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(完整word版)英文文献及翻译：计算机程序

姓名：刘峻霖班级：通信143班学号：2014101108Computer Language and ProgrammingI. IntroductionProgramming languages, in computer science, are the artificial languages used to write a sequence of instructions (a computer program) that can be run by a computer. Simi lar to natural languages, such as English, programming languages have a vocabulary, grammar, and syntax. However, natural languages are not suited for programming computers because they are ambiguous, meaning that their vocabulary and grammatical structure may be interpreted in multiple ways. The languages used to program computers must have simple logical structures, and the rules for their grammar, spelling, and punctuation must be precise.Programming languages vary greatly in their sophistication and in their degree of versatility. Some programming languages are written to address a particular kind of computing problem or for use on a particular model of computer system. For instance, programming languages such as FORTRAN and COBOL were written to solve certain general types of programming problems—FORTRAN for scientific applications, and COBOL for business applications. Although these languages were designed to address specific categories of computer problems, they are highly portable, meaning that the y may be used to program many types of computers. Other languages, such as machine languages, are designed to be used by one specific model of computer system, or even by one specific computer in certain research applications. The most commonly used progra mming languages are highly portable and can be used to effectively solve diverse types of computing problems. Languages like C, PASCAL and BASIC fall into this category.II. Language TypesProgramming languages can be classified as either low-level languages or high-level languages. Low-level programming languages, or machine languages, are the most basic type of programming languages and can be understood directly by a computer. Machine languages differ depending on the manufacturer and model of computer. High-level languages are programming languages that must first be translated into a machine language before they can be understood and processed by a computer. Examples of high-levellanguages are C, C++, PASCAL, and FORTRAN. Assembly languages are intermediate languages that are very close to machine languages and do not have the level of linguistic sophistication exhibited by other high-level languages, but must still be translated into machine language.1. Machine LanguagesIn machine languages, instructions are written as sequences of 1s and 0s, called bits, that a computer can understand directly. An instruction in machine language generally tells the computer four things: (1) where to find one or two numbers or simple pieces of data in the main computer memory (Random Access Memory, or RAM), (2) a simple operation to perform, such as adding the two numbers together, (3) where in the main memory to put the result of this simple operation, and (4) where to find the next instruction to perform. While all executable programs are eventually read by the computer in machine language, they are not all programmed in machine language. It is extremely difficult to program directly in machine language because the instructions are sequences of 1s and 0s. A typical instruction in a machine language might read 10010 1100 1011 and mean add the contents of storage register A to the contents of storage register B.2. High-Level LanguagesHigh-level languages are relatively sophisticated sets of statements utilizing word s and syntax from human language. They are more similar to normal human languages than assembly or machine languages and are therefore easier to use for writing complicated programs. These programming languages allow larger and more complicated programs to be developed faster. However, high-level languages must be translated into machine language by another program called a compiler before a computer can understand them. For this reason, programs written in a high-level language may take longer to execute and use up more memory than programs written in an assembly language.3. Assembly LanguagesComputer programmers use assembly languages to make machine-language programs easier to write. In an assembly language, each statement corresponds roughly to one machine language instruction. An assembly language statement is composed with the aid of easy to remember commands. The command to add the contents of the storage register A to the contents of storage register B might be written ADD B, A in a typical assembl ylanguage statement. Assembly languages share certain features with machine languages. For instance, it is possible to manipulate specific bits in both assembly and machine languages. Programmers use assemblylanguages when it is important to minimize the time it takes to run a program, because the translation from assembly language to machine language is relatively simple. Assembly languages are also used when some part of the computer has to be controlled directly, such as individual dots on a monitor or the flow of individual characters to a printer.III. Classification of High-Level LanguagesHigh-level languages are commonly classified as procedure-oriented, functional, object-oriented, or logic languages. The most common high-level languages today are procedure-oriented languages. In these languages, one or more related blocks of statements that perform some complete function are grouped together into a program module, or procedure, and given a name such as “procedure A.” If the same sequence of oper ations is needed elsewhere in the program, a simple statement can be used to refer back to the procedure. In essence, a procedure is just amini- program. A large program can be constructed by grouping together procedures that perform different tasks. Procedural languages allow programs to be shorter and easier for the computer to read, but they require the programmer to design each procedure to be general enough to be usedin different situations. Functional languages treat procedures like mathematical functions and allow them to be processed like any other data in a program. This allows a much higher and more rigorous level of program construction. Functional languages also allow variables—symbols for data that can be specified and changed by the user as the program is running—to be given values only once. This simplifies programming by reducing the need to be concerned with the exact order of statement execution, since a variable does not have to be redeclared , or restated, each time it is used in a program statement. Many of the ideas from functional languages have become key parts of many modern procedural languages. Object-oriented languages are outgrowths of functional languages. In object-oriented languages, the code used to write the program and the data processed by the program are grouped together into units called objects. Objects are further grouped into classes, which define the attributes objects must have. A simpleexample of a class is the class Book. Objects within this class might be No vel and Short Story. Objects also have certain functions associated with them, called methods. The computer accesses an object through the use of one of the object’s methods. The method performs some action to the data in the object and returns this value to the computer. Classes of objects can also be further grouped into hierarchies, in which objects of one class can inherit methods from another class. The structure provided in object-oriented languages makes them very useful for complicated programming tasks. Logic languages use logic as their mathematical base. A logic program consists of sets of facts and if-then rules, which specify how one set of facts may be deduced from others, for example: If the statement X is true, then the statement Y is false. In the execution of such a program, an input statement can be logically deduced from other statements in the program. Many artificial intelligence programs are written in such languages.IV. Language Structure and ComponentsProgramming languages use specific types of statements, or instructions, to provide functional structure to the program. A statement in a program is a basic sentence that expresses a simple idea—its purpose is to give the computer a basic instruction. Statements define the types of data allowed, how data are to be manipulated, and the ways that procedures and functions work. Programmers use statements to manipulate common components of programming languages, such as variables and macros (mini-programs within a program). Statements known as data declarations give names and properties to elements of a program called variables. Variables can be assigned different values within the program. The properties variables can have are called types, and they include such things as what possible values might be saved in the variables, how much numerical accuracy is to be used in the values, and how one variable may represent a collection of simpler values in an organized fashion, such as a table or array. In many programming languages, a key data type is a pointer. Variables that are pointers do not themselves have values; instead, they have information that the computer can use to locate some other variable—that is, they point to another variable. An expression is a piece of a statement that describe s a series of computations to be performed on some of the program’s variables, such as X+Y/Z, in which the variables are X, Y, and Z and the computations are addition and division. An assignment statement assigns a variable a value derived fromsome expression, while conditional statements specify expressions to be tested and then used to select which other statements should be executed next.Procedure and function statements define certain blocks of code as procedures or functions that can then be returned to later in the program. These statements also define the kinds of variables and parameters the programmer can choose and the type of value that the code will return when an expression accesses the procedure or function. Many programming languages also permit mini translation programs called macros. Macros translate segments of code that have been written in a language structure defined by the programmer into statements that the programming language understands.V. HistoryProgramming languages date back almost to the invention of the digital computer in the 1940s. The first assembly languages emerged in the late 1950s with the introduction of commercial computers. The first procedural languages were developed in the late 1950s to early 1960s: FORTRAN, created by John Backus, and then COBOL, created by Grace Hopper The first functional language was LISP, written by John McCarthy4 in the late 1950s. Although heavily updated, all three languages are still widely used today. In the late 1960s, the first object-oriented languages, such as SIMULA, emerged. Logic languages became well known in the mid 1970swith the introduction of PROLOG6, a language used to program artificial intelligence software. During the 1970s, procedural languages continued to develop with ALGOL, BASIC, PASCAL, C, and A d a SMALLTALK was a highly influential object-oriented language that led to the merging ofobject- oriented and procedural languages in C++ and more recently in JAVA10. Although pure logic languages have declined in popularity, variations have become vitally important in the form of relational languages for modern databases, such as SQL.计算机程序一、引言计算机程序是指导计算机执行某个功能或功能组合的一套指令。

(完整word版)光学外文文献及翻译

学号2013211033 昆明理工大学专业英语专业光学姓名辜苏导师李重光教授分数导师签字日期2015年5月6日研究生部专业英语考核In digital holography, the recording CCD is placed on the ξ-ηplane in order to register the hologramx ',y 'when the object lies inthe x-y plane. Forthe reconstruction ofthe information ofthe object wave,phase-shifting digital holography includes two steps:(1) getting objectwave on hologram plane, and (2) reconstructing original object wave.2.1 Getting information of object wave on hologram plateDoing phase shifting N-1 times and capturing N holograms. Supposing the interferogram after k- 1 times phase-shifting is]),(cos[),(),(),,(k k b a I δηξφηξηξδηξ-⋅+= （1） Phase detection can apply two kinds of algorithms:synchronous phase detection algorithms [9]and the least squares iterative algorithm [10]. The four-step algorithm in synchronous phase detection algorithm is in common use. The calculation equation is)2/3,,(),,()]2/,,()0,,([2/1),(πηξπηξπηξηξηξiI I iI I E --+=2.2 Reconstructing original object wave by reverse-transform algorithmObject wave from the original object spreads front.The processing has exact and clear description and expression in physics and mathematics. By phase-shifting technique, we have obtained information of the object wave spreading to a certain distance from the original object. Therefore, in order to get the information of the object wave at its initial spreading position, what we need to do is a reverse work.Fig.1 Geometric coordinate of digital holographyexact registering distance.The focusing functions normally applied can be divided into four types: gray and gradient function, frequency-domain function, informatics function and statistics function. Gray evaluation function is easy to calculate and also robust. It can satisfy the demand of common focusing precision. We apply the intensity sum of reconstruction image as the evaluation function:min ),(11==∑∑==M k Nl l k SThe calculation is described in Fig.2. The position occurring the turning point correspondes to the best registration distanced, also equals to the reconstructing distance d '.It should be indicated that if we only need to reconstruct the phase map of the object wave, the registration distance substituted into the calculation equation is permitted having a departure from its true value.4 Spatial resolution of digital holography4.1 Affecting factors of the spatial resolution of digital holographyIt should be considered in three respects: (1) sizes of the object and the registering material, and the direction of the reference beam, (2) resolution of the registering material, and (3) diffraction limitation.For pointx2on the object shown in Fig.3, the limits of spatial frequency are λξθλθθ⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡⎪⎪⎭⎫ ⎝⎛-'-=-=-0211maxmax tan sin sin sin sin z x f R R Fig.2 Determining reconstructing distanceλξθλθθ⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡⎪⎪⎭⎫⎝⎛-'-=-=-211minmintansinsinsinsin zxfRRFrequency range isλξξ⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡⎪⎪⎭⎫⎝⎛-'-⎥⎦⎤⎢⎣⎡⎪⎪⎭⎫⎝⎛-=∆--211211tansintansinzxzxfso the range is unrelated to the reference beam.Considering the resolution of registering material in order to satisfy the sampling theory, phase difference between adjacent points on the recording plate should be less than π, namely resolution of the registration material.cfff=∆η21)(minmaxπ4.2 Expanding the spatial resolution of reconstruction imageExpanding the spatial resolution can be realized at least in three ways: (1) Reducing the registration distance z0 can improve the reconstruction resolution, but it goes with reduction of the reconstruction area at the same ratio.Therefore, this method has its limitation. (2) Increasing the resolution and the imaging size of CCD with expensive price. (3) Applying image-synthesizing technique[11]CCD captures a few of images between which there is small displacement (usually a fraction of the pixel size) vertical to the CCD plane, shown in Fig.4(Schematic of vertical moving is the same).This method has two disadvantages. First, it is unsuitable for dynamic testing and can only be applied in the static image reconstruction. Second, because the pixel size is small (usually 5μm to 10μm) and the displacement should a fraction of this size (for example 2μm), it needs a moving table with high resolution and precision. Also it needs high stability in whole testing.In general, improvement of the spatial resolution of digital reconstruction is Fig.3 Relationship between object and CCDstill a big problem for the application of digital holography.5 Testing resultsFig.5 is the photo of the testing system. The paper does testing on two coins. The pixel size of the CCD is 4.65μm and there are 1 392×1 040 pixels. The firstis one Yuan coin of RMB (525 mm) used for image reconstruction by phase-shifting digital holography. The second is one Jiao coin of RMB (520 mm) for the testing of deformation measurement also by phase-shifting digital holography.5.1 Result of image reconstructionThe dimension of the one Yuancoin is 25 mm. The registrationdistance measured by ruler isabout 385mm. We capture ourphase-shifting holograms andreconstruct the image byphase-shifting digital holography.Fig.6 is the reconstructed image.Fig.7 is the curve of the auto-focusFig.4 Image capturing by moving CCD along horizontal directionFig.5 Photo of the testing systemfunction, from which we determine the real registration distance 370 mm. We can also change the controlling precision, for example 5mm, 0.1 mm,etc., to get more course or precision reconstruction position.5.2 Deformation measurementIn digital holography, the method of measuring deformation measurement differs from the traditional holography. It gets object wave before and after deformation and then subtract their phases to obtain the deformation. The study tested effect of heating deformation on the coin of one Jiao. The results are shown in Fig.8, Where (a) is the interferential signal of the object waves before and after deformation, and (b) is the wrapped phase difference.5.3 Improving the spatial resolutionFor the tested coin, we applied four sub-low-resolution holograms to reconstruct the high-resolution by the image-synthesizing technique. Fig.9 (a) is the reconstructed image by one low-resolution hologram, and (b) is the high-resolution image reconstructed from four low-resolution holograms.Fig.6 Reconstructed image Fig.7 Auto-focus functionFig.8 Heating deformation resultsFig.9 Comparing between the low and high resolution reconstructed image6 SummaryDigital holography can obtain phase and amplitude of the object wave at the same time. Compared to other techniques is a big advantage. Phase-shifting digital holography can realize image reconstruction and deformation with less noise. But it is unsuitable for dynamic testing. Applying the intensity sum of the reconstruction image as the auto-focusing function to evaluate the registering distance is easy, and computation is fast. Its precision is also sufficient. The image-synthesizing technique can improve spatial resolution of digital holography, but its static characteristic reduces its practicability. The limited dimension and too big pixel size are still the main obstacles for widely application of digital holography.外文文献译文：标题：图像重建中的相移数字全息摘要：相移数字全息术被用来研究研究艺术品的内部缺陷。

英文文献整篇翻译

英文文献整篇翻译Title: The Impact of Climate Change on BiodiversityClimate change is a pressing issue that has significant impacts on biodiversity worldwide. Changes in temperature, precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events are altering ecosystems and threatening the survival of many species. The loss of biodiversity not only affects the natural world but also has implications for human societies.One of the major impacts of climate change onbiodiversity is the shifting of habitats. As temperatures rise, many species are forced to move to higher latitudesor elevations in search of suitable conditions. This can disrupt ecosystems and lead to the decline or extinction of species that are unable to adapt to the new conditions.In addition to habitat loss, climate change is also causing changes in the timing of biological events such as flowering, migration, and reproduction. These changes can disrupt the delicate balance of ecosystems and lead to mismatches between species that depend on each other for survival.Furthermore, climate change is exacerbating otherthreats to biodiversity such as habitat destruction, pollution, and overexploitation. The combination of these factors is putting immense pressure on many species and pushing them closer to extinction.It is essential that we take action to mitigate the impacts of climate change on biodiversity. This includes reducing greenhouse gas emissions, protecting and restoring habitats, and implementing conservation measures to safeguard vulnerable species. By addressing the root causes of climate change and protecting biodiversity, we canensure a sustainable future for both the natural world and human societies.气候变化对生物多样性的影响气候变化是一个紧迫的问题，对全球的生物多样性产生重大影响。

【2018最新】英文文献快速中文翻译-优秀word范文 (10页)

