bell for dismissing class has rung，the teacher is still talking ( )[A] over [B] forward [C] off [D] away50. Since the negotiation with the management has come to a deadlock, the worker's union decide to take ( ) the street.[A] to [B] over [C] down [D] away withIII Cloze (10%; 0.5 mark each)In the last decade, giving birth at home has become an increasingly popular option for some couples. Assisted by a physician or a nurse-midwife，many women have successfully given birth at home (51) A to healthy babies. In fact, some studies indicate that ―一 for (52)<C>uncomplicated pregnancies --- home delivery is as safe as hospital delivery. (53) [B] Advocates of home birth argue that the atmosphere in ahospital --- with all its forbidding machines，rules, regulations, and general lack of “homeyness”---- is stressful. (54) [B] Therefore ，giving birth in a hospital detracts from what should be a joyous, natural human experience. Supporters of home birth further argue that hospitals are (55) [C] meant to deal with illness and that the delivery of a baby should not be viewed as an illness.On the other side of the argument, critics of home birth argue that if emergency medical (56) [A] procedures are necessary, giving birth at home may be (57) [B] downright dangerous. Furthermore, hospital practices in labor and delivery have changed (58) [D] radically in the last decade, particularly with the increased popularity of the Lamaze method. Thus hospitals are not the strange, forbidding environments they once were. (59) [A] Most hospitals, for example, allow fathers to be present (60) [A] at the entire labor and delivery, and many allow the father to be present (61) [A] in the operating room during the cesarean deliveries. Many hospitals have (62) [D] altogether created birth centers, homelike rooms with comfortable beds and armchairs, that allow labor and delivery to (63) [C] occur in a relaxed atmosphere, while (64) [D] being only a few minutes (65) [A] away from emergency equipment.For a woman who wants to have a home birth, careful medical screening is (66) [D] essential. (67) [B] Only women with normal pregnancies and anticipated normal deliveries (68) [A] should attempt a home birth. A qualified physician or。
2022年考研考博-考博英语-四川大学考试全真模拟易错、难点剖析AB卷(带答案)试题号：97
2022年考研考博-考博英语-四川大学考试全真模拟易错、难点剖析AB卷（带答案）一.综合题(共15题)1.单选题The activities of the international marketing researcher are frequently much broader than （） .问题1选项A.the domestic marketer hasB.those of the domestic marketerC.the domestic marketer doesD.that which has the domestic marketer【答案】B【解析】这是一个比较从句, those在从句中替代activities。
所以选项B正确。
2.翻译题Translate the following sentences into English.人们必须通过对现象的分析和研究, 才能了解到事实的本质, 因此需要科学。
我们现在面临的所有重大世界性问题中最重要的问题就是人口对土地和土地资源的压力正在迅速增长。
受到这么多挫折和失败, 他比以前聪明多了, 这次任务他一定会完成得很好的。
没有农业, 人们就不能生存, 社会生产就不能继续下去, 因此, 农业作为国民经济的基础必须得到足够重视。
这件事的发生不是由于我们的过错, 而是由于你的疏忽大意。
【答案】Only through the analysis and study of the phenomenon can human understand the nature of the fact, therefore, science is needed.The population pressure on land and land resources is growing rapidly, which is the most important one among all the major world problems we are facing.Suffering from so many setbacks and failures, he has become wiser and can finish this task well.People will neither exist nor can production proceed without agriculture. Therefore, as the basis of the national economy, we must pay more attention to the agriculture.The occurrence of this matter is caused by your carelessness, not by our fault.3.单选题During the summer vacation, kids are often seen hanging_____ in the streets.问题1选项A.aboutB.onC.overD.out【答案】D【解析】词组辨析。
川大考博2008年语言学理论真题答案
2008年语言学理论一名词解释。
1经济原则：语言学中的“经济原则”这个术语是法国语言学家马丁内在其《普通语言学纲要》中提出来的,在此之前,语言学家用省力原则这个术语来解释语音中的同化现象（如浊音清化）、词尾的浊音清化、词尾的脱落等共时和历时现象。
马丁内在最初是把语言的经济原则看做语言演变的规律来看待，可以说这是“经济原则“的本质。
“经济原则”即是：在表意明晰的前提下，为了提高语言的交际效率，尽量采用简洁的语言符号形式，这一原则对语言的发展演变起着重要的制约作用。
在语言的构词、句法、修辞等方面都可以观察到经济原则的作用。
如：缩略词的广泛采用，“中国政协”是“中国政治协商会议”的简称。
复合词代替词组，如“蚕食”比喻“像蚕一样进食”，“冬眠”指“在冬天休眠”。
