Effect of performed operations management on the amount of sediment production in natural forests
管理学专业术语(中英文对照)
1.管理与组织导论管理者:(manager)基层管理者:(first-line managers)中层管理者:(middle managers)高层管理者:(top managers)管理:(management)效率:(efficiency)效果:(effectiveness)计划:(planning)组织:(organizing)领导:(leading)控制:(controlling)管理角色:(management roles)人际关系角色:(interpersonal roles)信息传递角色:(informational roles)决策制定角色:(descisional roles)技术技能:(technical skills)人际技能:(human skills)概念技能:(conceptual skills)管理的普遍性:(universality of management)2.管理的历史劳动分工:(division of labor)工作专业化:(job specialization)工业革命:(industrific revolution)科学管理:(scientific management)一般行政管理理论:(general administrative theory) 管理原则:(principles of management)官僚行政组织:(bureaucracy)定量方法:(quantitative approach)组织行为:(organizational behavior)霍桑研究系统:(Hawthorne studies systems)封闭系统:(closed systems)开放系统:(open systems)权变理论:(contingency approach)劳动力多元化:(workforce diversity)电子企业:(e-business)电子商务:(e-commerce)内部网:(intranet)学习型组织:(learning organization)知识管理:(knowledge management)质量管理:(quality management)3.组织文化与环境管理万能论:(omnipotent view of management) 管理象征论:(symbolil view of management)组织文化:(organization culture)强文化:(strong cultures)社会化:(socialization)工作场所精神境界:(workplace spirituality)外部环境:(external environment)具体环境:(specific environment)一般环境:(general environment)环境的不确定性:(environment uncertainty)环境的复杂性:(environment complexity)利益相关群体:(stakholders)4.全球环境中的管理狭隘主义:(parochialism)民族中心论:(ethnocentric attitude)多国中心论:(polycentric attitude)全球中心论:(geocentric attitude)跨国公司:(multinational corporation)多国公司:(multidomestic corporation)全球公司:(global company)跨国或无边界组织:(transnational or boredrless organization) 初始全球化组织:(born globals)全球外购:(global sourcing)出口:(exporting)进口:(importing)许可证经营:(licensing)许可经营:(franchising)战略同盟:(strategic alliance)合资企业:(joint venture)外国子公司:(foreign subsidiary)市场经济:(market economy)计划经济:(command economy)民族文化:(national culture)5.社会责任与管理道德古典观点:(classical view)社会经济学观点:(socioeconomic view)社会义务:(social obligation)社会响应:(social responsiveness)社会责任:(social responsinility)社会屏障筛选:(social screening)管理的绿色化:(gerrning of management)以价值观为基础的管理:(values-based management) 道德:(ethics)自我强度控制点:(ego strength locus of control)道德准则:(code of ethics)社会企业家:(social entrepreneur)社会影响管理:(social impact management)6.制定决策决策:(decisions)决策制定过程:(decision-making process)决策标准问题:(decision criteria problem)理性的:(rational)有限理性:(bounded rationality)满意的承诺升级:(satisfied escalation of commitment) 直觉决策:(intuitive decision making)结构良好问题:(structured problems)程序化决策:(programmed decision)程序:(procedure)规则:(rule)政策:(policy)结构不良问题:(unstructured problems)非程序化决策:(nonprogrammed decisions) 确定性:(certainty)风险性:(risk)命令型风格:(directive style)分析型风格:(analytic style)概念型风格:(conceptual style)行为型风格:(behavioral style)启发法:(heuristics)7.计划的基础陈述目标:(stated goals)真实目标:(real goals)战略计划:(strategic plans)运营计划:(operational plans)长期计划:(long-term plans)短期计划:(short-term plans)具体计划:(specific plans)方向性计划:(directional plans)一次性计划:(single-used plans)持续性计划:(standing plans)传统目标:(traditional goal setting)手段-目标链:(means-ends chain)目标管理:(management by objectives)使命:(mission)承诺概念:(commitment concept)正式计划部门:(formal planning department) 8.战略管理战略管理:(strategic management)组织战略商业模式:(strategies business model ) 战略管理过程:(strategic management process) 机会:(opportunities)威胁:(threats)资源:(resources)能力:(capabilities)核心竞争力:(core competencies)SWOT分析法:(SWOT analysis)公司层战略:(corporate strategy)增长战略:(growth strategy)相关多元化:(related diversification)非相关多元化:(unrelated diversification) 稳定性战略:(stability strategy)更新战略:(renewal strategies)紧缩战略:(retrenchment strategy)扭转战略:(turnaround strategy)BCG矩阵:(BCG matrix)业务层战略:(business strategy)战略业务单元:(strategic business units) 竞争优势:(competitive advantage)成本领先战略:(cost leadership strategy) 遵循差异化战略:(differentiation strategy) 聚焦战略:(focus strategy)徘徊其间:(stuck in the middle)战略灵活性:(strategic flexibility)市场先入者:(first mover)9.计划的工具技术环境扫描:(environment scanning)竞争对手情报:(competitor intelligence) 预测:(forecasts)定量预测:(quantitative forecasting)定性预测:(qualitative forecasting)标杆比较:(benchmarking)资源:(resources)预算:(budget)甘特图:(Gantt chart)负荷图:(load chart)事件:(events)计划评审技术:(the program evaluation and review technique) 活动:(activities)松弛时间:(slack time)关键路径:(critical path)盈亏平衡分析:(breakeven analysis)线性规划:(linear programming)项目管理:(project management)脚本:(scenario)10.组织结构与设计组织结构设计:(organazational structure design)工作专门化:(work specialization)职能部门化:(functional departmentalization)产品部门化:(product departmentalization)地区部门化:(geographical departmentalization) 过程部门化:(process departmentalization)顾客部门化:(customer departmentalization)跨职能团队:(cross-functional teams)指挥链:(chain of command)职权:(authority)职责:(responsibility)统一指挥:(unity of command)管理跨度:(span of control)集权化:(centralization)分权化:(decentralization)员工授权:(employee empowerment)正规化:(formalization)机械式组织:(mechanistic organization)有机式组织:(organic organization)单件生产:(unit production)大批量生产:(mass production)连续生产:(process production)简单结构:(simple structure)职能型结构:(flanctional structure)事业部型结构:(divisional structure)团队结构:(team structure)矩阵型结构:(matrix structure)项目型结构:(project structure)无边界组织:(boundaryless organization) 虚拟组织:(virtual organization)学习型组织:(learning organization)组织结构图:(organizational charts) 11.沟通与信息技术沟通:(communication)人际沟通:(interpersonal communication) 组织沟通:(organizational communication) 信息:(message)编码:(encoding)解码:(decoding)沟通过程:(communication process)噪声:(noise)非语言沟通:(nonverbal communication) 体态语言:(body language)语调:(verbal intonation)过滤:(filtering)信息超载:(information overload)积极倾听:(active listening)正式沟通:(formal communication)非正式沟通:(informal communication)下行沟通:(upward communication)横向沟通:(lateral communication)斜向沟通:(diagonal communication)沟通网络:( communication networks)小道消息:(grape-vine)电子邮件:(e-mail)即时消息:(instant messaging)音频邮件:(voice-mail)电子数据交换:(electrinic data interchange) 电话会议:(teleconferencing)可视会议:(videoconferencing)网络会议:(webconferencing)内部互联网:(intranet)外部互联网:(Extranet)实践社区:(communities practive)12.人力资源管理高绩效工作实务:(high-performance work practices)人力资源管理过程:(human resource management process) 工会(labor union)反优先雇佣行动计划:(affirmative action)人力资源规划:(human resource planning)职务分析:(job analysis)职务说明书:(job description)职务规范:(job specification)招聘:(recruitment)解聘:(decriuitment)甄选:(selection)效度:(validity)信度:(reliability)工作抽样:(work samping)评估中心:(assessment centers)真实工作预览:(relistic job preview)上岗培训:(orientation)绩效管理系统:(performance management system)书面描述法:(written essay)关键事件法:(critical incidents)评分表法:(graphic rating scales)行为定位评分法:(behaviorally anchored rating scales) 多人比较法:(multiperson comparisons)360度反馈法:(360-degree feedback)基于技能薪酬:(skill-based pay)浮动工资:(variable pay)精简机构:(downsizing)性骚扰:(sexual harassment)基于家庭的福利:(family-friendly benefits)13.变革与创新管理组织变革:(organizational change)变革推动者:(change agent)组织发展:(organizational development)压力:(stress)14.行为的基础行为:(behavior)组织行为学:(organizational behavior)员工生产率:(employee productivity)离职率:(turnover)组织公民行为:(organizational citizen behavior)工作满意度:(job satisfaction)工作场所不当行为态度:(workplace misbehavior attitudes) 认知行为:(cognitive component)情感成分:(affective component)行为成分:(behavior component)组织承诺:(organizational commitment)组织支持感:(perceived organizational support)认知失调:(cognitive dissonance)态度调查:(attitude surveys)人格:(personality)马基雅维里主义:(machiavellianism)自尊:(self-esteem)自我控制:(self-monitoring)印象管理:(impression management)情绪:(emotion)情绪智力:(emotional Intelligence)知觉:(perception)归因理论:(attribution theory)基本归因错误:(fundamental attribution error)自我服务偏见:(self-serving bias)假设相似性:(assumed similarity)刻板印象:(stereotyping)晕轮效应:(halo effect)操作性条件反射:(operant conditioning)社会学习理论:(social learning theory)行为塑造:(shaping behavior)15.理解群体与团队群体:(group)形成阶段:(forming)震荡阶段:(storming)规范阶段:(norming)执行阶段:(performing)解体阶段:(adjourning)群体思维:(groupthink)地位:(status)社会惰化:(social loafing)群体内聚力:(group cohesiveness)冲突:(conflict)冲突的传统观点:(traditional view of conflict)冲突的人际关系观点:(human relations view of conflict)冲突的交互作用观点:(interactionist view of conflict) 积极冲突:(functional conflict)消极冲突:(disfunctional conflict)任务冲突:(task conflict)关系冲突:(relationship conflict)过程冲突:(process conflict)工作团队:(workteams)自我管理团队:(self-managed work teams)跨职能团队:(cross-functional team)虚拟团队:(virtual team)社会网络构造:(social network structure)16.激励员工动机:(motivation)需要层次理论:(hierarchy of needs theory)双因素理论:(two-factor theory)保健因素:(hygiene factors)激励因素:(motivators)三种需要理论:(three-needs theory)成就需要:(need for achievement)权力需要:(need for power)归属需要:(need for affiliation)目标设置理论:(goal-setting theory)自我效能感:(self-efficacy)强化理论:(reinforcement theory)强化物:(reinforcer)工作设计:(job design)工作扩大化:(job enlargement)工作丰富化:(job enrichment)工作深度:(job depth)工作特征模型:(job characteristics model) 公平理论:(equity theory)参照对象:(referents)分配公平:(distributive justice)程序公平:(procedural justice)期望理论:(expectancy theory)压缩工作周:(compressed workweek)弹性工作制:(flexible work hours)弹性时间制:(flextime)工作分担:(job sharing)远程办公:(telecommuting)账目公开管理:(open-book management)员工认可方案:(employee recognition programs)绩效工资方案:(pay-for-performance program)股票期权:(stock options)17.