本文部分内容来自网络整理，本司不为其真实性负责，如有异议或侵权请及时联系，本司将立即删除！== 本文为word格式，下载后可方便编辑和修改！ ==英文文献快速中文翻译篇一：英文文献小短文(原文加汉语翻译)A fern that hyperaccumulates arsenic(这是题目，百度一下就能找到原文好，原文还有表格，我没有翻译)A hardy, versatile, fast-growing plant helps to remove arsenic from contaminated soilsContamination of soils with arsenic,which is both toxic and carcinogenic, is widespread1. We have discovered that the fern Pteris vittata (brake fern) is extremely efficient in extracting arsenicfrom soils and translocating it into its above-ground biomass. This plant —which, to our knowledge, is the first known arsenic hyperaccumulator as well as the first fern found to function as a hyperaccumulator— has many attributes that recommend it for use in the remediation of arsenic-contaminated soils.We found brake fern growing on a site in Central Florida contaminated with chromated copper arsenate (Fig. 1a). We analysed the fronds of plants growing at the site for total arsenic by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectroscopy. Of 14 plant species studied, only brake fern contained large amounts of arsenic (As;3,280–4,980p.p.m.). We collected additional samples of the plant and soil from the contaminated site (18.8–1,603 p.p.m. As) and from an uncontaminated site (0.47–7.56 p.p.m. As). Brake fern extracted arsenic efficiently from these soils into its fronds: plants growingin the contaminated site contained 1,442–7,526p.p.m. Arsenic and those from the uncontaminated site contained11.8–64.0 p.p.m. These values are much higher than those typical for plants growing in normal soil, which contain less than 3.6 p.p.m. of arsenic3.As well as being tolerant of soils containing as much as 1,500 p.p.m. arsenic, brake fern can take up large amounts of arsenic into its fronds in a short time (Table 1). Arsenic concentration in fernfronds growing in soil spiked with 1,500 p.p.m. Arsenic increasedfrom 29.4 to 15,861 p.p.m. in two weeks. Furthermore, in the same period, ferns growing in soil containing just 6 p.p.m. arsenic accumulated 755 p.p.m. Of arsenic in their fronds, a 126-fold eichment. Arsenic concentrations in brake fern roots were less than 303 p.p.m., whereas those in the fronds reached 7,234 p.p.m.Addition of 100 p.p.m. Arsenic significantly stimulated fern growth, resulting in a 40% increase in biomass compared with the control (data not shown).After 20 weeks of growth, the plant was extracted using a solution of 1:1 methanol:water to speciate arsenic with high-performance liquid chromatography–inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Almostall arsenic was present as relatively toxic inorganic forms, withlittle detectable organoarsenic species4. The concentration of As(III) was greater in the fronds (47–80%) than in the roots (8.3%), indicating that As(V) was converted to As(III) during translocation from roots to fronds.As well as removing arsenic from soils containing different concentrations of arsenic (Table 1), brake fern also removed arsenic from soils containing different arsenic species (Fig. 1c). Again, upto 93% of the arsenic was concentrated in the fronds. Although both FeAsO4 and AlAsO4 are relatively insoluble in soils1, brake fern hyperaccumulated arsenic derived from these compounds into its fronds (136–315 p.p.m.) at levels 3–6 times greater than soil arsenic.Brake fern is mesophytic and is widely cultivated and naturalized in many areas with a mild climate. In the United States, it grows in the southeast and in southern California5. The fern is versatile and hardy, and prefers sunny (unusual for a fern) and alkaline environments (where arsenic is more available). It has considerable biomass, and is fast growing, easy to propagate,and perennial.We believe this is the first report of significant arsenic hyperaccumulationby an unmanipulated plant. Brake fern has great potential toremediate arsenic-contaminated soils cheaply and could also aid studies of arsenic uptake, translocation, speciation, distributionand detoxification in plants. *Soil and Water Science Department, University ofFlorida, Gainesville, Florida 32611-0290, USAe-mail: lqma@?Cooperative Extension Service, University ofGeorgia, Terrell County, PO Box 271, Dawson,Georgia 31742, USA?Department of Chemistry & SoutheastEnvironmental Research Center, FloridaInternational University, Miami, Florida 33199,1. Nriagu, J. O. (ed.) Arsenic in the Environment Part 1: Cycling and Characterization (Wiley, New York, 1994).2. Brooks, R. R. (ed.) Plants that Hyperaccumulate Heavy Metals (Cambridge Univ. Press, 1998).3. Kabata-Pendias, A. & Pendias, H. in Trace Elements in Soils and Plants 203–209 (CRC, Boca Raton, 1991).4. Koch, I., Wang, L., Ollson, C. A., Cullen, W. R. & Reimer, K. J. Envir. Sci. Technol. 34, 22–26 (201X).5. Jones, D. L. Encyclopaedia of Ferns (Lothian, Melbourne, 1987).积累砷的蕨类植物耐寒，多功能，生长快速的植物，有助于从污染土壤去除砷有毒和致癌的土壤砷污染是非常广泛的。

(完整word版)企业偿债能力分析外文文献

外文文献原稿和译文原稿IntroductionAlthough creditors can develop a variety of protective provisions to protect their own interests, but a number of complementary measures are critical to effectively safeguard their interests have to see the company’s solvency. Therefore, to improve a company's solvency Liabilities are on the rise。

On the other hand, the stronger a company’s solvency the easier cash investments required for the project，whose total assets are often relatively low debt ratio，which is the point of the pecking order theory of phase agreement. Similarly，a company's short—term liquidity，the stronger the short-term debt ratio is also lower, long—term solvency，the stronger the long—term debt ratio is also lower 。

Harris et al. Well, Eriotis etc. as well as empirical research and Underperformance found that the solvency （in the quick ratio and interest coverage ratio, respectively, short-term solvency and long—term solvency) to total debt ratio has significant negative correlation。

外文文献及译文模板

原文与译文原文：A More Complete Conceptual Framework for SME FinanceAllen N. Berger Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve SystemGregory F. Udell Kelley School of Business, Indiana University,1. Financial institution structure and lending to SMEsThe research literature provides a considerable amount of evidence on the effects of financial institution structure on SME lending, although as noted above, the findings rarely go beyond the distinction between transactions lending technologies versus relationship lending to parse among the very different transactions technologies. Here, we briefly review the findings with regard to the comparative advantages of large versus small institutions (subsection A), foreign-owned versus domestically-owned institutions (subsection B), state-owned versus privately-owned institutions (subsection C) and market concentration (subsection D).A. Large versus small institutionsThere are a number of reasons why large institutions may have comparative advantages in employing transactions lending technologies which are based on hard information and small institutions may have comparative advantages in using the relationship lending technology which is based on soft information. Large institutions may be able to take advantage of economies of scale in the processing of hard information, but be relatively poor at processing soft information because it is difficult to quantify and transmit through the communication channels of large organizations (e.g., Stein 2002). Under relationship lending, there may be agency problems created within the financial institution because the loan officer that has direct contact over time with the SME is the repository of soft information that cannot be easily communicated to the management or owners of the financial institution. This may give comparative advantages in relationship lending to small institutionswith lower agency costs within the institution because they typically have less separation (if any) between ownership and management and fewer overall layers of management (e.g., Berger and Udell 2002). Finally, it is often argued that large institutions are relatively disadvantaged at relationship lending to SMEs because of organizational diseconomies with also providing transactions loans and other wholesale services to large corporate customers (e.g., Williamson 1967, 1988).The empirical literature on this topic usually does not observe the lending technologies used by large and small institutions, but rather draws conclusions about these technologies from the characteristics of the SME borrowers and contract terms on credits issued to these SMEs by institutions of different sizes. In most cases, the research is based on data from U.S. banks and SMEs. Large institutions are found to lend to larger, older, more financially secure SMEs (e.g., Haynes, Ou, and Berney 1999). It is often argued that these findings are consistent with large institutions lending to relatively transparent and relatively safe borrowers that are more likely to receive t ransactions credits. Large institutions are also found to charge lower interest rates and earn lower yields on SME loan contracts (e.g., Berger, Rosen, and Udell 2003, Berger 2004, Carter, McNulty, and Verbrugge 2004). It is contended that these results may reflect that large institutions lend to safer borrowers and/or employ lending technologies with lower operating costs, which are more likely to be transactions loans. In addition, large institutions are found to have temporally shorter, less exclusive, more impersonal, and longer distance relationships with their SME loan customers (e.g., Berger, Miller, Petersen, Rajan, and Stein forthcoming). These findings are argued to suggest weaker relationships with borrowers for large institutions, which are indicative of transactions loans. Finally, large institutions appear to base their SME credit decisions more on strong financial ratios than on prior relationships (e.g., Cole, Goldberg, and White 2004, Berger, Miller, Petersen, Rajan, and Stein forthcoming). It is argued that both the dependence on strong financial ratios and the non-dependence on prior relationships for large institutions are indicative of the use of transactions lending technologies.We argue that these findings are not as clear-cut in their support of thecomparative advantages by institution size as they might at first seem. For the most part, prior authors appear to treat transactions lending technologies as a collective whole that may be adequately represented by just one of these technologies, financial statement lending. This is not necessarily the case. We agree that the findings that SME credits by large institutions tend to be associated with weaker lending relationships and less often based on prior relationships and are indeed consistent with the predicted comparative disadvantage of large institutions in relationship lending. However, we do not agree with the contentions in the prior literature that greater SME transparency, safer SME borrowers, lower rates and yields, and possible lower operating costs and greater reliance on financial ratios for large institutions provide strong support for the hypothesis that these institutions have comparative advantages in transactions lending technologies. Although greater transparency, safer borrowers, lower rates, lower operating costs, and greater reliance on financial ratios are indicative of the use of the financial statement lending technology, they are not necessarily indicative of the types of loans or borrowers associated with the other transactions lending technologies. That is, these other transactions technologies may not necessarily be used to lend to SMEs that are less opaque or safer than relationship borrowers, may not have lower rates or smaller processing costs than relationship loans, and may not be based on stronger financial ratios than the relationship lending technology.To illustrate, note that two of the transactions lending technologies that are often used by large U.S. banks are not consistent with these characteristics. As indicated above, small business credit scoring appears to be employed by large U.S. banks to lend to SMEs that are relatively opaque and risky, and these loans have relatively high interest rates. As discussed further below, this technology is based largely on the personal credit of the SME owner, rather than on strong financial ratios of the firm. Similarly, as discussed below, the asset-based lending technology employed by many large banks is generally used to lend to relatively opaque and risky borrowers at relatively high interest rates. These loans typically involve relatively high processing costs of monitoring the accounts receivable and inventory pledged as collateral and the primary information is based on the value of the collateral, rather than strongfinancial ratios of the borrower.Moreover, even to the extent that large institutions may be disadvantaged in relationship lending and tend to lend to more transparent SME borrowers on average than small institutions, this does not necessarily imply that a sizeable presence of small institutions is necessary for significant credit availability for opaque SMEs. A limited amount of additional research finds that the local market shares of large and small U.S. banks have relatively little association with SME credit availability in their markets (Jayaratne and Wolken1999, Berger, Rosen, and Udell 2003).One potential hypothesis that may help explain this finding is that large U.S. banks are able to accommodate many opaque SME loan customers with transactions technologies other than financial statement lending, such as small business credit scoring and asset-based lending. That is, large institutions may have more transparent SME borrowers on average than small institutions because they have more financial statement loans to transparent SMEs than small institutions, but these large institutions may also be able to make credit available to significant numbers of opaque SMEs using the other transactions technologies. This hypothesis is difficult to test because the lending technology is usually unobserved.A second hypothesis may also help explain the finding of little association between the market shares of large and small institutions and SME credit availability. Large institutions may be disadvantaged at serving a significant subset of opaque SMEs, but market forces may be efficient in sorting these opaque SMEs to small institutions in the market that serve these borrowers using the relationship lending technology. The empirical evidence on the effects of U.S. bank mergers and acquisitions (M&As) on SME lending provides some support for this second hypothesis, although the lending technologies and the opacity of the borrowers is typically not observed in these studies. The studies find that large institutions reduce their SME lending after M&As, but that other banks in the same local markets appear to respond by increasing their own supplies of SME credit substantially (e.g., Berger, Saunders, Scalise, and Udell 1998, Berger, Goldberg, and White 2001, Averyand Samolyk 2004). As well, new small banks are often created in these markets that provide additional boosts to the local supply of SME credit (Berger, Bonime, Goldberg, and White 2004).The finding that the availability of credit to SMEs does not appear to depend in an important way on the market presence of large versus small institutions in the U.S. does not necessarily apply to other nations because of other differences in the financial institution structures of these nations or lending infrastructures in these nations that limit competition for SME credits. In an international comparison, greater market shares for small banks are found to be associated with higher SME employment, as well as more overall bank lending (Berger, Hasan, and Klapper 2004). These findings hold for both developed and developing nations, hold with controls included for some other aspects of the financial institution structure (e.g., shares of foreign-owned and state-owned banks, bank concentration), and hold with controls for some aspects of the lending infrastructure (e.g., regulation, legal system).B. Foreign-owned versus domestically-owned institutionsFor a number of reasons, foreign-owned institutions may have comparative advantages in transactions lending and domestically-owned institutions may have comparative advantages in relationship lending. Foreign-owned institutions are typically part of large organizations, and so all of the logic discussed above regarding large institutions generally applies to foreign-owned institutions as well. Foreign-owned institutions may also face additional hurdles in relationship lending because they may have particular difficulties in processing and transmitting soft information over greater distances, through more managerial layers, and having to cope with multiple economic, cultural, language, and regulatory environments (e.g., Buch 2003). Moreover, in developing nations, foreign-owned institutions headquartered in developed nations may have additional advantages in transactions lending to some SMEs because of access to better information technologies for collecting and assessing hard information. For example, some foreign-owned institutions use a form of small business credit scoring to lend to SMEs in developing nations based on the SME’s industry.Other institutions provide home-nation training for loan officers stationed in developing nations (Berger,Hasan, and Klapper 2004).There is very little empirical evidence on SME lending by foreign-owned institutions in developed nations, although some research finds that these institutions tend to have a wholesale orientation (e.g., DeYoung and Nolle 1996), and in some cases tend to specialize in serving multinational corporations headquartered in their home nation, presumably using transactions technologies applied to hard information (e.g., Goldberg and Saunders 1981). Some evidence also is consistent with the hypothesis that foreign-owned institutions may have difficulty processing local soft information needed to provide cash management services, although this finding is based on data from multinational corporations (e.g., Berger, Dai, Ongena, and Smith 2003). In most cases, the research on bank efficiency in developed nations suggests that the disadvantages of foreign ownership outweigh the disadvantages on average, although it is not known how much of this is attributable to the lending function (e.g., DeYoung and Nolle 1996, Berger, DeYoung, Genay, and Udell 2000).The empirical findings regarding foreign-owned institutions in developing nations are quite different. Foreign-owned banks usually appear to be more profitable and efficient than domestically-owned banks on average in these nations (e.g., Claessens, Demirguc-Kunt, and Huizinga 2001, Martinez Peria and Mody 2004), although one study finds roughly equal performance after controlling for a number of different types of governance and governance change (Berger, Clarke, Cull, Klapper, and Udell forthcoming). The better performance of foreign-owned banks in developing nations relative to developed nations may be due to the better technology access noted above, or some combination of better access to capital markets, superior ability to diversify risks, or greater managerial experience. There is also evidence on the effects of foreign-owned institutions on SME credit availability in developing nations. In most of the studies, foreign-owned banks individually or larger shares for these banks are associated with greater credit availability for SMEs (e.g., Dages, Goldberg, and Kinney 2000, Clarke, Cull, and Martinez Peria 2002, Beck, Demirguc-Kunt, and Maksimovic 2004, Berger, Hasan, and Klapper 2004, Clarke, Cull, Martinez Peria, and Sanchezforthcoming), although one study finds that foreign-owned banks may have difficulty in supplying SME credit (e.g., Berger, Klapper, and Udell 2001). As above for the U.S. data, the lending technologies are generally unobserved, and there is even less information available about the characteristics of the SME borrowers or contract terms from which to infer these technologies. Although the foreign-owned institutions almost surely use transactions technologies, it is usually not known which among the technologies is employed or the opacity of the borrowers served.C. State-owned versus privately-owned institutionsState-owned institutions may be expected to have comparative advantages in transactions lending and privately-owned institutions may be expected to have comparative advantages in relationship lending simply because state-owned institutions are typically larger. There are also a number of additional arguments with regard to the general ability of state-owned institutions to affect the supply of funds available to creditworthy SMEs through any lending technology. State-owned institutions generally operate with government subsidies and often have mandates to supply additional credit to SMEs or entrepreneurs in general, or to those in specific industries, sectors, or regions. Although in principle, this might be expected to improve funding of creditworthy SMEs, it could have the opposite effect in practice because these institutions may be inefficient due to a lack of market discipline. Much of their funding to SMEs may be to firms that are not creditworthy because of this inefficiency. The credit recipients may also not be creditworthy because the lending mandates do not necessarily require the funding be applied to positive net present value projects, or that the loans be expected to be repaid at market rates. As well some of the funds may be channeled for political purposes, rather than for economically creditworthy ends (e.g., Sapienza forthcoming). State-owned institutions may also provide relatively weak monitoring of borrowers and/or refrain from aggressive collection procedures as part of their mandates to subsidize chosen borrowers or because of the lack of market discipline. In nations with substantial state-owned banking sectors, there may also be significant spillover effects that discourage privately-owned institutions from SME lending due to “crowding out” effects of subsidized loans from state-owned institutions or poor credit cultures that are perpetuatedby the state-owned presence.The empirical findings –which are generally either cross-section studies of many nations or focused on one or a few developing nations –are generally consistent with the negative performance effects of state ownership. Studies of general performance typically find that individual state-owned banks are relatively inefficient and that large shares of state bank ownership are typically associated with unfavorable macroeconomic consequences (e.g., Clarke and Cull 2002, La Porta, Lopez-de-Silanes, and Shleifer 2002, Barth, Caprio, and Levine 2004, Berger, Hasan, and Klapper 2004, Berger, Clarke, Cull, Klapper, and Udell forthcoming). The evidence also generally suggests that less SME credit is available in nations with large market shares for state-owned banks (e.g., Beck, Demirguc-Kunt, and Maksimovic 2004, Berger, Hasan, and Klapper 2004). As well, nonperforming loan rates at state-owned banks tend to be very high, consistent with lending to SMEs with negative net present value loans, weak monitoring of loan customers, and/or lack of aggressive collection procedures (e.g., Hanson 2004, Berger, Clarke, Cull, Klapper, and Udell forthcoming). Consistent with these findings of generally negative consequences of state ownership, studies of the effects of bank privatization in both developed nations (e.g., Verbrugge, Megginson, and Owens 2000, Otchere and Chan 2003) and developing nations (e.g., Clarke, Cull, and Megginson forthcoming) typically find improvements in performance following the elimination of state ownership. Similar to the case for foreign-owned institutions, state-owned institutions likely generally use transactions technologies, but there is little information available on the technologies employed or data from which to infer these technologies.D. Market concentrationGreater market concentration of financial institutions may either reduce or increase the supply of credit available to creditworthy SMEs. Under the traditional structure-conduct-performance (SCP) hypothesis, greater concentration results in reduced credit access through any lending technology. This may occur in several ways as institutions in more concentrated markets may exercise greater market power. These institutions may choose to raise profits through higher interest rates or fees on loans to SMEs; they maychoose to reduce risk or supervisory burden by tightening credit standards for SMEs; and/or they may choose to be less aggressive in finding or serving creditworthy SMEs, taking advantage of a “quiet life” afforded to managers by the market power. Alternatively, institutions in more concentrated markets may increase SME access to credit using one of the lending technologies, relationship lending. Greater concentration may encourage institutions to invest in lending relationships because the SMEs are less likely to find alternative sources of credit in the future. Market power helps the institution enforce a long-term implicit contract in which the borrower receives a subsidized interest rate in the short term, and then compensates the institution by paying a higher-than-competitive rate in a later period (Sharpe 1990, Petersen and Rajan 1995).Although both theories may apply simultaneously, empirical studies have not come to consensus as to which of these may dominate empirically and whether the net supply of SME credit is lower or higher in concentrated markets. Some studies of the SCP hypothesis using U.S. data found that higher concentration is associated with higher SME loan interest rates (e.g., Hannan 1991, Berger, Rosen, and Udell 2003). Although this finding may appear to support the SCP hypothesis, it may also be consistent with the alternative hypothesis of an expansion of relationship lending if relationship loans tend to have higher interest rates on average than transactions loans. Relationship loans do not necessarily have higher average rates, as argued above, but we cannot rule out this possibility. As above for the empirical literatures on large versus small, foreign-owned versus domestically-owned, and state-owned versus privately-owned institutions, much of the difficulty in interpreting the effects of market concentration arises because the lending technologies are generally unobserved.A number of recent studies have looked instead to testing these hypotheses by examining the effects of banking market concentration and other indicators of market power such as regulatory restrictions on competition (part of the lending infrastructure discussed further below) on SMEs and general economic performance. The empirical results are mixed. Some of the studies find unfavorable effects from high banking market concentration andrestrictions on competition (e.g., Jayaratne and Strahan 1998, Black and Strahan 2002, Berger, Hasan, and Klapper 2004), others find favorable effects of bank concentration (e.g., Petersen and Rajan 1995, Cetorelli and Gambera 2001, Zarutskie 2003, Cetorelli 2004, Bonaccorsi di Patti and Dell’Ariccia forthcoming), and still others find the effects may differ with the lending infrastructure or economic environment (e.g., DeYoung, Goldberg, and White 1999, Beck, Demirgüç-Kunt, and Maksimovic 2004).FROM: Prepared for presentation at the World Bank Conference on Small and Medium Enterprises: Overcoming Growth ConstraintsWorld Bank, MC 13-121October 14-15, 2004译文：一个更加完整概念框架的中小企业融资Allen N. Berger 美国联邦储备局Gregory F. Udell 印地安那大学商学院1．金融机构对中小企业贷款和结构这个研究提供了大量的影响金融机构对中小企业贷款质量的证据,如上文提到的,结果几乎超越两者之间的区别与关系型贷款借给技术交易中非常不同的解析交易技术。

