中央财经大学考博英语阅读理解真题解析

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考博英语(阅读理解)历年真题试卷汇编7(题后含答案及解析)

考博英语（阅读理解）历年真题试卷汇编7(题后含答案及解析) 题型有： 3. Reading Comprehension

Reading Comprehension

We have known for a long time that the organization of any particular society is influenced by the definition of the sexes and the distinction drawn between them. But we have realized only recently that the identity of each sex is not so easy to pin down, and that definitions evolve in accordance with different types of culture known to us, that is, scientific discoveries and ideological revolutions. Our nature is not considered as immutable, either socially or biologically. As we approach the beginning of the 21st century, the substantial progress made in biology and genetics is radically challenging the roles, responsibilities and specific characteristics attributed to each sex, and yet, scarcely twenty years ago, these were thought to be “ beyond dispute”. We can safely say, with a few minor exceptions, that the definition of the sexes and their respective functions remained unchanged in the West from the beginning of the 19th century to the 1960s. The role distinction, raised in some cases to the status of uncompromising dualism on a strongly hierarchical model, lasted throughout this period, appealing for its justification to nature, religion and customs alleged to have existed since the dawn of time. The woman bore children and took care of the home. The man set out to conquer the world and was responsible for the survival of his family, by satisfying their needs in peacetime and going to war when necessary. The entire world order rested on the divergence of the sexes. Any overlapping or confusion between the roles was seen as a threat to the time-honored order of things. It was felt to be against nature, a deviation from the norm. Sex roles were determined according to the “place” appropriate to each. Women’s place was, first and foremost, in the home. The outside world, i.e. workshops, factories and business firms, belonged to men. This sex-based division of the world(private and public)gave rise to a strict dichotomy between the attitudes, which conferred on each is special identity. The woman, sequestered at home, “cared, nurtured and conserved. “ To do this, she had no need to be daring, ambitious, tough or competitive. The man, on the other hand, competing with his fellow men, was caught up every day in the struggle for survival, and hence developed those characteristics which were thought natural in a man. Today, many women go out to work, and their reasons for doing so have changed considerably. Besides the traditional financial incentives, we find ambition and personal fulfillment motivating those in the most favorable circumstances, and the wish to have a social life and to get out of their domestic isolation influencing others. Above all, for all women, work is invariably connected with the desire for independence.

考博英语(阅读理解)历年真题试卷汇编3.doc

考博英语（阅读理解）历年真题试卷汇编3

(总分：40.00，做题时间：90分钟)

一、Reading Comprehensio(总题数：4，分数：40.00)

The United Nations Population Fund has picked October 31 as the day the world will be home to 7 billion people. For better and worse, it's a milestone. And there will be more milestones ahead. Fourteen years from now, there are expected to be 8 billion people on the planet. Most of the growth will occur in the world's poorer countries. Proportionally, Europe's population will decline, while Africa's will increase. At around the same time, India will overtake China as the most populous nation on Earth. The growing global population is just one side of the coin. A recent report from the World Health Organization signaled the seriousness of the human population explosion: more than 3 billion people — about half the world's population — are malnourished. Never before have so many, or such a large proportion, of the world's people been malnourished. And in a growing number of countries there is a seemingly unstoppable march toward sub-replacement fertility, whereby each new generation is less populous than the previous one, and population aging. As a result of declining fertility and increasing longevity, the populations of more and more countries are aging raging rapidly. Between 2005 and 2050, a rise in the population aged 60 years or over will be visible, whereas the number of children(persons under age 15)will decline slightly. Population aging represents, in one sense, a success story for mankind, but it also poses profound challenges to public institutions that must adapt to a changing age structure. The latest national census in China shows the number of elderly people in the country has jumped to more than 13. 3 percent of the population, an increase of nearly 3 percentage points on the percentage from the previous census in 2000. A quarter of the country's population will be over 65 by 2050, according to the National Population and Family Planning Commission. The growing number of elderly is a challenge that the government needs to tackle, we can't rely on the ever-increasing population to support them or maintain the nation's economic growth. Better solutions are needed, such as raising retirement ages to reflect the greater longevity and working capability of today's older adults and making adjustments so pension programs are more accessible. It was heartening to hear the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Security spokesperson announced in Beijing on Tuesday that the government will take retirement policy seriously and proactively. Shanghai began testing a flexible retirement system last October. Eligible employees in the private sector are allowed to postpone retirement until the age of 65 for men and 60 for women. Public servants, however, will continue to retire under the present system age 60 for men and 55 for women.（分数：10.00）

中央财经大学考博英语模拟真题及其解析

Directions:

In the following article,some sentences have been removed.For Questions1-5,choose the most suitable one from the list A―G to fit into each of the numbered blank.There are two extra choices,which do not fit in any of the gaps.