领导领导者:(leader)领导:(leadership)行为理论:(behavioral theories)独裁型风格:(authoeratic style)民主型风格:(democratic style)放任型风格:(laissez-faire style)定规维度:(initiating strueture)关怀维度:(consideration)高-高型领导者:(high-high leader)管理方格:(managerial grid)权变模型:(contingency model)最难共事着问卷:(least-preferred co-worker questionnaire) 情境领导理论:(situational leadership theory)成熟度:(readiness)领导者参与模型:(leader participation model)路径-目标理论:(path-goal theory)交易型领导者:(transactional leaders)变革型领导者:(transformational leaders) 领袖魅力型领导者:(charismatic leader) 愿景规划型领导:(visionary leadership) 法定权利:(legitimate power)强制权利:(coercive power)奖赏权力:(reward power)专家权利:(expert power)参照权利:(referent power)信誉:(credibility)信任:(trust)授权:(empowerment)18.控制的基础控制:(controlling)市场控制:(market control)官僚控制:(bureaucratic control)小集团控制:(clan control)控制过程:(control process)偏差范围:(range of variation)直接纠正行动:(immediate corrective)彻底纠正行动:(basic correvtive action)绩效:(performance)组织绩效:(organizational performance)生产率:(productivity)组织有效性:(organizational effectiveness)前馈控制:(feedforward control)同期控制:(concurrent control)走动管理:(management by walking around)反馈控制:(feedback control)经济附加值:(economic value added)市场附加值:(market valueadded)平衡计分卡:(balanced scorecard)管理信息系统:(management information system) 标杆比较:(benchmarking)员工偷窃:(employee theft)服务利润链:(service profit chain)公司治理:(corporate governance)19.运营与价值链管理运营管理:(operations management)制造型组织:(manufacturing organizations)服务型组织:(service organizations)价值链:(value chain)价值链管理:(value chain management) 组织过程:(organizational processes)知识产权:(intellectual processes)质量:(quality)批量定制:(mass customization)。
operation management
Finance
Investments Security Real estate
Marketing
Loans Commercial Industrial Financial Personal Mortgage
Accounting Auditing
Trust Department
Figure 1.1(A)
4.
Table 1.2 (cont.)
1 - 12
Ten Decision Areas
5.
6.
Layout strategy (Ch 9) › How should we arrange the facility? › How large must the facility be to meet our plan? Human resources and job design (Ch 10) › How do we provide a reasonable work environment? › How much can we expect our employees to produce?
Finance/ accounting
Disbursements/ credits Receivables Payables General ledger Funds Management Money market International exchange Capital requirements Stock issue Bond issue and recall
Table 1.2 (cont.)
1 - 15
Significant Events in OM
Figure 1.3
1 - 16
Operations Management：Decision-Making Tools
MA - 3
Learning Objectives
When you complete this chapter you should be able to:
A.5 Compute the expected value of perfect information (EVPI) A.6 Evaluate the nodes in a decision tree A.7 Create a decision tree with sequential decisions
MA - 8
Decision Tree Example
A decision node A state of nature node Favorable market 1
Unfavorable market
Construct small plant
Favorable market
2 Unfavorable market
▶ Several states of nature may occur
▶ Each has a probability of occurring
▶ Decision making under certainty
▶ State of nature is known
MA - 11
Uncertainty
Figure A.1
MA - 9
Decision Table Example
TABLE A.1 Decision Table with Conditional Values for Getz Products STATES OF NATURE ALTERNATIVES Construct large plant Construct small plant Do nothing FAVORABLE MARKET $200,000 $100,000 $ 0 UNFAVORABLE MARKET –$180,000 –$ 20,000 $ 0
《管理学》专业词汇中英文对照ABC
第二部分专业词汇中英文对照AAbsenteeism 缺勤，旷工Acceptance of authority权威的认可Accommodation 顺应（对待冲突的策略）Achievement-oriented leader 成就导向型领导者Acid test ratios 速动比率Acquisition 并购，收购Active listening 积极倾听Activities 活动Adjective rating scales描述性评分表Affective component of an attitude 态度的情感成分Affirmative action programs 确认行动计划，积极行动方案Age Discrimination in Employment Act 反就业年龄歧视法案Agreeableness 随和Agriculture wave 农业化阶段，农业时代Americans with Disabilities Act 美国人对待残疾法案Analytic decision-making style 分析型决策制定风格Answering questions 回答问题Anthropology 人类学Assaults 袭击，攻击Assertiveness 专断，肯定，强制取向（划分解决冲突风格的维度）Assumed similarity 假定相似性Attentional processes 注意过程Attitudes 态度Attribution theory 归因理论Authority 职权，权威Autocratic style of leadership 专制式领导，独裁式领导Autonomy 自主，自主权Availability heuristic 只利用现有信息决策的取巧途径，以易代难倾向Avoidance 回避，规避BBaby boomers 婴儿潮Bargaining strategies 争价策略，谈判策略Barriers to communication沟通障碍Basic corrective action彻底纠错行动Behavioral component of an attitude 态度的行为成分Behavioral science theorists 行为科学理论家Behavioral style of decision making 行为型决策制定风格Behavioral theories of leadership 行为领导理论Behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS) 行为定位评分法Behavior-related symptoms行为表征Benchmarking 标杆瞄准，基准化Big five model 五因素模型，大五模型Board representatives 员工代表Body language 身体语言“Boiled frog phenomenon”“煮青蛙现象”Borderless organizations无边界组织（内部）Boundaryless organization无界组织Bounded rationality 有限理性Brainstorming 头脑风暴法Break-even analysis 盈亏平衡分析Broad-banding 基于员工能力付酬的一种方式Bureaucracy 官僚行政组织Bureaucratic control 行政控制Business evaluation method 企业评估方法C“Calm waters” metaphor“风平浪静”观Career 职业生涯Centralization 集权，集中Certainty 确定性Chain of command 指挥链Change agent 变革推动者Change 变革，改革，变化Changing economy 变化的经济Channel 渠道，媒介Charismatic leadership theory 魅力型领导理论Civil Rights Act 民权法案Clan control 文化控制Classical approach 经典观念，经典学派Closed system 封闭系统Coach 教练Code of ethics 道德规范Coercive power 强制权力，强制权Cognitive component of an attitude 态度的认知成分Cognitive dissonance 认知失调Collaboration 合作（对待冲突的策略）Combination strategy 组合战略Communication differences沟通差异Communication process 沟通过程Communications 沟通Compensation 薪酬Compensation administration薪酬管理Competence 技能，专长，能力，胜任特征Competency-based compensation 基于能力的报酬Competitive advantage 竞争优势Competitive intelligence竞争情报Competitive strategy 竞争战略Conceptual skills 概念技能，抽象能力Conceptual style of decision making 概念型决策制定风格Concurrent control 并行控制，同期控制Conflict management 冲突管理Conflict managers 冲突管理者Conflict 冲突Conscientiousness 正直，尽责Consideration 关心，关怀Consistency 一贯性Consultants 顾问，咨询者Contingency approach 权变观念，权变学派Contingency theories of leadership 权变领导理论Contingency variable 权变变量Contingent workforce 应急工，临时工Continuous improvement 持续改进，不断改进Contract workers 合同工Control 控制Controlling 控制职能Cooperativeness 合作取向（划分解决冲突风格的维度）Core competency 核心能力，核心专长Core employees 核心员工Cost-leadership strategy成本领先战略Creative-thinking skills创造思维能力Creativity 创造力Critical incidents 关键事件法Critical path scheduling analysis 关键路径计划分析法Critical path 关键路径Crossword comprehension填字游戏，纵横字谜理解Current ratio 流动比率Customer departmentalization 按顾客划分部门Customer service 顾客服务Customer-responsive culture 顾客响应文化DData Protection Act 数据保护法案Debt to assets ratio 资产负债率Decentralization 分权，分散Decision criteria 决策准则Decision implementation 决策实施Decision making 决策制定Decision-making process决策制定过程Decision-making styles 决策风格Decision trees 决策树Decisional entrepreneur决策方面的创业家角色Decoding 解码Delegation 授权Democratic style of leadership 民主式领导Democratic-consultative leader 民主咨询式领导者Democratic-participativeleader 民主参与式领导者Departmentalization 划分部门，部门化Design 设计Deterrence-based trust 基于威慑的信任Devil’s advocate吹毛求疵者Differentiation strategy差异化战略Direct supervision 直接监督Directional plans 指导性计划Directive leader 指示型领导者Directive style of decision-making 指示型决策制定风格Discipline 纪律Disseminator 传播者Distinctiveness 独特性Distributive bargaining分配型讨价还价，零和分配争价Disturbance handler 故障排除者Division of labor 劳动分工Downsizing 缩小规模Dysfunctional conflict 功能失调的冲突，不利的冲突Ee-business 电子企业，虚拟企业e-commerce 电子商务Economic order quantity (EOQ) 经济定货批量Economics 经济学Effectiveness 效果Efficiency 效率Elderly 年长者，老年人Electronic meeting 电子会议E-mail 电子邮件E-manufacturing 电子制造Emotional intelligence (EI) 情商Emotional stability 情绪稳定Emotions 情绪Employee assessment 员工评价Employee assistance programs (EAPs) 员工帮助计划Employee benefits 员工福利Employee counseling 员工咨询Employee oriented 员工导向的Employee theft 员工偷窃Employee training 员工培训Employment planning 招聘计划，雇佣计划Empowerment skills 赋权技巧Empowerment 赋权Encoding 编码English-only rules 仅使用英语进行交流Entrepreneurs 企业家，创业家Entrepreneurship 创业Environmental scanning 环境扫描e-organization 虚拟组织Equal Pay Act 平等工资法案Equity theory 公平理论Escalation of commitment过度承诺Esteem needs 尊重需要Ethics 道德Events 事件Expectancy theory 期望理论Expert power 专家权力，专长权Expert systems 专家系统Expertise 专业知识，专门技术Extinction 消除Extranets 企业外网，广域网Extroversion 外向FFair labor standards Act公平劳动标准法案Family and Medical Leave Act家庭和医疗假期法案Federal Electronic Communications Privacy Act 联邦电子通讯隐私法案Feedback 反馈Feedback control 反馈控制Feedforward control 前馈控制Fiedler contingency leadership model 菲德勒权变领导模型Figurehead 挂名首脑Filtering （信息）过滤First-line managers 基层管理者，一线管理者Fixed-point reordering system 定点定货系统Flexibility 灵活性Flextime 弹性工作时间Focus strategy 集中化战略Forcing 强制（对待冲突的策略）Formal planning 正式计划Free-market democracies自由市场经济Functional conflict 有利的冲突Fundamental attribution error 基本归因错误Future orientation 