英文文献翻译及原文

原文Title: Improved Integral Inequalities for Producets of Convex FunctionsA largely applied inequality for convex functions, due to its geometrical significance, is Hadamard’s inequality (see [3] or [2]) which has generated a wide range of directions forextension and a rich mathematical literature. Below, we recall this inequality, together with its framework.A function [],f a b R ®：, with [],a b R Ì, is said to be convex if whenever[],x a b " [],y a b Î,[]0,1t Î the following inequality holds(1.1) ()()()()()11f tx t y tf x t f y +-?-This definition has its origins in Jensen’s results from [4] and has opened up the mostextended, useful and multi-disciplinary domain of mathematics, namely, convex analysis. Convex curves and convex bodies have appeared in mathematical literature since antiquity and there are many important results related to them. They were known before the analytical foundation of convexity theory, due to the deep geometrical significance and manygeometrical applications related to the convex shapes (see, for example, [1], [5], [7]). One of these results, known as Hadamard’s inequality, which was first published in [3], states that a convex function f satisfies(1.2) Recent inequalities derived from Hadamard’s inequality can be found in Pachpatte’spaper [6] and we recall two of them in the following theorem, because we intend to improve them. Let us suppose that the interval [],a b has the property that 1b a - . Then thefollowing result holds.Theorem 1.1. Let f and g be real-valued, nonnegative and convex functions on [],a b . Then(1.3) ()()()12031(1)(1)2b b a a f tx t y g tx t y dtdydx b a ?-+--蝌()()()()()2,,118b a M a b N a b f x g x dx b a b a 轾+犏?犏--犏臌ò and(1.4) ()()1031122b a a b a b f tx t g tx t dtdx b a 骣骣骣骣++鼢琪琪珑+-+-鼢鼢珑珑鼢鼢珑珑桫桫-桫桫蝌 ()()()122b a f a f b a b f f x dx b a 骣++÷ç＃÷ç÷ç桫-ò()()()()111,,4b a b a f x g x dx M a b N a b b a b a +-轾??臌--òwhere(1.5) ()()()()(),M a b f a g a f b g b =+and(1.6) ()()()()(),N a b f a g b f b g a =+Remark 1.2. The inequalities (1.3) and (1.4) are valid when the length of the interval [],a b does not exceed 1. Unfortunately, this condition is accidentally omitted in [6], but it is implicitly used in the proof of Theorem 1.1.Of course, there are cases when at least one of the two inequalities from the previous theorem is satisfied for 1b a ->, but it is easy to find counterexamples in this case, as follows.Example 1.1. Let us take [][],0,2a b =. The functions []:0,2f R ® and []:0,2g R ® are defined by ()f x x = and ()g x x =. Then it is obvious that (),4M a b =, (),0N a b =. Then, the direct calculus of both sides of (1.3) leads toand, obviously, inequality (1.3) is false.Remark 1.3. Inequality (1.3) is sharp for linear functions defined on []0,1, while inequality (1.4) does not have the same property.In this paper we improve the previous theorem, such that the condition1b a -is eliminated and the derived inequalities are sharp for the whole class of linear functions.()()()1203111(1)(1)26b b a a f tx t y g tx t y dtdydx b a ?-+-=-蝌 ()()()()()2,,1135824b a M a b N a b f x g x dx b a b a 轾+犏+=犏--犏臌ò译文题目：凸函数在积分不等式中的应用由于凸函数的几何意义,Hadamard 不等式在很大程度上影响了不等式凸函数的应用，Hadamard 不等式在丰富的数学文化和广泛的深入研究等条件下形成的，以下,我们回忆一下这些不等式，定义1 函数[],f a b R ®：,并且[],a b R Ì为凸函数,若[],x a b " [],y a b Î,[]0,1t Î,有不等式()()()()()11f tx t y tf x t f y +-?- (1.1)成立，这个由Jensen 提出的定义起源于[4],并且由此发展出对数学和多学科专业领域有用的凸分析，凸曲线和凸面体在很古老的时候就已经出现在了数学领域,有很多重要的成果都和他们有关系，由于许多几何意义和几何应用与凹凸形状有关,认识他们的分析基础是凸性理论，（例如 [1],[5],[7]）其中一个成果是Hadamard 不等式,第一次在[3]出版,阐明了凸函数f 满足()()()122b a f a f b a b f f x dx b a 骣++÷ç＃÷ç÷ç桫-ò (1.2)Pachpatte 不等式理论是由Hadamard 不等式理论推断而来，我们称他们两个为定理因为我们还要优化他们，设区间 [],a b 满足1b a - ,有如下结果定理1.1 设函数f 和g 是定义在非负实数区间[],a b 的凸函数，那么()()()12031(1)(1)2b b a a f tx t y g tx t y dtdydx b a ?-+--蝌 (1.3) ()()()()()2,,118b a M a b N a b f x g x dx b a b a 轾+犏?犏--犏臌ò 和()()1031122b a a b a b f tx t g tx t dtdx b a 骣骣骣骣++鼢琪琪珑+-+-鼢鼢珑珑鼢鼢珑珑桫桫-桫桫蝌 (1.4)()()()()111,,4b a b a f x g x dx M a b N a b b a b a +-轾??臌--ò其中()()()()(),M a b f a g a f b g b =+ (1.5)()()()()(),N a b f a g b f b g a =+ (1.6)注意1.2 当[],a b 中1b a - 的时候,不等式(1，3)和 (1，4)成立,虽然这个条件被忽略,但在证明定理过程中已经被隐含的使用，当然,至少有一两个不等式在以上定理中当1b a ->时成立的,但它很容易找到反例说明在这种情况下,如下令[][],0,2a b =,函数[]:0,2f R ®和[]:0,2g R ®被定义为()f x x =和()g x x =,显然有(),4M a b =,(),0N a b =，带入（1，3）有()()()1203111(1)(1)26b b a a f tx t y g tx t y dtdydx b a ?-+-=-蝌 ()()()()()2,,1135824b a M a b N a b f x g x dx b a b a 轾+犏+=犏--犏臌ò 很显然,不等式(1.3)是错误的，定理1.3 不等式(1.3)是定义在[]0,1上的线性函数,但是不等式(1.4)是不存在这种性质的，本论文将优化早先的定理，比如除去1b a - 条件,并且衍生的不等式满足所有的线性函数，。

外文文献原稿和译文(模板)

北京化工大学北方学院毕业设计（论文）——外文文献原稿和译文（空一行）外文文献原稿和译文（空一行）原□□稿（空一行） IntroductionThe "jumping off" point for this paper is Reengineering the Corporation, by Michael Hammer and James Champy. The paper goes on to review the literature on BPR. It explores the principles and assumptions behind reengineering, looks for commonfactors behind its successes or failures, examines case studies, and presents alternatives to "classical" reengineering theory. The paper pays particular attention to the role of information technology in BPR. In conclusion, the paper offers somespecific recommendations regarding reengineering. Old Wine in New Bottles The concept of reengineering traces its origins back to management theories developedas early as the nineteenth century. The purpose of reengineering is to "make all your processes the best-in-class." Frederick Taylor suggested in the 1880's that managers use process reengineering methods to discover the best processes for performing work, and that these processes be reengineered to optimize productivity. BPR echoes the classical belief that there is one best way to conduct tasks. In Taylor's time, technology did not allow large companies to design processes in across-functional or cross-departmental manner. Specialization was the state-of-theart method to improve efficiency given the technology of the time.（下略）之上之下各留一空行，宋体，三号字，居中，加粗。

(完整word版)物流外文文献翻译

外文文献原稿和译文原稿Logistics from the English word "logistics", the original intent of the military logistics support, in the second side after World War II has been widely used in the economic field. Logistics Management Association of the United States is defined as the logistics, "Logistics is to meet the needs of consumers of raw materials, intermediate products, final products and related information to the consumer from the beginning to the effective flow and storage, implementation and control of the process of . "Logistics consists of four key components: the real flow, real storage, and management to coordinate the flow of information. The primary function of logistics is to create time and space effectiveness of the effectiveness of the main ways to overcome the space through the storage distance.Third-party logistics in the logistics channel services provided by brokers, middlemen in the form of the contract within a certain period of time required to provide logistics services in whole or in part. Is a third-party logistics companies for the external customer management, control and operation of the provision of logistics services company.According to statistics, currently used in Europe the proportion of third-party logistics services for 76 percent, the United States is about 58%, and the demand is still growing; 24 percent in Europe and the United States 33% of non-third-party logistics service users are actively considering the use of third-party logistics services. As a third-party logistics to improve the speed of material flow, warehousing costs and financial savings in the cost effective means of passers-by, has become increasingly attracted great attention.First, the advantages of using a third-party logisticsThe use of third-party logistics enterprises can yield many benefits, mainly reflected in: 1, focus on core businessManufacturers can use a third-party logistics companies to achieve optimal distribution of resources, limited human and financial resources to concentrate on their coreenergy, to focus on the development of basic skills, develop new products in the world competition, and enhance the core competitiveness of enterprises.2, cost-savingProfessional use of third-party logistics providers, the professional advantages of mass production and cost advantages, by providing the link capacity utilization to achieve cost savings, so that enterprises can benefit from the separation of the cost structure. Manufacturing enterprises with the expansion of marketing services to participate in any degree of depth, would give rise to a substantial increase in costs, only the use of professional services provided by public services, in order to minimize additional losses. University of Tennessee in accordance with the United States, United Kingdom and the United States EXEL company EMST & YOUNG consulting firm co-organized a survey: a lot of cargo that enable them to use third-party logistics logistics costs declined by an average of 1.18 percent, the average flow of goods from 7.1 days to 3.9 days, stock 8.2% lower.3, reduction of inventoryThird-party logistics service providers with well-planned logistics and timely delivery means, to minimize inventory, improve cash flow of the enterprise to achieve cost advantages.4, enhance the corporate imageThird-party logistics service providers and customers is a strategic partnership, the use of third-party logistics provider of comprehensive facilities and trained staff on the whole supply chain to achieve complete control, reducing the complexity of logistics, through their own networks to help improve customer service, not only to establish their own brand image, but also customers in the competition.Second, The purpose of the implementation of logistics management The purpose of the implementation of logistics management is to the lowest possible total cost of conditions to achieve the established level of customer service, or service advantages and seek cost advantages of a dynamic equilibrium, and thus create competitive enterprises in the strategic advantage. According to this goal, logistics management to solve the basic problem, simply put, is to the right products to fit the number and the right price atthe right time and suitable sites available to customers.Logistics management systems that use methods to solve the problem. Modern Logistics normally be considered by the transport, storage, packaging, handling, processing in circulation, distribution and information constitute part of all. All have their own part of the original functions, interests and concepts. System approach is the use of modern management methods and modern technology so that all aspects of information sharing in general, all the links as an integrated system for organization and management, so that the system can be as low as possible under the conditions of the total cost, provided there Competitive advantage of customer service. Systems approach that the system is not the effectiveness of their various local links-effective simple sum. System means that, there's a certain aspects of the problem and want to all of the factors affecting the analysis and evaluation. From this idea of the logistics system is not simply the pursuit of their own in various areas of the lowest cost, because the logistics of the link between the benefits of mutual influence, the tendency of mutual constraints, there is the turn of the relationship between vulnerability. For example, too much emphasis on packaging materials savings, it could cause damage because of their easy to transport and handling costs increased. Therefore, the systems approach stresses the need to carry out the total cost analysis, and to avoid the second best effect and weigh the cost of the analysis, so as to achieve the lowest cost, while meeting the established level of customer se rvice purposes.Third, China's enterprises in the use of third-party logistics problems in While third-party logistics company has many advantages, but not many enterprises will be more outsourcing of the logistics business, the reasons boil down to:1, resistance to changeMany companies do not want the way through the logistics outsourcing efforts to change the current mode. In particular, some state-owned enterprises, we reflow will also mean that the dismissal of outsourcing a large number of employees, which the managers of state-owned enterprises would mean a very great risk.2, lack of awarenessFor third-party logistics enterprise's generally low level of awareness, lack of awareness of enterprise supply chain management in the enterprise of the great role in thecompetition.3, fear of losing controlAs a result of the implementation of supply chain companies in enhancing the competitiveness of the important role that many companies would rather have a small but complete logistics department and they do not prefer these functions will be handed over to others, the main reasons it is worried that if they lose the internal logistics capabilities, customers will be exchanges and over-reliance on other third-party logistics companies. 4, the logistics outsourcing has its own complexitySupply chain logistics business and companies are usually other services, such as finance, marketing or production of integrated logistics outsourcing itself with complexity. On a number of practical business, including the integration of transport and storage may lead to organizational, administrative and implementation problems. In addition, the company's internal information system integration features, making the logistics business to a third party logistics companies have become very difficult to operate.5, to measure the effect of logistics outsourcing by many factorsAccurately measure the cost of information technology, logistics and human resources more difficult. It is difficult to determine the logistics outsourcing companies in the end be able to bring the cost of how many potential good things. In addition, all the uniqueness of the company's business and corporate supply chain operational capability, is usually not considered to be internal to the external public information, it is difficult to accurately compare the inter-company supply chain operational capability.Although some manufacturers have been aware of the use of third-party logistics companies can bring a lot of good things, but in practical applications are often divided into several steps, at the same time choose a number of logistics service providers as partners in order to avoid the business by a logistics service providers brought about by dependence. Fourth, China's third-party logistics companies in the development of the problems encounteredA successful logistics company, the operator must have a larger scale, the establishment of effective regional coverage area, with a strong command and control center with the high standard of integrated technical, financial resources and business strategy.China's third-party logistics companies in the development of the problems encountered can be summarized as follows:1, operating modelAt present, most of the world's largest logistics companies take the head office and branch system, centralized headquarters-style logistics operation to take to the implementation of vertical business management. The establishment of a modern logistics enterprise must have a strong, flexible command and control center to control the entire logistics operations and coordination. Real must be a modern logistics center, a profit center, business organizations, the framework, the institutional form of every match with a center. China's logistics enterprises in the operating mode of the problems of foreign logistics enterprises in the management model should be from the domestic logistics enterprises.2, the lack of storage or transport capacityThe primary function of logistics is to create time and space utility theft. For now China's third-party logistics enterprises, some companies focus on storage, lack of transport capacity; other companies is a lot of transport vehicles and warehouses throughout the country little by renting warehouses to complete the community's commitment to customers. 3, network problemsThere are a few large companies have the logistics of the entire vehicle cargo storage network or networks, but the network coverage area is not perfect. Customers in the choice of logistics partner, are very concerned about network coverage and network of regional branches of the density problem. The building of the network should be of great importance to logistics enterprises.4, information technologyThe world's largest logistics enterprises have "three-class network", that is, orders for information flow, resources, global supply chain network, the global Resource Network users and computer information network. With the management of advanced computer technology, these customers are also the logistics of the production of high value-added products business, the domestic logistics enterprises must increase investment in information systems can change their market position.Concentration and integration is the third-party logistics trends in the development ofenterprises. The reasons are: firstly, the company intends to major aspects of supply chain outsourcing to the lowest possible number of several logistics companies; the second, the establishment of an efficient global third party logistics inputs required for increasing the capital; the third Many third-party logistics providers through mergers and joint approaches to expand its service capabilities.译文物流已广泛应用于经济领域中的英文单词“物流”，军事后勤保障的原意，在二战结束后的第二面。