句子成分的省略，如“我的眉毛像姑姑（的眉毛）”。
借代的广泛使用，如“国手”中“手”代指“国家级优秀排球运动员”。
这些例子都是在语言的使用中采取经济、省略的方式达到高效率的交际而产生的语言形式的演变。
2 构式（09年）3 配价（09年）4 家族相似近代哲学家在传统范畴理论的基础上，完善并提出了家族相似性理论(Family Resembalance)。
他认为范畴的成员不必具有该范畴的所有属性，而是AB、BC、CD、DE式的家族相似关系，即一个成员与其他成员至少有一个或多个共同属性。
范畴成员的特性不完全一样，他们是靠家族相似性来归属于同一范畴。
而范畴没有固定的明确的边界，是随着社会的发展和人类认知能力的提高而不断形成和变化发展的。
家族相似性在语言研究的词类、句法、、修辞、语音等许多方面都有所体现。
举个例子，词类范畴的家族相似性，是一种比喻的说法。
意思是：属于同一词类的各个词在语法性质上有程度不同的相似性，其中有些词在分布上有较多的相似性，它们成为这一类词的典型成员，而有些词跟其他词在分布上相似性较少，它们成为这一类词的非典型成员。
这也就是说，词类是一种原型（prototype）范畴，是人们根据词与词之间在语法性质上的种种相似性而概括出来的。
川大中文考博
男，1950 年11 月11 日生，是一名文学博士，现任四川大学文学与新闻学院教授，著有：《中国现代作家与日本》，《文学家郭沫若在日本》等专著。
靳[jìn]明全男，1950 年11 月11 日生，文学博士。
现任四川大学文学与新闻学院教授，四川大学中国现当代文学、比较文学专业博导，重庆市抗战文史研究基地主任，重庆师范大学文学与新闻学院院长，重师大中国现当代文学、比较文学硕导，中国社科院比较文学研究中心兼职研究员。
曾任日本九州大学言语文化部访问教授，日本明治大学法学部客座教授，日本国际交流基金招聘学者。
成果情况：著有专著：《中国现代作家与日本》，《文学家郭沫若在日本》，《攻玉论——关于20 世纪初期中国文人赴日留学的研究》，《攻玉论——关于20 世纪初期中国政界留日生的研究》，《攻玉论——关于20 世纪初期中国军界留日生的研究》，《中国现代文学兴起发展中的日本影响因素》。
主编专著：《区域文化与文学》，《重庆抗战文学论稿》，《重庆抗战文学理论》，《重庆抗战文学与外国文化》。
在权威刊物《文学评论》上发表论文：《周作人的新村思想》，《1928 年中国革命文学兴起的日本观照》，《抗战时期重庆文学的战时性》，《胡风对青野季吉的超越》，《论中国抗战文论中的现实主义之深化》，《壮歌久不作——抗战文学的当代思考》。
其它权威刊物上发表论文：《日本和歌与郭沫若诗歌》，《日本俳句与郭沫若诗歌》。
另外，在核心刊物和省级刊物上发表论文59 篇。
获奖情况：获重庆市社会科学优秀科研成果奖二等奖1 项、三等奖2 项。
科研项目：主持完成日本国际交流基金项目6 项，国家社会科学基金项目1 项，重庆市社科联重点项目1 项，重庆市社科联一般项目1 项，贵州省教委项目1 项。
唐小林，男，汉族，1965年2月生，博士，教授，博士生导师，四川大学符号学-传媒学研究所副所长，成都市有突出贡献的优秀专家，中国当代文学研究会常务理事，四川省鲁迅研究会副会长，四川省比较文学学会理事，成都市李劼人研究会副会长。
2012年四川大学英语专业(语言学)真题试卷答案
一、名词解释1 【正确答案】 The emotive function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.【试题解析】 (考查语言的感情功能)2 【正确答案】 Grammatical concord is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.【试题解析】 (考查语法一致性)3 【正确答案】 Coined by the linguistic anthropologist Kenneth Pike, "emic" and "etic" derive from an analogy with the terms "phonemic" and "phonetic". "Emic" focuses on the intrinsic cultural distinctions that are meaningful to the members of a given society, while " etic" constructs are accounts, descriptions, and analyses expressed in terms of the conceptual schemes and categories that are regarded as meaningful and appropriate by the community of scientific observers.【试题解析】 (考查位学的和非位)4 【正确答案】 Regional dialect is a linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographic region.【试题解析】 (考查地域方言)5 【正确答案】 It is a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf, which states that the way people view the world is determined by the structure of their native language.【试题解析】 (考查语言决定论)6 【正确答案】 Linguistic context can be subdivided into lexical context and grammatical context, and lexical context refers to the words that occur together with the word in question. For example, the noun "rain" occurs together with "heavy" , while the noun "wind" goes with "strong".【试题解析】 (考查词汇语境)7 【正确答案】 Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. A total synonymy is rare and synonyms all differ from each other in one way or another. Relative synonyms are context dependent. For example, "purchase" and "buy" are synonyms, but the latter seems to be more appropriate in the sentence "A littleboy______a toy. " In the same way, "offspring" seems to be a better choice than "kids" when we mention "the children from a royal family".【试题解析】 (考查相对近义词)8 【正确答案】 According to G. Leech, affective meaning is concerned with the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer. For example, " politician" and " statesman" differ in affective meaning, and the formal is usually more approvingly, the same story goes with "cooperation" and "conspiracy".【试题解析】 (考查情感意义)9 【正确答案】 As a type of acronym, Initialism refers to the use of the first letters of words to form a proper name, a technical term or a phrase, and the new word is pronounced letter by letter. Such as BBC for British Broadcasting Corporation, and VOA for Voice of America.【试题解析】 (考查首字母缩略构词法)10 【正确答案】 Stem refers to any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added, such as "brother" in "brothers" , and "work" in "working".