If you flew in an airplane over the continent of Antarctica,you would look down on a great sheet of snow and ice.The snow and ice slopes gently from a central plateau around the South Pole toward the sea.Along the coasts of Antarctica,sharp mountains rise up from the snow.Huge masses of ice called glaciers slide between the mountain ridges toward the sea.At the sea's edge,tremendous icebergs break off the glacier and float away.They are often enormous in size.Geng duo yuan xiao wan zheng kao bo ying yu zhen ti ji qi jie xi qing lian xi quan guo mian fei zi xun dian hua:si ling ling liu liu ba liu jiu qi ba,huo jia zi xun qq:qi qi er liu qi ba wu san qi.

考博英语(阅读理解)练习试卷24(题后含答案及解析)

考博英语（阅读理解）练习试卷24(题后含答案及解析) 题型有：1. Reading Comprehension

Reading Comprehension

Roger Rosenblatt’s book Black Fiction, in attempting to apply literary rather than sociopolitical criteria to its subject, successfully alters the approach taken by most previous studies. As Rosenblatt notes, criticism of Black writing has often served as a pretext for expounding on Black history. Addison Gayle’s recent work, for example, judges the value of Black fiction by overtly political standards, rating each work according to the notions of Black identity which it propounds. Although fiction assuredly springs from political circumstances, its authors react to those circumstances in ways other than ideological, and talking about novels and stories primarily as instruments of ideology circumvents much of the fictional enterprise. Rosenblatt’s literary analysis discloses affinities and connections among works of Black fiction which solely political studies have overlooked or ignored. Writing acceptable criticism of Black fiction, however, presupposes giving satisfactory answers to a number of questions. First of all, is there a sufficient reason other than the racial identity of the author? Second, how does Black fiction make itself distinct from other modern fiction with which it is largely contemporaneous? Rosenblatt shows that Black fiction constitutes a distinct body of writing that has an identifiable, coherent literary tradition. Looking at novels written by Blacks over the last eight years, he discovers recurring concerns and designs independent of chronology. These structures are thematic, and they spring, not surprisingly, from the central fact that the Black characters in these novels exist in a predominantly white culture, whether they try to conform to that culture or rebel against it. Black Fiction does leave some aesthetic questions open, Rosenblatt s thematic analyses permits considerable objectivity; he even explicitly states that it is not his intention to judge the merit of the various works yet his reluctance seems misplaced, especially since an attempt to appraise might have led to interesting results. For instance, some of the novels appear to be structurally diffuse. Is this a defect, or are the authors working out of, or trying to forge, a different kind of aesthetic? In addition, the style of some Black novels, like Jean Toomer’s Cane, verges on expressionism or surrealism; does this technique provide a counterpoint to the prevalent theme that portrays the late against which black heroes are pitted, a theme usually conveyed by more naturalistic modes of expression? In spite of such omissions, what Rosenblatt does include in his discussion makes for an astute and worthwhile study. Black Fiction surveys a wide variety of novels, bringing to our attention in the process some fascinating and little-known works like James Weldon Johnson’s Autobiography of an Ex-Colored Man. Its argument is tightly constructed, and is forthright, lucid style exemplifies levelheaded and penetrating criticism. (444 words)

考博英语(阅读理解)-试卷80.doc

考博英语（阅读理解）-试卷80

(总分：40.00，做题时间：90分钟)

一、Reading Comprehensio(总题数：4，分数：40.00)