(完整word版)中英互译文献

外文文献翻译Operational AmplifiersIn 1943 Harry Black commuted from his home in New York City at Bell Labs in New Jersey by way of a ferry. The ferry ride relaxed Harry enabling him to do some conceptual thinking. Harry had a tough problem to solve; when phone lines were extended long distance, they needed amplifiers, and undependable amplifiers limited phone service. First, initial tolerances on the gain were poor, but that problem was quickly solved wuth an adjustment. Second, even when an amplifier was adjusted correctly at the factory, the gain drifted so much during field operation that the volume was too low or the incoming speech was distorted.Many attempts had been made to make a stable amplifier, but temperature changes and power supply voltage extremes experienced on phone lines caused uncontrollable gain drift. Passive components had much better drift characteristics than active components had, thus if an amplifier’s gain could be made dependent on passive components, the problem would be solve. During on e of his ferry trips, Harry’s fertile brain conceived a novel solution for the amplifier problem, and he documented the solution while riding on the ferry.The solution was to first build an amplifier that had more gain than the application required. Then some of the amplifier output signal was fed back to the input in a manner that makes the circuit gain (circuit is the amplifier and feedback components) dependent on the feedback circuit rather than the amplifier gain. Now the circuit gain is dependent on the passive feedback components rather than the active amplifier. This is called negative feedback, and it is the underlying operating principle for all modern day opamps. Harry had documented the first intentional feedback circuit had been built prior to that time ,but the designers ignored the effect.I can hear the squeals of anguish coming from the manager and amplifier designers. I imagine that they said something like this, “it is hard enough to achieve 30kHz gainbandwidth (GBW), and now this fool wants me to design an amplifier with 3MHz GBW. But ,he is still going to get a circuit gain GBW of 30kHz .” Well, time has proven Harry right ,but there is a minor problem. It seems that circuit designed with large pen loop gains sometimes oscillate when the loop is closed. A lot of people investigated the instability effect, and it was prettywell understood in the 1940s, but solving stability problems involved long, tedious, and intricate calculations. Years passed without anybody making the problem solution simpler or more understandable.In 1945 H. W. Bode presented a system for analyzing the stability of feedback system by using graphical methods. Until this time, feedback analysis was done by multiplication and division, so calculation of transfer functions was a time consuming and laborious task. Remember, engineers did not have calculators or computers until the ‘70s, Bode presented a log technique that transformed the intensely mathematical process of calculating a feedback system’s stability into grap hical analysis that was simple and perceptive. Feedback system design was still complicated, but it no longer was an art dominated by a few electrical engineers kept in a small dark room. Any electrical engineer could use Bode’s methods to find the stability of a feedback circuit, so the application of feedback to machines began to grow. There really wasn’t much call for electrical feedback design until computers and transducers become of age.The first real-time computer was the analog computer! This computer used preprogrammed equations and input data to calculate control actions. The programming was hard wired with a series of circuit that performed math operations on the data, and the hard wiring limitation eventually caused the declining popularity of the analog computer. The heart of the analog computer was a device called an operational amplifier because it could be configured to perform many mathematical operations such as multiplication, addition, subtraction, division, integration, and differentiation on the input signals. The name was shortened to the familiar op amp, as we have come to know and love them. The op amp used an amplifier with a large open loop gain, and when the loop was closed, the amplifier performed the mathematical operations dictated by the external passive components. This amplifier was very large because it was built with vacuum tubes and it required a high-voltage power supply,but it was the heart of the analog computer, thus its large size and huge power requirements were accepted. Many early op amps were designed for analog computers, an it was soon found out the op amps had other uses and were handy to have around the physics lab .At this time general-purpose analog computers were found in universities and large company laboratories because they were critical to the research work done there. There was a parallel requirement for transducer signal conditioning in lab experiments, and op amps found their way into signal conditioning applications. As the signal conditioning applications expanded, the demand for op amps grew beyond the analog computer requirements , and even when the analog computers lost favor to digital computers, the op amps survived because of its importance in universal analog applications. Eventually digital computes replaced the analog computers, but the demand for op amps increased as measurement applications increased.The first signal conditioning op amps were constructed with vacuum tubes prior to the introduction of transistors, so they were large and bul ky. During the’50s, miniature vacuum tubes that worked from lower voltage power supplies enabled the manufacture of op amps that shrunk to the size lf a brick used in house construction, so the op amp modules were nick named bricks. Vacuum tube size and component size decreased until an op amp was shrunk to the size of a single octal vacuum tube. Transistors were commercially developed in the ‘60s, and they further reduced op amp size to several cubic inches. Most of these early op amps were made for specific applications, so they were not necessarily general purpose. The early op amps served a specific purpose, but each manufacturer had different specifications and packages; hence, there was little second sourcing among the early op amps.ICs were developed during the late 1950s and early 1960s, but it wasn’t till the middle 1960s that Fairchild released the μA709. This was the first commercially successful IC op am. TheμA709 had its share of problems, bur any competent analog engineer could use it, and it served in many different analog applications. The maj or drawback of theμA709 was stability; it required external compensation and a competent analog engineer to apply it. Also, theμA709 was quite sensitive because it had a habit of self-destruction under any adverse condition. TheμA741 followed theμA709, and it is an internally compensated op amp that does not require external compensation if operated under data sheet conditions. There has been a never-ending series of new op amps released each year since then, and their performance and reliability had improved to the point where present day op amps can be usedfor analog applications by anybody.The IC op amp is here to stay; the latest generation op amps cover the frequency spectrum from 5kHz GBW to beyond 1GHz GBW. The supply voltage ranges from guaranteed operation at 0.9V to absolute maximum voltage ratings of 1000V. The input current and input offset voltage has fallen so low that customers have problems verifying the specifications during incoming inspection. The op amp has truly become the universal analog IC because it performs all analog tasks. It can function as a line driver, comparator (one bit A/D), amplifier, level shifter, oscillator, filter, signal conditioner, actuator driver, current source, voltage source, and etc. The designer’s problem is h ow to rapidly select the correct circuit /op amp combination and then, how to calculate the passive component values that yield the desired transfer function in the circuit.The op amp will continue to be a vital component of analog design because it is such a fundamental component. Each generation of electronic equipment integrates more functions on silicon and takes more of the analog circuit inside the IC. As digital applications increase, analog applications also increase because the predominant supply of data and interface applications are in the real world, and the real world is an analog world. Thus , each new generation of electronic equipment creates requirements for new analog circuit; hence, new generations of op amps are required to fulfill these requirements. Analog design, and op amp design, is a fundamental skill that will be required far into the future.放大器1943年，哈利·布莱克乘火车或渡船从位于纽约市的家去新泽西州的贝尔实验室上班。

