English as a Second Language - Pine-Richland High School

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unit-2--English-A-Global-Language

Unit 2 English: A Global LanguageTEACHER: Today’s topic is English as a global language. I know many of you speak English as a second language, right How about you, Hiroshi Is English your first languageSTUDENT 1: No, my first language is Japanese. English is my second language. TEACHER: And how about you, PatriciaSTUDENT 2: English is my second language, too. My first language is Spanish. TEACHER: See, many of you use English as a second language, even as a global language to communicate with other people who speak English as a second language. Today, I want to give you two contrasting points of view on whether or not English is a global language. The first is that English is obviously a global language. People who support this point of view believe English is the language people all over the world use to communicate, and that it is gradually replacing other languages. The second point of view is that English is not truly a global language, because it is not the main language spoken by most people worldwide. Supporters of this view say that even though many people speak some English worldwide, English has not replaced other languages. They acknowledge that people use English every day, for many reasons, but this doesn’t mean English is replacing other languages, nor does it make English the main language spoken in the world.First, let’s examine the first view. First of all, English is the dominant language of business, travel, and science. When people need a common language, they often use English. Think about it. English is often used at tourist information centers, in international hotels, at airports. If you use a taxi in Rome, and you can’t speak Italian, the taxi driver is more likely to use English than any other languages. It is used at business meetings and international sports events. The European Union uses English, along with French, at its meetings. .... ASEAN, the Asian trade group, uses English at its meetings. Can you think of other situations in which English is used as a common languageSTUDENT 2: How about this class All of us are listening to you in English. TEACHER: Absolutely. Educational settings are a great example. Any others STUDENT 2: How about a chat room on the Internet I sometimes go to chat rooms and everyone is using English.TEACHER: Excellent example. The Internet has created a lot of international communities and people often use English. In fact, most people who use the Internet know English. This helps support the view that English is a global language.,The second major reason that people believe English is a global language is that it is the official language of more than seventy-five countries. This means these countries use English in schools, banks, business, and government. Of these seventy-five countries, English may be the only official language of the country, like in England, or English may be used along with other official languages, like in the Philippines, Singapore, and India. In countries like India, where so manylanguages are spoken, you can see how using English as an official language makes it easier for people to communicate.The third reason to support the global argument is that every year about 1 billion people study English. Why What are some of the reasons Hiroshi How about youSTUDENT 1: Well, now to study, and someday I want to be in international business. TEACHER: That’s a solid reason. How about you, OksanaSTUDENT 3: I’m not really sure. I just think it will help me in the future somehow. TEACHER: OK, There’s a more general reason. The point is, people want and need to learn English because it offers them opportunities.To sum up, English is used every day by many people. People all over the world come in contact with each other for many reasons. They need a common language, a language to facilitate communication. Being proficient in English gives someone an advantage in these situations.OK. I have given you many examples of how English is used in a variety of situations. Nevertheless, does this mean that English is a global languageLet’s look at why some people don’t believe English has replaced other languages. First, there are about three times as many people who speak Chinese as their first language as those who speak English as a first language. And in many countries where some people use English for work each day, they don’t use English anywhere else. Even in English-speaking countries, there are millions of people who prefer to speak a language other than English at home, with friends, or at work.Second, I mentioned before that seventy-five countries have English as their official language. This doesn’t mean all, or even most of the people in these countries can speak English. For example, in India, most sources agree that only about 5 percent of the population speaks English. That’s a small percentage!…Third, how much English does a person need to know to be called an English speaker People may learn some English for specific situations, such as the taxi driver I mentioned earlier. However, I think you would all agree with me that a taxi driver who knows a few phrases like “Where are you going” or “What is the name of your hotel” isn’t really a proficient English speaker. Another example is Airspeak, the English that is used by air traffic controllers and pilots. A pilot for Japan Airlines or an air traffic controller in Paris needs to know Airspeak. But they may learn only the English words they need for these jobs, and therefore they can’t be considered English speakers.The point here is that people all over the world may use some English for work or other situations. Nevertheless, this doesn’t mean they are fluent in English. They still use their first language for daily communication. English is not their main language.So, what does this all mean I think it’s safe to say that English will continue to be the main language used in many international settings because, as I said earlier, people all over the world need a common language. And, for now, English is that language.But, English won’t replace other languages for most daily communication and this, to me, is what a global language really is, one that replaces others for most everyday communication. Some people are afraid of this. They worry that as people use English more and more, their ability in their first language will decline. I think people will use English along with other languages. We are moving into a global culture, and as this continues, I think people from non-English speaking countries will want to maintain their culture, including their first language. They may still want to learn English, but I don’t see them giving up their own language for English. What do you thinkI’m going to stop there. I know that’s a lot of information to digest. We’ll continue talking about some of the differences in the English words used in various countries like Australia, Singapore, and the Philippines. That’s all for today. Come see me if you have any questions.。

Lecture 11 American English

By 1732 the original thirteen English colonies had been set up. The language the early immigrants brought with them was Elizabethan English, the language spoken by Shakespeare, Milton and Bunyan, which belonged to the early stage of Modern English.
Lecture 11
4
11.1 English as an international
language
Users of English
English as a native language: Britain, the United States, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the West Indies and South Africa.
American English or British English?
Lecture 11
2
Questions
What is American English? Is it American English or British English we are speaking as
non-native speakers? Is there essential difference between British English and
Lecture 11511.1 English as an international language
Varieties of English