Too much alcohol dulls your senses, but a study in Japan shows that moderate drinkers have a higher IQ than teetotalers. Researchers at the National Institute for Longevity Sciences in Aichi Prefecture, 250 kilometers west of Tokyo, tested the IQs of 2000 people between the ages of 40 and 79. They found that, on average, men who drank moderately — defined as less than 540 milliliters of sake or wine a day — had an IQ that was 3. 3 points higher that men who did not drink at all. Women drinkers scored 2. 5 points higher than female teetotalers. The type of alcohol didn't influence the results. The volunteers tried a variety of tipples, which ranged from beer and whisky to wine and sake. The researchers are quick to point out that the results do not necessarily show that drinking will make you more intelligent. "It's very difficult to show a cause-effect relationship," says senior researcher Hiroshi Shimokata. "We screened subjects for factors such as income and education, but there may be other factors such as lifestyle and nutritional intake. " Shimokata says that people who drink sake, or Japanese rice wine, tend to eat more raw fish. This could be a factor in enhanced intelligence, as fish often contain essential fatty acids that have been linked to brain development. Similarly, wine drinkers eat a lot of cheese, which is not something Japanese people normally consume or buy. Shimokata says the high fat content of cheese is thought to be good for the brain. If alcoholic drinks are directly influencing IQ, Shimokata believes chemicals such as polyphenols could be the critical factor. They are known to have antioxidant properties and other beneficial effects on ageing bodies, such as dilating constricted coronary arteries. The study is part of a wider research project to find out why brain function deteriorates with age.（分数：10.00）

央党校博士研究生入学英语考试试卷

2005年中央党校博士研究生入学英语考试试卷

注意：请按要求把1-75题的答案填在机读卡（Answer Sheet A）上；把听力部分Section C、B1-B10题的答案、翻译和作文写在答题纸（Answer Sheet B）上。

听力部分：

I Listening Comprehension (20 points)

Section A

Directions: In this section you will hear 10 short conversation. At the end of each conversation, a question will be asked about what was said. Each conversation and question will be spoken only once. After each question there will be a pause. During the pause, you must read the four suggested answers marked A, B, C, and D, and decide which is the best answer. Then mark the corresponding letter on Answer Sheet A with a single line through the center.

1. A. The man has more work to do on his paper than Edward on his.

中央财经大学考博英语真题解析

1.In that country,guests tend to feel they are not highly if the invitation to a dinner party is extended only three or four days before the party date.

(A)admired

(B)regarded

(C)expected

(D)worshipped

2.A of the long report by the budget committee was submitted to the mayor for approval.

(A)shorthand

(B)scheme

(C)schedule

(D)sketch

3.A man has to make______for his old age by putting aside enough money to live on when /

(A)supply

(B)assurance

(C)provision

(D)adjustment

4.The newly-built Science Building seems_______enough to last

a hundred years.

(A)spacious

(B)sophisticated

(C)substantial

（PS:The way to contact yumingkaobo TEL:si ling ling-liu liu ba-liu jiu qi ba QQ:772678537)

2019年中央财经大学产业经济学考博真题及答案解析

1 yt*
k
* t

1 1
s
l 。
（4）资本产出比为
k
* t

s
。
y
* t
l
（5）在稳态能达到的最高消费水平需要满足资本回报率等于资本折旧加资本扩展，即
Rt* l
1
代入
Rt*
，我们得到 s
1
。此时最高消费水平为 c

1 l

八、（8 分）在一个实行浮动汇率制，资本可以自由流动的开放经济中，如果政府的目标是
增加本国的净出口，那么：
1.减少公共支出是否有助于此目标的实现？为什么？
2.如果购买力平价成立，增加货币供给是否有助于此目标的实现？为什么？
育明教育答案解析：
（1）减少公共支出有助于此目标的实现。减少公共支出使国内对商品和劳务需求减少，IS
目前很多院校都开始采取申请考核制度了，建议考生一定要多发几篇文章，至少 2 篇国家级文章。
三、2020 年考博英语真题预测
2020 年考研英语一真题
Section I Use of English Directions: Read the following text. Choose the best word(s) for each numbered blank and mark A, B, C or D on ANSWER SHEET 1. (10 points) People are, on the whole, poor at considering background information when making individual decisions. At first glance this might seem like a strength that 1 the ability to make judgments which are unbiased by 2 factors. But Dr. Uri Simonsohn speculated that an inability to consider the big 3 was leading decision-makers to be biased by the daily samples of information they were working with. 4 , he theorised that a judge 5 of appearing too soft 6 crime might be more likely to send someone to prison 7 he had already sentenced five or six other defendants only to forced community service on that day. To 8 this idea, he turned to the university-admissions process. In theory, the 9 of an applicant should not depend on the few others 10 randomly for interview during the same day, but Dr. Simonsohn suspected the truth was 11 .