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The literature review (domestic and foreign research and development trend of the current situation)1. Domestic wastewater treatment technology1.1 AB Applied Technology for Wastewater Biological TreatmentWastewater Treatment Technology AB (the AB process) is the adsorption - process referred to as biodegradable. AB Technology have developed rapidly in recent years, and applied to much urban sewage treatment plants. Proved through practice, AB conventional activated sludge process and f method compared to the efficiency, operation stability, project investment and operation cost, etc. all have distinctive features.AB two activated sludge process is divided into segments A and B section, a section of the adsorption section, B section for the biological oxidation section. AB A process has a major section of the aeration tank structure, intermediate sedimentation tank, B section of the aeration tank and secondary sedimentation tank, usually without a settling tank, the A section as well as processing system. A segment and the segment has a separate sludge return system, so has its own unique microbial populations, is conducive to the stability of system functions.The basic principles of AB Process: A section of continuous inoculation from the sewer system in the pipe network system has survived the number of bacteria, which can be viewed as the drainage system in the middle of a huge reactor, in which a large number of bacteria surviving , continue to proliferate but also to adapt to, out of the process of optimization, etc., thus able to develop adaptive and active microbial communities are strong. This process does not set a settling tank, so that all microorganisms in raw wastewater into the system, so that A section of a biological dynamics of open systems.A section of high load, is conducive to the proliferation of fast growth andreproduction of microorganisms, and can only survive here is strong resistance to impact load the prokaryotic bacteria and other microorganisms can not survive. A section of the treated waste water, BOD removal of 40 to 70 percent, also improved biodegradability, is conducive to the work of B segments.A section of the sludge production rate was higher adsorption capacity, heavy metals, refractory material and nitrogen, phosphorus and other plant nutrients such as to pass through the sludge adsorption, and have been removed.A section on organic removal, mainly by the flock adsorption, biological degradation accounts for only about 1 / 3, due to the dominant role of physical and chemical effects, therefore, a paragraph of toxic substances in wastewater, pH, organic loading and temperature have certain adaptability.Section B Section A of the reaction is based on the normal work, including a section of the adsorption of organic compounds is very important. B section of the biological system is mainly composed of long generations of eukaryotic microbial composition, and according to specific process conditions change. Section B accepted the basic stability of water quality and quantities are, almost without regard to the impact load, to give full play to purification. A section of the function with the addition of nitrogen, BOD / N value decreased, therefore, B segment with the nitrification process conditions.1.2 SBR Biological Treatment for Wastewater ApplicationsSequencing batch (intermittent) activated sludge process (Sequencing Batch Reactor), referred to as the SBR in recent years widespread attention at home and abroad is the growing number of nuclear research of a wastewater treatment process, and a number of production units are already in operation, with a range of better than conventional activated sludge characteristics.At present, SBR process is mainly used in urban sewage and industrial waste water (mainly MSG, beer, pharmaceuticals, coke, food, paper, printing and dyeing, washing, dressing, etc.) processing.SBR process is a certain order by the intermittent operation of the SBR reactor operation composed. SBR process a complete operation, that each SBR reactoroperation when the waste water treatment, including five phases: fill, reaction, sedimentation, water, idle. SBR's methods to intermittent operation of the operating condition as the main feature.SBR process operation and convenient operation, the reactor is in descending order in space, intermittent; in time is arranged in sequence, and intermittent.1.3 Applications for Wastewater Biological TreatmentSince the 70s of the 20th century, people in the anaerobic / aerobic phosphorus removal system and the anoxic / aerobic nitrogen removal system based on the principle, also proposed sewage treatment system, will combine the two systems, the sewage through anaerobic ( Anaerobic), anoxic and aerobic (Anoxic) and aerobic (Oxen) three biological treatment processes (referred to as 2A/ O), to achieve simultaneous removal of BOD, nitrogen, phosphorus purposes. The primary functions of anaerobic phosphorus release, while part of the organic matter ammonification. The primary function of anoxic denitrification, nitrate is through the inner loop sent by the aerobic reactor, a mixture of a large amount of circulating , usually 2Q (Q-raw sewage flow). Aerobic stage is multifunctional, remove organic matter, phosphorus digestion and absorption of other items are reflected in this paragraph. These three reactions are important, the mixture containing NO3-N, the sludge containing excess phosphorus, The water in the BOD (or COD) removal were obtained. 2Q mixture flow back from the anoxic reactor here1.4 The conventional activated sludge biological wastewater treatment Conventional activated sludge, also known as habit or known traditional aeration activated sludge, was the first use of a sludge method.In the normal operation of the conventional activated sludge aeration tank, the aeration tank Qiduan, return activated sludge with boiling water once fully mixed, activated sludge from wastewater in a large number of organic matter. Since then F / M is relatively high, so the growth rate of microbial growth generally increased in the late stages of decline or growth rate of stage. As the organic matter in the aeration tank mixed liquor continuously along the length of the oxidation pond and the continuous synthesis of microbial cells, continue to lower the concentration of organicmatter in water, F / M become smaller and smaller, to the end of the pond, the growth of microorganisms have entered the endogenous metabolism period. Because the conventional activated sludge aeration time longer, you can more organic adsorption and purification, and the aeration tank effluent species of microorganisms have entered the endogenous metabolism of, their activities had diminished capacity, easy to precipitate in the sedimentation tank. After the waste water into the sedimentation tank, where almost all organic matter is "eaten" by the storage of microbial cells become depleted of material, which is hungry activated sludge activity has been fully restored, back to the aeration tank After a good adsorption capacity and oxidation of organic matter. So the conventional activated sludge process of biochemical oxygen demand and suspended solids removal efficiency was very high, about 90 to 95 percent. Achieve this high removal efficiency, commonly known as "full treatment." If you do not need such high processing requirements, to reduce the amount of return sludge and shorten the aeration time, the so-called "part of the deal."1.5 Application of oxidation ditch technology biological wastewater treatment Activated sludge oxidation ditch is a variant, the aeration tank ditches that were closed type, the mixture of sewage and activated sludge in which the cycle of continuous flow, therefore, also known as the "ring aeration Pool "," No end of the aeration system. " Crushed out of wood is widely used in the oxidation ditch types include: Pascal Weil (Passover) oxidation ditch and Carrousel (Carrousel) oxidation ditch, Auber (Orbal) oxidation ditch, T-type oxidation ditch (c oxidation ditch), DE-type oxidation ditch oxidation ditch and integration.1.5.1 Carrousel oxidation ditchCarrousel oxidation ditch is the DHV from the Netherlands in 1967, the company developed. Carrousel oxidation ditch in the original basis, DHV Company and the United States patent licensing company has invented a Carrousel2000 EIMCO system to achieve a higher demand for biological nitrogen and phosphorus removal capabilities.Carrousel oxidation ditch aeration and agitation devices using directional, relative to the level of the mixture speed of delivery, so that the mixture was stirred in theoxidation ditch circulating within the closed channels. Therefore, oxidation ditch has a special hydraulic flow pattern, both completely mixed reactor characteristics; there are plug-flow reactors, the characteristics of trench obvious dissolved oxygen concentration gradient. Oxidation ditch with rectangular or trapezoidal cross section, flat shape of the oval, the trench depth is generally 2.5 to 4.5 meters, width to depth ratio of 2:1, has a water depth of 7m, the average speed of water flow in ditch 0.3 meter per second. Mixed oxidation ditch aeration equipment surface aerators, aeration the brush or wheel, jet aerator conduit and riser-type aerator and so on, there is water in recent years with the use of thrusters.1.5.2 Orbal oxidation ditchOrbal oxidation ditch are generally composed of three concentric oval channel, water channel from the outside to enter, and return sludge mixture into the middle of the channel from the outside and then into the channel within the channel, then the channel to loop up to tens of hundreds of times. Finally, the adjustable weir flows by the Center for the door out of the island, and to the settling tank. Installed in each channel have a different number of levels across the switch to disk aerator, both support a strong push for Liu stirring. Outside the channel volume of the volume of the total oxidation of 50 to 55 percent, control of dissolved oxygen concentration tends to 0, and efficient completion of the main oxidation; the middle of the channel capacity is generally 25 to 30 percent, control of dissolved oxygen concentration in the 1.0mg / L is about , as a "swing-channel", can play outside the channel or the channel of the reinforcement; the total volume of the channel's volume is about 15 to 20 percent, requiring a higher concentration of dissolved oxygen (2.0 Milligrams per liter),to ensure a higher organic matter and ammonia nitrogen removal.Orbal oxidation ditch scope: Orbal oxidation ditch generally applies to 20 ×104 Cubic meters per day's following scale municipal sewage treatment plants, especially recommended for small and medium-scale municipal wastewater treatment plant.1.5.3 Pasveer oxidation ditchPasveer oxidation ditch is a continuous oxidation ditch sewage treatment system,with points built secondary sedimentation tank. Raw sewage directly into the grid through the oxidation ditches, and ditches the sludge mixture in the mix. Oxidation ditch is a trench-shaped runway. Ditch on the installation of one or more aeration, aeration to promote the mixture circulating in the trench, the average flow rate maintained at 0.3m / s or more, the activated sludge in suspension and oxygenation. Mixture road and Sheen pool is for dewatering. Part of the secondary settling tank sludge and surface scum back into the oxidation ditch, sludge is relatively stable, the concentration can be directly after the dehydration of sludge after the storage pool to be further processed.1.5.4 Three oxidation ditchThree oxidation ditch is a Kruger company has developed a new biological nitrogen removal process. The system has set up three identical oxidation ditches to run together as a unit, both between the three oxidation ditches connected. At run time, both sides of the A, C alternately for the two pool aeration tank and settling tank. The middle of the B pool has been maintained aeration, water alternately into a pool or C pool, C pool of water or from the corresponding a pool leads. This increases the utilization rate of aeration the brush, is also beneficial to biological nitrogen removal. Three oxidation ditches with each pool are available for sewage and circulation (mixing) of the brush, the import of each pool were associated with treatment by the grid and the grit chamber and connected via the effluent. Regulating the distribution of water and effluent weir completely controlled by the biological filter unit of organic pollutants in wastewater treatment is the main purpose of the unit operation. Biological filter is a biofilm. Biological filter are generally made of reinforced concrete or masonry, horizontal cross-section mostly round, square or rectangle, which forms the specific use, depending on the type of replenishment device. Biological filter structure consists of the filter bed, drainage and water installment of three parts.1.6 Biological filter purification mechanismPlaced in a fixed biological filter media, water flow in the biological filter constantly in touch with the media, microorganisms reproduce in the filter surface toform a biofilm. Adsorption of wastewater microorganisms suspended, colloidal and dissolved substances, the sewage purification. Biofilm has a larger surface area, with strong oxidation ability. In the biofilm, microbial growth and reproduction, death loss, the cycle and maintain the good biofilm purification.When the membrane is thicker, and reach a certain thickness, the oxygen in the air quickly consume the microbial biofilm surface is difficult to penetrate the inner membrane, resulting in close to the inner layer of the biofilm formation due to lack of oxygen anaerobic state, so that weakened the adhesion of the biofilm, and produce organic acids, ammonia and hydrogen sulfide and other anaerobic decomposition products, sometimes with the smell of the water quality of water, and sometimes may even Biological filter cause the growth of biofilm filter clogging.Operating system is basically a primary sedimentation tank, biological filter, secondary sedimentation tank of three parts.1.6.1 High Load biological filterHigh load biological filter media used in a larger particle size, typically only 40 to 100 mm, high porosity, can prevent filter clogging and improve the ventilation capacity. Media generally use the gravel, quartz stone, granite; plastic filter can also be used.Commonly used high-load rotary biological filter water distributor, a water standpipe and rotating horizontal tubes, water distribution, for round and variability of the biological filter.1.6.2 Biological filter towerBiological filter tower along the height into the general construction of the tower, at the set in a hierarchical grid, the filter loading Stratification burden. Multi-media selection use light filter mostly, such as light weight, high specific surface area and porosity of the synthetic filter media.Water tower biological filter cloth rotating device to use more water distributor, a water standpipe and rotating horizontal tubes, water distribution, the available motor, the reaction can also be driven by the water. Some small tower biological filter to use more water distribution system nozzles, but also can be porous sieve tubes andsplashing water.1.6.3 Biological filter fluidized bed reactorIn recent years, biological fluidized bed technology for the digestion and increasing reports of denitrification. Biological fluidized bed technique is an in stream of water through the state and the growth of biofilm attached to the particle bed, is the matrix of waste water dispersed in the bed biofilm with contacts to get the lift. Biological fluidized bed reactor with a volume load of high mass transfer speed, strong impact, small footprint, stable operation and so on. Biological fluidized bed includes the good support and the anaerobic fluidized bed.1.6.4 RBC purifying methodRBC method is water in a semi-quiescent state, the disk of microbial growth in the dial, the dial slowly in the waste water continue to rotate to approach contact with each other. Disk body and turn waste water and air contact, micro-organisms from the air intake of the necessary oxygen, and biological pollutants in wastewater oxidation and decomposition. Biofilm thickness and the concentration of raw water treatment and the nature of substrate, about 0.1 to 0.5mm, the outer disk attached to the film, aerobic and anaerobic biofilm, and biofilm activity of recession cut the wheel rotation under the action of shear force and loss.RBC is also a group of rational use of natural microbial metabolism in the physiological function of the biological treatment of organic waste water purification method, the principle and the biological filter is similar to the oxidation of organic matter with much decomposition, nitrification and denitrification capabilities.1.6.5 Biological contact oxidationBiological contact oxidation method is a range of activated sludge and biological filter process between the biofilm. Contact oxidation tanks with filler, some form of micro-organisms to sessile biofilm growth in the filler surface, part is the growth of flocculent suspended in the water.Microbial bio-contact oxidation method often required oxygen supply by artificial aeration. Biofilm growth to a certain thickness, nearly filling the walls of microorganisms to lack of oxygen to anaerobic metabolism, resulting in the formationof the gas and the scouring action of aeration will cause the shedding of biofilm, and to promote the growth of new membrane to form a biofilm metabolism. Biofilm will flow off the tank everywhere outside. General biological contact oxidation pool to be set before the primary sedimentation tank to remove suspended solids and reduce the load of biological contact oxidation; biological contact oxidation tank is located after the secondary settling tank to remove entrained water biofilm, water quality assurance system.Now developed a number of continuous improvement of the water inlet of a continuous SBR process.1.7.1 ProcessWith the city's water sewage and industrial waste water \ water quality and the changing requirements of environmental laws on water quality continues to improve, which may be less and less use of land resources, which requires sewage treatment system must not only have great flexibility and need to save as much as possible sites. Process is to adapt to the needs of these areas developed an advanced sewage treatment process. It combines the traditional SBR activated sludge process and the advantages of integrated design not only have the main characteristics of SBR process, but also as to the conventional activated sludge under continuous operation at a constant level. Operating Condition and its three oxidation ditches similar to the continuous water for continuous water treatment process. The study and application of technology has become an efficient, affordable, flexible and sophisticated sewage treatment process.Process is a rectangular body shape, which is divided into three equal rectangular unit cells, adjacent to openings between the unit cells separated by a public wall, so that the hydraulic unit cell relative to each other through. All the three units each in the pools with a aeration diffusion device. Outside of which has twin functions of the two pools, both for the aeration tank, it did the sedimentation tank; two pool also has a fixed weir and the sludge discharge, with water and sludge to make emissions. Intermediate pool is always used to do aeration tank. Sewage into the system through the intake timing control can be divided into three rectangular pool were any one pool.1.7.2 CASS / CAST / CASP processCyclic activated sludge (Cyclic Activated Sludge System / Technology / Process) in the mode of operation, the precipitate phase is not water, drainage and stability are guaranteed. He is the use of different microorganisms in the growth rate under different load conditions, different mechanisms and wastewater biological nutrient removal, biological Selector SBR reactor with the traditional product of the combination, the operation of the CAST is generally divided into three areas: one area for microbial selection; II for the anoxic zone; three areas for the aerobic zone, the district is generally the volume ratio of 1 to 5 to 30.This process combines the plug-flow activated sludge completely mixed initial reaction conditions and the advantages of activated sludge, specifically the main process is simple, construction and equipment investment is small; to good water quality buffer , water fluctuations, flexible operation; nitrification, denitrification full, nitrogen and phosphorus removal to achieve a good effect. CAST pre-set reaction zone and sludge measures to ensure the return of activated sludge in continuous experience in the selection of a high floc load stage, the growth of beneficial bacteria flocculation and improve sludge activity, making it quick and easy removal of wastewater degradation of soluble substrates, and further inhibit the growth and reproduction of filamentous fungi.1.7.3 ICEAS processIntermittent Cycle Extended Aeration Process (Intermittent Cycle Extended Aeration System) is characterized by the influent in the reactor and the reaction zone an additional, continuous operation mode for the influent, intermittent drainage, no obvious reaction stage and idle phases. The advantage is in dealing with municipal sewage and industrial waste water costs more than the traditional province of SBR, the water better. Drawback is that water runs through the whole cycle of precipitation in the main reaction zone of the bottom water caused by hydraulic flocculation, which could affect the separation time, so water is limited, and the capacity utilization is low, generally not more than 60%, nitrogen and phosphorus removal general.1.7.4 IDEA ProcessIntermittent drainage extended aeration process (Intermittently Decanted Extended Aeration) to maintain the advantages of CAST, a continuous feed operation mode, intermittent aeration, periodic drainage form. Compared with the CAST, pre-reaction zone to the main structure and the separation of SBR pre-mixed pool, and part of the sludge back into the pre-reaction cell, and use the central water. Pre-mixed pool could be established so that sewage load in the high floc have a longer residence time to ensure that the choice of high bacterial flocculation.1.7.5 DAT-IAT ProcessICEAS volume utilization is not high, the equivalent of aeration equipment idle for a period of time, in order to improve the reaction tank and equipment utilization, the development of DAT-IAT (Demand Aeration Tank-Intermittent Aeration Tank) process. DAT-IAT process of the main structures in the aerobic tank (DAT), intermittent aeration tanks (IAT) form, under normal circumstances, DAT continuous water continuous aeration, the water from entering IAT, aeration and sedimentation in the completion. Decanter and remove sludge process. Through the grille and the settling ponds of treated wastewater into the DAT, after an initial biochemical quiet as IAT, due to continuous aeration played a role in water balance, improve the stability of the whole project, water process occurs only in DAT, the drainage process is only occurred in the IAT, so that the whole biological system can be further enhanced adjustability is beneficial biodegradable organic matter, part of the sludge has IAT back to the DAT. This process is suitable for relatively large changes in water quality and quantity of the region.1.7.6 MSBRModified Sequencing Batch Reactor MSBR (Modified Sequencing Batch Reactor), the shape is usually designed as a rectangle, divided into three main parts: Two alternating aeration sequencing batch cell and the cell. Main aeration grid to keep the entire operation cycle of continuous aeration, during each half cycle, the two alternating sequence, respectively, as the SBR batch cell pool and clarifier, which is essentially the 2A/ O process and SBR process in series made way for continuous running water continuous water.MSBR process is considered to be intensive in the current high level, while the biological function of nitrogen and phosphorus removal wastewater treatment process. From the system's reliability, civil engineering, total installed capacity, energy efficiency, reduce operating costs and other aspects of land conservation point of view, have the advantage. MSBR not set the primary sedimentation tank, secondary sedimentation tank, and in continuous operation under constant water level. Single cell multi-cell mode, without continuous flow process also eliminates the need for more and more pool connection pipes, pumps and valves.This integration process is characterized by simple process, as only a reaction cell, no secondary sedimentation tank, return sludge and equipment, under normal circumstances no regulation pool, in most cases the primary sedimentation tank can be avoided, so saving accounts land and investment, resistance to shock loading and flexible operation mode can be arranged from time aeration, anoxic and anaerobic different states, to achieve the purpose of nitrogen and phosphorus removal. But because each pool requires aeration and water distribution systems, the use of Decanter and control system, a large head loss intermittent drainage, the pool's capacity utilization rate is not ideal, and therefore, in general, and not suitable for large-scale urban sewage treatment plant.1.8 Anaerobic biological1.8.1 Anaerobic filterAnaerobic filter is equipped with a filter in the anaerobic bioreactor. For example, anaerobic filter effluent, and filter contacts the surface of micro-organisms, organic pollutants in wastewater by microorganisms in the interception, adsorption and decomposition in order to achieve the purpose of purification.Anaerobic biological filter media in the microbial community in the biofilm formed on the surface, In addition, the microbial community in the filter also form aggregates in the form of suspension. Anaerobic filter higher organic loading, hydraulic retention time can be shortened. Reactor teams ability to adapt to toxic substances in the water strong, strong resistance to shock loading capacity, changes in water quantity and the larger case load, the reaction may be more stable operation.1.8.2 Anaerobic DigesterAnaerobic digester is an anaerobic biological treatment method. Anaerobic biological treatment process can also be referred to as anaerobic digestion; the reaction process is in anaerobic conditions, a variety of microbial decomposition of organic matter to produce methane and carbon dioxide in the process.Anaerobic biological treatment process according to the reaction steps can be divided into three stages: hydrolysis stage, the acid phase, methane production phase.1.8.3 Baffle reactor, anaerobic baffledAnaerobic baffle reactor baffle is in the 20th century, the early 80s in anaerobic rotating biological reactor developed based on the improvement of a new high rate anaerobic reactor. The reactor has a simple structure due to the sludge retention ability, and stability advantages attracted the attention of many researchers. In the biological treatment of wastewater, the hydraulic characteristics of the reactor, biological characteristics and shock load capacity of the reactor is an important factor in treatment effect, but also an important measure of reactor performance indicators.1.8.4 up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket reactorUASB is the up-flow anaerobic sludge bed reactor for short. Upper part UASB reactor gas, solid and liquid phase separator, the lower layer is set to the sludge suspension and the sludge bed zone area. Sewage flows from the bottom of the reactor, to the reactor to the top of the upwelling flow, solid-liquid mixture separation in the sedimentation area, the sludge itself back to the sludge bed zone. UASB reactor sludge bed area can maintain a high sludge concentration; sludge granulation can be achieved with good settling ability and high methane activity.UASB basic principles: UASB reactor during operation contains a very complex process of biochemical reactions. There are a variety of anaerobic microorganisms reaction participated in the transformation of organic pollutants in the metabolic process, and ultimately of pollutants into the final product. Participate in reactions including anaerobic hydrolysis - fermentation bacteria, acetic acid of bacteria and methane bacteria. UASB reactor biotransformation reactions and precipitation concentrated in one, compact structure. Wastewater from the water distribution。

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文献、资料题目：学专班姓名：张三学号： 2010888888指导教师：翻译日期： ××××年××月××日临沂大学本科毕业论文外文文献及译文，the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has been working to develop a new encryption standard to keep government information secure ．The organization is in the final stages of an open process of selecting one or more algorithms ，or data-scrambling formulas ，for the new Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) and plans to make adecision by late summer or early fall ．The standard is slated to go into effect next year ．AES is intended to be a stronger ，more efficient successor to Triple Data Encryption Standard (3DES)，which replaced the aging DES ，which was cracked in less than three days in July 1998．“Until we have the AES ，3DES will still offer protection for years to come ．So there is no need to immediately switch over ，”says Edward Roback ， acting chief of the computer security division at NIST and chairman of the AES selection committee ．“What AES will offer is a more efficient algorithm ．It will be a federal standard ，but it will be widely implemented in the IT community ．”According to Roback ，efficiency of the proposed algorithms is measured by how fast they can encrypt and decrypt information ，how fast they can present an encryption key and how much information they can encrypt ．The AES review committee is also looking at how much space the algorithm takes up on a chip and how much memory it requires ．Roback says the selection of a more efficient AES will also result in cost savings and better use of resources ．“DES was desig ned for hardware implementations ，and we are now living in a world of much more efficient software ，and we have learned an awful lot about the design of algorithms ，”says Roback ．“When you start multiplying this with the billions of implementations done daily ，the saving on overhead on the networks will be enormous ．”……临沂大学本科毕业论文外文文献及译文- 2 -以确保政府的信息安全。