Teaching English as a Second Language

EBSCO Research Starters ®• Copyright © 2008 EBSCO Publishing Inc. • All Rights ReservedTeaching English as a Second Language English as a Second Language > Teaching English as a Second LanguageAbstract English as a Second Language (ESL) is defined as the formal instruction of English to those (usually immigrants, interna -tional students or refugees) whose native language is not English but who live in an English speaking country. Through instruc -tion in reading, writing, speaking and listening, ESL provides the necessary communication skills to help nonnative speakers enroll in school, obtain employment and function effectively in the host country. Common instructional methods are the silent way technique, total physical response, scaffolding, the direct approach, the whole language approach, and the interactive stu -dent centered approach. Among the unresolved issues in the ESL community are inclusion, mainstreaming, and separation.Overview Recent patterns of economic globalization and significant demo -graphic shifts in the United States have created a pressing need for viable English proficiency programs. The current trends suggest that one of the largest growing groups in this country is people who speak English as a second language. The ESL population among students K-12 in the United States grew 138% between 1979-1999 and currently, one out of every five students speaks a language other than English at home (Coppola, 2005). By the year 2020 it is predicted that 50% of school-aged children will be of non-Euro-American background (Harper & de Jong, 2004).In response to this growing cultural and linguistic incongruity, sev -eral different English instructional programs were implemented in public and private academic institutions in the United States and abroad. One of the most effective and widely used methods of English fluency is known as ESL or English as a Second Language. Since the Elementary and Secondary Act of 1965 public schools in the United States have been required to offer ESL programs in any school that has LEP (Limited English Proficiency) students. Currently, there are more than four million children in the United States who require some type of ESL instruction.English as a Second Language (ESL) is defined as the formal instruction of English to those (usually immigrants, international students or refugees) whose native language is not English but who live in an English speaking country. Through instruction in reading, writing, speaking and listening, ESL provides the neces -sary communication skills to help nonnative speakers enroll in school, obtain employment and function effectively in the hostcountry. During ESL training English is the target language and medium of communication.ESL is just one of the many English instructional methods used around the world. Other systems include EFL (English as a Foreign Language), ESP (English for Special Purposes), EIL (English as an International Language), EAP (English for Academic Purposes), ENL (English as a New Language), and ELL (English Language Learners). The term ESL is mainly used in the U.S., Canada and Australia; while New Zealand, England, and Ireland refer to the practice as ESOL or English for Speakers of other Languages. Although the genesis of non-native English instruction can be traced back to the early 1700’s, ESL was not formally recog-nized as a credible pedagogy until the middle of the 20th century. The landmark Brown v. Board of Education (1954) paved the way for several legislative and judicial actions that bolstered the legitimacy and application of ESL such as The National Defense Education Act of 1958, The Bilingual Act of 1968 (Title VII), The Equal Educational Opportunities Act of 1974, Lau v. Nich-ols (1974), Castaneda vs. Pichard (1981), Doe vs. Plyler (1982) and the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001.The development of ESL in the twentieth century was also greatly influenced by the creation of TESOL in 1966. TESOL or Teach-ers of English to Speakers Other Than English is a professional organization of more than 13,500 members from 140 countries dedicated to ensuring excellence in English instruction to speak-ers of other languages. One of TESOL’s fundamental goals is to address “the need for a professional organization that would be permanently devoted to the problems of teaching English to speakers of other languages at all levels” (TESOL, 2006).In order to obtain a position as an ESL instructor in the United States, students are required to complete a B.A. program in a related linguistic field and an M.A. in TESOL (Teaching of Eng-lish to Speakers Other Than English). Moreover, all students must obtain individual state licensing by completing mandatory field work through student teaching. The TESOL degree quali-fies individuals to teach both ESL and EFL (English as a Foreign Language) courses abroad.The student population of ESL can be divided into two groups based on linguistic needs: LEP and NES. LEP or Limited English Proficient refers to non-native English speakers who have diffi-culty writing, speaking and reading English. There are currently at least 3.5 million LEP children enrolled in U.S. schools who require various levels of ESL instruction (Miller & Endo 2004). NES or Non-English Speaking students do not speak or understand English and may even lack literacy skills in their native language (which further complicates the quest for English fluency).At the college and university level, students are tested for English language fluency prior to admission. The TOEFL or Test of English as a Foreign Language measures linguistic competence of non-native speakers of English by measuring reading, writing, speaking and listening skills. Due to the growing demand for the test (more than 800,000 annually), TOEFL is now accessible via the Internet as an online exam. Student who fail the TOEFL are advised to com-plete specific ESL programs based on individual need. Although ESL has advanced as an academic discipline, many public and private schools currently lack the resources and pro-grams to adequately respond to the growing population of LEP and NES students. In fact many schools don’t even have ESL programs to offer. The dearth of viable ESL curricula can also be attributed to the recent increase of anti-immigrant attitudes and resentment toward preferential treatment for minority groups (Hafernik, Messerschmitt & Vandrick, 1996).ApplicationsThis section outlines how ESL is being implemented as an instructional method by reviewing ESL theory, target audiences and teaching pedagogy.Most ESL curricula in the United States offer various levels of study in five fundamental areas: reading, writing, grammar,EBSCO Research Starters® • Copyright © 2008 EBSCO Publishing Inc. • All Rights Reserved Page 2speaking/conversation, and listening. ESL models differ from other English developmental programs by using only the L2 (the target language) in the classroom. The goal is to provide stu-dents the fundamental skills needed to complete the traditional all-English curriculum without relying on the L1 (the primary or native language). Some criticize this pedagogy as exclusive and argue that L1 development and fluency is necessary in order to acquire the L2, as is practiced in Bilingual Education.Due to the diverse nature of the ESL population, the instruc-tor must consider several factors about the students in the group before considering a methodology.Age• : Linguists argue that older students have moredifficulty assuming a second language and childrenunder 12 learn languages faster than older students.Native Language• : The instructor must consider thefluency level of the original language and the L1’sphonological and syntactical proximity to English.L1 Literacy Level of Parents• : Research suggeststhat if a parent is illiterate in their L1 there is a greaterchance that the student will have a more difficult timelearning the L2.Reason for Immigrating• : Understanding the variousmotives for immigrating helps to address personal is-sues that may arise in the classroom.Common strategies that have developed in K-12 and college ESL instruction include previewing (instructor reads the sec-tions aloud before the students read), shared and paired reading, books with tapes, multicultural literature, interactive writing, theme-based instruction, reading aloud and storytelling. All of these methods allow students to hear and apply the appropriate phonological and syntactic representations of the language. Other ESL teaching methods include, but are not limited to: The Silent Way TechniqueThis method rests on the assumption that L2 learners must visu-ally and cognitively discover meaning rather than merely repeating linguistic concepts. The teacher is often ‘silent’ in order to allow the students to produce as much language as possible. The only utterances from the instructor are the model forms of each con-cept and the introduction of the visual/physical representation of each concept. This approach allows the instructor to evaluate what the students say, which creates a switch from the lone voice of the teacher using the foreign language to a number of voices using it. Total Physical ResponseThis method involves the teacher giving out commands while the students react physically, instead of verbally, to each directive. The method is focused on trying to develop comprehension before pronunciation and conversation (semantics before phonology and syntax). Since students are not obligated to orally repeat a concept, they are less apprehensive and focus more on understanding the concept through the use of their kinesthetic sensory system. ScaffoldingDuring this assisted performance pedagogy, the teacher focuses on helping the students to know ‘how to do’. Scaffolding involves two main components: (1) the learner solves or works out a task with the educator’s assistance and (2) the student receives a higher level of ‘independent competence’ as a result of the successful completion of the task. The teacher gradually hands knowledge as well as learning control over to the learner through a series of ‘interactional scaffolding’. This collaborative method is used to help students understand concepts that are just beyond their linguistic grasp. The teacher provides assistance to the student until it is no longer needed.The Direct ApproachIn this approach, the instructor begins each class by outlining a dialogue or narrative in the L2. Several questions are then pre-sented to the students regarding specific elements of the opening example. Linguistic assessments of grammar and phonology are made by the instructor during the discourse.Whole Language ApproachWhole Language (WL) learning places the emphasis on the interaction/discourse rather than learning specific skills through six principles: learning starts from whole to part, sessions are student-centered, lessons have meaningful outcomes for learn-ers, learner emerges from group discourse, during L2 education speaking and writing can be learned simultaneously, learning through L1 helps to develop the L2, and the acquisition of L2 is also facilitated by having faith in the learner.Interactive Student Centered ApproachThis pedagogy uses cooperative group learning, visual cues, and hands-on activities with emphasis on the content of the lesson rather than merely repeating directions. The instructor focuses on the individual needs of students and uses their cultural heri-tage during class discussions in practical ways.For children in ESL, instructors often use many of the aforemen-tioned techniques as well as choral readings (students reciting passages together that are read from the instructor), manipula-tives (items and interactive activities that allow students to learn using all of their senses), and brainstorming (when students pool their knowledge about a specific subject).ViewpointsA significant point of contention within the ESL community involves the correct learning environment for the ESL learner. Research and practice point to six different positions/solutions for effective ESL placement: bilingual separation, separation by ESL pull-out, the self-enclosed