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Chapter-5-Digestive-System

第三页，编辑于星期日：十八点五十七分。
Digestive system
第四页，编辑于星期日：十八点五十七分。
aliment/o: food, nutrient
❖alimentation: process of giving or taking nourishment. ▪ 营养，营养吸收
❖alimentary: pertaining to food. ▪ 营养的, 饮食的 ▪ alimentary tract/canal
body, hence from the colon to the outside of the body.
▪ 结肠造口术
第十四页，编辑于星期日：十八点五十七分。
dent/o, dent/i: tooth
❖ dentition: the teeth in the dental arch.
▪ 齿系, 齿列 ❖ lobiodental: lobi/o lip, hence pertaining to the lip and the
❖hyperalimentation: hyper- excessive, hence excessive amount of food. ▪ 营养过度，高营养
第五页，编辑于星期日：十八点五十七分。
appendic/o: appendix 阑尾
❖appendectomy: ectomy excision, hence removal of the appendix. ▪ 阑尾切除术
▪ 盲肠固定术
❖ cecocolic: col/o colon, hence pertaining to the cecum and colon.
▪ 盲(肠)结肠的

Chapter 13 Digestive System

buccal
咽 throat, pharynx
1.

pharyngo- 源于希腊语larunx，意为throat
鼻咽、口咽、喉பைடு நூலகம்？
nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx
食管 esophagus
1.
esophago- 源于希腊语eso- (into) + phago (to eat)

空肠jejunum
1.
jejuno- 源于拉丁语，意为empty jejunostomy ？ ileo- 源于拉丁语回肠切开术？

回肠ileum
1.
Jejunum is about seven and a half feet long and continues into the ileum.
牙 tooth
1. 2.
dento-: from Latin odonto-: from Greek dental odontorrhagia odontolith
牙龈 gum

gingivo-: from Latin
gingivitis
舌 tongue
1. 2.
linguo-: from Latin glosso-: from Greek sublingual glossodynia
Exercises
Using the adjective suffix –al write a word for each of the following definitions: 1. Pertaining to the lips labial 2. Pertaining to the gums gingival 3. Pertaining to the cheek buccal 4. Pertaining to the mouth oral 5. Pertaining to the tongue lingual, glossal

医学影像学专业英语Digestive system(4)

Digestive system
oesophageal varices: mainly caused by cirrhosis of the liver
x-ray appearances
Mucosa abnormality :Thickening, circuitous and disturbance.
Filling defects :longitudinal serpiginous.
Dividing line : not clear.
Contraction and relaxation is not enough good, barium is swallowed slowly.
Tension is lower.
x-ray appearances
Mucosa abnormality :Thickening, circuitous and disturbance.
Filling defects :longitudinal serpiginous.
Dividing line : not clear.
Contraction and relaxation is not enough good, barium is swallowed slowly.
– mucosa:destruction, discontinue or disappear
– filling defect – relaxation is limited, wriggling is weakening or disappeared. – lumens: stenosis, enlargement. – dividing line : clear
• Carcinoma of oesophagus and gastric fundus