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外文文献翻译原文Analysis of Con tin uous Prestressed Concrete BeamsChris BurgoyneMarch 26, 20051、IntroductionThis conference is devoted to the development of structural analysis rather than the strength of materials, but the effective use of prestressed concrete relies on an appropriate combination of structural analysis techniques with knowledge of the material behaviour. Design of prestressed concrete structures is usually left to specialists; the unwary will either make mistakes or spend inordinate time trying to extract a solution from the various equations.There are a number of fundamental differences between the behaviour of prestressed concrete and that of other materials. Structures are not unstressed when unloaded; the design space of feasible solutions is totally bounded；in hyperstatic structures, various states of self-stress can be induced by altering the cable profile, and all of these factors get influenced by creep and thermal effects. How were these problems recognised and how have they been tackled?Ever since the development of reinforced concrete by Hennebique at the end of the 19th century (Cusack 1984), it was recognised that steel and concrete could be more effectively combined if the steel was pretensioned, putting the concrete into compression. Cracking could be reduced, if not prevented altogether, which would increase stiffness and improve durability. Early attempts all failed because the initial prestress soon vanished, leaving the structure to be- have as though it was reinforced; good descriptions of these attempts are given by Leonhardt (1964) and Abeles (1964).It was Freyssineti’s observations of the sagging of the shallow arches on three bridges that he had just completed in 1927 over the River Allier near Vichy which led directly to prestressed concrete (Freyssinet 1956). Only the bridge at Boutiron survived WWII (Fig 1). Hitherto, it had been assumed that concrete had a Young’s modulus which remained fixed, but he recognised that the de- ferred strains due to creep explained why the prestress had been lost in the early trials. Freyssinet (Fig. 2) also correctly reasoned that high tensile steel had to be used, so that some prestress would remain after the creep had occurred, and alsothat high quality concrete should be used, since this minimised the total amount of creep. The history of Freyssineti’s early prestressed concrete work is written elsewhereFigure1:Boutiron Bridge,Vic h yFigure 2: Eugen FreyssinetAt about the same time work was underway on creep at the BRE laboratory in England ((Glanville 1930) and (1933)). It is debatable which man should be given credit for the discovery of creep but Freyssinet clearly gets the credit for successfully using the knowledge to prestress concrete.There are still problems associated with understanding how prestressed concrete works, partly because there is more than one way of thinking about it. These different philosophies are to some extent contradictory, and certainly confusing to the young engineer. It is also reflected, to a certain extent, in the various codes of practice.Permissible stress design philosophy sees prestressed concrete as a way of avoiding cracking by eliminating tensile stresses; the objective is for sufficient compression to remain after creep losses. Untensionedreinforcement, which attracts prestress due to creep, is anathema. This philosophy derives directly from Freyssinet’s logic and is primarily a working stress concept.Ultimate strength philosophy sees prestressing as a way of utilising high tensile steel as reinforcement. High strength steels have high elastic strain capacity, which could not be utilised when used as reinforcement; if the steel is pretensioned, much of that strain capacity is taken out before bonding the steel to the concrete. Structures designed this way are normally designed to be in compression everywhere under permanent loads, but allowed to crack under high live load. The idea derives directly from the work of Dischinger (1936) and his work on the bridge at Aue in 1939 (Schonberg and Fichter 1939), as well as that of Finsterwalder (1939). It is primarily an ultimate load concept. The idea of partial prestressing derives from these ideas.The Load-Balancing philosophy, introduced by T.Y. Lin, uses prestressing to counter the effect of the permanent loads (Lin 1963). The sag of the cables causes an upward force on the beam, which counteracts the load on the beam. Clearly, only one load can be balanced, but if this is taken as the total dead weight, then under that load the beam will perceive only the net axial prestress and will have no tendency to creep up or down.These three philosophies all have their champions, and heated debates take place between them as to which is the most fundamental.2、Section designFrom the outset it was recognised that prestressed concrete has to be checked at both the working load and the ultimate load. For steel structures, and those made from reinforced concrete, there is a fairly direct relationship between the load capacity under an allowable stress design, and that at the ultimate load under an ultimate strength design. Older codes were based on permissible stresses at the working load; new codes use moment capacities at the ultimate load. Different load factors are used in the two codes, but a structure which passes one code is likely to be acceptable under the other.For prestressed concrete, those ideas do not hold, since the structure is highly stressed, even when unloaded. A small increase of load can cause some stress limits to be breached, while a large increase in load might be needed to cross other limits. The designer has considerable freedom to vary both the working load and ultimate load capacities independently; both need to be checked.A designer normally has to check the tensile and compressive stresses, in both the top and bottom fibre of the section, for every load case. The critical sections are normally, but not always, the mid-span and the sections over piers but other sections may become critical ，when the cable profile has to be determined.The stresses at any position are made up of three components, one of which normally has a different sign from the other two; consistency of sign convention is essential.If P is the prestressing force and e its eccentricity, A and Z are the area of the cross-section and its elastic section modulus, while M is the applied moment, then where ft and fc are the permissible stresses in tension and compression.c e t f ZM Z P A P f ≤-+≤Thus, for any combination of P and M , the designer already has four in- equalities to deal with.The prestressing force differs over time, due to creep losses, and a designer isusually faced with at least three combinations of prestressing force and moment;• the applied moment at the time the prestress is first applied, before creep losses occur,• the maximum applied moment after creep losses, and• the minimum applied moment after creep losses.Figure 4: Gustave MagnelOther combinations may be needed in more complex cases. There are at least twelve inequalities that have to be satisfied at any cross-section, but since an I-section can be defined by six variables, and two are needed to define the prestress, the problem is over-specified and it is not immediately obvious which conditions are superfluous. In the hands of inexperienced engineers, the design process can be very long-winded. However, it is possible to separate out the design of the cross-section from the design of the prestress. By considering pairs of stress limits on the same fibre, but for different load cases, the effects of the prestress can be eliminated, leaving expressions of the form:rangestress e Perm issibl Range Mom entZ These inequalities, which can be evaluated exhaustively with little difficulty, allow the minimum size of the cross-section to be determined.Once a suitable cross-section has been found, the prestress can be designed using a construction due to Magnel (Fig.4). The stress limits can all be rearranged into the form:()M fZ PA Z e ++-≤1 By plotting these on a diagram of eccentricity versus the reciprocal of the prestressing force, a series of bound lines will be formed. Provided the inequalities (2) are satisfied, these bound lines will always leave a zone showing all feasible combinations of P and e. The most economical design, using the minimum prestress, usually lies on the right hand side of the diagram, where the design is limited by the permissible tensile stresses.Plotting the eccentricity on the vertical axis allows direct comparison with the crosssection, as shown in Fig. 5. Inequalities (3) make no reference to the physical dimensions of the structure, but these practical cover limits can be shown as wellA good designer knows how changes to the design and the loadings alter the Magnel diagram. Changing both the maximum andminimum bending moments, but keeping the range the same, raises and lowers the feasible region. If the moments become more sagging the feasible region gets lower in the beam.In general, as spans increase, the dead load moments increase in proportion to the live load. A stage will be reached where the economic point (A on Fig.5) moves outside the physical limits of the beam; Guyon (1951a) denoted the limiting condition as the critical span. Shorter spans will be governed by tensile stresses in the two extreme fibres, while longer spans will be governed by the limiting eccentricity and tensile stresses in the bottom fibre. However, it does not take a large increase in moment ，at which point compressive stresses will govern in the bottom fibre under maximum moment.Only when much longer spans are required, and the feasible region moves as far down as possible, does the structure become governed by compressive stresses in both fibres.3、Continuous beamsThe design of statically determinate beams is relatively straightforward; the engineer can work on the basis of the design of individual cross-sections, as outlined above. A number of complications arise when the structure is indeterminate which means that the designer has to consider, not only a critical section,but also the behaviour of the beam as a whole. These are due to the interaction of a number of factors, such as Creep, Temperature effects and Construction Sequence effects. It is the development of these ideas whichforms the core of this paper. The problems of continuity were addressed at a conference in London (Andrew and Witt 1951). The basic principles, and nomenclature, were already in use, but to modern eyes concentration on hand analysis techniques was unusual, and one of the principle concerns seems to have been the difficulty of estimating losses of prestressing force.3.1 Secondary MomentsA prestressing cable in a beam causes the structure to deflect. Unlike the statically determinate beam, where this motion is unrestrained, the movement causes a redistribution of the support reactions which in turn induces additional moments. These are often termed Secondary Moments, but they are not always small, or Parasitic Moments, but they are not always bad.Freyssinet’s bridge across the Marne at Luzancy, started in 1941 but not completed until 1946, is often thought of as a simply supported beam, but it was actually built as a two-hinged arch (Harris 1986), with support reactions adjusted by means of flat jacks and wedges which were later grouted-in (Fig.6). The same principles were applied in the later and larger beams built over the same river.Magnel built the first indeterminate beam bridge at Sclayn, in Belgium (Fig.7) in 1946. The cables are virtually straight, but he adjusted the deck profile so that the cables were close to the soffit near mid-span. Even with straight cables the sagging secondary momentsare large; about 50% of the hogging moment at the central support caused by dead and live load.The secondary moments cannot be found until the profile is known but the cablecannot be designed until the secondary moments are known. Guyon (1951b) introduced the concept of the concordant profile, which is a profile that causes no secondary moments; es and ep thus coincide. Any line of thrust is itself a concordant profile.The designer is then faced with a slightly simpler problem; a cable profile has to be chosen which not only satisfies the eccentricity limits (3) but is also concordant. That in itself is not a trivial operation, but is helped by the fact that the bending moment diagram that results from any load applied to a beam will itself be a concordant profile for a cable of constant force. Such loads are termed notional loads to distinguish them from the real loads on the structure. Superposition can be used to progressively build up a set of notional loads whose bending moment diagram gives the desired concordant profile.3.2 Temperature effectsTemperature variations apply to all structures but the effect on prestressed concrete beams can be more pronounced than in other structures. The temperature profile through the depth of a beam (Emerson 1973) can be split into three components for the purposes of calculation (Hambly 1991). The first causes a longitudinal expansion, which is normally released by the articulation of the structure; the second causes curvature which leads to deflection in all beams and reactant moments in continuous beams, while the third causes a set of self-equilibrating set of stresses across the cross-section.The reactant moments can be calculated and allowed-for, but it is the self- equilibrating stresses that cause the main problems for prestressed concrete beams. These beams normally have high thermal mass which means that daily temperature variations do not penetrate to the core of the structure. The result is a very non-uniform temperature distribution across the depth which in turn leads to significant self-equilibrating stresses. If the core of the structure is warm, while the surface is cool, such as at night, then quite large tensile stresses can be developed on the top and bottom surfaces. However, they only penetrate a very short distance into the concrete and the potential crack width is very small. It can be very expensive to overcome the tensile stress by changing the section or the prestress。

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Criminal Law1.General IntroductionCriminal law is the body of the law that defines criminal offenses, regulates the apprehension, charging, and trial of suspected offenders,and fixes punishment for convicted persons. Substantive criminal law defines particular crimes, and procedural law establishes rules for the prosecution of crime. In a democratic society, it is the function of the legislative bodies to decide what behavior will be made criminal and what penalties will be attached to violations of the law.Capital punishment may be imposed in some jurisdictions for the most serious crimes. And physical or corporal punishment may still be imposed such as whipping or caning, although these punishments are prohibited in much of the world. A convict may be incarcerated in prison or jail and the length of incarceration may vary from a day to life.Criminal law is a reflection of the society that produce it. In an Islamic theocracy, such as Iran, criminal law will reflect the religious teachings of the Koran; in an Catholic country, it will reflect the tenets of Catholicism. In addition, criminal law will change to reflect changes in society, especially attitude changes. For instance, use of marijuana was once considered a serious crime with harsh penalties, whereas today the penalties in most states are relatively light. As severity of the penaltieswas reduced. As a society advances, its judgments about crime and punishment change.2.Elements of a CrimeObviously, different crimes require different behaviors, but there are common elements necessary for proving all crimes. First, the prohibited behavior designated as a crime must be clearly defined so that a reasonable person can be forewarned that engaging in that behavior is illegal. Second, the accused must be shown to have possessed the requisite intent to commit the crime. Third, the state must prove causation. Finally, the state must prove beyond a reasonable doubt that the defendant committed the crime.(1) actus reusThe first element of crime is the actus reus.Actus is an act or action and reus is a person judicially accused of a crime. Therefore, actus reus is literally the action of a person accused of a crime. A criminal statute must clearly define exactly what act is deemed “guilty”---that is, the exact behavior that is being prohibited. That is done so that all persons are put on notice that if they perform the guilty act, they will be liable for criminal punishment. Unless the actus reus is clearly defined, one might not know whether or not on e’s behavior is illegal.Actus reus may be accomplished by an action, by threat of action,or exceptionally, by an omission to act, which is a legal duty to act. For example, the act of Cain striking Abel might suffice, or a parent’s failure to give to a young child also may provide the actus reus for a crime.Where the actus reus is a failure to act, there must be a duty of care. A duty can arise through contract, a voluntary undertaking, a blood relation, and occasionally through one’s official position. Duty also can arise from one’s own creation of a dangerous situation.(2)mens reaA second element of a crime is mens rea. Mens rea refers to an individual’s state of mind when a crime is committed. While actus reus is proven by physical or eyewitness evidence, mens rea is more difficult to ascertain. The jury must determine for itself whether the accused had the necessary intent to commit the act.A lower threshold of mens rea is satisfied when a defendant recognizes an act is dangerous but decides to commit it anyway. This is recklessness. For instance, if Cain tears a gas meter from a wall, and knows this will let flammable gas escape into a neighbor’s house, he could be liable for poisoning. Courts often consider whether the actor did recognise the danger, or alternatively ought to have recognized a danger (though he did not) is tantamount to erasing intent as a requirement. In this way, the importance of mens rea hasbeen reduced in some areas of the criminal law.Wrongfulness of intent also may vary the seriousness of an offense. A killing committed with specific intent to kill or with conscious recognition that death or serious bodily harm will result, would be murder, whereas a killing affected by reckless acts lacking such a consciousness could be manslaughter.(3)CausationThe next element is causation. Often the phrase “but for”is used to determine whether causation has occurred. For example, we might say “Cain caused Abel”, by which we really mean “Cain caused Abel’s death. ”In other words, ‘but for Cain’s act, Abel would still be alive.” Causation, then, means “but for” the actions of A, B would not have been harmed. In criminal law, causation is an element that must be proven beyond a reasonable doubt.(4) Proof beyond a Reasonable DoubtIn view of the fact that in criminal cases we are dealing with the life and liberty of the accused person, as well as the stigma accompanying conviction, the legal system places strong limits on the power of the state to convict a person of a crime. Criminal defendants are presumed innocent. The state must overcome this presumption of innocence by proving every element of the offense charged against the defendant beyond a reasonable doubt to thesatisfaction of all the jurors. This requirement is the primary way our system minimizes the risk of convicting an innocent person.The state must prove its case within a framework of procedural safeguards that are designed to protect the accused. The state’s failure to prove any material element of its case results in the accused being acquitted or found not guilty, even though he or she may actually have committed the crime charged.3. Strict LiabilityIn modern society, some crimes require no more mens rea, and they are known as strict liability offenses. For in stance, under the Road Traffic Act 1988 it is a strict liability offence to drive a vehicle with an alcohol concentration above the prescribed limit.Strict liability can be described as criminal or civil liability notwithstanding the lack mens rea or intent by the defendant. Not all crimes require specific intent, and the threshold of culpability required may be reduced. For example, it might be sufficient to show that a defendant acted negligently, rather than intentionally or recklessly.1. 概述刑法是规定什么试犯罪，有关犯罪嫌疑人之逮捕、起诉及审判，及对已决犯处以何种刑罚的部门法。