classroom, sheltered English, inclusion and mainstreaming.Bilingual SeparationThe instructional objectives for bilingual education differ signifi-cantly from mainstream students. Separation through a bilingual model assumes that a student must first be fluent or well versed in L1 in order to begin to develop L2. Thus, two languages are used during the lesson so students can continue to refine L1 while they simultaneously acquire the basics of L2. However, critics argue that the method delays the acquisition of English and is limited in linguistically diverse communities.In 1998 California residents expressed dissatisfaction with bilin-gual programs by voting overwhelmingly for Proposition 227 which restructured bilingual education programs by emphasiz-ing more mainstream interaction and L2 learning.Self-Enclosed ESL ClassroomHere students are separated from the native speakers in the school and study a curriculum focused on L2 acquisition through L2 instruction and training.Separation Through ESL Pull-OutIn this placement, students are removed from the classroom for 1-2 periods for specific ESL instruction in small groups. For the rest of the day the ESL learners are mainstreamed with native L2 speakers in a traditional classroom setting. Separation through ESL pull-out allows the ESL learner to assimilate and adapt while still being treated as a unique population with special needs. Sheltered English ClassesSheltered English classes assist with the transition from ESL to mainstream curriculum by reviewing the same content as a traditional classes but in a way that relates directly to the spe-cial linguistic needs of the ESL learner (such as simplification, participatory activities and contextualization). Sheltered or ‘lin-guistically enhanced’ courses are designed to make traditional mainstream classes more obtainable for the ESL population. InclusionInclusion placement occurs when ESL students are mainstreamed into a traditional classroom while receiving specialized learn-ing assistance from a bilingual specialist, electronic device or increased work time. Inclusion teachers do not treat the ESL population as different learners. Advocates note that inclusion allows ESL learners to engage in meaningful discourse with native English speakers. However, many express concern over the poor performance of ESL students in inclusion classes and question if these students get adequate instruction and assessment. MainstreamingThe final method involves serving students with special linguistic needs entirely within a native English speaking population. There is no separation of students based on language proficiency, no pull-out and no ‘inconspicuous’ assistance. Proponents of main-streaming believe that English is learned by focusing on content and proper form. However, an abundance of research demonstrates that ESL students in mainstream classes have problems with note-taking, reading comprehension and writing which leads to poor academic performance and decreased self-esteem.Terms & ConceptsBilingual Act of 1968 (Title VII): first legislation to provide federal funds to help develop programs for ESL students. Bilingualism: the process of teaching a L2 by using the L1 language of the learner. The student continues to develop the L1 while simultaneously acquiring the L2.English as a Foreign Language (EFL): English as a Foreign Language is the instruction of English to non-native speakers living in a non-English region.English as a Second Language (ESL): English as a Second Language is the instruction of English (writing, reading, speaking, and listening), to non-native speakers (usually immi-grants, foreign students and refugees), who need to acquire the language in order to function in an English-speaking region. Inclusion: ESL students are mainstreamed into a traditional classroom while receiving specialized learning assistance such as a bilingual specialist, electronic device or increased work time.L1: The primary or native language.L2: The target or desired language.Lau v. Nichols: U.S. Supreme Court Decision (1974) found that giving non-native students the same materials as native students does not fit the definition of equal access to education. LEP: Limited English Proficient usually refers to nonnative English speakers who have difficulty writing, speaking and reading English.Mainstreaming: When students are not separated based on linguistic competence. ESL students are placed in classrooms with native English speakers learning the same traditional cur-riculum.TESOL: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages is a global professional organization formed in 1966 to address issues of ESL instruction at all levels of education. TOEFL: Test of English as a Foreign Language. Non-native speakers in many English-speaking colleges and universities are required to take exam prior to entry in a degree program. Test measures competency in writing, reading, speaking and grammarBibliographyBelcher, D. (2006). English for specific purposes: Teaching to perceived needs and imagined futures in worlds of work, study, and everyday life. TESOL Quarterly, 40(1), 133-156. Retrieved November 20, 2006 from EBSCO OnlineDatabase Educational Research Complete. http://search./login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=203 32747&site=ehost-liveBlack, S. (2005). Easing ESL students into learning English well. Education Digest, 71(1), 36-38. Retrieved November 20, 2006 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. /login.aspx?direct=tru e&db=aph&AN=18260449&site=ehost-liveCase, R. E. & Taylor, S. S. (2005). Language difference or learning disability? Answers from a linguistic perspec-tive. Language Difficulties, 78(3), 127-130. RetrievedNovember 20, 2006 from EBSCO Online DatabaseAcademic Search Premier. /login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=15931651&site=ehost-liveCoppola, J. (2005). English language learners: Language and literacy development during the preschool years. Journal of the New England Reading Association, 41(2), 18-23.Retrieved November 20, 2006 from EBSCO OnlineDatabase Academic Search Premier, http://search.ebsco-/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=19679406 &site=ehost-liveCrawford, J. (1998). Best evidence for bilingual education.Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 41(7), 59-64.Retrieved November 20, 2006 from EBSCO OnlineDatabase Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebsco-/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=438040& site=ehost-liveCurtin, E. (2005). Instructional styles used by regular class-room teachers while teaching recently mainstreamed ESL students. Multicultural Education, 12(4), 36-42. Retrieved November 20, 2006 from EBSCO Online DatabaseEducation Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=17271059&sit e=ehost-liveDrucker, M. J. (2003). What reading teachers should know about ESL learners. The Reading Teacher, 57(1), 22-29.Retrieved on November 20, 2006 from EBSCO OnlineDatabase Humanities International Complete. http:///login.aspx?direct=true&db=hlh&A N=10804072&site=ehost-liveGlencoe/McGraw Hill. (2005). Teaching limited English pro-ficiency students. Retrieved November 29, 2007, fromTeaching Today /sec/teachingto-day/educationupclose.phtml/24Greenburg, C. (1997). Teaching pronunciation through prob-lem posing. College ESL, 7(1), 62-71.Hafernik, J.J., Messerschmitt, D., & Vandrick, S. (1996). ESL in the Academy today. Education, 166(3), 403. Retrieved on November 20, 2006 from EBSCO Online DatabaseAcademic Search Premier. /login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9606053790&site= ehost-liveHarper, C. & de Jong, E. (2004). Misconceptions about teach-ing English-language learners. Journal of Adolescent &Adult Literacy, 48(2), 152-162. Retrieved on November20, 2006 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. /login.aspx?direct=tru e&db=aph&AN=14694597&site=ehost-liveHirsch, L. (1996). Mainstreaming ESL students: A counterin-tuitive perspective. College ESL, 6(2), 12-26.Kamhi-Stein, L. (1997). Redesigning the writing assignment in general education courses. College ESL, 7(1), 49-62. Ko, J., Schallert, D. & Walters, K. (2003). Rethinking scaffold-ing: Examining negotiation of meaning in an ESL story-telling task. TESOL Quarterly, 37(2), 303-324. Retrieved November 20, 2006 from EBSCO Online DatabaseEducational Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=19254684&sit e=ehost-liveLapp, D. & Flood, J. (1994). Are we communicating?Effective instruction for students who are learningEnglish as a second language. The Reading Teacher,48(3), 260-264. Retrieved November 20, 2006 fromEBSCO Online Database Humanities InternationalComplete. /login.aspx?direct=t rue&db=hlh&AN=9411182295&site=ehost-live Matsuda, A. (2003). Incorporating world Englishes in teaching English as an international language. TESOL Quarterly,37(3), 719-729. Retrieved November 20, 2006 fromEBSCO Online Database Educational Research Complete./login.aspx?direct=true&db=e hh&AN=19254667&site=ehost-liveMiller, P. C. & Endo, H. (2004). Understanding and meeting the needs of ESL students. Phi Delta Kappan, 85(10), 786-79. Retrieved on November 20, 2006 from EBSCO OnlineDatabase Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebsco-/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=13292499 &site=ehost-liveNero, S. J. (2005). Language, identities, and ESL pedagogy.Language and Education, 19(3), 194-207. Retrievedon November 20, 2006 from EBSCO Online DatabaseAcademic Search Premier. /login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=17599905&site=eh ost-livePlatt, E., Harper, C. & Mendoza, M. (2003). Dueling phi-losophies: Inclusion or separation for Florida’s Englishlanguage learners? TESOL Quarterly, 37(1), 105-133.Retrieved November 20, 2006 from EBSCO OnlineDatabase Educational Research Complete. http://search./login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=191 55634&site=ehost-liveProgram in Bilingual Education and English as a Second Language. (2006). Retrieved November 29, 2007 from,Washington State University /esl/ Roberts, T., Brunner, J. D. & Bills, S. D. (2006). ESL pro-grams and LEP students: A comparison of public andprivate schools along the Wasatch Front. MulticulturalEducation, 13(3), 27-32. Retrieved on November 20, 2006 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier./login.aspx?direct=true&db=e hh&AN=20234551&site=ehost-liveSalinas, R. A. (2006). All children can learn…to speak English. National Forum of Educational Administrationand Supervision Journal, 23(2), 20-24.Storch, N. & Wigglesworth, G. (2003). Is there a role for the use of the L1 in an L2 setting? TESOL Quarterly, 37(4),760-770. Retrieved November 20, 2006 from EBSCOOnline Database Educational Research Complete. http:///login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&A N=19254671&site=ehost-liveTang, F. L., & Martino, M. (2000). Whole language instruc-tion in China: Teachers’ beliefs in theory versus practice and constraints. College ESL, 9(1/2), 35-50.TESOL (n.d.). Retrieved November 29, 2007, from http://www./s_tesol/index.asp.Winer, L. & Benson, S. (1997). Stepping stones: Guided ques-tioning in teaching reading comprehension. College ESL, 7(1), 35-48.Zamel, V. (1996). Transcending boundaries: Complicating the scene of teaching language. College ESL, 6(2), 1-11.Suggested ReadingBascia, N. & Jacka, N. (2001). Falling in and filling in: ESL teaching careers in changing times. Journal ofEducational Change (2), 325-346.Canagarajah, A. S. (2006). TESOL at forty: What are the issues? TESOL Quarterly 40(1), 9-34.Harmer, J. (2001). The practice of the English language (3rd ed.). London: Longman.Kuntz, P. S. (2003). A History of ESL Instruction in Madison, Wisconsin. (ERIC Document Reproduction ServiceNo. ED474937). Retrieved November 29, 2007 fromEBSCO Online Education Research Database. http:///ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/1a/ec/71.pdfEssay by Chris HolfesterEdited by Karen A. Kallio, M.Ed.Ms. Kallio earned her B.A. in English from Clark University and her Master’s in Education from the University of Massachusetts at Amherst. She lives and works in the Boston area.。