未来导向GGantt Chart 甘特图Gender differences 性别差异General administrativetheorists 一般行政管理理论家Geographic departmentalization 按地区划分部门Global Leadership and Organizational Behavioral Effectiveness (GLOBE) 全球领导与组织行为效果Global village 地球村Globalization 全球化Goal-setting theory 目标设定理论Gossip 流言Grand strategies 总体战略Grapevine 小道消息Great Depression 大萧条Group 群体，小组Group behavior 群体行为Group cohesiveness 群体内聚力，群体凝聚力Group decision making 群体决策Group-order ranking 分组排序法Groupthink 趋同思维Growth strategy 增长战略HHalo effect 晕轮效应Harvesting 收回（投资）Heuristics 取巧途径，倾向Hierarchy of needs theory 需要（求）层次理论Homicide 行凶，杀人Honest 诚实Hostile environment 敌对的环境Human relations view of conflict 冲突的人际观Human resource inventory report 人力资源储备报告Human resource management(HRM)人力资源管理Humane orientation 人本导向Hygiene factors 保健因素IIdentification-based trust 基于认同的信任Ill-structured problems非结构化问题Immediate corrective action 立即纠错行动Immigration Reform and Control Act 移民改革和控制法案Individual ranking 个人排序法Individualism vs. collectivism 个人主义与集体主义Industrial engineering 工业工程Industrial Revolution 产业革命，工业革命Industrialization wave 工业化阶段，工业时代Informal planning 非正式计划Information handling 信息处理Information overload 信息超载Information technologists信息技术专家Information technology (IT) 信息技术Information wave 信息化阶段，信息时代Informational monitor 信息方面的监控者角色In-group collectivism 圈内集体主义，圈内合作Initiating structure 定规结构Innovation 创新Integrative bargaining整合型讨价还价，共赢争价Integrity 正直Intellectual property 智力资源Interactionist view of conflict 冲突的互动观Intergroup development 团际发展，组际发展Internet 因特网Interpersonal demands 人际需求Interpersonal skills 人际技能Interview 面试，访谈Intranets 企业内网，局域网Intrapreneurs 内企业家，内部创业者Intrinsic task motivation内在工作动机Inventory turnover ratios库存周转率ISO 9000 series ISO 9000 系列JJargon 技术用语，行话Job analysis 职务分析，工作分析Job characteristics model (JCM)职务特征模型，工作特征模型Job description 职务描述，工作描述Job enrichment 职务丰富化，工作丰富化Job involvement 工作投入Job satisfaction 工作满意度Job sharing 职务分担，工作分担（分享）Job specification 职务说明，工作说明Just-in-time (JIT) inventory systems 准时制库存系统KKaizen 改善Kanban 看板Karoshi 劳累过度而猝死Knowledge-based trust 基于了解的信任Knowledge management 知识管理Knowledge workers 知识工人LLabor relations 劳工关系Labor supply 劳动力供应Laissez-faire style of leadership 放任式领导Language 语言Layoffs 裁员Layoff-survivor sickness裁员幸存者心态（综合症）Leader-participation model 领导者参与模型Leaders 领导者Leadership 领导Leading 领导职能Learning 学习Learning organization s学习型组织Least-preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire 最难共事者问卷Legitimate power 法定权力，法定权Leverage ratios 财务杠杆比率Leverage test 杠杆能力测试Liaison 联络者Line authority 直线职权Linear programming 线性规划Liquidity 流动Liquidity test 流动性测试Load chart 负荷图Locus of control 控制中心，控制点Long-term plans 长期计划Long-term vs. short-term orientation 长期（短期）倾向Loyalty 忠心，忠诚MMachiavellianism (“Mach”)马基雅维里主义Management 管理Management by objectives (MBO) 目标管理Management by walking around (MBWA) 走动管理Management charter initiative (MCI) 管理宪章运动（英国研究管理能力的组织）Management competencies 管理能力Management processes 管理过程，管理职能Management science 管理科学Management workshop 管理研讨与实践Managerial grid 管理方格Managerial roles 管理者角色Managers 管理者，经理Mandatory Retirement Act 强制退休法案Manufacturing organization 生产企业，制造企业Market control 市场控制Mass production 大量生产Matrix structure 矩阵制组织结构Measurement 度量，衡量Mechanistic organization机械式组织Merger 兼并Message 消息，信息Middle managers 中层管理者Minimum-wage employees 最低工资员工Mission statement 使命陈述Motivation 动机，激励Motivation-hygiene theory激励保健理论，双因素理论Motivators 激励因素Motor reproduction process 机械再现过程，动力复制过程Multinational corporations (MNCs) 多国公司Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) 迈耶—布里格斯类型指标NNational culture 民族文化National Labor Relations Act 全国劳工关系法案Need 需要Need for achievement 成就需要Need for affiliation 归属需要Need for power 权力需要Negative reinforcement 负强化Negotiation 谈判Negotiator 谈判者Networked communication capabilities 网络沟通能力Networked computer systems计算机网络系统Neural network 神经网络Neutralizers 中和New Deal 新政Nominal group technique名义群体（决策）技术Nonprogrammed decisions非程序化决策Nonverbal cues 非语言暗示Norms 规范Not-for-profit organizations 非赢利性组织OOn-the-job training 在职培训Open systems 开放系统Opening comments 开场白Openness 开放Operant conditioning 操作性条件反射，操作制约Operating ratios 经营比率Operations management 作业管理Operations research (OR)运筹学Operations Research Society of America 美国运筹学会Operations test 运营能力测试Operatives 操作者，作业人员Opportunities (Strategic)机会（战略的）Oral reports 口头报告Organic organization 有机式组织Organization culture 组织文化Organization design 组织设计Organization development (OD) 组织发展Organization structure 组织结构Organizational behavior (OB) 组织行为Organizational change 组织变革Organizational citizenship 组织公民Organizational commitment组织承诺Organizational leadership组织领导Organizational processes组织过程Organizational strategy组织战略Organizations 组织Organizing 组织职能Orientation 导向，定向Outsourcing 业务外包PPaired comparison approach 两两比较法，配对比较法Parochialism 狭隘观念Part-time employees 兼职员工Path-goal theory 目标路径理论Pay-for-performance programs按业绩付酬，业绩工资制Payoff matrices 工资矩阵Perception 知觉Performance appraisal methods 绩效评估方法Performance-based compensation 基于业绩的薪酬Performance management 绩效管理Performance management system 绩效管理系统Performance orientation绩效导向Performance-simulation tests 绩效模拟测试Personal differences 个体差异Personal growth and development 个人成长与发展Personal observation 亲自观察Personality 个性PERT network analysis 计划评审技术网络分析方法Philosophy 哲学Physiological needs 生理需要Planning 计划职能Policy 政策Political science 政治科学Political skills 政治技能Polygraph Protection Act测谎器（使用）保护法案Positive reinforcement 正强化Power 权力Power distance 权力差距Pregnancy Discrimination Act（反）孕期歧视法案Presentations 演讲Principles of management管理原则Privacy Act 隐私权法案Proactive personality 主动个性Problem 问题Procedure 程序Process 过程，流程Process approach 过程观念，过程学派Process consultation 过程咨询Process departmentalization 按流程划分部门Process production 流程生产Product departmentalization 按产品划分部门Production oriented 面向生产的，生产导向Productivity 生产率Profit margin on revenues ratio 边际销售利润率Profit organizations 盈利性组织Profitability 盈利性，收益性Profitability ratios 收益性比率Programmed decisions 程序化决策Project 项目Project management 项目管理Protégé新手，学生Psychological symptoms 心理表征Psychology 心理学Punishment 惩罚Pygmalion effect 皮格马利翁效应QQuality 质量Quality control 质量控制Quality management 质量管理Quantitative approach to management 管理定量方法Quantity of life vs. quality of life 生活的数量（质量），追求物质（质量）的生活观念Queuing theory 排队论RRailroad Unemployment Insurance Act 铁路工人失业保险法案Range of variation （允许）差异范围，偏差范围Ratio analysis 比率分析Rational 理性的，合理的Rational decision making理性决策Realistic job preview (RJP) 真实的工作预览，面试时向求职者提供真实的信息Recruitment 招聘Referent 参量，参照对象Referent power 感召权力，感召权Reinforcement processes强化过程Reliability 信度，可靠性Representative heuristic只依据自己熟悉的事物判断与决策的取巧途径，以偏盖全倾向Resistance to change 变革抵制力量，变革障碍Resource allocator 资源分配者Responsibility 职责，责任Resume preparation 简历准备Retention processes 保持过程Retrenchment strategy 收缩战略Return on investment ratio 投资收益率Reverse mentoring 反向指导Reward power 奖赏权力，奖赏权Rewards 奖励，奖赏Rightsizing 规模调整Ringisei 全票通过，一致同意Risk 风险Risk taking 风险承担Role 角色Role ambiguity 角色模糊Role conflicts 角色冲突Role demands 角色要求Role overload 角色超载，任务超负荷Rule 准则，规则Rumors 谣传，流言SSafety needs 安全需要Sarbanes-Oxley Act 萨班斯－奥克斯利法案Satisfice 满意决策Scheduling tools 计划工具Scientific management 科学管理Selection process 选择过程，甄选过程Selective perception 选择性知觉Selectivity 选择性Self-actualization needs自我实现需要Self-Assessment Library自我测试库Self-esteem (SE) 自尊Self-fulfilling prophecy自证预言Self-monitoring 自我监控Self-serving bias 自我服务偏见，自利偏见Senior Citizen’s Freedom to Work Act 年长公民自由工作法案Service organization 服务型组织Sexual harassment 性骚扰Short-term plans 短期计划Simple structure 简单式组织结构Single-use plans 一次性计划，单项计划Situational approach 情境（权变）观念，情境（权变）学派Situational leadership (SL) theory 情境领导理论Six sigma 六σ（一种管理理念）Skill variety 技能多样性Slack time 松弛时间，富余时间Small business 小企业Social learning theory 社会学习理论Social loafing 滥竽充数现象Social needs 社会需要Social obligation 社会义务Social responsibility 社会责任Social responsiveness 社会响应Social security 社会安全Sociology 社会学Span of control 管理幅度，控制跨度Specific plans 具体计划Spokesperson 发言人Stability strategy 稳定战略Staff authority 参谋职权Stakeholders 利害相关者，利益相关者Standard 标准Standing plans 常用性计划，标准计划Statistical reports 统计报告Status 地位Stem cell research 干细胞研究Stereotyping 墨守陈规，因循守旧Stock options 股票期权Strategic alliances 战略联盟Strategic human resource management process 战略人力资源管理过程Strategic management process 战略管理过程Strategic planning 战略规划Strategic plans 战略计划Strategic problem solving战略性的问题解决Strengths (Strategic) 优势（战略的）Stress 压力Stress interview 压力面试Stressor 压力因素，压力源Structural differentiation 结构差异Subcontractors 转包商Supervisors 监督者Supply chain management供应链管理Supportive leader 支持型领导者Survey feedback 调查反馈SWOT analysis SWOT分析Systems approach 系统观念，系统学派TTactical plans 战术计划Task identity 任务同一性Task significance 任务重要性Team leaders 团队领导者Team leadership 团队领导Team-based structure 基于团队的组织结构Team-building 团队建设Technical skills 技术技能Technology 技术Telecommuting 远程办公，电子通勤Teleconferencing 电子会议，电信会议Temporary employees 临时员工Theory X X 理论Theory Y Y 理论Therbligs 基本动作Threats 威胁360-degree appraisal 360?