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附录外文资料PLC technique discussion and future developmentAlong with the development of the ages, the technique that is nowadays is also gradually perfect, the competition plays more strong; the operation that list depends the artificial has already can't satisfied with the current manufacturing industry foreground, also can't guarantee the request of the higher quantity and high new the image of the technique business enterprise.The people see in produce practice, automate brought the tremendous convenience and the product quantities for people up of assurance, also eased the personnel's labor strength, reduce the establishment on the personnel. The target control of the hard realization in many complicated production lines, whole and excellent turn, the best decision etc., well-trained operation work, technical personnel or expert, governor but can judge and operate easily, can acquire the satisfied result. The research target of the artificial intelligence makes use of the calculator exactly to carry out, imitate these intelligences behavior, moderating the work through person's brain and calculators, with the mode that person's machine combine, for resolve the very complicated problem to look for the best pathWe come in sight of the control that links after the electric appliances in various situation, that is already the that time generation past, now of after use in the mold a perhaps simple equipments of grass-roots control that the electric appliances can do for the low level only; And the PLC emergence also became the epoch-making topic, adding the vivid software control through a very and stable hardware, making the automation head for the new high tide.The PLC biggest characteristics lie in: The electrical engineering teacher already no longer electric hardware up too many calculations of cost, as long as order the importation that the button switch or the importation of the sensors order to link the PLC up can solve problem, pass to output to order the conjunction contact machine or control the start equipments of the big power after the electric appliances, but the exportation equipments direct conjunction of the small power can.PLC internal containment have the CPU of the CPU, and take to have an I/ O for expand of exterior to connect a people's address and saving machine three big pieces to constitute, CPU core is from an or many is tired to add the machine to constitute, mathematics that they have the logic operation ability, and can read the procedure save the contents of the machine to drive the homologous saving machine and I/ Os to connect after pass the calculation; The I/ O add inner part is tired the input and output system of the machine and exterior link, and deposit the related data into the procedure saving machine or data saving machine; The saving machine can deposit the data that the I/ O input in the saving machine, and in work adjusting to becometired to add the machine and I/ Os to connect, saving machine separately saving machine RAM of the procedure saving machine ROM and dates, the ROM can do deposit of the data permanence in the saving machine, but RAM only for the CPU computes the temporary calculation usage of hour of buffer space.The PLC anti- interference is very and excellent, our root need not concern its service life and the work situation bad, these all problems have already no longer become the topic that we fail, but stay to our is a concern to come to internal resources of make use of the PLC to strengthen the control ability of the equipments for us, make our equipments more gentle.PLC language is not we imagine of edit collected materials the language or language of Cs to carry on weaving the distance, but the trapezoid diagram that the adoption is original after the electric appliances to control, make the electrical engineering teacher while weaving to write the procedure very easy comprehended the PLC language, and a lot of non- electricity professional also very quickly know and go deep into to the PLC.Is PLC one of the advantage above and only, this is also one part that the people comprehend more and easily, in a lot of equipments, the people have already no longer hoped to see too many control buttons, they damage not only and easily and produce the artificial error easiest, small is not a main error perhaps you can still accept; But lead even is a fatal error greatly is what we can't is tolerant of. New technique always for bringing more safe and convenient operation for us, make we a lot of problems for face on sweep but light, do you understand the HMI? Says the HMI here you basically not clear what it is, also have no interest understanding, change one inside text explains it into the touch to hold or man-machine interface you knew, and it combines with the PLC to our larger space.HMI the control not only is reduced the control press button, increase the vivid of the control, more main of it is can sequence of, and at can the change data input to output the feedback with data, control in the temperature curve of imitate but also can keep the manifestation of view to come out. And can write the function help procedure through a plait to provide the help of various what lies in one's power, the one who make operate reduces the otiose error. Currently the HMI factory is also more and more, the function is also more and more strong, the price is also more and more low, and the noodles of the usage are wide more and more. The HMI foreground can say that think ° to be good very.At a lot of situations, the list is a smooth movement that can't guarantee the equipments by the control of the single machine, but pass the information exchanges of the equipments and equipments to attain the result that we want. For example fore pack and the examination of the empress work preface, we will arrive wrapping information feedback to examine the place, and examine the information of the place to also want the feedback to packing. Pass the information share thus to make both the chain connect, becoming a total body, the match of your that thus make is more close,at each other attain to reflect the result that mutually flick.The PLC correspondence has already come more body now its value, at the PLC and correspondence between PLCs, can pass the communication of the information and the share of the dates to guarantee that of the equipments moderates mutually, the result that arrive already to repair with each other. Data conversion the adoption RS232 between PLC connect to come to the transmission data, but the RS232 pick up a people and can guarantee 10 meters only of deliver the distance, if in the distance of 1000 meters we can pass the RS485 to carry on the correspondence, the longer distance can pass the MODEL only to carry on deliver.The PLC data transmission is just to be called a form to it in a piece of and continuous address that the data of the inner part delivers the other party, we, the PLC of the other party passes to read data in the watch to carry on the operation. If the data that data in the watch is a to establish generally, that is just the general data transmission, for example today of oil price rise, I want to deliver the price of the oil price to lose the oil ally on board, that is the share of the data; But take data in the watch for an instruction procedure that controls the PLC, that had the difficulty very much, for example you have to control one pedestal robot to press the action work that you imagine, you will draw up for it the form that a procedure combine with the data sends out to pass by.The form that information transport contain single work, the half a work and the difference of a workers .The meaning of the single work also is to say both, a can send out only, but a can receive only, for example a spy he can receive the designation of the superior only, but can't give the superior reply; A work of half is also 2 and can send out similar to accept the data, but can't send out and accept at the same time, for example when you make a phone call is to can't answer the phone, the other party also; But whole pair works is both can send out and accept the data, and can send out and accept at the same time. Be like the Internet is a typical example.The process that information transport also has synchronous and different step cent: The data line and the clock lines are synchronous when synchronous meaning lie in sending out the data, is also the data signal and the clock signals to be carry on by the CPU to send out at the same time, this needs to all want the specialized clock signal each other to carry on the transmission and connect to send, and is constrained, the characteristics of this kind of method lies in its speed very quick, but correspond work time of take up the CPU and also want to be long oppositely, at the same time the technique difficulty also very big. Its request lies in canting have an error margins in a dates deliver, otherwise the whole piece according to compare the occurrence mistake, this on the hardware is a bigger difficulty. Applied more and more extensive in some appropriative equipments, be like the appropriative medical treatment equipments, the numerical signal equipments...etc., in compare the one data deliver, its result is very good.And the different step is an application the most extensive, this receive benefit init of technique difficulty is opposite and want to be small, at the same time not need to prepare the specialized clock signal, its characteristics to lie in, its data is partition, the long-lost send out and accept, be the CPU is too busy of time can grind to a stop sex to work, also reduced the difficulty on the hardware, the data throw to lose at the same time opposite want to be little, we can pass the examination of the data to observe whether the data that we send out has the mistake or not, be like strange accidentally the method, tired addition and eight efficacies method etc., can use to helps whether the data that we examine to send out have or not the mistake occurrence, pass the feedback to carry on the discriminator.A line of transmission of the information contains a string of and combine the cent of: The usual PLC is 8 machines, certainly also having 16 machines. We can be an at the time of sending out the data a send out to the other party, also can be 88 send out the data to the other party, an and 8 differentiations are also the as that we say to send out the data and combine sends out the data. A speed is more and slowly, but as long as 2 or three lines can solve problem, and can use the telephone line to carry on the long range control. But combine the ocular transmission speed is very quick of, it is a string of ocular of 25600%, occupy the advantage in the short distance, the in view of the fact TTL electricity is even, being limited by the scope of one meter generally, it combine unwell used for the data transmission of the long pull, thus the cost is too expensive.Under a lot of circumstances we are total to like to adopt the string to combine the conversion chip to carry on deliver, under this kind of circumstance not need us to carry on to deposited the machine to establish too and complicatedly, but carry on the data exchanges through the data transmission instruction directly, but is not a very viable way in the correspondence, because the PLC of the other party must has been wait for your data exportation at the time of sending out the data, it can't do other works.When you are reading the book, you hear someone knock on door, you stop to start up of affair, open the door and combine to continue with the one who knock on door a dialogue, the telephone of this time rang, you signal hint to connect a telephone, after connecting the telephone through, return overdo come together knock on door to have a conversation, after dialogue complete, you continue again to see your book, this kind of circumstance we are called the interruption to it, it has the authority, also having sex of have the initiative, the PLC had such function .Its characteristics lie in us and may meet the urgently abrupt affairs in the operation process of the equipments, we want to stop to start immediately up of work, the whereabouts manages the more important affair, this kind of circumstance is we usually meet of, PLC while carry out urgent mission, total will keep the current appearance first, for example the address of the procedure, CPU of tired add the machine data etc., be like to stick down which the book that we see is when we open the door the page or simply make a mark, because we treat and would still need to continue immediately after book of see the behind. The CPU always does the affair that should do according to our will, but your mistake of give it an affair, it also would be same to do, this we must notice.The interruption is not only a, sometimes existing jointly with the hour several inside break, break off to have the preferred Class, they will carry out the interruption of the higher Class according to person's request. This kind of breaks off the medium interruption to also became to break off the set. The Class that certainly break off is relevant according to various resources of CPU with internal PLC, also following a heap of capacity size of also relevant fasten.The contents that break off has a lot of kinds, for example the exterior break off, correspondence in of send out and accept the interruption and settle and the clock that count break off, still have the WDT to reset the interruption etc., they enriched the CPU to respond to the category while handle various business. Speak thus perhaps you can't comprehend the internal structure and operation orders of the interruption completely also, we do a very small example to explain.Each equipment always will not forget a button, it also is at we meet the urgent circumstance use of, which is nasty to stop the button. When we meet the Human body trouble and surprised circumstances we as long as press it, the machine stops all operations immediately, and wait for processing the over surprised empress recover the operation again. Nasty stop the internal I/ O of the internal CPU of the button conjunction PLC to connect up, be to press button an exterior to trigger signal for CPU, the CPU carries on to the I/ O to examine again, being to confirm to have the exterior to trigger the signal, CPU protection the spot breaks off procedure counts the machine turn the homologous exterior I/ O automatically in the procedure to go to also, be exterior interruption procedure processing complete, the procedure counts the machine to return the main procedure to continue to work. Have 1:00 can what to explain is we generally would nasty stop the button of exterior break off to rise to the tallest Class, thus guarantee the safety.When we are work a work piece, giving the PLC a signal, counting PLC inner part the machine add 1 to compute us for a day of workload, a count the machine and can solve problem in brief, certainly they also can keep the data under the condition of dropping the electricity, urging the data not to throw to lose, this is also what we hope earnestly.The PLC still has the function that the high class counts the machine, being us while accept some dates of high speed, the high speed that here say is the data of the in all aspects tiny second class, for example the bar code scanner is scanning the data continuously, calculating high-speed signal of the data processor DSP etc., we will adopt the high class to count the machine to help we carry on count. It at the PLC carries out the procedure once discover that the high class counts the machine to should of interruption, will let go of the work on the hand immediately. The trapezoid diagram procedure that passes by to weave the distance again explains the high class for us to carry out procedure to count machine would automatic performance to should of work, thus rise the Class that the high class counts the machine to high one Class.You heard too many this phrases perhaps:" crash", the meaning that is mostly is a workload of CPU to lead greatly, the internal resources shortage etc. the circumstance can't result in procedure circulate. The PLC also has the similar circumstance, there is a watchdog WDT in the inner part of PLC, we can establish time that a procedure of WDT circulate, being to appear the procedure to jump to turn the mistake in the procedure movement process or the procedure is busy, movement time of the procedure exceeds WDT constitution time, the CPU turn but the WDT reset the appearance. The procedure restarts the movement, but will not carry on the breakage to the interruption.The PLC development has already entered for network ages of correspondence from the mode of the one, and together other works control the net plank and I/ O card planks to carry on the share easily. A state software can pass all se hardwires link, more animation picture of keep the view to carries on the control, and cans pass the Internet to carry on the control in the foreign land, the blast-off that is like the absolute being boat No.5 is to adopt this kind of way to make airship go up the sky.The development of the higher layer needs our continuous effort to obtain. The PLC emergence has already affected a few persons fully, we also obtained more knowledge and precepts from the top one experience of the generation, coming to the continuous development PLC technique, push it toward higher wave tide.Knowing the available PLC network options and their best applications will ensure an efficient and flexible control system design.The programmable logic controller's (PLC's) ability to support a range of communication methods makes it an ideal control and data acquisition device for a wide variety of industrial automation and facility control applications. However, there is some confusion because so many possibilities exist. To help eliminate this confusion, let's list what communications are available and when they would be best applied.To understand the PLC's communications versatility, let's first define the terms used in describing the various systems.ASCII: This stands for "American Standard Code for Information Interchange." As shown in Fig. 1, when the letter "A" is transmitted, for instance, it's automatically coded as "65" by the sending equipment. The receiving equipment translates the "65" back to the letter "A." Thus, different devices can communicate with each other as long as both use ASCII code.ASCII module: This intelligent PLC module is used for connecting PLCs to other devices also capable of communicating using ASCII code as a vehicle.Bus topology: This is a linear local area network (LAN) arrangement, as shown in Fig. 2A, in which individual nodes are tapped into a main communications cable at a single point and broadcast messages. These messages travel in both directions on thebus from the point of connection until they are dissipated by terminators at each end of the bus.CPU: This stands for "central processing unit," which actually is that part of a computer, PLC, or other intelligent device where arithmetic and logical operations are performed and instructions are decoded and executed.Daisy chain: This is a description of the connection of individual devices in a PLC network, where, as shown in Fig. 3, each device is connected to the next and communications signals pass from one unit to the next in a sequential fashion.Distributed control: This is an automation concept in which portions of an automated system are controlled by separate controllers, which are located in close proximity to their area of direct control (control is decentralized and spread out over the system).Host computer: This is a computer that's used to transfer data to, or receive data from, a PLC in a PLC/computer network.Intelligent device: This term describes any device equipped with its own CPU.I/O: This stands for "inputs and outputs," which are modules that handle data to the PLC (inputs) or signals from the PLC (outputs) to an external device.Kbps: This stands for "thousand bits per second," which is a rate of measure for electronic data transfer.Mbps: This stands for "million bits per second."Node: This term is applied to any one of the positions or stations in a network. Each node incorporates a device that can communicate with all other devices on the network.Protocol: The definition of how data is arranged and coded for transmission on a network.Ring topology. This is a LAN arrangement, as shown in Fig. 2C, in which each node is connected to two other nodes, resulting in a continuous, closed, circular path or loop for messages to circulate, usually in one direction. Some ring topologies have a special "loop back" feature that allows them to continue functioning even if the main cable is severed.RS232. This is an IEEE standard for serial communications that describes specific wiring connections, voltage levels, and other operating parameters for electronic data communications. There also are several other RS standards defined.Serial: This is an electronic data transfer scheme in which information istransmitted one bit at a time.Serial port: This the communications access point on a device that is set up for serial communications.Star topology. This is a LAN arrangement in which, as shown in Fig. 2B, nodes are connected to one another through a central hub, which can be active or passive. An active hub performs network duties such as message routing and maintenance. A passive central hub simply passes the message along to all the nodes connected to it.Topology: This relates to a specific arrangement of nodes in a LAN in relation to one another.Transparent: This term describes automatic events or processes built into a system that require no special programming or prompting from an operator.Now that we're familiar with these terms, let's see how they are used in describing the available PLC network options.PLC network optionsPLC networks provide you with a variety of networking options to meet specific control and communications requirements. Typical options include remote I/O, peer-to-peer, and host computer communications, as well as LANs. These networks can provide reliable and cost-effective communications between as few as two or as many as several hundred PLCs, computers, and other intelligent devices.Many PLC vendors offer proprietary networking systems that are unique and will not communicate with another make of PLC. This is because of the different communications protocols, command sequences, error-checking schemes, and communications media used by each manufacturer.However, it is possible to make different PLCs "talk" to one another; what's required is an ASCII interface for the connection(s), along with considerable work with software.Remote I/0 systemsA remote I/O configuration, as shown in Fig. 4A, has the actual inputs and outputs at some distance from the controller and CPU. This type of system, which can be described as a "master-and-slave" configuration, allows many distant digital and analog points to be controlled by a single PLC. Typically, remote I/Os are connected to the CPU via twisted pair or fiber optic cables.Remote I/O configurations can be extremely cost-effective control solutions where only a few I/O points are needed in widely separated areas. In this situation, it's not always necessary, or practical for that matter, to have a controller at each site. Noris it practical to individually hard wire each I/O point over long distances back to the CPU. For example, remote I/O systems can be used in acquiring data from remote plant or facility locations. Information such as cycle times, counts, duration or events, etc. then can be sent back to the PLC for maintenance and management reporting.In a remote I/O configuration, the master controller polls the slaved I/O for its current I/O status. The remote I/O system responds, and the master PLC then signals the remote I/O to change the state of outputs as dictated by the control program in the PLC's memory. This entire cycle occurs hundreds of times per second.Peer-to-peer networksPeer-to-peer networks, as shown in Fig. 4B, enhance reliability by decentralizing the control functions without sacrificing coordinated control. In this type of network, numerous PLCs are connected to one another in a daisy-chain fashion, and a common memory table is duplicated in the memory of each. In this way, when any PLC writes data to this memory area, the information is automatically transferred to all other PLCs in the network. They then can use this information in their own operating programs.With peer-to-peer networks, each PLC in the network is responsible for its own control site and only needs to be programmed for its own area of responsibility. This aspect of the network significantly reduces programming and debugging complexity; because all communications occur transparently to the user, communications programming is reduced to simple read-and-write statements.In a peer-to-peer system, there's no master PLC. However, it's possible to designate one of the PLCs as a master for use as a type of group controller. This PLC then can be used to accept input information from an operator input terminal, for example, sending all the necessary parameters to other PLCs and coordinating the sequencing of various events.Host computer linksPLCs also can be connected with computers or other intelligent devices. In fact, most PLCs, from the small to the very large, can be directly connected to a computer or part of a multi drop host computer network via RS232C or RS422 ports. This combination of computer and controller maximizes the capabilities of the PLC, for control and data acquisition, as well as the computer, for data processing, documentation, and operator interface.In a PLC/computer network, as shown in Fig. 4C, all communications are initiated by the host computer, which is connected to all the PLCs in a daisy-chain fashion. This computer individually addresses each of its networked PLCs and asks for specific information. The addressed PLC then sends this information to the computer for storage and further analysis. This cycle occurs hundreds of times per second.Host computers also can aid in programming PLCs; powerful programming and documentation software is available for program development. Programs then can be written on the computer in relay ladder logic and downloaded into the PLC. In this way, you can create, modify, debug, and monitor PLC programs via a computer terminal.In addition to host computers, PLCs often must interface with other devices, such as operator interface terminals for large security and building management systems. Although many intelligent devices can communicate directly with PLCs via conventional RS232C ports and serial ASCII code, some don't have the software ability to interface with individual PLC models. Instead, they typically send and receive data in fixed formats. It's the PLC programmer's responsibility to provide the necessary software interface.The easiest way to provide such an interface to fixed-format intelligent devices is to use an ASCII/BASIC module on the PLC. This module is essentially a small computer that plugs into the bus of the PLC. Equipped with RS232 ports and programmed in BASIC, the module easily can handle ASCII communications with peripheral devices, data acquisition functions, programming sequences, "number crunching," report and display generation, and other requirements.Access, protocol, and modulation functions of LANsBy using standard interfaces and protocols, LANs allow a mix of devices (PLCs, PCs, mainframe computers, operator interface terminals, etc.) from many different vendors to communicate with others on the network.Access: A LAN's access method prevents the occurrence of more than one message on the network at a time. There are two common access methods.Collision detection is where the nodes "listen" to the network and transmit only if there are no other messages on the network. If two nodes transmit simultaneously, the collision is detected and both nodes retransmit until their messages get through properly.Token passing allows each node to transmit only if it's in possession of a special electronic message called a token. The token is passed from node to node, allowing each an opportunity to transmit without interference. Tokens usually have a time limit to prevent a single node from tying up the token for a long period of time.Protocol: Network protocols define the way messages are arranged and coded for transmission on the LAN. The following are two common types.Proprietary protocols are unique message arrangements and coding developed by a specific vendor for use with that vendor's product only.Open protocols are based on industry standards such as TCP/IP or ISO/OSI。