考博英语(阅读理解)练习试卷7(题后含答案及解析)

考博英语（阅读理解）练习试卷7(题后含答案及解析) 题型有：1. Reading Comprehension

Reading Comprehension

Would you like to know if your body is older or younger than it should be? Dr David Wikenheiser has been studying ageing in Vancouver, Canada, for the past 10 years and has found the average person is 15 or more years older biologically than chronologically. He says: “We all know people who are 30 but look over 40, and others who are 70 yet look 50. The difference comes down to lifestyle. Some people’s bodies get rusty faster than others, and this makes them age more quickly. “Virtually every ageing process is related to the oxidative compounds or free radicals produced by our body as a reaction to pollution, ultraviolet light, stress, smoking, alcohol and pesticides. But these can be neutralised by antioxidants. After conducting more than 3 000 tests, Dr. Wikenheiser believes that, on average, you can lower your biological age by 10 years in three months with the right lifestyle changes. “You can’t alter your genetics but you can make other changes, such as eating the right food, drinking enough water to flush out toxins, exercising and managing stress,”he says. But exercising too much is just as bad as not doing enough. Walking out for more than two hours at a time every day puts too great a strain on your heart. “Multivitamin and antioxidant supplements are important even if you’re eating the right amount of fruit and vegetables. Today’s soil tends to lack essential minerals so these are no longer found in the food we eat, in large enough quantities. We should also swap (交换)bleached white table salt for natural sea salt which is much better for us. “It’s also important to eat three meals a day. Missed meals put a strain on your brain as your blood sugar level drops. Many of us are also eating the wrong fats or avoiding fat altogether, so we miss out on important nutritional oils. “You should also ask your dentist what kind of fillings you have. Amalgam fillings in your teeth are not stable and will contribute to toxic metal levels in your body.” says Dr. Wikenheiser. (351 words)

《考博英语阅读理解150篇详解》-Unit3~5【圣才出品】

Unit 3 科技创新类

Passage 1 电脑技术

America’s most relentless exa miner, the Educational Testing Service, has developed computer software, known as E-Rater, to evaluate essays on the Graduate Management Admission Test. Administered to 200,000 business school applicants each year, the GMAT includes two 30-min essays that test takers type straight into a computer. In the past, those essays were graded on a six-point scale by two readers. This month, the computer will replace one of the readers—with the proviso that a second reader will be consulted if the computer and human-reader scores differ by more than a point.

It’s one thing for a machine to determine whether a bubble has been correctly filled in, but can it read outside the lines, so to speak? Well, yes and no. E-Rater “learns” what constitutes good and bad answers from a sample of regarded essays. Using that information, it breaks the essay down to its syntax, organization and content. The software checks basics like subject-verb agreement and recognizes phrases and sentence structures that are likely to be found in high-scoring essays.

考博英语(阅读理解)练习试卷29(题后含答案及解析)