digestive system 相关英语词汇

digestive system 相关英语词汇The digestive system is a complex network of organs and tissues responsible for breaking down food into nutrients that the body can absorb and use. It involves a series of physical and chemical processes that occur in the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and accessory organs such as the liver, pancreas, and gallbladder.Here are some key English vocabulary related to the digestive system:$$1. Mouth and Teeth:$$* **Mouth:** The entry point for food intake. * **Teeth (Teeth):** Hard, calcified structures used for chewing and grinding food. * **Tongue:** A muscular organ that moves food around in the mouth and helps in swallowing. ***Saliva:** A watery secretion that moistens food, begins the chemical breakdown of carbohydrates, and helps in swallowing.**2. Esophagus:*** **Esophagus:** A muscular tube that carries food from the mouth to the stomach. * **Peristalsis:** The rhythmic muscular contractions that propel food through the esophagus.**3. Stomach:*** **Stomach:** A hollow, muscular organ that stores food, secretes gastric juices, and mixes food with these juices to form a semisolid mass called chyme. * **Gastric Juice:** A mixture of hydrochloric acid, enzymes, and mucus secreted by the stomach. * **Hydrochloric Acid:** A strong acid that helps in the digestion of protein and creates an acidic environment that kills bacteria. * **Enzyme:** A biological catalyst that speeds up chemical reactions in the body, including the breakdown of food into nutrients. * **Mucus:** A slippery, viscous substance that coats the lining of the stomach, protecting it from the corrosive effects of gastric juice.**4. Small Intestine:*** **Small Intestine:** A long, coiled tube that continues from the stomach and is the primary site of digestion and absorption of nutrients. * **Duodenum:** Thefirst part of the small intestine, closest to the stomach. * **Jejunum:** The middle part of the small intestine. ***Ileum:** The final part of the small intestine, leading to the large intestine. * **Villi:** Tiny, finger-like projections on the inner lining of the small intestine that increase its surface area for absorption. * **Microvilli:** Minute projections on the surface of the villi that further enhance the absorption capacity of the small intestine.**5. Large Intestine:*** **Large Intestine:** A wider, shorter tube that absorbs water and forms feces. * **Colon:** The major part of the large intestine. * **Rectum:** The final, straight section of the large intestine, leading to the anus. ***Feces:** Solid waste product formed in the largeintestine and expelled from the body through the anus.**6. Accessory Organs:*** **Liver:** A large organ that produces bile, metabolizes fats, stores vitamins and minerals, and detoxifies the blood. * **Bile:** A yellowish fluid produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. It helps in the digestion of fats. * **Gallbladder:** A small,pear-shaped sac that stores bile until it is needed for digestion. * **Pancreas:** A gland that produces enzymes that break down carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, as well as hormones that regulate blood sugar levels.**7. Digestive Processes and Functions:*** **Digestion:** The process of breaking down food into smaller molecules that can be absorbed by the body. ***Absorption:** The process of nutrients passing through the walls of the small intestine into the bloodstream. ***Metabolism:** The set of chemical reactions that occur in the body to convert food into energy and building blocksfor cells and tissues.These are just a few of the many terms related to the digestive system. The digestive system is a highly complex and interconnected network of organs and processes, and its efficient functioning is crucial for maintaining overall health and well-being. Disorders of the digestive system can lead to a range of symptoms and health issues, makingit important to maintain a healthy diet and lifestyle to promote optimal digestive health.。

大学英语digestive_system

mouths. It is produced in and secreted from the salivary glands. Human saliva is composed mostly of water (99.5%), but also includes electrolytes, mucus, antibacterial compounds, and various enzymes . The enzymes in the saliva break down some of the starch and fat in the food at the molecular level salivary amylase
2
Digestive tract
The human digestive system includes mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine (duodenum, jejunum and ileum), large intestine（cecum， appendix，colon and rectum） and anus.
Digestive system
1
The function of the digestive system is to prepare food for intake by body cells. Nutrients must be broken down by mechanical and chemical means into molecules that are small enough to be absorbed into the circulation. Within cells, the nutrients are used for energy and for rebuilding vital cell components. Digestion takes place in the digestive tract.

消化系统总论

the digestive tube )：
X线特点(X-ray characteristic)：线特点( ) 软组织：缺乏自然对比( 1 软组织：缺乏自然对比(natural contrast)； ) 两端开口，能运动：可引入造影剂造影剂； 2 两端开口，能运动：可引入造影剂；粘膜面：双对比( 发现早期早期病变 3 粘膜面：双对比(double contrast)发现早期病变消化腺：实质脏器，适于CT MRI、超声、 CT、 4 消化腺：实质脏器，适于CT、MRI、超声、血管造影等项检查。管造影等项检查。
b、全消（中上消化道）：食管、全消（中上消化道）：食管）：回盲部
小肠系钡剂造影：小肠系钡剂造影：
a:钡餐后； a:钡餐后；钡餐后 b:小肠钡灌小肠钡灌（ b:小肠钡灌（Small intestine barium enema,SBE）
结肠造影：钡剂灌肠：结肠造影：钡剂灌肠：Barium enema
1 粘膜破坏：粘膜皱襞消失、中断，见于恶性肿粘膜破坏：中断，瘤 2 粘膜平坦：粘膜及粘膜下水肿：逐渐移行与正粘膜平坦：粘膜及粘膜下水肿：常无明显分界肿瘤浸润：固定，分界截然。肿瘤浸润：固定，分界截然。 3 粘膜纠集：放射状向病灶集中，见于慢性溃疡粘膜纠集：放射状向病灶集中，
31
4 增宽和迂曲（肥厚）：炎症、肿胀、结缔组增宽和迂曲（肥厚）：炎症、肿胀、）：炎症织增生所致。织增生所致。见于慢性胃炎和静脉曲张 5 微皱襞改变：微皱襞改变：炎症时：小区增大，炎症时：小区增大，小沟增宽伴糜烂时：小区小沟破坏、消失，呈散在点伴糜烂时：小区小沟破坏、消失，状钡影癌瘤时：局部小区、小沟完全破坏、消失癌瘤时：局部小区、小沟完全破坏、