(完整word版)逆变器外文文献及翻译

Inverter1 IntroductionAn inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC); the converted AC can be at any required voltage and frequency with the use of appropriate transformers, switching, and control circuits.Solid-state inverters have no moving parts and are used in a wide range of applications, from small switching power supplies in computers, to large electric utility high-voltage direct current applications that transport bulk power. Inverters are commonly used to supply AC power from DC sources such as solar panels or batteries.There are two main types of inverter. The output of a modified sine wave inverter is similar to a square wave output except that the output goes to zero volts for a time before switching positive or negative. It is simple and low cost and is compatible with most electronic devices, except for sensitive or specialized equipment, for example certain laser printers. A pure sine wave inverter produces a nearly perfect sine wave output (<3% total harmonic distortion) that is essentially the same as utility-supplied grid power. Thus it is compatible with all AC electronic devices. This is the type used in grid-tie inverters. Its design is more complex, and costs 5 or 10 times more per unit power The electrical inverter is a high-power electronic oscillator. It is so named because early mechanical AC to DC converters were made to work in reverse, and thus were "inverted", to convert DC to AC.The inverter performs the opposite function of a rectifier.2 Applications2.1 DC power source utilizationAn inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as batteries, solar panels, or fuel cells to AC electricity. The electricity can be at any required voltage; in particular it can operate AC equipment designed for mains operation, or rectified to produce DC at any desired voltageGrid tie inverters can feed energy back into the distribution network because they produce alternating current with the same wave shape and frequency as supplied by the distribution system. They can also switch off automatically in the event of a blackout.Micro-inverters convert direct current from individual solar panels into alternating current for the electric grid. They are grid tie designs by default.2.2 Uninterruptible power suppliesAn uninterruptible power supply (UPS) uses batteries and an inverter to supply AC power when main power is not available. When main power is restored, a rectifier supplies DC power to recharge the batteries.2.3 Induction heatingInverters convert low frequency main AC power to a higher frequency for use in induction heating. To do this, AC power is first rectified to provide DC power. The inverter then changes the DC power to high frequency AC power.2.4 HVDC power transmissionWith HVDC power transmission, AC power is rectified and high voltage DC power is transmitted to another location. At the receiving location, an inverter in a static inverter plant converts the power back to AC.2.5 Variable-frequency drivesA variable-frequency drive controls the operating speed of an AC motor by controlling the frequency and voltage of the power supplied to the motor. An inverter provides the controlled power. In most cases, the variable-frequency drive includes a rectifier so that DC power for the inverter can be provided from main AC power. Since an inverter is the key component, variable-frequency drives are sometimes called inverter drives or just inverters.2.6 Electric vehicle drivesAdjustable speed motor control inverters are currently used to power the traction motors in some electric and diesel-electric rail vehicles as well as some battery electric vehicles and hybrid electric highway vehicles such as the Toyota Prius and Fisker Karma. Various improvements in inverter technology are being developed specifically for electric vehicle applications.[2] In vehicles with regenerative braking, the inverter also takes power from the motor (now acting as a generator) and stores it in the batteries.2.7 The general caseA transformer allows AC power to be converted to any desired voltage, but at the same frequency. Inverters, plus rectifiers for DC, can be designed to convert from any voltage, AC or DC, to any other voltage, also AC or DC, at any desired frequency. The output power can never exceed the input power, but efficiencies can be high, with a small proportion of the power dissipated as waste heat.3 Circuit description3.1 Basic designsIn one simple inverter circuit, DC power is connected to a transformer through the centre tap of the primary winding. A switch is rapidly switched back and forth to allowcurrent to flow back to the DC source following two alternate paths through one end of the primary winding and then the other. The alternation of the direction of current in the primary winding of the transformer produces alternating current (AC) in the secondary circuit.The electromechanical version of the switching device includes two stationary contacts and a spring supported moving contact. The spring holds the movable contact against one of the stationary contacts and an electromagnet pulls the movable contact to the opposite stationary contact. The current in the electromagnet is interrupted by the action of the switch so that the switch continually switches rapidly back and forth. This type of electromechanical inverter switch, called a vibrator or buzzer, was once used in vacuum tube automobile radios. A similar mechanism has been used in door bells, buzzers and tattoo guns.As they became available with adequate power ratings, transistors and various other types of semiconductor switches have been incorporated into inverter circuit designs 3.2 Output waveformsThe switch in the simple inverter described above, when not coupled to an output transformer, produces a square voltage waveform due to its simple off and on nature as opposed to the sinusoidal waveform that is the usual waveform of an AC power supply. Using Fourier analysis, periodic waveforms are represented as the sum of an infinite series of sine waves. The sine wave that has the same frequency as the original waveform is called the fundamental component. The other sine waves, called harmonics, that are included in the series have frequencies that are integral multiples of the fundamental frequency.The quality of output waveform that is needed from an inverter depends on thecharacteristics of the connected load. Some loads need a nearly perfect sine wave voltage supply in order to work properly. Other loads may work quite well with a square wave voltage.3.3 Three phase invertersThree-phase inverters are used for variable-frequency drive applications and for high power applications such as HVDC power transmission. A basic three-phase inverter consists of three single-phase inverter switches each connected to one of the three load terminals. For the most basic control scheme, the operation of the three switches is coordinated so that one switch operates at each 60 degree point of the fundamental output waveform. This creates a line-to-line output waveform that has six steps. The six-step waveform has a zero-voltage step between the positive and negative sections of the square-wave such that the harmonics that are multiples of three are eliminated as described above. When carrier-based PWM techniques are applied to six-step waveforms, the basic overall shape, or envelope, of the waveform is retained so that the 3rd harmonic and its multiples are cancelled4 History4.1 Early invertersFrom the late nineteenth century through the middle of the twentieth century, DC-to-AC power conversion was accomplished using rotary converters or motor-generator sets (M-G sets). In the early twentieth century, vacuum tubes and gas filled tubes began to be used as switches in inverter circuits. The most widely used type of tube was the thyratron.The origins of electromechanical inverters explain the source of the term inverter. Early AC-to-DC converters used an induction or synchronous AC motor direct-connected to a generator (dynamo) so that the generator's commutator reversed its connections atexactly the right moments to produce DC. A later development is the synchronous converter, in which the motor and generator windings are combined into one armature, with slip rings at one end and a commutator at the other and only one field frame. The result with either is AC-in, DC-out. With an M-G set, the DC can be considered to be separately generated from the AC; with a synchronous converter, in a certain sense it can be considered to be "mechanically rectified AC". Given the right auxiliary and control equipment, an M-G set or rotary converter can be "run backwards", converting DC to AC. Hence an inverter is an inverted converter.4.2 Controlled rectifier invertersSince early transistors were not available with sufficient voltage and current ratings for most inverter applications, it was the 1957 introduction of the thyristor or silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) that initiated the transition to solid state inverter circuits.The commutation requirements of SCRs are a key consideration in SCR circuit designs. SCRs do not turn off or commutate automatically when the gate control signal is shut off. They only turn off when the forward current is reduced to below the minimum holding current, which varies with each kind of SCR, through some external process. For SCRs connected to an AC power source, commutation occurs naturally every time the polarity of the source voltage reverses. SCRs connected to a DC power source usually require a means of forced commutation that forces the current to zero when commutation is required. The least complicated SCR circuits employ natural commutation rather than forced commutation. With the addition of forced commutation circuits, SCRs have been used in the types of inverter circuits describedIn applications where inverters transfer power from a DC power source to an AC above.power source, it is possible to use AC-to-DC controlled rectifier circuits operating in the inversion mode. In the inversion mode, a controlled rectifier circuit operates as a line commutated inverter. This type of operation can be used in HVDC power transmission systems and in regenerative braking operation of motor control systems.Another type of SCR inverter circuit is the current source input (CSI) inverter. A CSI inverter is the dual of a six-step voltage source inverter. With a current source inverter, the DC power supply is configured as a current source rather than a voltage source. The inverter SCRs are switched in a six-step sequence to direct the current to a three-phase AC load as a stepped current waveform. CSI inverter commutation methods include load commutation and parallel capacitor commutation. With both methods, the input current regulation assists the commutation. With load commutation, the load is a synchronous motor operated at a leading power factor. As they have become available in higher voltage and current ratings, semiconductors such as transistors or IGBTs that can be turned off by means of control signals have become the preferred switching components for use in inverter circuits.4.3 Rectifier and inverter pulse numbersRectifier circuits are often classified by the number of current pulses that flow to the DC side of the rectifier per cycle of AC input voltage. A single-phase half-wave rectifier is a one-pulse circuit and a single-phase full-wave rectifier is a two-pulse circuit. A three-phase half-wave rectifier is a three-pulse circuit and a three-phase full-wave rectifier is a six-pulse circuit。

英文文献全文翻译

英文文献全文翻译全文共四篇示例，供读者参考第一篇示例：English literature has a long and rich history, with countless works that have been translated into various languages around the world. From ancient epics like Beowulf and The Odyssey to modern classics like To Kill a Mockingbird and Harry Potter, English literature has captured the hearts and minds of readers for centuries.第二篇示例：The world of academic research is vast and ever-growing, with a wealth of knowledge and information being produced every day. One important aspect of this research is the publication of English-language academic articles. These articles cover a wide range of topics across various fields, from science and technology to social sciences and humanities.第三篇示例：English literature is a treasure trove of human culture and knowledge. The literary works of great writers from around theworld offer insights into the human experience, emotions, and imagination. Through the process of translation, these literary masterpieces are made accessible to a global audience, allowing people from different cultures and backgrounds to connect and appreciate the beauty of language and storytelling.第四篇示例：Abstract:Introduction:English literature holds a prominent position in the field of international academia, with a vast number of research articles, books, and journals being published in English. For researchers and scholars in non-English speaking countries, access to English literature is essential for staying up-to-date with the latest developments in their respective fields. However, understanding and interpreting English texts can present significant challenges due to linguistic, cultural, and contextual differences.Challenges in Translating English Literature:。

《外文文献翻译》word版

Influence of Design Parameters on cogging Torque inDirectly Driven Permanent Magnet Synchronous WindGenerators影响设计参数对齿槽扭矩直驱永磁同步风力发电机摘要：为了降低齿槽转矩。

本文研究的影响，一些参数对齿槽转矩由直驱永磁同步风力发电机。

基于剩余磁通密度，英齿槽转矩的计算采用有限元方法。

结果表明，许多参数影响齿槽转矩和槽极数组合有重大影响齿槽转矩。

一个简单的因素，介绍了显示效果该槽极数组合。

一些实践经验降低齿槽转矩应用于2兆瓦的三阶段永磁同步发电机在额左转速37. 5转风能转换。

仿真和实验结果验证效果的方法。

关键词：齿槽转矩，永磁，同步发电机，电机设计1.简介在传统的风力发电系统中的风力机必须连接到发电机的变速箱。

变速箱的存在将遭受机械故障和噪声。

在风能转换系统中为了避免怎期维护和补充损失的变速箱，低速直驱永磁同步发电机使用［1, 2］。

不幸的是，由于磁场结构的空间周期，在某些情况卜-齿槽转矩可能会出现。

齿槽转矩可导致机械共振，振动，噪声，和损坏传动部件［3］。

在风力发电系统中可以通过提髙接入风力发电机的速度，从而降低系统的效率。

考虑到获得动力取决于第三个风力涡轮速度，也就是齿槽转矩，还应该适当的设计成1.5% - 2. 5%的额眾转矩［4］。

永磁电机的电磁性能是髙度依赖于每极槽数的数量和相位，磁体的形状，左子槽和槽开放和倾斜角度, 以及设计特点等辅助齿和槽［5］。

在本文中降低齿槽转矩的一些实践经验将主要是基于2兆瓦的三相永磁同步能量转换的风力发电机。

影响的槽极数组合对齿槽转矩的影响，及苴与其他各种设计参数以及设计特点等辅助齿和槽的考虑。

2. 转矩的理论依据和齿槽转矩分析表而式永磁同步发电机的几何形状的是本文讨论的重点。

众所周知，齿槽转矩的产生是通过互动重组和有槽电枢相互的结果之间产生的。

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资产重估或减值准备：了解占固定资产在Release 12布赖恩·刘易斯eprentise介绍显著的变化在财务报告的要求已经改变的固定资产核算框架公司。

国际财务报告准则（IFRS）要求的固定资产进行初步按成本入账，但有两种会计模式-成本模式计量的重估模式。

那么，有什么区别，当你应该考虑升值与减值？没有R12带给固定资产哪些重要变化？国际财务报告准则和美国公认会计准则报告的甲骨文®电子商务套件但很显然，美国证券交易委员会（SEC）将不会要求美国公司使用国际财务报告准则在不久的将来，大多数玩家在资本市场倾向于认为它是不可避免的，将国际财务报告准则最终成为美国的财务报告环境的更显著的部分。

这实际上是对发生的程度，超过400基于在美国以外的全球企业都被允许提交美国证券交易所（SEC）的财务报告（10K和10Q -通常被称为年度/季度财务报告）。

为海外谁也不在美国的证券交易委员会提交的公司，国际财务报告准则正在成为金融世界标准报告。

对于谁住在多个资本市场运作的公司，有可能实际上是一个双重报告要求国际财务报告准则和美国公认会计原则（公认会计原则）的财务报表。

与11i版，随后与12版时，Ora cle®电子商务套件（EBS）添加功能让用户生活在两个国际财务报告准则和美国公认会计准则的世界。

这两个报告之间的差异框架是广泛的，但对于本白皮书的目的，我们将专注于固定资产中核算EBS -特别是资产重估或减值。

根据美国公认会计准则，固定资产乃按历史成本，然后以折旧出售或剩余价值。

如果有某些迹象表明固定资产的变现价值造成负面改变，则该资产写下来，损失记录。

这被称为减值。

根据国际财务报告准则，财务报表发行人有权选择成本模式（这是大多数方面的选项类似美国公认会计原则机型）或重估模式（其中有没有下的并行报告美国公认会计原则）。

根据重估模式，固定资产可定期写入，以反映公平市场价值-这是专门美国公认会计原则和美国证券交易委员会的权威所禁止的东西。

本白皮书的平衡都将与美国公认会计原则下，专注于固定资产重估及减值国际财务报告准则。

在此之前潜水深入到这个问题，它通过R12的与固定的新特性列表来运行是非常有用的资产。

在12版的新功能和变更功能的固定资产神谕®电子商务套件（EBS）R12有许多有用的新功能，其中许多以固定发了言资产，包括：•明细分类账会计（SLA）的体系结构- Oracle资产管理系统完全与SLA 集成，允许为一个单一的交易或商业活动的多个会计交涉。

•自动准备成批增加的-默认规则和公共应用程序编程接口（API），这些可以被用来自动地完成质量附加系的制备。

•使用XML Publisher灵活的报告-十三定制新的资产报告。

•自动回滚折旧-回滚可以根据需要对整个资产上选择资产被执行书，它不再需要手动运行。

•增强的功能为能源行业。

•退休和重估，现在除了期间允许的。

这些新增的诸多好处，包括流程的效率，灵活的会计和报告以及行业增强功能。

因收购或资产剥离的角度来看，传统系统从不同的标准转换如美国公认会计准则和国际财务报告准则予以特别处理。

因此，如何在美国公认会计准则和国际财务报告准则相同，在哪里处理固定资产时，他们有什么区别？比较国际财务报告准则和美国公认会计准则的企业合并/固定资产会计下表载列收购后，总结并比较固定资产美国公认会计准则和国际财务报告准则的要求。

美国公认会计原则国际财务报告准则折旧同同重估被禁止宠物/创建重估盈余折旧重估后N / A宠物减值直接写下来写下来，以重估盈余第一，然后直接写出美国公认会计原则是侧重于P＆L（损益）为财务保守的以规则为基础的会计准则使用的实体的所有者（或股东），而国际财务报告准则更多的是侧重一种以原则为基础的会计准则在资产负债表主要用于实体债权人。

美国公认会计准则和国际财务报告准则之间固定资产显著差异的重估，重估领域所有这些盈余，如前所述减值，定义如下：固定资产的重估-一家公司的资产重估考虑到通胀或公允价值变动由于资产购买或收购。

必须有说服力的证据升值。

在值的变化是计入重估盈余（储备）账户。

向下的重估被视为减值。

重估盈余（储备） -该固定资产的价值，由于固定资产重估增加计入重估盈余（储备）。

当如图资产的可变现价值，发生固定资产减值-固定资产减值资产负债表，超过了其实际价值（公允价值）给该公司。

当发生减值，企业必须降低其价值在资产负债表，并承认损失在损益表中。

有没有因为不断变化的情况重估或向上调整值。

这是相似的模式目前在美国公认会计准则的使用。

例子ACME公司购买了价值20万元的建设2008年1月1日。

它使用下面的记录的建设日记帐分录：建筑200,000现金200,000该大楼有20年的使用寿命，并在这个例子中，公司采用直线法折旧。

每年折旧为20万元/ 20年，或者1万美元。

累计折旧截至2010年12月31日，为10,000元* 3或3万元，与账面值20万元减3万元，相当于170000美元。

我们看到，该建筑仍保持其历史成本，并定期折旧，没有其他上升调整值。

如果资产随后被看重的归结于减值，损失计入当期声明为减值损失。

重估模型在重估模式，资产最初以成本入账，但其后其账面值会增加考虑到升值价值。

成本模式和重估模式之间的区别在于，重估模式允许在资产价值向下和向上调整，而成本模型允许只有向下调整，由于减值亏损。

这是目前采用的国际财务报告准则的模型。

例子考虑的Acme公司在成本模型中使用的例子。

假设2010年12月31日，该公司打算切换到重估模型，并进行其估计的公允价值重估运动建设为190,000元（再次，2010年12月31日）。

在当日的账面价值为$ 170,000重估金额为$ 190,000因此是必需的大楼帐户20,000元向上调整。

它是通过记录以下日记帐分录：建筑20,000重估盈余20,000重估盈余升值不被认为是正常的收益，而不是记录在损益表中，而是直接计入称为重估盈余权益账。

重估盈余持有的全部向上重估公司的资产，直到这些资产被出售。

在Acme的有限公司，折旧的情况下，2011年是由剩余使用年限，或190000美元/ 17等于11176美元划分新的账面值。

重估回拨如果重估资产随后被看重的归结于减值损失首先冲减任何余额在重估盈余可用。

如果损失超过同一资产的重估盈余平衡差额计入利润表的减值损失。

例子假设2012年12月31日，公司尖端的重新估值建设再次发现，公允价值应为16万元。

账面值于2012年12月31日，是190000美元减去22352美元2年折旧这相当于167648美元。

账面值由7648美元超过公允价值，因此帐户余额应该由量减少。

我们已经有20,000元在与同一建筑物的重估盈余帐户余额，所以没有减值亏损会在收益表。

日记帐分录为：重估盈余7,648大厦的账户7,648曾经的公允价值是$ 140,000超过公允价值超过账面值会一直27648美元。

在这种情况下，以下日记帐分录将被要求：重估盈余20,000资产减值损失7,648建筑20,000累计减值亏损7,648涨幅建筑价值300,000重估盈余20,000EBS注意事项重估模式在EBS中，您可以重估所有类别的固定资产的书，所有资产类别，或者只是个别资产。

重估在一本书的所有类别或所有资产类别中被认为是“大众重估” -也就是说，你可以重估资产集体。

个别重估资产的影响对资产按资产基础。

如果您选择允许重估，您必须指定您的重估规则-特别是，你是否会允许EBS为“[R] evalue的积累折旧。

如果不重估累计折旧，则Oracle资产转让累计折旧重估储备账。

•输入您要升值类别•进入升值百分比率重估资产。

输入一个正数或负数。

•如果需要覆盖默认的重估规则。

•选择预览（注：必须预览之前，EBS将让你继续）•如果预览后，您需要进行更改，编辑重估规则或百分比。

•发现使用大众交易号码重估的定义。

•选择运行。

Oracle资产管理系统开始一个并发进程执行的重估。

•复查请求完成后的日志文件。

重估个别资产：•输入您希望人民币升值的一个类别，而不是资产编号。

重估功能并不是对固定资产重估根据购买会计规则混乱的一个领域，我们已经遇到过好几次是是否的资产重估功能Oracle的EBS可以用来升值已收购公司的资产。

根据财务会计准则第141（R）和国际财务报告准则第3号业务合并，公司必须重估其资产，以公允价值于收购日期。

这是强制性的必须递交周年所有公司报告与SEC或卷起成美国证券交易委员会报告的公司。

对我们而言，这意味着几乎每个人。

这同样适用于国际财务报告准则报告的公司。

它曾经是，企业可以利用的利益汇集在那里可能只是离开固定资产被收购公司的账目，用于开发成本，累计折旧，并日期在役。

这不再是允许的。

因为根据美国公认会计原则和国际财务报告准则有没有这样的事，作为一个“合并”，总会有一家公司确定为所获取的。

对于这家公司，所有固定资产需要（1）重列，以公允价值之日采集;（2）已在服务之日起经重列至收购日期，以及（3）具有累计折旧归零。

如果一家公司能支持论点，即扣除累计折旧，成本是重大的同公允价值，被收购的公司可能会做，但净值必须迁移到原来的成本领域，累计折旧归零，并在服务日期仍复位至收购日期。

如果公司是重申对公允价值不能使用净额结算方法，然后一些新的公允价值，必须为每个做固定资产。

甲骨文质量重估（OMR）功能将无法为这些类型重估的工作，为下原因：1。

放置在服务之日起必须改变，以业务合并日期- OMR不支持这个。

2。

OMR质量和类别重估将不会容纳扣除累计折旧或装载多个非比例确定的公允价值重述。

3。

个人资产重估是不切实际的大量资产，也不能容纳扣除累计折旧或重新投入使用的日期。