考博英语（阅读理解）练习试卷29(题后含答案及解析) 题型有：1. Reading Comprehension

Reading Comprehension

We’ve all heard about whalewatching from boats or shore, and a few companies are now offering the possibility of actually swimming and snorkeling with whales in the wild. Is this a good thing? Some whalewatching operators in the Kingdom of Tonga, South Pacific islands, advertise the possibility of swimming and snorkeling with humpback whales during the cetacean’s annual migration from July to October. This activity sounds appealing, yet there are a number of things to consider. To drop clients off within snorkeling distance of a whale, the swim boats must come closer than the 30 meters laid down in Tongan government guidelines in 1997. Engine noise from a maneuvering boat can startle a whale, and repeated disturbances can lead to the animals changing their behaviour and even abandoning their traditional habitat. The nursing and resting routines of the pods can be disrupted, potentially threatening the health of the whales. This high-risk activity is not covered by most travel insurance policies. The humpback whales of Tonga are wild animals with powerful fins, and swimming near one always involves some risk. The movements of these huge creatures can be fatal to a human swimmer, either accidentally or if the beast feels threatened, and a nursing mother with calf can be especially unpredictable. Swimming into the path of a whale greatly increases the danger. In Tonga, sharks are known to frequent areas where there are whales, especially calves, and at least one shark attack on a Tongan guide swimming with whales has been recorded. A tragic accident involving tourists seems to be only a matter of time. Most whale encounters occur in deep waters where unperceived currents and wave action can soon tire a snorkeler and possibly lead to panic. For these reasons, responsible whalewatching companies like http://www. whalediscoveries. com do not offer snorkeling with whales. Of course, the demand is there, and pressure has come to bear on the Tongan Government to revise its guidelines to allow boats to come within 10 meters of a whale. Several new whalewatching licenses have been issued recently, raising the number of commercial operators in this small area to about a dozen, and vessels often have to queue to drop off swimmers. Cases have been observed of boats approaching to within five meters of whale pods, and of mother humpbacks and calves being pursued out to sea. Visitors should be aware that by purchasing such an excursion, they could be adversely affecting the noble creatures they came to see. It’s a good idea to discuss these matters with the operator before booking your trip, and to avoid those who seem most interested in maximizing their own profits at the expense of the whales. Even if you decide to book such a tour, be aware that only 10 percent of swim with attempts are successful and there are no refunds. These concerns only apply to attempts to actually swim with whales, and whalewatching from a boat at a safe distance is no problem. (493 words)

考博英语(阅读理解)历年真题试卷汇编5(题后含答案及解析)

考博英语（阅读理解）历年真题试卷汇编5(题后含答案及解析) 题型有： 3. Reading Comprehension

Reading Comprehension

For 150 years scientists have tried to determine the solar constant, the amount of solar constant energy that reaches the Earth. Yet, even in the most cloud-free regions of the planet, the solar constant cannot be measured precisely. Gas molecules and dust particles in the atmosphere absorb and scatter sunlight and prevent some wavelengths of the light from ever reaching the ground. With the advent of satellites, however, scientists have finally been able to measure the Sun’s output without being impeded by the Earth’s atmosphere. Solar Max, a satellite from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration(NASA), has been measuring the Sun’s output since February 1980. Although a malfunction in the satellite’s control system limited its observation for a few years, the satellite was repaired in orbit by astronauts from the space-shuttle in 1984. Max’s observations indicate that the solar constant is not really constant after all. The satellite’s instruments have detected frequent, small variations in the Sun’s energy output, generally amounting to no more than 0. 05 percent of the Sun’s mean energy output and lasting from a few days to a few weeks. Scientists believe these fluctuations coincide with the appearance and disappearance of large groups of sunspots on the Sun’s disk. Sunspots are relatively dark regions on the Sun’s surface that have strong magnetic fields and a temperature about 2, 000 degrees Fahrenheit cooler than the rest of the Sun’s surface. Particularly large fluctuations in the solar constant have coincided with sightings of large sunspot groups. In 1980, for example, Solar Max’s instruments registered 0. 3 percent drop in the solar energy reaching the Earth. At that time a sunspot group covered about 0. 6 percent of the solar disk, an area 20 times larger than the Earth’s surface. Long-term variations in the solar constant are more difficult to determine. Although Solar Max’s data have indicated a slow and steady decline in the Sun’s output, some scientists have thought that the satellite’s aging detectors might have become less sensitive over the years, thus falsely indicating a drop in the solar constant. This possibility was dismissed, however, by comparing Solar Max’s observations with data from a similar instrument operating on NASA’s Nimbus 7 weather satellite since 1978.

中央财经大学+考博真题+英语+2007-2013

中央财经大学2007年博士研究生入学考试英语试题

Part I Vocabulary (15%)

Section A

Directions:In this section there are 10 incomplete sentences. For each sentence there are four choices marked A, B, C and D. Choose the one that completes best the sentence.

1. The discovery of the Americas began ____ of adventure.

A. a semester

B. a spell

C. an epoch

D. a span

2. All the ____ of the hotel were evacuated when the fire began.

A. pioneers

B. settlers

C. inhabitants

D. residents

3. The roses I left in the car yesterday started to ____ after a couple of hours in the heat.

A. wilt

B. blossom

C. bud

D. bloom

4. The two runners crossed the line ____.

A. s ometimes

B. simultaneously

C. f r equently

考博英语(阅读理解)模拟试卷101(题后含答案及解析)

考博英语（阅读理解）模拟试卷101(题后含答案及解析)

题型有：1.02 billion bid by Norfolk Southern and CSX to acquire Conrail this year. Conrail’s net railway operating income in 1996 was just 427 million, less than half of the carrying costs of the transaction. Who’s going to pay for the rest of the bill? Many captive shippers fear that they will, as Norfolk Southern and CSX increase their grip on the market.