Secondlanguageacquisition

Second language acquisitionSecond language acquisition or second language learning is the process by which people learn a . Second language acquisition (often capitalized as Second Language Acquisition or abbreviated to SLA) is also the name of the scientific discipline devoted to studying that process. Second language refers to any language learned in addition to a person's ; although the concept is named second language acquisition, it can also incorporate the learning of third, fourth or subsequent languages. Second language acquisition refers to what learners do; it does notrefer to practices in .The academic discipline of second language acquisition is a sub-discipline of . It is broad-based and relatively new. As well as the various branches of , second language acquisition is also closelyrelated to , , and . To separate the academic discipline from the learning process itself, the terms second language acquisition research, second language studies, and second language acquisition studies are also used. SLA research began as an field, and because of this it is difficult to identify a precise starting date. However, it does appear to have developed a great deal since the mid-1960s. The term acquisition was originally used to emphasize the subconscious nature of the learning process, but in recent years learning and acquisition have becomelargely synonymous.Second language acquisition can incorporate , but it does not usually incorporate . Most SLA researchers see bilingualism as being the end result of learning a language, not the process itself, and see the termas referring to native-like fluency. Writers in fields such as education and psychology, however, often use bilingualism loosely to refer to all forms of . Second language acquisition is also not to be contrasted with the acquisition of a ; rather, the learning of second languages and the learning of foreign languages involve the same fundamental processes in different situations.Comparisons with first language acquisitionPeople who learn a second language differ from children in a number of ways. Perhaps the most striking of these is that very few adult second language learners reach the same competence as native speakers of that language. Children learning a second language are more likely to achieve native-like fluency than adults, but in general it is very rare for someone speaking a second language to pass completely for a native speaker. When a learner's speech plateaus in this way it is known as .In addition, some errors that second language learners make in their speech originate in their first language. For example, speakers learning may say "Is raining" rather than "It is raining", leaving out the of the sentence. speakers learning English, however, do not usually make the same mistake. This is because sentence subjects can be left out in Spanish, but not in French. This influence of the first language on the second is known as .Also, when people learn a second language, the way they speak theirfirst language changes in subtle ways. These changes can be with any aspect of language, from pronunciation and syntax to gestures the learner makes and the things they tend to notice. For example, Frenchspeakers who spoke English as a second language pronounced the /t/ sound in French differently from monolingual French speakers. When shown afish tank, Chinese speakers of English tend to remember more fish and fewer plants than Chinese monolinguals. This effect of the second language on the first led to propose the idea of , which sees the different languages a person speaks not as separate systems, but as related systems in their mind.Learner languageLearner language is the written or spoken language produced by a learner. It is also the main type of data used in second language acquisition research. Much research in second language acquisition is concerned with the internal representations of a language in the mind of the learner, and in how those representations change over time. It is not yetpossible to inspect these representations directly with brain scans or similar techniques, so SLA researchers are forced to make inferences about these rules from learners' speech or writing.Item and system learningThere are two types of learning that second language learners engage in. The first is , or the learning of formulaic chunks of language. These chunks can be individual words, set phrases, or formulas like Can I have a ___? The second kind of learning is , or the learning of systematic rules.InterlanguageOriginally attempts to describe learner language were based on and on . However, these approaches weren't able to predict all the errors that learners made when in the process of learning a second language. For example, Serbo-Croat speakers learning English may say "What does Pat doing now?", although this is not a valid sentence in either language.To explain these kind of systematic errors, the idea of the interlanguage was developed. An interlanguage is an emerging language system in the mind of a second language learner. A learner's interlanguage is not a deficient version of the language being learned filled with random errors, nor is it a language purely based on errors introduced from the learner's first language. Rather, it is a languagein its own right, with its own systematic rules. It is possible to view most aspects of language from an interlanguage perspective,including , , , and .There are three different processes that influence the creation of interlanguages:. Learners fall back on their mother tongue to help create theirlanguage system. This is now recognized not as a mistake, but as a process that all learners go through.Overgeneralization. Learners use rules from the second language ina way that native speakers would not. For example, a learner maysay "I goed home", overgeneralizing the English rule of adding -ed to create past tense verb forms.Simplification. Learners use a highly simplified form of language, similar to speech by children or in . This may be related to .The concept of interlanguage has become very widespread in SLA research, and is often a basic assumption made by researchers.Sequences of acquisitionIn the 1970s there were several studies that investigated the order in which learners acquired different grammatical structures. These studies showed that there was little change in this order among learners withdifferent first languages. Furthermore, it showed that the order was the same for adults as well as children, and that it did not even change if the learner had language lessons. This proved that there were factors other than language transfer involved in learning second languages, and was a strong confirmation of the concept of interlanguage.However, the studies did not find that the orders were exactly the same. Although there were remarkable similarities in the order in which all learners learned second language grammar, there were still some differences among individuals and among learners with different first languages. It is also difficult to tell when exactly a grammatical structure has been learned, as learners may use structures correctly in some situations but not in others. Thus it is more accurate to speak of sequences of acquisition, where particular grammatical features in a language have a fixed sequence of development, but the overall order of acquisition is less rigid.Process of acquisitionThere has been much debate about exactly how language is learned, and many issues are still unresolved. There have been many theories of second language acquisition that have been proposed, but none has been accepted as an overarching theory by all SLA researchers. Due to the interdisciplinary nature of the field of second language acquisition, this is not expected to happen in the foreseeable future. However, there are various principles of second language acquisition that are agreed on by most researchers.Input, output, and interactionThe primary factor affecting language acquisition appears to be the input that the learner receives. took a very strong position on the importance of input, asserting that is all that is necessary for second language acquisition. Krashen pointed to studies showing that the length of time a person stays in a foreign country is closely linked with his level of language acquisition. Further evidence for input comes from studies on reading: large amounts of free voluntary reading have a significant positive effect on learners' vocabulary, grammar, and writing. Input is also the mechanism by which people learn languages according to the model.The type of input may also be important. One tenet of Krashen's theoryis that input should not be grammatically sequenced. He claims that such sequencing, as found in language classrooms where lessons involve practicing a "structure of the day", is not necessary, and may even be harmful.While input is of vital importance, Krashen's assertion that only input matters in second language acquisition has been contradicted by more recent research. For example, students enrolled in programs in still produced non-native-like grammar when they spoke, even though they had years of meaning-focused lessons and their listening skills were statistically native-level. Output appears to play an important role, and among other things, can help provide learners with feedback, make them concentrate on the form of what they are saying, and help them to automatize their language knowledge. These processes have been codified in the theory of .Researchers have also pointed to interaction in the second language as being important for acquisition. According to Long's the conditions for acquisition are especially good when interacting in the second language; specifically, conditions are good when a breakdown in communication occurs and learners must negotiate for meaning. The modifications to speech arising from interactions like this help make input more comprehensible, provide feedback to the learner, and push learners to modify their speech.Form and meaningThe meaning of things being communicated is more important for second language acquisition than their form. There is a general agreement among researchers that learners must be engaged in decoding and encoding messages in the second language for the conditions to be right for second language learning. Learners must also be engaged in creating pragmatic meaning in order to develop fluency.Some sort of does appear to be necessary for second language acquisition, however. Some advanced language structures may not be fully acquired without the opportunity for repeated practice. Schmidt's states that conscious attention to specific language forms is necessary for a learner's interlanguage to develop. This attention does not have to be in the form of conscious grammar rules, however; the attention is on how each specific form affects the meaning of what is being said.Conscious and subconscious knowledgeDeveloping subconscious knowledge of the second language is more important than developing conscious knowledge. While conscious language knowledge is important for many aspects of second language acquisition, developing subconscious knowledge is vital for fluency. The knowledgethat people use when they are speaking a language is mostly subconscious. It appears that learners can use conscious knowledge in speech if they have time and they are focused on form, but if these conditions are not met then they will fall back on subconscious knowledge. However, if learners have time to plan their speech, grammatical accuracy can improve.It is not certain exactly how subconscious language knowledge is developed in the mind. According to , subconscious language knowledge is gained by practicing language until it becomes automatic. However, according to emergentist theories subconscious knowledge develops naturally from input and communication. The nature of the between conscious and subconscious language knowledge in the brain is also not clear; that is, it is not clear how conscious knowledge can develop into subconscious knowledge. It appears that conscious knowledge and subconscious knowledge are not completely separate, and practice at various aspects of language can lead to language knowledge becoming subconscious. However, studies have found that the two types of knowledge are stored differently in the brain, and this has led to the idea that conscious knowledge merely primes language acquisition processes rather than being directly involved. Both of these issues are still under debate.Language processingThe way learners process sentences in their second language is also important for language acquisition. According to MacWhinney's , learners can only concentrate on so many things at a time, and so they mustfilter out some aspects of language when they listen to a second language. Learning a language is seen as finding the right weighting for each of the different factors that learners can process.Similarly, according to , the sequence of acquisition can be explained by learners getting better at processing sentences in the second language. As learners increase their mental capacity to process sentences, mental resources are freed up. Learners can use these newly freed-up resources to concentrate on more advanced features of the input they receive. One such feature is the movement of words. For example, in English, questions are formed by moving the or the question word to the start of the sentence (John is nice becomes Is John nice?) This kind of movement is too brain-intensive for beginners to process; learners must automatize their processing of static language structures before they can process movementIndividual variationThere is considerable variation in the rate at which people learn second languages, and in the language level that they ultimately reach. Some learners learn quickly and reach a near-native level of competence, but others learn slowly and at relatively early stages of acquisition, despite living in the country where the language is spoken for several years. The reason for this disparity was first addressed with the study of in the 1950s, and later with the in the 1970s. More recentlyresearch has focused on a number of different factors that affect individuals' language learning, in particular strategy use, social and societal influences, personality, motivation, and anxiety. The relationship between age and the ability to learn languages has also been a subject of long-standing debate.The issue of age was first addressed with the . The strict version ofthis hypothesis states that there is a cut-off age at about 12, after which learners lose the ability to fully learn a language. This strict version has since been rejected for second language acquisition, asadult learners have been observed who reach native-like levels of pronunciation and general fluency. However, in general, adult learnersof a second language rarely achieve the native-like fluency thatchildren display, despite often progressing faster in the initial stages. This has led to speculation that age is indirectly related to other, more central factors that affect language learning.There has been considerable attention paid to the strategies which learners use when learning a second language. Strategies have been found to be of critical importance, so much so that strategic competence has been suggested as a major component of . Strategies are commonly divided into and , although there are other ways of categorizing them. Learning strategies are techniques used to improve learning, such as or using a . Communicative strategies are strategies a learner uses to convey meaning even when she doesn't have access to the correct form, such as usinglike thing, or using non-verbal means such as .Affective factorsThe learner's attitude to the learning process has also been identified as being critically important to second language acquisition. Anxiety in language-learning situations has been almost unanimously shown to be detrimental to successful learning. A related factor, personality, has also received attention, with studies showing that are better language learners than .Social attitudes such as gender roles and community views toward language learning have also proven critical. Language learning can be severely hampered by cultural attitudes, with a frequently cited example being the difficulty of children in learning English. Also, the of the individual learner is of vital importance to the success of language learning. Studies have consistently shown that intrinsic motivation, or a genuine interest in the language itself, is more effective over the long-term than extrinsic motivation, as in learning a language for a reward such as high grades or praise.In the classroomWhile the majority of SLA research has been devoted to language learning in a natural setting, there have also been efforts made to investigate second language acquisition in the classroom. This kind of research has a significant overlap with , but it is always , based on and , and it is mainly concerned with the effect that instruction has on the learner, rather than what the teacher does.The research has been wide-ranging. There have been attempts made to systematically measure the effectiveness of language teaching practices for every level of language, from phonetics to pragmatics, and foralmost every current teaching methodology. This research has indicated that many traditional language-teaching techniques are extremely inefficient. It is generally agreed that pedagogy restricted to teaching grammar rules and vocabulary lists does not give students the ability to use the L2 with accuracy and fluency. Rather, to become proficient in the second language, the learner must be given opportunities to use it for communicative purposes.Another area of research has been on the effects of corrective feedback in assisting has been shown to vary depending on the technique used to make the correction, and the overall focus of the classroom, whether on formal accuracy or on communication of meaningful content. There is also considerable interest in supplementing published research with approaches that engage language teachers in action research on learner language in their own classrooms. As teachers become aware of the features of learner language produced by their students, they can refine their pedagogical intervention to maximize interlanguage development。