2.The Digestive System

• • • •
pancreato(pancreas) stomato(mouth) linguo(tongue) duodeno(duodenum)
• pancreato(pancreas): pancreatopathy,pancreatitis
• stomato(mouth):stomatitis,stomatoplasty(口腔成形术),stomatalgia • linguo(tongue):sublingual,linguodental,lingualoplasty • duodeno(duodenum):duodenectomy,gastroduodena l,duodenoscopy
• He started to have the pain on July 10,2004,soon after his supper. The pain was persistent in nature, gradually increased in severity and radiated to the right scapular region. He vomited once. No fever was noticed. He had similar attacks in the past.
• The mouth: • 1. decomposes very large aggregates of food molecules into smaller particles • 2.allows saliva and enzymes to enter inside the larger food complexes • 3. set off a signaling message to the body to start the entire digestive process

Unit14 digestive System Class1

Gastric and duodenal ulcers were noted to evolve from early superficial mucosal disease.
胃和十二指肠溃疡是由早期浅表的粘膜病变演变而来的。对于食管、胃、十二指肠的炎症、溃疡和肿瘤，胃镜检查要
比x线检查更准确。 Gastroscopy is more accurate than X-rays for detecting
急性肝衰竭能导致许多并发症，包括大出血和颅内压增高。急性肝衰竭的另一种类型是暴发性肝衰竭。
choleric: a.胆的
chole-, chol(o)- bile
cholecyst
胆囊
cholecystitis
胆囊切除术
cholecystectomy
cholesterol
Cultural Knowledge
The most common sites for cancer of the GI tract are the colon and rectum. Together these colorectal cancers rank among the most frequent causes of cancers deaths in the United States in both men and women. A diet low in fiber and calcium and high in fat is a major risk factor in colorectal cancer.
In addition to the alimentary canal, there are several important accessory organs that help your body to digest food, but do not have food pass through them. Accessory organs of the digestive system include the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.