评估Three-needs theory 三种需要理论Time interest earned ratio 已获利息倍数Tomorrow’s workforce 未来的劳动力Top managers 高层管理者Total assets turnover ratio总资产周转率Traditional view of conflict 冲突的传统点Trait theories of leadership 特质领导理论Transactional leaders 事务型领导者Transformation process 变革过程，转换过程Transformational leaders变革型领导者Transnational corporations (TNCs) 跨国公司Troubleshooters 麻烦解决者Trust 信任Turnover 流动，周转Type A personality A型个性Type B personality B型个性UUncertainty 不确定性Uncertainty avoidance 不确定性规避Unit coordinators 单位（部门）协调者Unit production 小批量生产Unity of command 统一指挥Unsatisfactory performance 令人不满意的业绩. labor shortage 美国劳动力短缺VValidity 效度Valuation techniques 评价方法Value 价值Value chain 价值链Value chain management 价值链管理Verbal intonation 语调Videoconferencing 视频会议，电视会议Visionary leadership 富于远见的领导Vocational Rehabilitation Act职业恢复法案WWeaknesses 劣势Wellness programs 福利计划Well-structured problems结构化问题“White-water rapids” metaphor “急流险滩”观“Whiz Kids”“神童”Wireless communications无限通讯Women 妇女Work councils 员工委员会，工会Work process engineering工作流工程Work specialization 工作专业化，劳动分工Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act 工人调整与再培训告知法案Workforce diversity 劳动力多样化，员工多样化Workplace violence 工作场所暴力Written essay 书面总结Written reports 书面报告Written tests 书面测试，笔试。
ITIL题库
ITIL题库1、Which process or function isresponsible for monitoring activitiesand events in the IT infrastructure? 在IT基础架构中下列哪个进程或职能是负责监控活动和事件的？A. Service level management 服务级别管理B. IT operations management IT运营管理C. Capacity management 能力管理D. Incident management 事故管理Answer：B4、At which stage of the service lifecycle should the processes necessary to operate a new service be defined? 在服务生命周期中的哪个阶段来定义执行新服务的必要流程？A. Service design: Design the processes 服务设计：设计流程B. Service strategy: Develop the offerings 服务策略：开发产品C. Service transition: Plan and prepare for deployment 服务转型：计划和准备部署D. Service operation: IT operations management 服务执行： IT运维管理Answer：A5 Why are public frameworks, such as ITIL, attractive when compared to proprietary knowledge? 与专有知识相比，为什么公共框架较有吸引力，如ITIL？A. Proprietary knowledge may be difficult to adopt, replicate or transfer since it is often undocumented专有知识可能很难采用，复制或转移，因为它往往是无证B. Public frameworks are always cheaper to adopt 采用公共框架总是更便宜C. Public frameworks are prescriptive and tell you exactly what to do公共框架是指令性的，并准确地告诉你该怎么做D. Proprietary knowledge has been tested in a wide range of environments专有知识已在各种环境中进行了测试Answer：A6、Which of the following is an objective of business relationship management?下列哪项是企业关系管理的目的？A.To identify patterns of business activity 确定业务活动的模式B. To ensure high levels of customer satisfaction 为保证高水平的客户满意度C. To secure funding to manage the provision of services保障服务管理资金D. To ensure strategic plans for IT services exist 为现有IT服务确保战略规划Answer：B7、The design of IT services requires the effective and efficient use of "the four Ps". What are these four Ps? IT服务的设计要求有效地利用“四个P”。
Performance Evaluation of an Operating System Transaction Manager
PERFORMANCE EV ALUATION OF AN OPERATING SYSTEMTRANSACTION MANAGERAkhil Kumar and Michael StonebrakerUniversity of CaliforniaBerkeley, Ca., 94720AbstractA conventional transaction manager implemented by a database management system (DBMS) was compared against one implemented within an operating system (OS) in a variety of simulated situations. Models of concurrency control and crash recovery were constructed for both environ-ments, and the results of a collection of experiments are presented in this paper.The results indi-cate that an OS transaction manager incurs a severe performance disadvantage and appears to be feasible only in special circumstances.1. INTRODUCTIONIn recent years there has been considerable debate concerning moving transaction manage-ment services to the operating system.This would allow concurrency control and crash recovery services to be available to any clients of a computing service and not just to clients of a data man-ager.Moreover, this would allow such services to be written once, rather than implemented within several different subsystems individually.Early proposals for operating system-based transaction managers are discussed in [MITC82, SPEC83, BROW81]. More recently,additional proposals have surfaced, e.g: [CHAN86, MUEL83, PU86].On the other hand, there is some skepticism concerning the viability of an OS transaction manager for use in a database management system.Problems associated with such an approach have been described in [TRAI82, STON81, STON84, STON85]. and revolve around the expected performance of an OS transaction manager.In particular,most commercial data man-agers implement concurrency control using two-phase locking [GRAY78]. A data manager has substantial semantic knowledge concerning its processing environment. Hence,it can distinguish index records from data records and implements a two-phase locking protocol only on the latter objects. Special protocols for locking index records are used which do not require holding index locks until the end of a transaction.On the other hand, an OS transaction manager cannot imple-ment such special tactics unless considerable semantic information can be given to it.Crash recovery is usually implemented by writing before and after images of all modified data objects to a log file.To ensure correct operation, such log records must be written to disk before the corresponding data records, and the name write ahead log (W AL) has been used to This research was sponsored by a grant from the IBM Corporationdescibe this protocol [GRAY81, REUT84].Crash recovery also benefits from a specialized semantic environment. For instance, data managers again distinguish between data and index objects and apply the W AL protocol only to data objects.Changes to indexes are usually not logged at all since they can be reconstructed at recovery time by the data manager using only the information in the log record for the corresponding data object and information on the existence of indexes found in the system catalogs.An OS transaction manager will not have this sort of knowledge and will typically rely on implementing a W AL protocol for all physical objects.As a result, a data manager can optimize both concurrency control and crash recovery using specialized knowledge of the DBMS environment. The purpose of this paper is to quantify the expected performance difference that would be incurred between a DBMS and an OS transaction manager.Consequently,we discuss in Section 2.1 the assumptions made about the simulation of a conventional DBMS transaction manager In Section 2.2 we turn to discussing the environment assumed in an OS transaction environment and then discuss intuitively the differences that we would expect between the two environments. Section3presents the design of our simulator for both environments, while Section 4 closes with a collection of experiments using our simulator. 2. TRANSACTION MANAGEMENT APPROACHESIn this section, we briefly review schemes for implementing concurrency control and crash recovery within a conventional data manager and an operating system transaction manager and highlight the main differences between the two alternatives.2.1. DBMS Transaction ManagementConventional data managers implement concurrency control using one of the following algorithms: dynamic (or two-phase) locking [GRAY78], time stamp techniques [REED78, THOM79], and optimistic methods [KUNG81].Several studies have evaluated the relative performance of these algorithms.This work is reported in [GALL82, AGRA85b, LIN83, CARE84, FRAN83, TAY84]. In[AGRA85a] it has been pointed out that the conclusions of these studies were contradictory and the differences have been explained as resulting from differing assumptions that were made about the availability of resources. It has been shown that dynamic locking works best in a situation of limited resources, while optimistic methods perform better in an infinite-resource situation.Dynamic locking has been chosen as the concurrency control mechanism in our study because a limited-resource situa-tion seems more realistic.The simulator we used assumes that page level locks are set on 2048 byte pages on behalf of transactions which are held until the transaction commits.Moreover, index lev e l locks are held at the page level and are released when the transaction is finished with the corresponding page.Crash recovery mechanisms that have been implemented in data managers include write-ahead logging (WAL) and shadow page techniques.These techniques have been discussed in [HAER83, REUT84].From their