【试题解析】 (考查词干)二、填空题11 【正确答案】 in【试题解析】 (set in开始)12 【正确答案】 through【试题解析】 (look through看穿)13 【正确答案】 aside【试题解析】 (set aside将……搁置一旁) 14 【正确答案】 out【试题解析】 (run out流失)15 【正确答案】 off【试题解析】 (hold off推迟，拖延)16 【正确答案】 up【试题解析】 (hold up持续)17 【正确答案】 through【试题解析】 (fall through失败)18 【正确答案】 from【试题解析】 (run away from从……逃出) 19 【正确答案】 for【试题解析】 (put in for申请)20 【正确答案】 down【试题解析】 (pull down摧毁，推翻)三、简答题21 【正确答案】 Polysemy refers to the fact that one word has two or more senses or meanings, and the two processes leading up to polysemy are radiation and concatenation respectively.(1 point)Radiation refers to the process in which the primary or central meaning stands at the center while secondary meanings radiate from it in every direction like rays.(2 points)Concatenation(linking together)is a semantic process in which the meaning of a word moves gradually away from its first sense by successive shifts, like the links of a chain, until there is no connection between the final meaning and the primary meaning.(2 points)【试题解析】考查一词多义现象的形成方式。
英语专业(语言学)历年真题试卷汇编11
英语专业（语言学）历年真题试卷汇编11(总分：50.00，做题时间：90分钟)一、名词解释(总题数：25，分数：50.00)1.duality（四川大学2006研)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 正确答案：(正确答案：Duality refers to the fact that in all languages so far investigated there are two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units(such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. For example, a syllable is the smallest unit that is normally spoken by itself, and scores of syllables become the carriers of hundreds of meaningful segments of words that are called morphemes.)解析：2.displacement（南开大学2010研；清华2001研)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 正确答案：(正确答案：Language can be used to refer to what is present, what is absent, what happens at present, what happened in the past, what will happen in the future or what happens in a far-away place. This property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place. For example, scientists can predict the "future" of certain planets that are several billions of light years away from us.)解析：3.performative function（武汉大学2004研)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 正确答案：(正确答案：The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons and it can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized. For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl the host or the people present are likely to say sui sui ping an(every day be safe and happy)as a means of controlling the forces which the believers feel might affect their lives.)解析：4.parole（北师大2004研)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 正确答案：(正确答案：Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. It varies enormously according to individuals. The speeches, the idiosyncratic utterances made by individuals are all examples of parole.)解析：5.descriptive study of linguistics(四川大学2007研)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 正确答案：(正确答案：To say that linguistics is a descriptive study is to say that the linguist tries to discover and record the roles to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness, which are in the scope of prescriptive linguistics.)解析：6.Glottal Stop（四川大学2006研)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 正确答案：(正确答案：Glottal Stop: Vocal tract is composed of oral cavity, nasal cavity and pharynx. When the vocal folds are totally closed, no air can pass between them. The result of this gesture is the glottal stop.)解析：7.Voiceless（西安交大2008研)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 正确答案：(正确答案：When the vocal folds are apart, the air can pass through easily and the sound produced is said to be voiceless. For example, Consonants(p, s, t)are produced this way, so they are voiceless consonants. "Voiceless" is defined in contrast with "voiced". Consonants(b, z, d)are voiced consonants.)