解剖学名词解释大全

解剖学名词解释大全解剖学是研究生物体结构和形态的科学，其中包含大量的专业名词。

下面将为大家介绍一些常见的解剖学名词，希望能够帮助大家更好地理解解剖学知识。

1. 细胞（Cell）。

细胞是生物体的基本结构和功能单位，是生命活动的基本载体。

细胞由细胞膜、细胞质和细胞核组成，通过细胞间质相互联系形成组织。

2. 组织（Tissue）。

组织是由一定类型的细胞和细胞外基质组成的具有特定功能的结构。

常见的组织包括上皮组织、结缔组织、肌肉组织和神经组织等。

3. 器官（Organ）。

器官是由不同的组织构成，具有特定的形态和功能，是生物体内部的重要结构。

常见的器官包括心脏、肺、肝脏、肾脏等。

4. 系统（System）。

系统是由多个器官相互协调合作，共同完成一定的生理功能。

人体包括循环系统、呼吸系统、消化系统、神经系统、内分泌系统等多个系统。

5. 骨骼系统（Skeletal System）。

骨骼系统是人体的支撑结构，由骨骼、关节和韧带组成。

骨骼系统的主要功能是支持身体、保护内脏器官、参与运动和储存矿物质。

6. 肌肉系统（Muscular System）。

肌肉系统是由肌肉组成的，主要功能是产生力量和促使身体运动。

肌肉系统还可以维持姿势、保护内脏器官和参与体温调节。

7. 消化系统（Digestive System）。

消化系统包括口腔、食道、胃、肠道等器官，主要功能是将食物消化成营养物质，为身体提供能量和营养物质。

8. 呼吸系统（Respiratory System）。

呼吸系统包括鼻腔、咽喉、气管和肺，主要功能是进行气体交换，吸入氧气，排出二氧化碳，为身体组织提供氧气。

9. 循环系统（Circulatory System）。

循环系统包括心脏、血管和血液，主要功能是输送营养物质和氧气到全身各个组织，同时将代谢产物和二氧化碳运送回心脏和肺。

10. 神经系统（Nervous System）。

神经系统包括中枢神经系统和外周神经系统，主要功能是接收、传递和处理信息，控制和调节身体各个器官和系统的活动。

Digestive System消化系统英文值得收藏

Upper muscle in stomach relaxes to let food enter and lower muscle mixes food with digestive juice
Digestive Juices used Saliva None Gastric juice (like Stomach acid)
Vision 03
e of drugs like nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs 非甾体抗炎药)
Methods of examination
1 2 3
Endoscopy 内窥镜
Laboratory inspection:blood and stool routines, C-urea breath test
laboratory examination
Barium meal（钡餐） Barium studies of the proximal gastro-intestinal tract are still commonly used as a first test for documenting an ulcer. For a DU ,it appears as a welldemarcated crater, often seen in the bulb . For a GU ,it may represent benign or malignant disease. Typically,a benign GU also appears as a discrete crater with radiating mucosal folds originating from the ulcer margin . （GU可能是良性和恶性。典型的良性表现为游离龛影，粘膜皱襞从溃疡边缘向内放射集中）

生理学名词解释大全

生理学名词解释大全1. 生理学（Physiology）：研究生物体的正常生理功能和机制的科学领域。

2. 细胞（Cell）：生物体的基本结构和功能单位，所有生命过程都由细胞完成。

3. 组织（Tissue）：由一组具有特定结构和功能的细胞组成的结构单位，包括肌肉组织、神经组织等。

4. 器官（Organ）：由不同组织结合而成，具有特定功能的结构单位，如心脏、肺等。

5. 系统（System）：由多个器官协同工作而形成的具有特定功能的组织群，如呼吸系统、循环系统等。

6. 激素（Hormone）：由内分泌腺分泌的一种化学物质，通过血液循环作用于特定目标器官或细胞，调节生理功能。

7. 血液（Blood）：体液之一，主要由红细胞、白细胞、血小板和血浆组成，负责输送氧气、养分和激素，以及维持体温和免疫功能。

8. 神经系统（Nervous system）：由中枢神经系统（脑和脊髓）和外周神经系统（神经和神经节）组成的调节和控制机体功能的系统。

9. 消化系统（Digestive system）：由口腔、食管、胃、肠等器官组成，负责消化食物、吸收营养物质和排除废物。

10. 呼吸系统（Respiratory system）：由鼻腔、喉、气管、肺等器官组成，负责吸入氧气并呼出二氧化碳。

11. 循环系统（Circulatory system）：由心脏、血管和血液组成，负责运输氧气、养分和激素到全身各部位。

12. 免疫系统（Immune system）：负责识别和抵御入侵的病原体，维持身体健康的防御系统。

13. 代谢（Metabolism）：生物体内发生的所有化学反应，包括能量转换、分解和合成物质。

14. 遗传（Genetics）：研究基因的遗传规律和DNA的结构与功能的科学领域。

15. 神经递质（Neurotransmitter）：存在于神经元间隙中的一类化学物质，用于神经细胞之间的信息传递。

16. 兴奋（Excitation）：由于刺激而导致神经元或肌肉细胞内动作电位生成和传导的过程。

03-Digestive System消化系统

1.3.2 Focal lesions within the liver

Colloid scintigraphy played a unique role in identifying space-occupying lesions of the liver; Most true space-occupying processes within the liver, such as metastases and abscesses(脓肿), are devoid of Kupffer cells, with resultant defects noted on SC imaging. Primary masses originating within the liver, including HCC, focal nodular hyperplasia (FNH) and hepatic adenoma, are all devoid of uptake on SC studies.
2.2 Technique

Generally, imaging consists of three phases: arterial perfusion (flow), immediate blood pool, and delayed blood pool. (1) Arterial perfusion imaging, typically obtained at 1 frame per second during injection of the labeled RBCs, reveals useful information about regional supply of hepatic arterial blood flow and should be performed in the view potentially suited to portray the lesion while avoiding overlap with normal vascular structures.