experience with implementing crash recovery in System R, the designers concluded that a WAL approach would have worked better than the shadow page scheme they used [GRAY81]. In a another recent comparison study of various integrated concur-rency control and crash recovery techniques [AGRA85b], it has been shown that two-phase lock-ing and write-ahead logging methods work better than several other schemes which were consid-ered. In view of this a W AL technique was simulated in our study.We assume that the before and after images of each changed record are written to a log.Changes to index records are not logged, but are assumed to be reconstructed by recovery code.2.2. OS Transaction ManagementWe assume an OS transaction manager which provides transparent support for transac-tions. Hence,a user specifies the beginning and end of a transaction, and all objects which he reads or writes in between must be locks in the appropriate mode and held until the end of the transaction. Clearly,if page level locking is selected, then performance disasters will result on index and system catalog pages.Hence, we assume that locking is done at the subpage level, and assume that each page is divided into 128 byte subpages which are individually locked. Coonse-quently,when a DBMS record is accessed, the appropriate subpages must be identified abd locked in the correct mode.Furthermore, the OS must maintain a log of every object written by a transaction so that in the event of a crash or a transaction abort, its effect on the database may be undone or redone. We assume that the before and after images of each 100 byte subpage are placed in a log by the OS transaction manager.These entries will have to be moved to disk before the corresponding dirty pages to obey the WAL protocol.The reason for choosing this level of locking and logging granularity is because larger gran-ularities seem clearly unworkable, and this particular granule size is close to the one proposed in an OS transaction manager for the 801 [CHAN86].2.3. Main DifferencesThe main differences between the two approaches are:the DBMS transaction manager will acquire fewer locksthe DBMS transaction manager will hold locks for shorter timesthe DBMS will have a much smaller logThe data manager locks 2048 byte pages while the OS manager locks 100 byte subpages. Moroever, the DBMS sets only short-term locks on index pages while the OS managr holds index level locks until the end of a transaction.The larger granule size in the DBMS solution will inhibit parallelism; however the shorter lock duration in the indexes will have the opposite effect. Moreover, the larger number of OS locks will increase CPU time spent in locking.The third difference is that the log is much larger for the OS alternative.The data manager only logs changes made to the data records.Corresponding updates made to the index are not logged because the index can be reconstructed at recovery time from a knowledge of the data updates. For example, when a new record is inserted, the data manager does not enter the changes made to the index into the log.It merely writes an image of the new record into the log along with a 20-byte message indicating the name of the operation performed, in this case an insert. On the other hand, the OS transaction manager will log the index insertion. In this case half of an index page must be rearranged, and the before and after images for about 10 subpages must be logged.and after-images of all these sub-pages.These differences are captured in the simulation models for the data manager and the OS transaction manager described in the next section.3. SIMULATION MODELA100 Mb database consisting of 1 million 100-byte records was simulated.Since sequen-tial access to such a large database will clearly be very slow, it was assumed that all access to the database takes place via secondary indexes maintained on up to 5 fields.Each secondary index was a3-level B-tree. To simplify the models it was assumed that only the leaf level pages in theindex will be updated.Consequently,the higher level pages are not write-locked. The effect of this assumption is that the cost associated with splitting of nodes at higher levels of the B-tree index is neglected. Since node-splitting occurs only occasionally,this will not change the results significantly.The simulation is based on a closed queuing model of a single-site database system.The number of transactions in such a system at any time is kept fixed and is equal to the multipro-gramming level, MPL, which is a parameter of the study.Each transaction consists of several read, rewrite, insert and delete actions, and its workload is generated according to a stochastic model described below. Modules within the simulator handle lock acquisition and release, buffer management, disk I/O management, CPU processing, writing of log information, and commit processing. Each job is assigned CPU time in a round-robin manner.CPU and disk costs involved in traversing the index and locating and manipulating the desired record are simulated.First, appropriate locks are acquired on pages or sub-pages to be accessed.In case a lock request is not granted because another transaction holds a conflicting lock, the transaction has to wait until the conflicting transaction releases its lock.Next a check is made to determine whether the requested page exists in the buffer pool.If the page is not in the buffer,a disk I/O is initiated, and the job is made "not ready".When the requested pages become available, the CPU cost for processing it is simulated.This cycle of lock acquisition, disk I/O (if necessary), and processing is repeated until all the actions for a given transaction are completed.The amount of log informa-tion that will be written to disk is computed from the workload of the transaction and the time for this task is accounted for.When a transaction completes, a commit record is written to the log in memory and I/O for this log page is initiated.As soon as this commit record is moved to disk the transaction is considered to be over and a new transaction is accepted into the system.Check-points are simulated at 5 minute intervals. Deadlock detection is done by a timeout mechanism. The maximum duration for which a transaction is allowed to run is determined adaptively.Figure 1 lists the major parameters of the simulation.The parameters that were varied along with the range of variation are listed in Figure 2.Figure 3 gives the values assigned to the fixed parameters.The number of disks available,numdisks,was varied between 2 and 10. cpu_mips,the processing power of the cpu in mips, was kept at 2.0.The cpu cost of various actions was defined in terms of the number of cpu instructions they would consume.For exam-ple,cpu_lock the cost of executing a lock-unlock pair,was initially kept at 2000 instructions and reduced in intervals to 200 instructions.In order to simulate a real-life interactive situation, two types of transactions, short and long, were generated with equal probability.The number of actions in a short transaction was uniformly distributed between 10 and 20.Long transactions were defined as a series of two short transactions separated by a think time which varied uniformly between 10 and 20 seconds.A cer-tain fraction,frac1,of the actions were updates and the rest were reads.Another fraction,frac2, of the updates were inserts or deletes.These two fractions were drawn from uniform distributions with mean values equal to modify1and modify2,respectively,which were parameters of the experiments.Rewrite actions are distinguished from inserts and deletes because the cost of processing these actions is different. A read or a rewrite action affects only one index while an insert or a delete action would affect all indexes. The index and data pages to be accessed by each action are generated at random.Assuming 100 entries per page in a perfectly balanced 3-level B-tree index, it follows that the second-level index page is chosen at random from 100 pages, while the third-level index page is chosen at random from 10,000 pages.The data page is chosen at random from 71,000 pages.