The English Language PowerPoint

Early Modern English
Up until 1485, England had been a very divided country, and had experienced many rebellions and civil and factional wars. By the end of the fifteenth century, however, England had become a relatively peaceful and stable kingdom. London was now a strong and influential capital city with no rival in England. Travel and communication within the kingdom was now much faster and more efficient . All these factors had a considerable influence on the standardisation of English throughout the country. But the most important development was the invention of the printing press in the 1470s. This had the effect of standardising the spelling of English. The same publications were understood throughout the whole of England, but spoken English still had many dialects and accents. Increasing international travel, especially to mainland Europe, meant that English began to ‘borrow’ many foreign words, especially from France, Germany and Italy. This period also saw the emergence of an English literary culture, the most famous writer being William Shakespeare, who added many words and phrases to English. (See ‘Shakespeare’ PowerPoint.)

English as a second language 1LX

13
The right place at the right time
In the 17th and 18th century, English was the language of
the leading colonial nation -- Britain. In the 18th and 19th century, it was the language of the leader of the industrial revolution -- also Britain. In the late 19th century and the early 20th it was the language of the leading economic power -- the USA. English emerged as a first-rank language in industries which affected all aspects of society -- the press, advertising, broadcasting motion pictures, sound recording, transport and communication.
11
Education
English is the medium of a great deal of the world’s
knowledge esp. in science and technology. A 1980 study of the use of English: 85 % of papers in scientific periodicals were written in English. In 1995, nearly 90% of the 1,500 papers listed in the journal Linguistics Abstracts were in English. English has become the normal medium of instruction in higher education for many countries. The ELT business has become one of the major growth industries around the world.

English as a Second Language 71

English as a Second Language71Eun-Young Kim, Program Dire ctorENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGEIntensive English Language courses are designed to immerse limited English proficient (LEP) students in the English language.The se re me dial ESL classe s will he lp the stude nt de ve lop the language and language-related skills necessary to progress in the university program. These classes cover phonetics, syntax, aural comprehension, and speech, reading, and writing skills. Classes and laboratories are taught in English for five to eight hours a day,according to the individual student's needs. Formal classes will be supple me nte d by informal discussion groups, mode rn language lab, interactions with native-English speaking tutors, role-playing and field trips. Twelve hours of 100 level ESL classes may apply to a Bachelor's Degree and six hours may apply to an Associate Degree.ADMISSIONStudents must meet all admission requirements for enrollment at Southwestern Adventist University.Students taking ESL classes will take the Michigan Placement Test to determine the level of ESL classes best suited to their level of English proficiency. Students will then be advised on the courses they should take : Le ve l 1, 2, or 3. Stude nts may also take unive rsity course s along with Level 3 ESL courses if they have taken the Michigan Test of English Language Proficiency and the results show they have the proficiency necessary to succeed in selected courses.For academic advising, the results of the ESL course work will be e valuate d along with the Michigan Te st of English Language Proficie ncy.ESOL 010Oral Composition 3 hoursA basic course that introduce s language use d in e ve ryday life on the unive rsity campus and in socie ty. Emphasis is place d on the de ve lopme nt of vocabulary, phrase s ne ce ssary to function in all social inte ractions, cle ar pronunciation, and fluent speech. The class meets five times a week and four hours of lab are required. (Fall, Spring)ESOL 012Advanced Oral Composition 3 hours This course include s an introduction to the phonology of the English language. Specific listening skills are developed. Class time is given to practical exercises developing extemporaneous and prepared spe e ch. Flue ncy and accuracy are e ncourage d. This class me e ts four time s a week and four hours of lab are required. (Fall, Spring)ESOL 020Grammar 3 hoursIntroduction to the basics of English spe lling, handwriting, parts of speech, punctuation, and sentence patterns. The class meets five times a week. (Fall, Spring)ESOL 025Advanced Grammar 3 hoursStudy of the structure of English sentence patterns, parts of speech,verb tenses and forms, idioms, and spelling. The class meets five times a week. (Fall, Spring)ESOL 030Reading I 3 hoursAn introduction to reading in the English language with emphasis on developing vocabulary, and phonetic and comprehesion skills. This course meets five days a week. (Fall, Spring)ESOL 035 Reading II 3 hoursThis course is de signe d to de ve lop phone tic skills as we ll as e mpha-size the unde rstanding of vocabulary in conte xt, re ading for the main ide a,re ading for facts and de tails, and making infe re nce s and judgme nts. This course meets five days a week. (Fall, Spring)ESOL 040Writing 3 hoursThis course is de signe d to de ve lop the cre ation of original se nte nce s and paragraphs using the four rhetorical modes. The class meets four times a week. (Fall, Spring)ESOL 045Advanced Writing 3 hoursDevelopment of the five paragraph essay in the four rhetorical patte rns. Emphasis is on flue ncy and spe e d of production. The class me e ts four times a week. (Fall, Spring)ESOL 111English Composition Sk ills 3 hoursThis course is designed to aid those students for whom English is a second language, and whose writing skills are not yet up to college entrance standards to develop the writing skills necessary for college entrance. The course includes intensive writing practice. (Fall, Spring)ESOL 116Speech Composition and Comprehension3 hoursA study of the phonology of the English language, with in-class practice of the sounds, stre ss, intonation, and infle ction of words,phrases, and sentences. This class emphasizes listening skills necessary for taking notes and discussion techniques for participating in main-stream classes. Emphasis is given to fluent speech as well as pronuncia-tion. The class me e ts five time s a we e k and thre e hours of lab are re quire d.(Fall, Spring)ESOL 121Reading III 3 hoursThis course is designed to bring the reading skills of LEP students up to colle ge e ntry standards. This course include s inte nsive e xe rcise s in reading: comprehension, vocabulary, and reading rate. (Fall, Spring)ESOL 131English Structure and Usage 3 hoursReview of all English grammar structures with concentration on preparation for the university entrance tests. Emphasis is given to the understanding and use of structural patterns . (Fall, Spring)。

English

English is part of the Germanic branch of the Indo-European family of languages. It is spoken as a native language by around 377 million and as a second language by around 375 million speakers in the world. Speakers of English as a second language will soon outnumber those who speak it as a first language.Around 750 million people are believed to speak English as a foreign language. English has an official or a special status in 75 countries with a total population of over 2 billion.The domination of the English language globally is undeniable. English is the language of diplomacy and international communications, business, tourism, education, science, computer technology, media and Internet. Because English was used to develop communication, technology, programming, software, etc, it dominates the web. 70% of all information stored electronically is in English.British colonialism in the 19th century and American capitalism and technological progress in the 20th century were undoubtedly the main causes for the spread of English throughout the world.The English language came to British Isles from northern Europe in the fifth century. From the fifteenth century, the British began to sail all over the world and became explorers, colonists and imperialists. They took the English language to North America, Canada and the Caribbean, to South Africa, to Australia and New Zealand, to South Asia (especially India), to the British colonies in Africa, to South East Asia and the South Pacific.The USA has played a leading role in most parts of the world for the last hundred years. At the end of the 19th century and first quarter of the 20th, it welcomed millions of European immigrants who had fled their countries ravaged by war, poverty or famine. This labor force strengthened American economy. The Hollywood film industry also attracted many foreign artists in quest of fame and fortune and the number of American films produced every year soon flooded the market. Before the Treaty of Versailles (1919), which ended the First World War between Germany and the Allies, diplomacy was conducted in French. However, President Woodrow Wilson succeeded in having the treaty in English as well. Since then, English started being used in diplomacy and gradually in economic relations and the media.The future of English as a global language will depend very largely on the political, economical, demographic and cultural trends in the world. The beginning of the 21st century is a time of global transition. According to some experts, faster economic globalization is going hand in hand with the growing use of English. More and more people are being encouraged to use English rather than their own language. On the other hand, the period of most rapid change can be expected to be an uncomfortable and at times traumatic experience for many people around the world. Hence, the opposite view, that the next 20 years or so will be a critical time for the English language and for those who depend upon it. The patterns of usage and public attitudes to English which develop during this period will have long-term effects for its future in the world.*Sources:David CrystalThe Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, Cambridge University Press, 1995.English as a global language, Cambridge University Press, 1997.David GraddolThe Future of English?, London The British Council, 1997。

ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE

Cambridge International ExaminationsCambridge International General Certificate of Secondary EducationENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE 0510/01 Paper 1 Reading and Writing (Core)For Examination from 2015 SPECIMEN MARK SCHEME1 hour 30 minutesMAXIMUM MARK: 70This document consists of 8 printed pages.© UCLES 2012 [Turn overExercise 1 WaterAidswim(a)cycle / bikerun(all three required for 1 mark) [1] hold (own) Taste for Life event [1](b)free / nothing / no cost [1](c)(a range of) resources / (specially written) music and words [1](d)(have to) spend hours / (a) long time searching / looking for water [1](e)(f) the pay you receive for one hour (of work) [1]find out about (WaterAid) lottery / promote (WaterAid) lottery / play (WaterAid) lottery /(g)Support WaterAid’s vital work [1][Total: 7]© UCLES 2012 0510/01/SM/15Exercise 2 Six Legs Goodtransport (their) pollen [1] (a)appear in sugar bowls / crawl over (our) shoes / ruin (our) picnics / sting(b)(any two for 1 mark)[1](weight of) human population (is) less (than weight of ant population)(c)OR (weight of) ant population (is) more (than weight of human population) [1]millions of years ago / before / before humans started to walk (on two legs) [1] (d)no leader [1](e)(f) (they) capture / feed on (other) small insects(they) remove dead (small) birds / mice / rats [2] (they) collect it / clear it(g)ants have not colonised it / never been there [1](they have) evolved into thousands of shapes and sizes / (they have) evolved into different (h)shapes and sizes [1](i) deadly sting [1](j) Army (ants of South America) AND Leaf-cutter (ants of North America) [1][Total: 11]© UCLES 2012 0510/01/SM/15 [Turn overExercise 3 Student Application FormNote: correct spelling is essential for the form-filling exercise.Upper case letters required at the start of proper nouns.The conventions of form-filling (i.e. instructions to tick, circle and delete) must be observed with total accuracy.Section A: Personal DetailsMarimin RosalesEtna 70, Colonia Montes, Mexico City05613 92789617Umberto and Bertha Rosales0218 767432Section B: Expedition DetailsTICK SouthCIRCLE HostelCIRCLE Parent(I would like to make a future career as an) ArchaeologistMax. total for Sections A and B: 10 marksSection CMax. total for Section C: 4 marksSentence 1: it is expected the candidate will write a sentence stating that her main interest is the study of History, or of the ancient civilisations of Mexico. This should be in the first (not third) person.Sentence 2: it is expected the candidate will write a sentence explaining that she wants to study the ancient culture of the Mayan people. This should be in the first (not third) person.For each sentence, award up to 2 marks as follows:2 marks:proper sentence construction; correct spelling and punctuation; gives the informationasked for.1 mark:proper sentence construction; 1–3 errors of punctuation and/or spelling (withoutobscuring the meaning); gives the information asked for.0 marks:more than 3 errors of punctuation and / or spelling; and / or does not give the informationasked for; and / or not a proper sentence; and / or meaning obscure.[Total: 14] © UCLES 2012 0510/01/SM/15Exercise 4 Spreading Literacy in LaosNote: correct responses only apply if they are placed under the correct heading (as detailed below). Add the correct answers to give a total out of 7.Remember that this exercise is marked for content (reading), not language.Reasons for illiteracy in rural Laos (max 2 marks for this heading)•few authors (in Lao language)•books expensive / hard to obtain•difficulty to get books into people’s hands / villages (isolated) / villages only reached by boat•no libraries (in villages) / children rarely have a chance to own a book / children rarely have a chance to hold a bookAnna Dahl's fundraising efforts (max 2 marks for this heading)•charity “River Books”•(sponsored 500 km) bike ride across Laos•sail along Thames in small boat•London Marathon (next year)Disadvantages of illiteracy (max 3 marks for this heading)•cannot read (school) textbooks•unable to read signs / notices / instructions•unable to write own name / fill in forms•unable to send emails / text messages[Total: 7] Exercise 5 Literacy in Laos summaryLanguage (up to 5 marks)5 marks: good, concise summary style / very good attempt to use own words and to organise andsequence points cohesively4 marks: good attempt to use own words and to organise and sequence points cohesively /generally good control of language3 marks: some reliance on language from the text, but with an attempt to organise and sequencepoints cohesively / language satisfactory, but with some inaccuracies2 marks: heavy reliance on language from the text with no attempt to organise and sequencepoints cohesively / limited language expression making meaning at times unclear1 mark:copying without discrimination from text / multiple language inaccuracies0 marks: no understanding of the task / no relevant content / meaning completely obscure due toserious language inaccuracies[Total: 5]© UCLES 2012 0510/01/SM/15 [Turn overExercise 6 End-of-term performanceExercise 7 Local foodThe following general instructions, and table of marking criteria, apply to both exercises. •Content covers relevance (i.e. whether the piece fulfils the task and the awareness of purpose / audience / register) and the development of ideas (i.e. the detail / explanation provided and how enjoyable it is to read).•Language covers style (i.e. complexity of vocabulary and sentence structure) and accuracy (of grammar, spelling, punctuation and use of paragraphs).•When deciding on a mark for content or language, first of all decide which mark band is most appropriate. There will not necessarily be an exact fit. Then decide between 2 marks within that mark band. Use the lower mark if it only just makes it into the band and the upper mark if it fulfils all the requirements of the band but doesn’t quite make it into the band above.•When deciding on a mark for content, look at both relevance and development of ideas. First ask yourself whether the writing fulfils the task, in terms of points to be covered and the length. If it does, it will be in at least the 4–5 mark band.•When deciding on a mark for language, look at both the style and the accuracy of the language.A useful starting point would be first to determine whether errors intrude. If they do not, it will bein at least the 4–5 mark band.• The use of paragraphs should not be the primary basis of deciding which mark band the work is in. Look first at the language used and once you have decided on the appropriate mark band, you can use the paragraphing as a factor in helping you to decide whether the work warrants the upper or lower mark in the mark band.•If the essay is considerably shorter than the stated word length, it is unlikely to gain a high mark for content.•If the essay is totally irrelevant and has nothing to do with the question asked, it should be given0 marks for Content and Language, even if it is enjoyable to read and fluent.•If the essay is partly relevant and therefore in mark band 2–3, the full range of marks for language is available.[Total Exercise 6: 13][Total Exercise 7: 13]© UCLES 2012 0510/01/SM/15GENERAL CRITERIA FOR MARKING EXERCISES 6 and 7 (CORE)Mark band CONTENT: relevance anddevelopment of ideas(AO: W1, W2, W6)MarkbandLANGUAGE: style and accuracy(AO: W1, W3, W4, W5)6–7 Effective:Relevance:Fulfils the task, with appropriate registerand a good sense of purpose andaudience. Award 7 marks.Fulfils the task, with appropriate registerand some sense of purpose andaudience. Award 6 marks.Development of ideas:Ideas are developed at appropriatelength. Engages reader’s interest. 6 Competent:Style:Sentences show some style andambitious language. However, there maybe some awkwardness making readingless enjoyable. Award 6 marks.Accuracy:Generally accurate with frustrating errors.Appropriate use of paragraphing. Award6 marks.4–5Largely relevant:Relevance:Fulfils the task. A satisfactory attempthas been made to address the topic,but there may be digressions. Award5 marks.Does not quite fulfil the task althoughthere are some positive qualities. Theremay be digressions. Award 4 marks.Development of ideas:M aterial is satisfactorily developed atappropriate length. 4–5Satisfactory:Style:M ainly simple structures and vocabularybut sometimes attempting a wider rangeof language. Award 5 marks.Mainly simple structures and vocabulary.Award 4 marks.Accuracy:Meaning is clear and of a safe standard.Grammatical errors occur whenattempting more ambitious language.Paragraphs are used, showing somecoherence. Award 5 marks.eaning is generally clear. Simplestructures are usually sound. Errors donot interfere with communication.Paragraphs are used but withoutcoherence or unity. Award 4 marks.© UCLES 2012 0510/01/SM/15 [Turn over© UCLES 2012 0510/01/SM/152–3 P artly relevant : Relevance : Partly relevant and some engagement with the task. Inappropriate register, showing insufficient awareness of purpose and / or audience. Award 3 marks . Partly relevant and limited engagement with the task. Inappropriate register, showing insufficient awareness of purpose and / or audience. Award 2 marks .Development of ideas:Supplies some detail but the effect is incomplete and repetitive. 2–3 Errors intrude :Style: Simple structures and vocabulary. Accuracy: Meaning is sometimes in doubt. Frequent errors do not seriously impair communication. Award 3 marks . M eaning is often in doubt. Frequent, distracting errors which slow down reading. Award 2 marks . 0–1 Little relevance :Very limited engagement with task, but this is mostly hidden by density of error. Award 1 mark .No engagement with the task, or any engagement with task is completely hidden by density of error. Award 0 marks .If essay is completely irrelevant, no mark can be given for language. 0–1Hard to understand :M ultiple types of error in grammar / spelling / word usage / punctuation throughout, which mostly make it difficult to understand. Occasionally, sense can be deciphered. Award 1 mark.Density of error completely obscures meaning. Whole sections impossible to recognise as pieces of English writing. Award 0 marks.。