解析：8.Minimal pairs（北航2008研；北二外2006研)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 正确答案：(正确答案：Minimal Pair are pairs of words which differ from each other only by one sound. For example, the English words bear and pear constitute a minimal pair as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /b/ and /p/.)解析：9.Phoneme（人大2006研；上海交大2007研)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 正确答案：(正确答案：Phoneme is a basic unit of phonological study, and it is an abstract collection of phonetic features which can distinguish meaning. For example, in English, /p/ is described as a phoneme.)解析：10.Free variation(武汉大学2004研)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 正确答案：(正确答案：When two or more sounds occur in the same position without any apparent change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation. For example, the final consant of cup may not be released by some speakers so there is no audible sound at the end of this word. In this case,it is the same word pronounced in two different ways :(k h∧p h )and(k h∧p "indicates "no audible release" in IPA symbols.))解析：11.Assimilation（武汉大学2008研；上海交大2005研)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________正确答案：(正确答案：The way that sounds belonging to one word or one syllable can cause changes in sounds belonging to neighboring words or syllables is called assimilation. For example, in "mink" , "n" , which is originally pronounced as /n/, will be velarized by the following "k"/k/, and therefore the word will be pronounced as /mi?k/)解析：12.Suprasegmental features（中山大学2005研；南开大学2004研)（分数：2.00）正确答案：(正确答案：Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are stress, tone and intonation.) 解析：13.Syllable(四川大学2006研)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________正确答案：(正确答案：Syllable: These units, which are often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word, are called syllables. For example, the English word beautiful consists of three speech units: beau-ti-ful.)解析：plementary distribution（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________正确答案：(正确答案：When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in complementary distribution. For example, the aspirated English stops never occur after(s), and the unaspirated ones never occur initially. Allophones of the same phoneme are usually in complementary distribution. The allophones of/p/, for instance, are also in complementary distribution. The unaspirated(p =)occurs after /s/, while the aspirated(p h )occurs in all other environments except after /s/.)解析：15.morpheme（四川大学2006研；武汉大学2008研)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________正确答案：(正确答案：Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content , a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. For example, in boys, there are two morphemes: "boy" and "-s"; in international, there are three morphemes; "inter-" "nation" and "-al".)解析：16.inflectional morpheme(南开大学2004研)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________正确答案：(正确答案：Inflectional morpheme; It is also called inflectional affixes, which attaches to the end of words Inflectional affixes and only add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem. The plural suffix is a typical example of this kind.)解析：17.free morphemes（西安交大2008研)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________正确答案：(正确答案：Free morpheme is an element of meaning which takes the form of an independent word. They may occur alone, that is, they may make up words by themselves. For example, " dog" , " nation" and "close" are free morphemes. And such words are called mono-morphemic words. Thus all mono-morphemic words are free morphemes.)解析：18.bound morpheme（上海交大2007研)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________正确答案：(正确答案：Bound morphemes refer to those morphemes that can not occur alone and must appear with at least another morpheme. For example, in the word "careless" , "-less" is a bound morpheme since it could not occur by itself as a word.)