11．According to those who support mergers railway monopoly is unlikely because______.

A．cost reduction is based On competition

B．services call for cross-trade coordination

C．outside competitors will continue to exist

D．shippers will have the railway by the throat

正确答案：C

解析：本题可参照文章的第2段。从中可知，支持这种新型的超级铁路的人宣称，这些合并会考虑大幅度降低成本，并更好地协调货运服务。他们认为，任何来自垄断的威胁都可以通过来自于汽车运输的激烈竞争而消除。据此可知，支持铁路合并的人认为，来自于外面的激烈竞争会消除垄断的局面。C项与文意相符，因此C项为正确答案。知识模块：阅读理解

2023年考博英语真题及答案

2023考博英语真题及答案

PART 1 TRANSLATION (Chinese to English )

1.为了减缓交通，提高空气质量，北京公布了新的交通规章。

To relieve the traffic and improve the air quality, new traffic regulations have been issued in Beijing.

考点一：减缓交通(relieve the traffic)

考点二：公布(issue)

2.有牢靠的证据说明，日光暴晒与皮肤癌之间有联系。(evidence) There is convincing evidence of a link between exposure to sunlight and skin cancer.

考点一：日光曝晒(exposure to sunlight)

考点二：“皮肤癌”一词的翻译

3.虽然他深知吸烟有害安康，但他对我们要他戒烟的忠告却置若罔闻。(aware)

Tough he is aware that smoking is harmful to health, he is always turning a deaf ear to our advice that he give up smoking.

考点一：be aware of 的用法

考点二：be harmful to 的用法

考点三：对置若罔闻(turn a deaf ear to)

4.科学家们不负众望，胜利放射了一枚人造卫星。(live)

考博英语(阅读理解)练习试卷16(题后含答案及解析)

考博英语（阅读理解）练习试卷16(题后含答案及解析) 题型有：1. Reading Comprehension

Reading Comprehension

A fledgling firm. EcoLean, in Sweden, has developed a new packaging material. Unlike conventional substance, it takes very little energy to produce, is made up mostly of a natural material in abundant supply and, when exposed to sunlight, disappears in a matter of hours. It could go a long way toward easing the problems of a litter-strewn world. The brain behind EcoLean is chemist Ake Rosen. A monument to Rosen’s inspiration can be found in the forecourt of EcoLean s main plant in Helsingborg in southern Sweden. It is a giant egg. Eggshells, it happens, are 95 percent calcium carbonate. And when it comes to eggs, they are a perfect packaging material- though a little too brittle. Rosen, however, found a way to improve on nature’s formula. The other 5 percent of eggshells consists of a crucial “binding agent” that keeps the chalk from turning into dust and toughens the shells. Instead of using the natural protein as a binding agent, Rosen used polylefins(聚烯烃), a type of plastic derived from natural gas. After experimenting with the proportions, Rosen hit upon a Lean Material that consists of up to seventy percent chalk and thirty percent polylefins. Lean Material looks and feels like conventional plastic, but it isn’t. According to Rosen’s tests, EcoLean asserts that it can be as strong as glass or as pliable as rubber, and it could be a viable, and cheaper, substitute for plastic, cardboard or aluminum packaging. For conservationists, the material has numerous benefits. Even though it consists in part of plastic, which costs energy to produce, polyolefins are pretty low on the eco-hate list. They degrade into carbon and oxygen. Besides, less plastic means using less oil, the essential component in plastic and a nonrenewable resource. Chalk, the main ingredient, is abundant (and cheap) on every continent in the world. But Lean Material’s most remarkable charm is apparent only when it is ready for the garbage. Bottles, yogurt tubs or candy wrappers made of Lean Material would all he degradable. Leave them sitting on the picnic table and in a month or two sunlight will have reduced them to sand. Or, once in the incinerator the resulting ash will be rich in carbonates, good for making the soil less acidic. As a bonus, the material also has no “memory. “ Stamp on a Lean Material bottle and it stays crushed, taking up less space in landfill. (399 words)