第二语言英语作文

第二语言英语作文English:As a second language learner of English, I have found it to be a challenging yet rewarding journey. One of the biggest obstacles I have faced is the pronunciation and intonation of English words. Unlike my native language, English has a different rhythm and stress pattern, which often makes it difficult for me to be understood by native speakers. However, through practice and determination, I have been able to improve my pronunciation and fluency. Another challenge that I have encountered is the vast amount of vocabulary and idiomatic expressions in English. It can be overwhelming to remember and use them in the right context. To overcome this, I have made it a priority to regularly read and listen to English materials to familiarize myself with common words and expressions. Overall, learning English as a second language has not only enhanced my communication skills but has also broadened my cultural understanding and opened up new opportunities for personal and professional growth.中文翻译:作为英语的第二语言学习者，我发现这是一段具有挑战性但又充满回报的旅程。

second foreign language英语作文

As is known to all, with the increasingly tightcommunication in the whole world, English gruduallybecomes the general laguage in this communication. Manyinternational files, documents and contracts are printed inEnglish and especially it is becoming the first main languagethat global people wants to learn. In China, learning Englishunfolds a vigorous upsurge in students and it becomes amajor class in various kinds of schools. Howerver, with thenumber of the English learners constantly increases, themarkets for the English talents is gradually saturated. Solearning a second language is becoming indispensable to usfor facing the English saturation.On one hand, the the global economic integration makes manynon-English nations become more stronger on their GDPs andecomomies, and it can be asserted that they must need many talentswhich are specialized in their languages. Spain, for example, with thehelp of the European Community, is gurdually becoming one of thepowerful nations on economy in Europe. Imagine that, in thecommunications or commercial cooperations between Spain andChina, there must be a great need of the spanish translators orinterpreters, using the spanish is more convenient and immediate toconduct those files, documents and contracts than using the English.So is to other nations, Italy, Holland, Mexico, German, belgium, Araband so on. AndOn the other hand, learning foreign language is a good way toexpand our thoughts, it can make our brain wiser. Learning Spanish,for example, it belongs to the Latin family of languages as well as theEnglish. So if you’ve already learnt English for a long time, it’s easy tolearn the Spanish. They have many similarities on both grammer andthe words... Through the combination of the two languages, our braincan creat more memory cells. Because of this, the ability of theunderstanding to languages is correspondingly developed as well.for our future, we should make more vitality and create moreopportunities to learn a second language which fit ourseleves besidesthe daily study. And I’m sure it can probably give more opportunitiesfor excellent jobs to us just as an additonal gift maybe.。

掌握第二语言的好处作文

掌握第二语言的好处作文英文回答：Learning a second language has numerous benefits. Firstly, it allows us to communicate with a wider range of people. For example, if I am fluent in English and Spanish, I can easily converse with English speakers as well as Spanish speakers, opening up opportunities for new friendships and connections. Additionally, being bilingual or multilingual can enhance our career prospects. Many companies today operate on an international level and require employees who can communicate effectively in multiple languages. Therefore, by mastering a second language, we can increase our chances of finding better job opportunities and advancing in our careers.Secondly, learning a second language can broaden our cultural understanding. Language is deeply intertwined with culture, and by learning a new language, we gain insight into the customs, traditions, and values of the people whospeak it. This can help us develop a greater appreciation and respect for different cultures, and enable us to engage in more meaningful cross-cultural interactions. For instance, if I learn Mandarin, I will not only be able to communicate with Chinese speakers but also gain a deeper understanding of Chinese history, literature, and traditions.Moreover, learning a second language can improve our cognitive abilities. Studies have shown that bilingual individuals have better problem-solving skills, enhanced memory, and improved multitasking abilities compared to monolingual individuals. This is because learning a new language requires us to think flexibly and adapt to different linguistic structures and rules. For example, when I learned French, I had to constantly switch between English and French grammar, which improved my overall linguistic and cognitive flexibility.Furthermore, learning a second language can boost our self-confidence. When we are able to communicateeffectively in a foreign language, we feel a sense ofaccomplishment and empowerment. This newfound confidencecan extend beyond language skills and positively impact other areas of our lives, such as public speaking or networking. For instance, if I am confident in my abilityto speak Spanish, I may feel more comfortable presenting in front of a Spanish-speaking audience or attending international conferences.In conclusion, the benefits of learning a second language are undeniable. It not only enables us to communicate with a wider range of people and enhances our career prospects, but also broadens our cultural understanding, improves our cognitive abilities, and boosts our self-confidence. Therefore, I believe that investing time and effort into learning a second language is highly worthwhile.中文回答：掌握第二语言有许多好处。

Excellent lesson plan template for primary school

03
Teaching process design
Import process
Greeting and warming up
Green students and lead them to warm up with some simple English songs or changes to create a relaxed and engaging learning atmosphere
Textbooks and workbooks
01
providing textbooks and workbooks for students to
follow and practice
Online resources
02
utilizing online resources such as educational websites
and apps to provide additional practice and support
Classroom materials
03
using physical Classroom materials such as toys, puppets,
and real objects to aid in teaching and learning
Short attention span
Primary school students have a relatively short attention span and may easily be distracted Teachers should design engaging and interactive lessons to maintain their focus

人教新目标版高中英语必修一： Unit2 《English around the World 》(2)(44)

British English
American English
Come on! Yeah!
elevator/lift in a team/on a team rubber/eraser petrol/gas
Do you want to come to my flat?
How far is your apartmen t? It is beautiful?
AND
BRITISH ENGLISH
What are the two main groups of English?
B.E and A.E
Do you know the difference between B.E and A.E?
Ok.but Butthe how shall Er, subway we go to station isthe farmovies? away.
Native language: It is the language that one or both your parents speak. You learn it as your first language /your native language/mother tongue.
English as a second language: It is the language used by government,schools, newspapers and TV, but people speak the language of their own country at home.
Well, I want a can of milk tea, some cookies and some candy.

English As a Second Language in the Mainstream-精选.doc

English As a Second Language in theMainstreamEnglish as a Second Language in the MainstreamAPPLIED LINGUISTICS AND LANGUAGE STUDYGENERAL EDITORCHRISTOPHER N. CANDLINChair Professor of Applied Linguistics Department of English Centre for English Language Education Communication Research City University of Hong Kong, Hong KongFor a complete list of books in this series see pages v-viEnglish as a Second Language in the Mainstream:Teaching, Learning and IdentityEdited byBERNARD MOHAN CONSTANT LEUNG CHRIS DAVISONO RoutledgeTaylor St Francis Group LONDON AND NEW YORKFirst published 2001 by Pearson Education LimitedPublished 2013 by Routledge2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon 0X14 4RN 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USARoutledge is an imprint of the Taylor amp; Francis Group, an informa business Copyright 2001, Taylor amp; Francis.All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.NoticesKnowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may becomenecessary.Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the mate...。