解析：19.bound root（四川大学2006研)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________正确答案：(正确答案：Bound root refers to the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity, and this base form could not occur alone, such as "-ceive" in "receive".)解析：20.functional morpheme（上海交大2005研)（分数：2.00）正确答案：(正确答案：This is a subtype of free morphemes, which one consists largely of the functional words in language such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns, for example, " and, about, when on, near, the" an so on.)解析：21.inflection（四川大学2007研)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________正确答案：(正确答案：Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached. For example, the past form of the verb work is realized by the addition of the inflectional suffix; "-ed" ; the plural form of the noun child is realized by the inflectional suffix; "-ren")解析：22.allomorph(四川大学2006研)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________正确答案：(正确答案：Allomorph; A morpheme may take various shapes or forms, and an allomorph is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds. For instance, the morpheme of plurality { -s} has a number of allomorphs in different sound context, as in "cats" /s/, in "bags" /z/, in "matches" /iz/.)解析：23.blending（四川大学2008研)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________正确答案：(正确答案：Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining together the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by only join the initial parts of the two wor ds. For example, telephone + exchange→telex; transfer+resister→ transistor.)解析：24.Immediate constituent（武汉大学2008研；武汉大学2006研)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________正确答案：(正确答案：Immediate constituent. An immediate constituent is the constituent immediately, directly, below the level of a construction. For example, in the sentence "Poor John ran away" , the constituents "Poor John" and "ran away" are regarded as the immediate constituents of the sentence.)解析：25.IC analysis（人大2006研)（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________正确答案：(正确答案：IC analysis. IC analysis(immediate constituent analysis)refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents—word groups(or phrases), which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own, and the process goes on until the ultimate constituents are reached. In practice, for the sake of convenience, we usually stop at the level of word.)解析：。
2011年四川大学英语专业(语言学)真题试卷.doc
2011年四川大学英语专业（语言学）真题试卷(总分：46.00，做题时间：90分钟)一、名词解释(总题数：10，分数：20.00)1.State what you know about the following terms IN ONE SENTENCE FOR EACH:language competence vs. language performance（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 2.hypotactic vs. paratactic languages（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ ngue vs. parole（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 4.standard dialect（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 5.immediate constituent（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 6.Define the following terms with at least two examples:binary analysis of word meaning（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 7.degradation of word meaning（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 8.analogy（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 9.semantic feature（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 10.co-occurrence（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________二、词汇题(总题数：10，分数：20.00)11.Determine the original term from which the following words were back-formed:(10points)workaholic（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 12.spam（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 13.telethon（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 14.modem（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 15.bit（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 16.brunch（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 17.transistor（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 18.motel（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 19.glimmer（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 20.medicares（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________三、简答题(总题数：3，分数：6.00)21.What will you like to say to a statement like "one culture"s meat is another culture"s poison"?