(Since the data record size is 100 bytes and the fill factor of each data page is 70%,buf_size:size of buffer in pagescpu_ins_del:cpu cost of insert or delete actioncpu_lock:cost of acquiring lockcpu_IO:cpu cost of disk IOcpu_mips:processing power of cpu in mipscpu_present:cpu overhead of presentation servicescpu_read:cpu cost of read actioncpu_write:cpu cost of rewrite actiondisk_IO:time for one disk I/O in mili secmodify1:av e rage fraction of update actions in a transactionmodify2:number of inserts, deletes as a fraction of all updatesMPL:Multiprogramming Levelnumdisks:number of disksnumindex:number of indexespage_size:size of a pagesub_page_size:size of a sub-page in bytesFigure 1: Major parameters of the simulationthere are 71,000 data pages.)The main criterion for performance evaluation was the overall average transaction process-ing time,av_proc_time.This is defined as:Total number of transactions completedTotal time takenNotice that av_proc_time is the inverse of throughput.Another criterion,performance gap,was buf_size:250,......,1000 pagescpu_lock:200,......2000 instructionscpu_mips:2.0modify1:5,....,50MPL:5,......,20numdisks:2,........,10numindex:1,2,......,5Figure 2: Range of variation of the parametersused to express the relative difference between the performance of the two alternatives.Perfor-mance gap is defined as:(av_proc_time os−av_proc_time data)x100av_proc_time datawhereav_proc_time os:transaction processing time for the OS alternativeav_proc_time dm:transaction processing time for the data manager alternative4. RESULTS OF THE EXPERIMENTSIn this section we discuss the results of various experiments which were conducted to com-pare the performance of the two alternatives.4.1. Varying Multiprogramming LevelIn the first set of experiments, the multiprogramming level was varied between 5 and 20. The number of disks,numdisks was2and the cost of executing a lock-unlock pair,cpu_lock was 2000 instructions.Modify1was kept at 25 which means that on the average, 25% of the actions were updates and 75% actions were reads.Modify2was made 50 indicating that on the average about half the updates were rewrites and the remainder were inserts or deletes.The average trans-action processing times for various multiprogramming levels are shown in Figure 4.The figure shows that the average transaction processing time,av_proc_time falls sharply when the multiprogramming level increases from 5 to 8 because the utilization of disk and cpu resources increases.The improvement in av_proc_time,however, tapers off as MPL increases beyond 15 because the utilization of one of the resources saturates.The figure also shows that the data manager performs consistently better by more than 20%.When MPL is 15 or 20, the perfor-mance gap is 27%.This gap is due to the increased level of contention in the indexes and the extra cost of writing more information into the log.The OS transaction manager writes a log which is approximately 30 times larger than the data manager log.cpu_IO:3000 instructionscpu_present:10000 instructionscpu_read:7000 instructionscpu_write:12000 instructionsdisk_IO:30 mspage_size:2048 bytessub_page_size:100 bytesFigure 3: Values assigned to fixed parameters210310file graph4Figure 4: Average processing time as a function of multiprogramming level4.2. Varying Transaction MixIn order to examine how the transaction mix affects the performance of the two alternatives, modify1,the average fraction of modify actions (i.e., the sum of rewrite, delete and insert actions) as a percentage of the total number of actions was varied and the average transaction processing time was determined.The value of modify1affects the logging activity in the system, and, conse-quently,it was also expected to alter the relative performance of the two alternatives.Modify1was kept variously between 5 and 50.The multiprogramming level was kept at 15, while the cost of setting a lock was 2000 instructions.The average transaction processing time as a function of modify1is shown in Figure 5.The figure shows that av_proc_time grows linearly with increasing modify1in both cases, although the slope of the line is much greater for the oper-ating system alternative.When the average fraction of modify operations is 5, the performance gap between the data manager and the OS transaction manager is small (7%).However, the gap widens as modify1increases and becomes 45% when modify1is 50.There are two reasons for this behavior.First, contention is less when modify1is small. Contention occurs when one transaction tries to write-lock an object which is already read-locked by another transaction or when an attempt is made to lock an object which is write-locked by another transaction.When the fraction of modify actions is small, fewer write-locks are applied, and, hence, contention is reduced.Secondly,since fewer objects are write-locked, the amount of data logged for crash recovery purposes is also reduced.Both these factors benefit the OS alter-native more than they do the data manager.Therefore, the relative performance of the OS trans-action manager improves.These experiments show that the transaction mix has a drastic effect on the relative perfor-mance of the two alternatives being considered.It appears that the OS transaction manager would be viable when updates are few(say,less than 20%).However, when the fraction of update actions in a transaction is high, the extra overhead incurred in performing transaction manage-ment within the OS is severe.4.3. High Conflict SituationThe next set of experiments was conducted to see how the two alternatives would behave when the level of conflict is increased.Reducing the size of the database increases the conflict level because the probability that two concurrent transactions will access the same object becomes greater.Therefore, in order to compare the two alternatives, the size of the database was used as a surrogate for the level of conflict, and av_proc_time was determined for various values of database size.The transaction size was kept constant while the size of the database was210310file graph5Figure 5: Average processing time as a function of transaction mixreduced in intervals from 100 Mb to 6.4 Mb.The number of entries in each index page was reduced correspondingly in such a way that the B-tree remained balanced.For example, if the number of entries on an index page of a 3-level B-tree is reduced from 100 to 50, and the B-tree is kept perfectly balanced, there would be 125,000 entries in the leaf-level pages of the B-tree index. Since a record in our model is 100 bytes wide, this corresponds to a 12.5 Mb database.In each case, the simulator was modified for the new size of the database.The multipro-gramming level was kept at 10 and modify1was50. Figure6shows the behavior of the two alter-natives for various database sizes.The database size is plotted on the X-axis on a logarithmic scale. Note that a smaller value for the database size indicates a higher level of conflict. The av_proc_time is plotted on the Y-axis.In both cases,av_proc_time increases as the database becomes smaller.Furthermore, the performance gap widens from 28% for a 100 Mb database to 51% for a 6.4 Mb database.This means that the performance of the OS transaction manager drops more sharply than that of the data manager.This happens because contention increases faster in the OS transaction manager than in the data manager since the former holds locks on the index pages for a longer duration. This factor overshadows any advantages that the OS alternative gets from applying finer granular-ity locks.This experiment illustrates that in high-conflict situations the OS alternative becomes clearly unacceptable.210310file graph6Figure 6: Transaction processing time for various database sizes4.4. Adding More DisksWith 2 disks and a 2 mips cpu the system became I/O-bound.To make it less I/O-bound, the number of disks,numdisks was increased in intervals from 2 to 10, and av_proc_time was determined for both alternatives.MPL was kept at 20 and cpu_lock was made equal to 2000 instructions. The av e rage transaction processing time as a function of number of disks is plotted in Figure 7.Tw o observations should be made.First, when numdisks is increased from 8 to 10 the improvement in performance is negligible. Therefore,with 8 disks the system becomes cpu-bound. Secondly,with 2 disks the performance gap is 27% while with 10 disks it widens to 60%. This means that the performance gap in a cpu-bound system is two times as large as in an I/O-bound system.When the system is I/O-bound the gap is mainly because the OS transaction man-ager has to write a larger log and, therefore, it consumes greater I/O resources.On the other hand, when the system is cpu-bound, the gap is explained by the greater cpu cycles that the OS transaction manager consumes in applying finer granularity locks.4.5. Lower Cost of LockingThe experiments described above show that the OS transaction manager consumes far more cpu resources