鱼类消化系统

腹腔形状及其变化
大小：大→游泳能力较弱，有较大的胃或较长的肠，一般为肉食
性鱼类，如鲇科、松球鱼科、箱鲀科、鳕科
小→身体较延长，腹腔长远小于体长，多为杂食性或草食性鱼类，如线口鳗、克氏棘刀鱼形状：与体型正相关延长形→海龙科、鱵、鳗鲡、黄鳝、玉筋鱼等平扁形→鳐、平鳍鳅、鮟鱇等侧扁形→银鲳、鳊、鲂属、鲽科等，小肠较长特殊：肛门前移种类→腹腔较小，部分内脏器官伸入尾部。如鳕科部分肾脏、鲽形目一些种类的生殖腺、鳓的鳔等均伸入尾部
U
公鱼鳗鲡鳕
Y
Y T
贲门部
幽门部
盲囊部
硬骨鱼类胃的类型
胃的大小与食性和食物的大小密切相关
胃膨大→吞食大型食物的种类一次消耗大量食物的种类无胃→圆口类、鲤科、海龙科等的食道后方稍扩大，但在组织构造上却无胃腺胃内黏膜褶：纵走平行褶纵走蜿蜒褶纵褶间具横褶纵褶间具纵走细褶纵褶间具网状褶纵褶间具乳突
滤食性→长而密。鲢＞ 1000枚；鳙＞ 500枚
肉食性、大型食物→短而稀。鲇13 ～15枚；鳜5 ～7枚
A. 水珍鱼 B. 黄姑鱼 C. 鲈 D. 深蛇鳚 E. 放大 F. 鲮
不同食性鱼类的鳃耙
鲢、鳙鳃耙的比较
宽鳃耙侧视窄鳃耙侧视
鲢、鳙鳃耙的比较
鲢数多。体长66cm时约1700 枚，过滤面积约25cm2 鳃耙长。鳃耙︰鳃丝=1︰不同 0.78 鳃耙彼此连成一片，呈海绵状相同鳙数少。体长65cm2 时约 680枚鳃耙较长，鳃耙︰鳃丝 =1︰1.4 鳃耙彼此不相连，具宽窄2种鳃耙
草鱼：2，4/5，2 或 2，5 /4，2
3. 鳃耙
(Gillrakers)
着生于鳃弓腹面的内外两侧，具滤食、选择食物（鳃弓前缘具味蕾）和保护鳃丝作用