（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 22.What is the semantic triangle proposed by Ogden and Richards in their The Meaning of Meaning? Do you agree or not?（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________ 23.Please briefly answer the following question IN ABOUT 500 WORDS:According to John Austin"s speech act theory, to say is to do; i. e. , we do things with words. Do you know anything about his suggestions of "locutionary act" , " illocutionary act" and " perlocutionary act" ? If you do, please demonstrate your understanding of them, with examples, if necessary.（分数：2.00）__________________________________________________________________________________________。
四川师范大学语言学基础与应用考研真题试题2012年—2019年
入 学 考 试 试 题 A卷 ∷
专W`代 码 :~豆迎⊥Ω艹型L眨虍 业名称 :语 言学及应用语言学、汉鲎宣文字学
考 试科 H代 码 : 8↓ g
考试科 目名称 :语 言学基础与应用 (含 古代汉语、一现代汉语)
大题__。 ¨~.小 题 ,满 分 150 分 )
4.分 析 卜面两个旬子末尾的虚词 “了”的语法意义。
①他昨天就离开了。
②他 昨天就离开北京 了。
三、简答题 (本 大题共 2小 题,第 1小 题 7分 ,第 2小 题 8分 ,共 15分 )
l,结 合实例说明现代汉语轻声音节的音高变化情况。 2.结 合实例说明现代汉语兼语句的特点。
试题 A 第二部分 古代汉语部分 (钙 分 )
法如何 ?这 些声母在现代汉语普通话中有几种读音 ?(15分 。要求:答 出声母名称,写
出读音 ,读 音用国际音标书写 。)
(二 )根 据上述古文回答以下 问题 (25分 。)
1.用 现代汉语翻译 “此 以其能苦其生者也 ”一句,旬 中 “苦 ”的意义和用法是什
么? (5分 ) 2.用 现代汉语翻译 “且予求无所可用久矣畿死乃今得之舄予太用使予也而有用且
得有此大也邪 ”,并 说 明 “矣 ”和 “邪 ”字的词性、意义和用法 。(1o夯 ) 3.“ 且也彼其所保舆聚具而 以羲喻之不亦遽乎 ”,这 一句话反映 了庄子 的什么思
3,川 杠式 图解法分析短语 的结构层次和结构关系 。
对怙 况进行深入的 渊伶研究乏后
4.说 明下面 n勺 短语形成歧义 的原F,xl。
老 |l仃 个儿 F很 骄傲 三、简答题 (本 大题共 2小 题 ,第 1小 题 7分 ,第 2小题 8分 ,共 15分 )
四川外国语大学博士英语真题
四川外国语大学博士英语真题Part Reading Comprehension( 40 points)Directions：There are 8 reading passages in this part.Each passage is followed by some questions or unfinished statements.For each of them there are four choices marked A，B.Can D.You should choose the best one and mark the correspondent the Answer Sheet.Passage1Electronics works as a slave on these a-bed and in space；in marketing and on the moon；in hospitals and on the racetrack.And yet this revolution only began with the thermionic valve，developed after the Wright brothers first proved that heavier-than-air machines could fly.Radio was the first practicably commercial development，the second leap forward camein1947 with the more mature semiconductor technology.Then came a new world of solid state devices on a miniature scale，offering unparalleled benefits of speed Rostand.Are-transistor equipment is now viewed as crude and clumsy，yet it manages to produce such far-reaching techniques as puters made before the transcendentalist，nonstandard.The revolution reached it speak in the late1950s，with the successful breakthrough into the world of micro-electronics.This is a new series of micro-miniature electronic devices in the solid state，offering almost limitless scope designing and producing complete circuits on a tiny chip of silicon，not much interchangeability.However，conventionality day----based on the transistor-----had been developed to quite a sophisticated level.Thus it was possible to fit essential electronics to earth satellites and space probes，to take the computer to a more advanced stage and to start an entirely industry.Today micro-electronics stands as the foundation of the industry’s total future，offering vast potentialities.The Seine the next century can not be precisely predicted，but clearly the efforts of this industry will be aimed at making life easier.Advanced electronic control techniques Willamette the drudgery out of most work；the factory and office largely be the arena automate and even housework Willie more a question of efficient programming，rather than of tedious chores.This outlook poses some of the largest problems that this relatively young industry has had to face.Recentness，the electronically has