than the data manager.This occurs because, as explained earlier,the OS transac-tion manager must acquire more locks than the data manager.In this section we have varied the cost of lock acquisition in order to examine its effect on the performance of the two alternatives. Basically,the cost of executing a lock-unlock pair which was originally 2000 cpu instructions was reduced in intervals to 200 instructions.The purpose of these experiments was to evaluate what benefits were possible if cpu_lock could be lowered through hardware assistance.It is obvious that a reduced cost of locking would improve system throughput only if the system were cpu-bound.This was done by increasing the number of disks to 8.The multipro-gramming level was kept at 20.Figure 8 shows the av_proc_time of the two alternatives for vari-ous values of cpu_lock.The performance of the OS transaction manager improves as cpu_lock is reduced while the data manager performance does not change.Consequently,the performance gap reduces from 54% to 30% as cpu_lock falls from 2000 instructions to 200 instructions.In the case of the data manager,the cost of acquiring locks is a very small fraction of the total cpu cost of processing a transaction, and therefore, a lower cpu_lock does not make it faster.On the other hand, since the OS transaction manager acquires approximately five times as many locks as the data manager this cost is a significant component of the total cpu cost of processing a transaction210310file graph7Figure 7: Effect of increasing disks on transaction processing time210310file graph8Figure 8: Effect of cost of locking on average transaction processing timeand reducing it has an appreciable impact on its performance.These experiments show that a lower cpu_lock would improve the relative performance of the OS transaction manager considerably in a cpu-bound situation.However, inspite of this improvement, the data manager is still 30% faster.4.6. Buffer Size and Number of IndexesTw o more sets of experiments were done to examine how the buffer size and the number of indexes affect the relative performance of the two alternatives. In both sets,MPL was15, and modify1and modify2were 25 and 50, respectively.The buffer size which was 500 pages in all of the above experiments was kept variously at 250, 750, and 1000 pages.Table 1 shows the aver-age transaction processing time as a function of buffer size for the two situations. The relative difference between the performance of the two alternatives is approximately 28% in all cases. Therefore, the buffer size does not seem to affect the relative performance of the OS transaction manager as compared to the data manager.In all of the experiments above,the number of indexes was kept at 5.In the next set of experiments the parameter numindex was varied to see how it affects the performance gap.Table 2shows the average transaction processing times and the performance gap for the two alterna-tives when numindex is varied from 1 to 5.When numindex is 5 the performance gap between the two alternatives is27% whereas with only one index it reduces to 9%.This occurs because asBuffer Size250 500 7501000Manager 1.64 1.57 1.50 1.46DataManager 2.10 2.00 1.92 1.88OSGap28% 27% 28%29%PerformanceTable 1: Average processing time for various buffer sizesdescribed above,all the indexes hav e to be updated for insert and delete actions.With fewer indexes the amount of updating activity is reduced and fewer locks have to be acquired. Hence the performance gap is reduced.This shows that if the number of indexes on the database is fewer,the relative performance of the OS transaction manager improves.5. Conclusion5.1. Implications for FeasibilityThe performance of an OS transaction manager was compaed with that of a conventional data manager in a variety of situations.With few exceptions, the OS transaction manager uni-formly performed more than 20% worse than the data manager which, in our opinion, is a sub-stantial performance penalty.The effect of several important parameters on the relative perfor-mance of the two alternatives was studied and analyzed.It was found that the OS transaction manager is viable when:the fraction of modify actions is lownumber of indexes on the database is lowconflict level is lowIf the above conditions do not hold then the performance of the OS transaction manager becomes unacceptable.Such restricted viability does not seem to justify the OS alternative.The effect of a lower cost of setting locks within the OS transaction manager was also examined. However, even when this cost was made very small, the OS alternative continued to be more than 20% inferior to the data manager.5.2. Future DirectionsIt is evident from our experiments that in order to make the operating system solution really viable it is necessary to provide a greater level of semantics into the OS.Such semantics will take the form of an ability to distinguish between data and index, and an algorithm for updating an index. Additionally,a capability has to be provided for the user to define the structure of the index and the data pages.All this will certainly make the operating system considerably more complex and whether it is worthwhile is an open question.Number of Indexes12345Manager0.95 1.12 1.27 1.42 1.57DataManager 1.04 1.37 1.58 1.80 2.00OSPerformanceGap9% 22%24% 27% 27%Table 2: Average processing time for varying number of indexes。
综合航空电子系统结构及相关技术(上)
编排体例：文章题目期号—页码……………………………………………………………………………中文期刊文选：《国际航空》贝尔公司推出最新型民用直升机——贝尔 4 0 7…………………………………１－１８空中客车计划推出 A 3 3 0 加程型…………………………………………………１－４１仅用发动机油门控制航迹——介绍一种有效的应急飞机系统………………１－５９人为因素对航空器维修质量的影响…………………………………………………２－５如何处理波音7 3 7 重着陆后机身蒙皮起皱…………………………………………２－８世界支线飞机的发展………………………………………………………………２－１０发动机制造商面临新机遇、新挑战——浅谈9 0 年代支线飞机发动机……………………………………………………２－２１柯林斯ＡＶＳＡＴ系列精密卫星导航系统…………………………………２－４４避免空中相撞——介绍ＴＣＡＳ新发展……………………………………………３－２８X——31坠机事故分析………………………………………………………………３－２９减少停机坪事故……………………………………………………………………３－３１飞行安全中人的因素………………………………………………………………３－３３飞行事故调查中的环境危险因素…………………………………………………３－３５航空发动机发展的作用、特点和管理要点…………………………………………３－４９桨扇发动机的发展…………………………………………………………………３－５２小型航空发动机的新用途…………………………………………………………３－５４专家系统在航空发动机维修中的应用……………………………………………３－５６介绍一种新的通用航空层流翼型…………………………………………………４－１９通用航空发动机的特点、现状和市场分析…………………………………………４－２３研制中的通用航空发动机——ＰＷ５００………………………………………４－２７国外新一代教练机的发展趋势……………………………………………………４－３２视景增强驾驶舱的前驱——霍尼韦尔公司的新型平视仪………………………４－４９一种检查蜂窝材料的新方法——红外线成像技术…………………………４－５自动化驾驶舱发展中出现的问题…………………………………………………４－５５综合航空电子系统结构及相关技术（上）………………………………………５－７２面向ＦＡＮＳ的新一代航空电子备……………………………………………５－７５民航电子设备的新时代……………………………………………………５－７９超大型飞机设计中的一些考虑………………………………………………………６－５波音确定未来７４７设计案…………………………………………………………６－５大型商用飞机发动机及其市场析……………………………………………………６－９提高商用飞机发动机及其可靠性的施……………………………………………６－１２综合航空电子系统结构及其相关技术（下）………………………………………６－５６着陆阶段飞行事故的心理学分析…………………………………………………６－５８按照人机工效学设计的直升机座椅………………………………………………７－１３道格拉斯研究ＭＤ－９５加长型…………………………………………………７－２１高难度的设计波音７７７增升系统介绍……………………………………７－２５预防飞机撞地………………………………………………………………………７－２８微型涡轮发动机的发展和应用前景………………………………………………７－４４未来的固定翼技术…………………………………………………………………７－４７ＭＤ－９０客机的结构设计及工艺特点分析……………………………………７－５２麦道公司不断改进ＭＤ－１１性能………………………………………………８－７蓬勃发展的中国民航飞行员培训业………………………………………………８－１７国航飞行模拟器训练模式及其资源的利用………………………………………８－２０现代航空发动机的自动测试系（上）……………………………………………８－５０ＣＦＭ５６发动机的几种新改型……………………………………………………８－５１老龄飞机的结构完整性问题及其对策……………………………………………８－５４几种直升机的维护性设计…………………………………………………………８－５７燃气涡轮发动机的外场清洗技术…………………………………………………８－５９变害为利的“翼尖涡轮”…………………………………………………………９－１７普惠与ＧＥ合作研制新波音７４７发动机………………………………………９－３５高水平的MD—95驾舱……………………………………………………………９－３７空中停车必须高度重视——发动机维修中存在的问题初析……………………９－４３现代航空发动机的自动测试系（下）……………………………………………９－５１艾逊公司的第一种民用涡扇发动机—ＡＥ－３００１…………………………９－５５飞行事故中的人为失误与飞行员训练……………………………………………９－５７ＧＥ公司为支线飞机研制改型发动机………………………………………１１０－４０航空发动机的鸟撞问题及其解决办法…………………………………………１０－５０人体动态响应模型在航空上的应用……………………………………………10 – 57大过载引起的意识丧失分析…………………………………………………10 – 59新航行系统及其在我国的发展……………………………………………… 10 – 45机载电子设备微组装技术（上）………………………………………………11 – 32模块化航空电子仿真系统浅谈………………………………………………11 – 34飞机检测设备的发展…………………………………………………………11 – 45高安全特性飞机的时代必然性及思考……………………………………11–46整体叶盘在航空发动机上的应用和发展………………………………………12 – 50机载电子设备微组装技术（下）…………………………………………………12 – 52《民航经济与技术》A S R 2 3 R R—1 6 L波段远程雷达将落户首都国际机场……………………１－３４航空卫星通信的过去、现在和未来（上）………………………………………１－３６G P S在商用航空上的应用前景…………………………………………………１－４０波音7 5 7 飞机驾驶舱风挡玻璃的使用及维护………………………………１－４３加强对机组进行人为因素知识培训……………………………………………２－３６走出误区——谈最底设备清单（M E L）………………………………………２－４２正确认识和使用“M E L” ………………………………………………………２－４４航空卫星通信的过去、现在和未来（下）………………………………………２－５２减少人为差错争取飞行正常……………………………………………………２－５５我国首架G P S/R N P/A C A R S能力的B7 3 7飞机…………………………３－２２民航飞行员疲劳的研究…………………………………………………………３－３１航空电子设备选型………………………………………………………………３－３９波音飞机电气接头的维护………………………………………………………３－４９卫星导航的差分和增强应用………………………………………………………４－２７影响飞机持续适航性的因素分析…………………………………………………４－３９防止J T 8 D—2 1 7A发动机 F O