EnglishAsASecondLanguage?7ESL

EnglishAsASecondLanguage•7ESL1st step: Plan a strategyLearning English is a goal that cannot be taken lightly. Therefore, you need to plan your learning strategy. No matter how lucky you are, no miracle will happen that allows you to handle a smooth conversation overnight. The path of learning requires strategy and preparation. A good tip to start is to make a space in your agenda to schedule your goals. It is good to prepare a list of everything you expect to learn in a certain period of time. Although you may not meet all the objectives, having your purpose clear at each stage allows you to progress steadily.2nd step: Choose the teaching methodTo start the whole process, you need to think about how you will learn the language. You will need to research and find out which method can help you acquire fluency in English. At this point, it is important to consider your ability to discipline and your daily commitment to the study. Also, it is important to find a material to guide you made by specialists and language scholars,3rd step: Organize your studiesIt is important to make a commitment to yourself and reserve a daily schedule to study and maintain daily contact with the language. For example, you can set aside about 30 minutes to study English. During this period of study, stay fully focused on what you are doing. Find a quiet place that is free from external factors. Set up a study calendar and follow it according to your goals.The study needs to be a habit, but it cannot take all your time to the point of tiring your mind. Thirty minutes a day is ideal in adaily routine, especially considering that it is a reasonable period for not compromising other daily tasks. In addition to being important to reserve this study time, you will not miss some idle moments throughout the day. Use them to think, read texts, and listen to songs in English.4th step: Familiarize yourself with the languageTo learn to speak, it is necessary to learn to listen. It is not enough to listen without understanding. Create a base in the language, make contact with English daily. Familiarize yourself with it. A good and fun way to start is by watching English movies and series that you already know. Knowing and enjoying the story, it is easier to watch it a second or third time with English subtitles, and then even without subtitles. The same goes for books and music. Listen to some music you already know and like and follow along with the lyrics. You will see that it will be easier to understand.The important thing is to be immersed in English and contact with the language exists in every way: speaking, listening, writing, and reading. Try taking the English language for small day-to-day tasks, such as social media or your smartphone.5th step: Start learningNow, it is important to know how the learning process actually happens. Studying is not just sitting in front of a book and reading it from beginning to end. The act involves discipline and some more effective techniques. Go through the learning process slowly. Do it with fun, so you don’t get bored easily. Below are some of the techniques to help you quickly learn English.PronunciationThis should be the first phase of learning. Pronunciation isthe saying of a word in English correctly. English is used in several countries, so the accent used is not always the same. But the most commonly used are American English and British English.So, why do you have to learn the pronunciation first? This is because you need to be trained to pronounce correctly in the early stages of learning English. The correct pronunciation will also depend on practice. That is why you will need to practice daily.If you are wrong in its pronunciation, it will even lead to misunderstanding. Therefore, it is essential for you to start learning correctly from the beginning. A good pronunciation helps you not only to speak well, but also to understand those who already speak the language. Besides, it will also give you the confidence necessary when the time comes to talk with a native.VocabularyLearning vocabulary is a must if you want to be able to speak English. You can’t make a sentence if you are confused. Access a list of words and take your time to learn them every day. However, this does not mean you memorize a large number of terms as you will forget them easily. You can write these vocabularies down in a word document, a notebook, or any other system that can help you memorize them easily.Learning vocabulary is very important when learning English. If you have a little vocabulary with you, you will encounter many difficulties. It could even be that you will easily give up learning English if you learn grammar, but your vocabulary is only a little. Memorize vocabulary continuously, every day. It doesn’t need much, as long as you have to memorize at least one vocabulary one day. Also, don’t forget to practice the correct pronunciation.SpellingSpelling has a relationship with the pronunciation of the correct English vocabulary. So, practicing correct spelling and pronunciation is already a package with learning vocabulary. When you memorize vocabulary, make sure the spelling in each vocabulary is correct. For example, the word “book.” You should know this word is spelled or formed from the letters “b-o-o-k.” By knowing the spelling of each word, you can avoid using the wrong word when writing in English.In English, there are also several words in the same pronunciation but different spelling. In other terms, it is often called 'homophones' (similar sounds of words). Learn to differentiate them so that you don’t get confused.GrammarWhen you start with your learning process, remember that every aspect of the language is very important, and grammar may be the most essential. This does not mean that you should learn the rules as if you were a linguist, but understand how the main tenses are structured (past, present, and future in all its variations). Regardless of the method you choose to learn English, it is a good idea to try to learn at least ten new words every week. After a while, your vocabulary will be wide.6th step: Immerse yourself in the languageAnyone who has learned English and wants to give you some advice will not find better words to refer to than telling you to watch English shows, movies, series, programs, etc. Watching programs and listening to conversations in English is an option that will develop your learning to new levels. In this way, you will have a real-time interaction with the language. In some cases, you will see the type of behavior and expression of the languageused in everyday situations.The best thing about this is that it gives you the tools and level of English of any native person while enjoying your favorite movies and stories. Your success will be determined by your consistency in learning until your English skills experience rapid progress.7th step: MotivationThe simple desire to learn a new language and the personal goals of can already be quite a motivation. However, there are other factors, such as finding an interaction group where you can meet and talk in English. This will make you practice the language even more and learn during conversations and exchanges of experiences.。

常用英语作文

常用英语作文Title: The Importance of Learning English as a Second Language。

English has become a global language, spoken by over1.5 billion people worldwide. It is the language of international business, science, technology, and entertainment. As a result, learning English as a second language has become increasingly important in today's world. In this article, we will explore the reasons why learning English as a second language is essential and the benefitsit can bring.Firstly, English is the language of international communication. It is the official language of many countries, including the United States, the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. It is also the language of international organizations such as the United Nations, the World Health Organization, and the InternationalOlympic Committee. Therefore, learning English as a secondlanguage can help people communicate with others from different countries and cultures, making it easier to conduct business, travel, and study abroad.Secondly, English is the language of science and technology. Most scientific research is published in English, and many of the world's top universities teach in English. Therefore, learning English as a second language can help people access the latest scientific and technological developments, as well as participate in international conferences and collaborations.Thirdly, English is the language of entertainment. Many of the world's most popular movies, TV shows, and music are produced in English. Learning English as a second language can help people understand and enjoy these forms of entertainment, as well as communicate with people who share the same interests.In addition to these practical benefits, learning English as a second language can also have personal benefits. It can improve cognitive function, such as memoryand problem-solving skills, and increase cultural awareness and empathy. It can also open up new opportunities for personal and professional growth.However, learning a new language can be challenging,and English is no exception. It takes time, effort, and dedication to become proficient in English. Therefore, itis important to find effective learning methods andpractice regularly. This can include taking English classes, watching English movies and TV shows, reading English books and articles, and speaking with native English speakers.In conclusion, learning English as a second language is essential in today's globalized world. It can provide many practical and personal benefits, from communicating with people from different cultures to accessing the latest scientific and technological developments. While it may be challenging, with dedication and practice, anyone can become proficient in English and reap the rewards oflearning a new language.。

5篇关于学习第二语言的好处的高考英语作文范文

5篇关于学习第二语言的好处的高考英语作文范文1. The Benefits of Learning a Second Language（学习第二语言的好处）Learning a second language has numerous benefits. Firstly, it broadens our horizons and allows us to communicate with people from different cultural backgrounds. This enhances cultural understanding and promotes global harmony. Secondly, learning a second language improves cognitive abilities, such as problem-solving, critical thinking, and multitasking skills. It also enhances memory and concentration. Thirdly, being bilingual or multilingual opens up more job opportunities in an increasingly globalized world. Finally, learning a second language enables us to appreciate literature, films, and music from different cultures, enriching our lives and fostering personal growth.2. The Importance of Learning English as a Second Language（学习英语作为第二语言的重要性）English is the most widely spoken language in the world, making it essential to learn as a second language. Firstly, English is the language of international communication, business, and technology. Proficiency in English opens up a wide range of job opportunities and facilitates global collaboration. Secondly, learning English provides access to a vast amount of knowledge and resources available in this language, including books, research papers, and online materials. Thirdly, English is the language of popular culture, such as movies, music, and literature. Learning English allows us to connect with and appreciate these cultural products on a deeper level.3. The Cognitive Benefits of Learning a Second Language（学习第二语言的认知好处）Learning a second language has significant cognitive benefits. Firstly, it improves memory and enhances the brain's capacity to retain and recall information. Secondly, learning a second language enhances problem-solving and critical thinking abilities, as it requires us to analyze and make decisions in different linguistic contexts. Thirdly, learning a second language enhances multitasking skills and boosts overall cognitive flexibility. It enables us to switch between different language systems and adapt to new situations more effectively. Overall, learning a second language is a mental workout that strengthens cognitive abilities and improves overall brain function.4. The Social Benefits of Learning a Second Language（学习第二语言的社交好处）Learning a second language brings social benefits. Firstly, it facilitates communication and enables us to connect with people from different backgrounds. It breaks down language barriers and promotes cultural understanding and tolerance. Secondly, being able to speak a second language allows us to travel and exploreother countries and cultures more easily. It enhances our travel experiences and enables us to immerse ourselves in local communities. Thirdly, learning a second language broadens our social circle and fosters new friendships. It provides opportunities to meet and interact with people from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds.5. The Personal Growth Benefits of Learning a Second Language（学习第二语言的个人成长好处）Learning a second language promotes personal growth. Firstly, it boosts self-confidence and self-esteem. Mastering a new language gives us a sense of achievement and empowers us to take on new challenges. Secondly, learning a second language enhances adaptability and flexibility. It enables us to navigate different cultural contexts and adapt to new situations more easily. Thirdly, learning a second language encourages empathy and open-mindedness. It allows us to see the world from different perspectives and appreciate the diversity of human languages and cultures. Overall, learning a second language is a transformative experience that enriches our lives and broadens our understanding of the world.。