been more concerned with developing the technology.Now many of the applications dictate thetechnology.Yesterday it was hard to imagine another breakthrough as important as the silicon integrated circuit.1.How are the ore-transistor computers viewed nowa.ore-transistor computers are now viewed as crude and clumsy.b.Pre-transistorcomputersmanagedtoproducefar-reaching techniques.C.Are-transistor computers are now viewed as elementary，enormous and slow.d.ore-transistor computers are mow viewed as modern and advanced.2.When did micro-electronics come into beinga.In1947.b.In thelate1950s.c.When a new world of solid state devices on a miniature scale came.d.When computers were made.。
四川大学考博06年中国文学典籍真题与答案
四川大学2006年攻读博士学位研究生入学考试试题考试科目：中国文学典籍科目代码：205选用专业：文艺学、语言学及应用语言学、汉语言文字学、中国古代文学、中国现当代文学、比较文学与世界文学、文艺与传媒、文化批评、文学人类学、佛教语言文学、广播影视文艺学一.填空（每题2分，共10分）1.《春秋》所记鲁国十二公是：。
1. 隐公11年（公元前722年—前712年）2. 桓公18年（公元前711年—前694年）3. 庄公32年（公元前693年—前662年）4. 闵公2年（公元前661年—前660年）5. 僖公33年（公元前659年—前627年）6. 文公18年（公元前626年—前609年）7. 宣公18年（公元前608年—前591年）8. 成公18年（公元前590年—前573年）9. 襄公31年（公元前572年—前542年）10.昭公32年（公元前541年—前510年）11.定公15年（公元前509年—前495年）12.哀公27年（公元前494年—前468年）2.汉代传《诗》的四家是：。
汉人传诗的加之毛诗本有四家，称为四家诗。
后三家即鲁诗（申培公所传）、齐诗（辕固生所传）、韩诗（韩婴所传）。
此三家又被称为三家诗，3.《毛诗序》所说“六义”是：。
故诗有六义焉：一曰风，二曰赋，三曰比，四曰兴，五曰雅，六曰颂。
4.《文心雕龙·序志》所说“文之枢纽”是等五篇。
《文心雕龙》全书上篇共篇，下篇共篇。
从《原道》至《辨骚》的5篇﹐是全书的纲领﹐而其核心则是《原道》《徵圣》《宗经》3篇；25，25．5. 钟荣《诗品》共收位诗人，分为品，其中曹操为品，沈约为品，陶潜为品。
122，三，三，二，二。
二.就下列著作和作者之间做选择，写出正确的作者和其著作：（每小题1分，共10分）1.五经正义8 1.朱熹2.文心雕龙札记9 2.何晏3.诗集传 1 3.郭庆藩4.论语集解 2 4.王逸5.庄子集释 3 5.李鼎祚6.周易集解 5 6.郝懿行7.史记正义10 7.段玉裁8.楚辞章句 4 8.孔颖达9.尔雅义疏 6 9.黄侃10.说文解字注7 10.张守节三．解释下列加下划线的词语：（每词1分，共20分）1. 乃命义和，钦若昊天，历象日月星辰。
四川大学考博B中国文学典籍真题与答案
四川⼤学考博B中国⽂学典籍真题与答案四川⼤学2005年攻读博⼠学位研究⽣⼊学考试试题B考试科⽬：中国⽂学典籍科⽬代码：205选⽤专业：⽂艺学、语⾔学及应⽤语⾔学、汉语⾔⽂字学、中国古代⽂学、中国现当代⽂学、⽐较⽂学与世界⽂学、⽂艺与传媒、⽂化批评、⽂学⼈类学、佛教语⾔⽂学、⼴播影视⽂艺学⼀.填空（每题2分，共10分）1.请写出《尔雅》各篇篇名：。
释诂，释⾔，释训，释亲，释宫，释器，释乐，释天，释地，释丘，释⼭，释⽔，释草，释⽊，释⾍，释鱼，释鸟，释兽，释畜。
2.请写出《⽂⼼雕龙》的⼗篇篇名：。
原道第⼀，征圣第⼆，宗经第三，正纬第四，辨骚第五，明诗第六，乐府第七，诠赋第⼋，颂赞第九，祝盟第⼗，序志第五⼗。
3.请写出《⼗三经》各经经名：。
《易经》、《尚书》、《诗经》、《周礼》、《仪礼》、《礼记》、《春秋左传》、《春秋公⽺传》、《春秋⾕粱传》、《论语》、《孝经》、《尔雅》、《孟⼦》⼗三部儒家的经典4.请写出《⼆⼗五史》各史书名：。
⼆⼗五史是中国历代官修的⼆⼗五部纪传体史书的总称。
它包括《史记》、《汉书》、《后汉书》、《三国志》、《晋书》、《宋书》、《南齐书》、《梁书》、《陈书》、《魏书》、《北齐书》、《周书》、《隋书》、《南史》、《北史》、《旧唐书》、《新唐书》、《旧五代史》、《新五代史》、《宋史》、《辽史》、《⾦史》、《元史》、《明史》、《清史稿》等⼆⼗五部史书。
它上起传说中的黄帝（前2550年），⽌于清朝宣统四年（1912年），⽤本纪、列传、表、志等统⼀的体裁的编写。
⼆⼗五史之中，除第⼀部《史记》是通史之外，其余皆为断代史。
5.《庄⼦》共多少篇＿？其中内篇是哪七篇。
33；《庄⼦·内篇·逍遥游第⼀》，《庄⼦·内篇·齐物论第⼆》，《庄⼦·内篇·养⽣主第三》，《庄⼦·内篇·⼈间世第四》，《庄⼦·内篇·德充符第五》，《庄⼦·内篇·⼤宗师第六》，《庄⼦·内篇·应帝王第七》。
语言学理论考博试题
2003年博士研究生入学考试试题一、在下列题目中选做三个题目。
（每题20分）（一）功能语言学派的代表人物马丁内提出的“语言经济原则”是不是一种有解释能力的理论模式？（二）确定语言亲属关系需要一定数量语义相通、语音相近的同源词材料。
在选择这些材料时需要遵循哪些原则？（三）海里斯在《结构语言学方法》中提出了美国描写语言学分析语言的两个阶段、四个步骤。
请简述美国描写语言学分析语言的四个步骤。
（四）韩礼德（M.A.K.Halliday）的系统语言学理论有哪些主要特点？四、简述语言学三个重要传统的贡献和局限。
（40分）三个重要传统提示：古印度传统。
古希腊传统。
阿拉伯传统。
2004年博士研究生入学考试试题一、在下列题目中选做三个题目。
（每题20分）（一）语言谱系理论跟达尔文进化论有何联系？（二）波浪理论与语言年代学的关系。
（三）心理语言学的联想派和内容派的代表人物及其主要观点。
（四）语音如何实现其内部的不平衡和不对称到平衡和对称的？二、简述宏观社会语言学和微观社会语言学的代表人物及其主要观点。
（40分）中央民族大学2005年博士学位研究生入学考试试题（215语言学理论与方法）（所有答案均写在答题纸上，写在试卷上无效）A卷一、名词解释（20分。
从6个小题中选做4题，每小题各5分）（一）联想关系（二）共时研究与历时研究（兼谈二者的关系）（三）语言联盟（四）语言规划（五）替换分析法（六）语域二、简述题（50分）（一）什么是格里姆定律？什么是维尔纳定律？二者有何关系？简要说明后者在欧洲语言学领域中所产生的影响。
（20分）（二）简要论述马尔丁内的“语言经济原则”。
（20分）（三）伦敦学派在音位学理论方面有哪些贡献？（20分）（从以上3小题中选答两题）（四）简要论述语音学和音位学的区别。
（10分）（五）简要论述乔姆斯基的理论在心理语言学方面的贡献。
（10分）（从以上两个小题中选做一题）三、论述题：（30分，从下列两小题中选做一题）（一）试述人类语言学的主要理论和研究方法以及20世纪中期以来我国语言学界在这方面所做的工作。
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2009年语言学理论一名词解释。
1.配价：“配价”是当今语法理论体系中最重要的问题之一，所谓“价”（valency），是借用化学中的术语，主要考察某一成分有多少个同现成分，亦即某一成分必须有多少个强制性搭配成分。
最早把“价”理论引进语法研究领域的是法国语言学家Lucien Tesnuere，当初是为了研究一个动词能支配多少种不同性质的名词性词语，动词的“价”就就定于动词所支配的不同性质的名词性词语的数目。
配价理论思想认为，动词是一个句子的中心（支配词regissant），它支配着句子中别的成分，而动词本身不受其他任何成分的支配。
只接受动词支配的的有“名词词组”和“副词词组”，其中名词词组形成“行动元(actant)”，副词词组形成“状态元(circonstant)”。
从理论上说，句子中的状态元可以是无限多，但行动元不得超过三个，即主语、宾语1和宾语2。
由此可以将动词分为一价动词、二价动词和三价动词。
动词有配价的问题，后来经过研究，发现形容词和名词等也有配价问题。
我们可以说：利用动词与不同性质的名词之间、形容词与不同性质的名词之间、名词中隐含谓词与不同性质的名词之间的配价关系来研究、解释语法现象，这种研究和分析的手段就称之为“配价分析”。