消化内科英文试题及答案

消化内科英文试题及答案Digestive System Internal Medicine English Exam Questions and AnswersQuestion 1:1. What is the role of the digestive system in the body?2. List the main organs of the digestive system and briefly describe their functions.3. Explain the process of digestion.Answer 1:The digestive system plays a crucial role in breaking down food and absorbing nutrients necessary for the body's functioning. It ensures the proper digestion and absorption of nutrients from the food we consume.The main organs of the digestive system include the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine (colon), rectum, and anus. Each organ has its specific functions in the digestion process.- Mouth: The mouth is the starting point of digestion. It is responsible for biting, chewing, and grinding food, and mixing it with saliva to form a bolus.- Esophagus: The esophagus connects the mouth to the stomach and helps transport the food bolus through peristalsis.- Stomach: The stomach secretes gastric juices, including enzymes and hydrochloric acid, to break down food further and initiate the digestion of proteins.- Small Intestine: The small intestine is the primary site for digestion and absorption. It receives digestive enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the liver to break down proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. Nutrient absorption occurs through the small intestine's lining.- Large Intestine (Colon): The colon absorbs water and electrolytes from waste materials, forming feces.- Rectum: The rectum stores feces until it is expelled through the anus during defecation.- Anus: The anus is the opening through which feces are eliminated from the body.The process of digestion involves several steps. It begins with the intake of food through the mouth, where it is mechanically broken down through chewing. Saliva mixes with the food, initiating the breakdown of starches. The food bolus then travels through the esophagus into the stomach. In the stomach, gastric juices and muscular contractions help break down the food into a semi-liquid mixture called chyme.The partially digested food then enters the small intestine, where it further breaks down with the help of pancreatic enzymes and bile secreted by the liver. The small intestine absorbs the nutrients from the digested food into the bloodstream. The undigested waste moves into the large intestine, where water and electrolytes are absorbed, forming solid waste (feces). Finally, the feces are stored in the rectum until elimination through the anus.Question 2:1. What are the common digestive system disorders?2. Explain the symptoms and possible causes of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD).3. Discuss the causes, symptoms, and treatment options for peptic ulcers.Answer 2:The digestive system is susceptible to various disorders. Some common digestive system disorders include gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD), peptic ulcers, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), and gallstones.Gastroesophageal reflux disease, or GERD, is a chronic condition where stomach acid or bile flows back into the esophagus, causing irritation. The symptoms of GERD include heartburn, regurgitation, difficulty swallowing, chronic cough, and chest pain. The possible causes of GERD include a weak lower esophageal sphincter (LES), obesity, hiatal hernia, certain medications, and smoking. Treatment options for GERD include lifestyle changes (weight loss, avoiding trigger foods), medications that reduce stomach acid production or neutralize acid, and, in severe cases, surgery to reinforce the LES.Peptic ulcers are open sores that develop on the lining of the stomach, small intestine, or esophagus. The common causes of peptic ulcers are Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) bacteria and prolonged use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). The symptoms of peptic ulcers include abdominal pain, bloating, indigestion, weight loss, and vomiting blood. Treatment options for peptic ulcers include antibiotics to eradicate H. pylori infection, medications that reduce stomach acid production, and lifestyle changes (avoiding alcohol, caffeine, and smoking).Question 3:1. What lifestyle changes can promote a healthy digestive system?2. Explain the benefits of a balanced diet for digestion.3. Discuss the importance of regular exercise for maintaining a healthy digestive system.Answer 3:Maintaining a healthy lifestyle is crucial for promoting a healthy digestive system. Here are some lifestyle changes that can positively impact digestion:1. Diet: Consuming a balanced diet rich in fiber, fruits, vegetables, and lean proteins promotes healthy digestion. Avoiding excessive intake of processed foods, saturated fats, and sugars helps in maintaining digestive health.2. Hydration: Drinking an adequate amount of water is essential for digestion. It helps soften stools and prevents constipation.3. Portion control: Eating smaller, frequent meals rather than large meals helps the digestive system function optimally. Overeating can cause discomfort and put strain on the digestive organs.4. Chew food thoroughly: Properly chewing food aids digestion by breaking down food into smaller particles, making it easier to process further along the digestive tract.5. Regular exercise: Engaging in physical activity stimulates digestion and helps prevent constipation. Exercise promotes healthy muscle contractions and improves overall digestive function.6. Stress management: High levels of stress can disrupt the digestive process. Employing stress-reducing techniques such as meditation, deep breathing exercises, and regular relaxation can support healthy digestion.A balanced diet plays a crucial role in promoting good digestion. It provides the necessary nutrients, vitamins, and minerals required for the optimal functioning of the digestive system. Fiber-rich foods, such as whole grains, fruits, and vegetables, aid in maintaining regular bowel movements and prevent constipation. Adequate protein intake helps repair and build digestive tissues. Consuming probiotic-rich foods, such as yogurt, supports a healthy gut microbiome, enhancing digestion.Regular exercise is important for maintaining a healthy digestive system. Physical activity helps regulate bowel movements, preventing constipation. It also promotes healthy muscle contractions throughout the digestive tract, aiding in the movement of food. Regular exercise can help alleviate symptoms of digestive disorders such as IBS and promote overall digestive health.In conclusion, maintaining a healthy digestive system is crucial for overall well-being. By adopting a balanced diet, practicing portion control, staying hydrated, engaging in regular exercise, and managing stress, individuals can support their digestive system's optimal functioning and reduce the risk of digestive disorders.。