根据配价分析理论，汉语中的动词可以分为零价动词，表自然现象的词；一价动词，即一般的不及物动词；二价动词，即一般的及物动词；三价动词，即双宾动词。
在中国最早利用配价理论与方法来研究汉语的是朱德熙先生关于“动词语+的”结构的分析。
利用配价理论及方法我们可以对汉语中的一些歧义现象进行分析，也可一解释一些用其他理论不好解释或不能完善解释的语法现象。
关于配价的性质长期以来有几种不同的观点：一是认为配价是建立在句法基础上的语法范畴。
以句法概念来说明“价”，该动词分布性质所要求的必要数量就是它的价数。
二是认为配价是语义平面的概念，提出的谓词的配价是以谓词的意义为基础的，谓词的意义决定了与之同现的必要成分。
三是认为配价是句法语义范畴。
2.构式认知构式语法近年来在国际语言学界渐成气候，是一种较有影响力的理论。
构式语法学家力图运用构式语法来描述和解释所有类型的语言结构,而不是仅仅局限于所谓的“核心语法”中所定义的语言结构。
通过分析和研究非核心结构,人们可以对语言有更深入的了解,因为可以用来解释那些边缘的、非核心结构的理论体系也可以解释那些非边缘的、核心的语言结构。
构式语法将词汇、语法、语义、语用视为一个整体,它认为:语言的功能使语言的形式得以形成或改变,因此对语言的形式研究离不开对意义和功能的审视;形式和意义是密不可分的结合体,任何一种语言形式,只要不能从其组成成分或结构中预测出意义就可以称为构式。
构式语法的基本观点是：假设C 是一个独立的构式，当且仅当 C 是一个形式（Fi）和意义（Si）的对应体，而无论是形式或意义的某些特征，都不能完全从C这个构式的组成成分或另外的先前已有的构式推知。
3．语素化语言是随时发生变化的。
在语言的各个层面，包括语音、词汇、句法等，语言的变化都是无所不在的。
作为语言中最小的有意义的单位，语素不是静止不动的，一种语言的语素系统也总是处于动态变化中。
在汉语中，同样存在着“语素化”这一语素动态形式。
语素化的基本定义是：原本没有意义的音节，或独立运用但不能参与构词的多语素词，现在构词上能以特定的语义与别的语素组合构建新词。
4. 语法化历史语言学中的语法化，主要指词汇性成分发展为语法要素。
类型学意义上的语法化就是将语义或语用的内容固定为形态范畴和句法范畴，成为语法系统的固有要素。
语法化grammaticalization 指的是语法范畴和语法成分产生和形成的过程或现象，最典型的表现是语言中意义实在的词汇或结构式演变成无实在意义、仅表语法功能的语法成分，或者一个较虚的语法成分变成更虚的语法成分。
在现代语言学中，研究这种语法化现象的理论通常被称为“语法化学说”或“语法化理论”。
近年来，国外功能主义的语法研究逐渐和历史语法的研究结合起来，在语法化这个问题上找到了契合点，形成共时研究与历时研究相结合的新趋向，国内也呈现出这种局面。
也就是说，无论国内、国外，语法化问题都是研究的热点之一。
在语法化方面，以下几点已逐渐达成共识：（1）语法化的主体内容是句法化、形态化，由于汉语形态不发达，句法化（尤其是实词虚化）就成了汉语语法化研究的中心内容。
（2 ）语法化大多是有理据的，有动因、有机制，语言的经济性、象似性、明晰性以及说话者的目的、语用推理等，都是影响语法化的重要因素。
（3）语法化是逐渐变化的过程。
（4）语法化是单向性为主的（从实到虚，从比较虚到更虚），但也有少数情况是从更虚到比较虚的，如从“N所＋名”到“N＋所＋名”的过程中，“所”通过重新分析从词缀变成了结构助词。
语用学是研究语言和语境(context)之间的关系,而语用学的一个最狭窄的定义就是:语用学是研究已经语法化了的,即在语言结构中表示出来的那部分语言和语境间的关系。
按照这个定义,语用学研究的就是语用法的语法化，即语言的用法跟语法结构的关系。
从语用学的角度看，语法结构不能脱离语言的功能和用法而独立存在，语法规则要受到语用原则的制约，语用原则对语法结构或者语法现象也有极强的解释力。
从两方面看，一是从语法结构的“共时平面”看，实际同时存在的大量语法结构现象可以用语用原则作出解释。
如“差点考上了”和“差点没考上”，意义不一样，“差点摔倒了”和“差点没摔倒”意思却一样，其实是受到了“心理期待差异”的语用原则的制约，是用语用原则来解释语法结构的差异现象。
二是在语法结构的“历时平面”看，有许多语法结构现象是语句用法最终定型的结果，也就是说一些特定的用法在约定俗成之后“凝固”成了语法结构规则。
比如“在…..下”本来表示一种空间的方位关系，“在树下”、“在窗下”等，后来像“在党的领导下”、“在这种形势下”等也由于某种语用条件逐步进入这种结构框架，这种从具体空间关系到抽象空间关系的扩展演变用“心理意向投射”的语用原则来解释就十分清楚了。
这就是用语用原则来解释某些语法结构的演变现象。
？5. 象似性世界上事物与事物之间往往存在着某种联系，其中很重要的一个联系就是象似性，即两个事物之间，或者某部分外形，或者某种属性，或者某种特点比较相似，或者跟某些事物有某种联系，我们就把这种关系称之为象似性。
语言的象似性（iconicity）可以定义为：语言符号在音、形或结构上与其所指之间存在映照性相似的现象。
这可以分为几个方面来看（1）在语音方面，发音与其所指之间存在很多相似的关系，如世界各语言中的拟声词；（2）在文字方面，书写形式与意义之间有象似性现象，如汉语中的象形、会意字；（3）在结构上，语言结构有某些方面会反映人们所经验的世界结构，直接映照人们的概念结构。
认知语言学还认为，语言的结构特别是语法结构跟人们对客观世界（包括对人自身）的认识有着相当程度的对应或者象似关系，或者说语法结构在很大程度上是人的经验结构的模型。
这种象似性包括两个方面，一个是“成分象似”，即语言结构的单位实际上跟概念结构的单位一一对应。
第二个是“关系象似性”，即语言结构中单位之间的关系跟概念结构单位之间的关系一一对应。
在讨论句法结构中的象似性时，我们常常提到三个主要的子原则：第一，距离象似性原则：概念之间的距离跟句法成分之间的的成分基本一致。
如，可以解释这样的语法现象：可以说“我爸爸”而“我椅子”就不行。
爸爸是不可让予的，而椅子是可以让予的，因此跟定语“我”的关系，前者距离要小于后者，所以“的”就不一定出现。
第二，顺序象似性原则：思维的顺序或者事件发生的顺序与语言单位排列的顺序象似。
如汉语的基本句序是以“主—谓—宾”为主，反映了一种思维上的顺序。
而且汉语的词序和时间的时间顺序之间具有广泛的象似性关系，句法成分的排列顺序映照它们所表达的实际状态或事件发生的先后顺序。
如，“我跳在马背上”和“我在马背上跳”，前者是我先在马背上，然后再跳；后者是我先跳，然后到达马背上。
第三，数量象似性原则：相对来说，比较大的信息，比较重要的信息，以及比较难于预测的信息在句法上就可能采用比较复杂的方式。
反之则采用比较简单的形式，采用比较少的句法成分。
如，汉语中的形容词，当要表示“量”的增加时就采取重叠形式，“漂亮—漂漂亮亮，大方—大大方方”。
6.语义透明度所谓语义透明度，指的是复合词的语义可从其所组成的各个词素的语义推知的程度，其操作性定义为整词与其词素的语义相关程度。
二试论范畴化和典型理论在汉语语法、词汇研究中的运用。
人们把世界上相同的或相似的事物从认知上归纳在一起，并赋予同一语言符号，这就形成了范畴，其过程就称为范畴化。
（认知语言学上的范畴跟传统的范畴理论有着很大的区别。
在传统范畴理论看来，一个范畴中的成员必须满足某个范畴中的所有特征，如果它违反了其中一个或几个特征就被剔出这一范畴成员的地位。
此外，结构主义语义学家认为，确定语义范畴的标准是充分必要的语义特征，即判定一个词是否属于某个语义范畴就是看它是否具备了该语义场的充分必要语义特征。
）而近代哲学家L.Wittenstein经过研究发现了传统范畴理论的不足，并提出了家族相似性理论(Family Resembalance)。
他认为范畴的成员不必具有该范畴的所有属性，而是AB、BC、CD、DE式的家族相似关系，即一个成员与其他成员至少有一个或多个共同属性。
范畴成员的特性不完全一样，他们是靠家族相似性来归属于同一范畴。
而范畴没有固定的明确的边界，是随着社会的发展和人类认知能力的提高而不断形成和变化发展的。
而Labove和Rosch在家族相似理论基础上提出了原型理论（Prototype theory），成为认知语言学范畴理论的核心思想。
（根据原型理论，在同一范畴中，成员的地位是不同的，即成员代表该范畴的程度不一样，有中心的、典型的成员和边缘的、非典型的成员之分。
其中心的典型的成员即是范畴的原型（prototype），而其他成员具有不同程度的典型性（degree of typicality），比如麻雀就比企鹅更属于“鸟”的范畴。
此外，他们认为典型成员和边缘成员只是相似程度的不同，典型成员具备所有或大部分该范畴的特性，而边缘成员只与典型成员具有很少的一部分相似属性。
因此，范畴的边界是模糊的，某甲认知对象可能完全成为一个范畴成员，而某乙对象可能部分划在该范畴之内；其中甲范畴成员和乙范畴成员之间可能存在某点或多点相似，因此，范畴应该是构成一个连续体。
其中，）典型（或原型）范畴理论的基本观点有以下几点：（1）范畴的确定是凭借典型特征，而不是有充分必要条件来建立的；（2）范畴成员有典型和非典型之分，彼此之间有典型程度差异；（3）范畴成员之间存在相似性和共同的特征，且够成一个连续体；（4）范畴的边界是模糊的。