D的维护管理计划…………………………４－４６论热处理在机务维修中的作用和地位……………………………………………４－４８波音7 3 7—3 0 0/5 0 0飞机襟翼故障初探……………………………………４－５０航油污染对发动机的危害及其预防……………………………………………４－５１数字式数据应用与飞机维修………………………………………………………４－５２A 3 0 0—6 0 0结构检查抽样飞机选择法………………………………………４－５５关于P W 1 2 7 C发动机有关问题的探讨………………………………………４－５７1 9 9 5年世界民航恶性飞行事故计…………………………………………４－５９４发动机空中停车的故障分析与预防措施………………………………………５－３５C R M训练：给航空医学提出的新课题…………………………………………５－３７防止非法干扰确保民航全……………………………………………………５－３９飞机的磁化………………………………………………………………………５－４２直升机闪电防护符合性验证的几个题…………………………………………５－５０通过L B A 对A M E C O 审查看J A A 对维修单位适航管理的思路及方法………………………………………………………５－５２以可靠性为中心维修理论的初步践……………………………………………５－５６波音公司加紧研制新的 B 7 3 7系列………………………………………………５－６３T H O M S O N 5 1 2D与A W A 5 1D型D V O R比较分析……………………………………………………………６－１９标准英语通话与飞行安全………………………………………………………６－２２利用雷达加强雷暴天气监测分析………………………………………………６－２４《航空气象预报图生成系统》简介………………………………………………６－２６走向空地通信自动化的开端………………………………………………………６－３１A D —2 0 0型飞机型号合格与生产许可审定…………………………………６－３４用美国技术改造国产运七………………………………………………………６－３６冷气渗漏法——迅速、准确、可靠地排除飞机结构油箱漏油…………………６－４０加强监控管理预防空中停车…………………………………………………６－４１联合航空条例制定新标准欧洲的飞行员训练将有新举动…………………６－５０G E和惠普合作研制新一代B 7 4 7飞机发动机…………………………………６－５１民航机组人员所受宇宙辐射剂量水平、危害及防护……………………………７－３６D R S—9 3航管雷达模拟机机长位子系统飞行模型建模………………………７－４３论中国民航信息基础设施的建设………………………………………………７－２４提高使用维护质量预防α—3 0 K Y—1 5 4发动机空中停车…………………７－５４民航的标准计量工作……………………………………………………………８－４３科研为航行安全服务………………………………………………………………８－４４F A DE C——新一代航空发动机控制系统……………………………………８－５４飞机下降过程中驾驶员造成高度偏差的认知障碍的讨论…………………８－５６怎样做好安全绕飞行雷雨工作………………………………………………８－５９飞行员的情绪与飞行安全………………………………………………………９－３４人为因素对飞机腐蚀及防腐蚀的影响…………………………………………９－３６全球导航卫星系统能够规划与实施法律框架……………………………………９－４２警惕飞机的空调空气被污染………………………………………………………９－６２ＢＲ７００系列发动机发展与设计特点………………………………………１０－３９从亚太地区／飞行流量发展分析新航行系统的收益…………………………１０－４３首都机场气象探测新设备………………………………………………………１０－５２浅谈机场鸟害……………………………………………………………………１０－６２全球定位系统原理………………………………………………………………１０－６５民用航空器发动机技术发展概况………………………………………………１１－２０罗·罗公司与其ＲＢ２１１-５２４Ｈ发动机…………………………………１１－３０波音７３７-２００／３００型飞机坐舱增压系统故障分析与排除……………………………………………………………１１－２１ＴＣＡＳ在我国应用中的问题及建议…………………………………………１１－４６飞行管理系统定位误差分析……………………………………………………１１－５０管制衔接问题与飞行安全………………………………………………………１１－５３论ＡＳＴＥＲＩＸ标准在雷达联网中的应用…………………………………１１－５６模式Ｓ二次监视雷达的发展与计划……………………………………………１１－６０国航模拟机训练模式的探讨……………………………………………………１１－６１直升机在空中旋翼打尾梁及其预防……………………………………………１２－２０维护不当造成飞机轮胎偏磨原因………………………………………………１２－２５Ｙ７-２００A飞机供油系统的安全性析……………………………………１２－２７飞机驾驶能力智能评估系统在飞行学员选拔中的应用………………………１２－５７《航空周刊》飞机失稳的更好控制………………………………………………………………１－４发动机制造商争取为Ａ３４０加长型提供发动机………………………………１－５空中客车公司考虑两种Ａ３３０的新改型………………………………………２－４波音公司提出对新一代波音７４７的主要要求…………………………………３－５中国航空信息中心评出１９９５年国内国外航空十大新闻……………………４－１ＦＡＡ拟发预防“蓝冰”的指令…………………………………………………４－１１ＧＥ９０在试飞时发生喘振………………………………………………………５－６导航系统的近期发展动向…………………………………………………………７－８美国１９９５年飞机结构技术进展………………………………………………７－８１９９５年世界民航飞行安全状况………………………………………………８－１０1 9 9 5年美国航空发动机的主要进展（二）………………………………………９－６1 9 9 5年美国航空发动机的主要进展（三）……………………………………10－６空中客车公司有意开始研制 A 3xx………………………………………………1１－５波音公司研制两种新型飞机……………………………………………………１１－６模拟ＡＴＣ的‘世界室内机场’…………… ………………………………１２－１０“协和”号超音速运输机及后继机寻觅…………………………………………１４－４ＮＡＳＡ试验合成视景着陆系统………………………………………………１８－８新的叶片清理工艺…………………………………………………………………１８－９ＦＡＡ试验基于ＧＰＳ的空中交通告警系统……………………………………２０－１０ＧＥ研制世界上推力最大的喷气发动机………………………………………２５－７ＧＰＳ/Ｇlonass联合益处多……………………………………………………３０－８1996年世界主要航空公司指南…………………………………………３１／３２－９波音公司拟用新型７４７－７００x和空中客车公司的Ａ３xx－２００竞争………………………………………………………４４－４波音公司计划今年上马波音７４７－５００／６００……………………４２－４四发Ａ３４０的几种改型……………………………………………………４２－４发展中的民用航空发动机……………………………………………………４７－１运七２００Ａ取证试飞进入收尾阶段………………………………………４７－３Ａ３４０加长型客机的研究工作加速…………………………………………４７－４新材料新设计使复合材料机翼成本减半………………………………………４７－９层合基体复合材料有发展前景…………………………………………………４７－９’９６中国国际航空航天博览会取得圆满成功…………………………………４８－１2 1世纪空中快车——A E1 0 0 …………………………………………………４８－５国产飞机在XX扬威……………………………………………………………４８－６航空用传感器技术的发展趋势…………………………………………………４９－１研制中的中国飞机………………………………………………………………４９－４F A A呼吁改善飞机飞行安全……………………………………………………４９－９C F M5 6系列发动机的技术演变…………………………………………………５１－５F A A选定区域G P S着陆系统结构……………………………………………５２－７空中客车技术资料特藏室（在津）落成………………………………………５２－１０《航空情报》关于航空发动机改进计划问题………………………………………………１１５２美国积极研究机载机电系统的综合化技术…………………………………１１５４低成本复合材料技术制造发展的新动向……………………………………１１７０人机工程（Human Factors Engineering）在波音７７７驾驶舱设计中的应用……………………………………………………１１８０X X航展热点综述……………………………………………………………１１８７《航空信息研究报告》２１世纪先进的机翼制造技术………………………………………………４２１－１改变２１世纪飞机技术面貌的智能结构和材料……………………………４１８－１用中推涡扇发动机改进现有飞机的可行性研究……………………………４１６－１２１世纪超音速飞机结构、选材与工艺特点雏析…………………………４２９－１《民航信息快报》鸟害综述………………………………………………………………………５３５－１ＮＴＳＢ强烈要求ATC系统指挥中心保留记录１５天……………………５０４－３关于旅客电子设备的忧虑……………………………………………………５４２－１航空公司必须对座位娱乐的变革作出反应…………………………………５１９－１ＦＡＡ提议新的航空安全系统………………………………………………５２８－１克林顿命令ＦＡＡ加强机场安检措施………………………………………５４１－１第三次革命……………………………………………………………………５４３－１俄罗斯与美国密切合作，改进航空安全……………………………………５４９－１《航空安全》驾驶舱资源管理………………………………………………………………１－２０发动机失效情况下如何使用自动驾驶仪进近………………………………１－２３在飞行活动稠密地区飞行机组应采取哪些措施来防止空中相撞……………１－２６如何安全有效地使用ＦＭＣ——水平导航／垂直导航…………………１－３０浅谈X X航线的技术管理与飞行安全………………………………………１－３４飞行安全和驾驶舱资源管理…………………………………………………１－３９试论检查陆空通话是防止危险接近的有效措施……………………………………１-４２１９９５年中国民航飞行事故及飞行事故征候概况………………………………１-４５世界航空安全的现状及今后应解决的课题…………………………………………１-４７世界最严重的空难……………………………………………………………………１-５３驾驶员应提高判断故障能力——对一起波音７３７－４００摔机着陆分析……………………………………………………………………１-５４机组人员在中途经停点面临患肠胃道病的危险……………………………………１-５８纪律松懈和乏训练的ＦＡＡ检查系统增加了空中危险……………………………１-６０波音７３７飞机安全检查项目………………………………………………………１-６３保持荣誉感总结经验不断提高……………………………………………………２-２严格技术培训强化安全管理…………………………………………………………２-６加大安全管理力度消灭飞行事故征候………………………………………………２-１４科学管理与飞行安全（下）……………………………………………………………２-２２开发“C R M”向飞行安全的深度和广度进军…………………………………２-２７世界航空安全现状及今后应解决的课题（二）——对发行的22起全损事故的分析……………………………………………２-３１1995年上半年航空事故及分析………………………………………………………２-３７比你想象的安全………………………………………………………………………２-４０先入观念的危害………………………………………………………………………２-４２“恶性事故反应反应方案”可缓解紧X情绪………………………………………２-４４克服疲劳………………………………………………………………………………２-４９地形地物引起进近中湍流的调查研究………………………………………………２-５４空中飞行风险…………………………………………………………………………２-５８在强雷雨中亚美利加航ＤＣ－１０飞机在达拉斯/沃斯堡国际机场着陆后偏离跑道………………………………………………………３-２尾流紊流的形成与规避…………………………………………………………３-６风向、风速变化的侧风引起的顺风切变及其对策………………………３-１０一次影响飞机着陆低空风切变的分析……………………………………………３-１５进近程序与低云低能见度飞行注意的问题…………………………………………３-１７飞行安全警戒线及其应用……………………………………………………………３-２０关于人为不安全因素的浅析及对策…………………………………………………３-２４波音教员带飞后的几点体会…………………………………………………………３-２８浅谈飞行事故中的人为因素………………………………………………………３-３２驾驶员－空管员通话关键不在于说什么而在于怎么说…………………３-３５近十年在已知原因事故中人为失误造成的事故比率在下降…………………３-４０华航７４７－４００／Ｂ－１６５班机在XX国际机场发生事故的调查结果………………………………………………………３-４１右翼双发脱落造成波音７４７货机失去控制和坠毁…………………………３-４２协和式客机方向舵事故…………………………………………………………３-４７驾驶员和塔台管制员错误造成波音７０７飞机撞山…………………………３-４９全日空Ｂ７４７－４００型飞机在地面滑跑中机舱内突然充满白烟………………………………………………………３-５５气象对航空运输飞行安全的影响与保障措施…………………………………４-１晴空湍流与飞行安全……………………………………………………………４-３飞机上积霜与飞行安全…………………………………………………………４-５积冰引起了印第安纳ＡＲＴ７２飞机的坠毁…………………………………４-９严重积冰造成英国一架货机坠毁………………………………………………４-１０浅谈搞好机组合作与飞行安全…………………………………………………４-１７对飞行安全工作的哲学思考……………………………………………………４-２０机长决策失误副驾驶如何进谏………………………………………………４-２４防止维修工作错误的对策………………………………………………………４-２７人为因素与航空安全……………………………………………………………４-３２加强仪表观察防患于未然……………………………………………………４-３５饮酒与飞行………………………………………………………………………４-３７如何提高飞行准备质量…………………………………………………………４-３９世界空难及其原因漫话…………………………………………………………４-４７陆空通话错误……………………………………………………………………４-４９空中断电及其处置——记Ｂ７５７飞机一次空中左汇电条断电……………４-５０飞机失事原因和阶段性分析……………………………………………………４-５３《飞行事故和失效分析》飞机腐蚀浅谈……………………………………………………………………２-２航空轴承失效分析方法探讨……………………………………………………２-１０跨音速振动故障及其排除方法…………………………………………………２-１３运七１００型飞机压力信号器膜盒破裂原因分析……………………………２-２２美国空军的防鸟撞工作介绍……………………………………………………２-２７美国涉及飞行事故调查的失效分析……………………………………………２-２９飞行数据记录器…………………………………………………………………２-３７液态金属致脆……………………………………………………………………２-４２关于减少鸟撞事故发生率提高飞行安全的问题…………………………３-５飞行员饮酒与飞行安全…………………………………………………………３-１１波音７３７型４０１９号飞机风挡玻璃炸裂情况调查………………………３-４４运用飞行参数记录仪判断一起故障原因………………………………………３-４６西方国家直升机飞行事故分析…………………………………………………４-２失效分析思路和程序（一）………………………………………………………４-２７《教学研究论坛》航线飞行训练……………………………………………………………………１-２５非正常情况………………………………………………………………………１-３０ＴＢ机型常见故障的判断与处置………………………………………………１-３５ＶＯＲ／ＤＭＥ区域导航计算机模拟设计……………………………………１-３８大型客机座舱空调引气控制……………………………………………………１-４３波音７７７飞机的飞机信息管理系统…………………………………………１-４７开发空管资源管理培训的可行性研究…………………………………………１-５２飞行事故中与飞行员有关的因素的流行病学研究……………………………１-５９ＴＧ机型驾驶舱资源管理与教学………………………………………………２-１飞机飘摆…………………………………………………………………………２-４高速飞机…………………………………………………………………………２-１１特殊技术…………………………………………………………………………２-１８做好准备正确处置应急情况……………………………………………………２-２２如何防止人为差错和事故征候…………………………………………………２-２４ＩＬＳ五边进近中下滑道偏差的判断与修正…………………………………２-２７设计高科技飞机上的驾驶舱程序………………………………………………２-３５失去通讯联系的原因和影响……………………………………………………２-３８关于Ｂ－８９０３号飞机着陆滑跑过程中右主起落架收起问题的分析……………………………………………………２-４２加强气象现代化建设是保证飞行安全的需要…………………………………２-４５中国航线运输飞行员培养模式的探索与实践…………………………………３-１坚持飞行标准培养合格机长…………………………………………………３-６筛选飞行阶段如何掌握技术停飞标准…………………………………………３-１１从普通高校大学生中培养民航飞行员的探索与实践…………………………３-１７标准操作程序……………………………………………………………………３-２４自由飞行新概念…………………………………………………………………３-２８机长决策失误副驾驶如何进谏…………………………………………………３-３２激发良好情绪保障飞行安全…………………………………………………４-１对驾驶舱资源管理的几点认识…………………………………………………４-５夏延飞机积冰条件下飞行特点…………………………………………………４-１０直升机在海上船、平台如何做目测着陆………………………………………４-１３有关航空发动机压力比（ＥＰＲ）的几个问题…………………………………４-２６标准操作程序……………………………………………………………………４-２９８９２０号ＴＢ２０飞机发动机故障分析……………………………………４-３６ＴＢ飞机电容式油量表的故障维护……………………………………………４-３９XX机场初教机训练飞行的气象保障…………………………………………４-４１《民航管理》面向２１世纪航空器材的经营与管理…………………………………………１-２０我国的空管体制必须适应国家未来十五年的远景目标………………………２-３５认清航行情报工作意义，改进航行情报服务工作……………………………４-２２正确认识和使用最低设备清单——航空公司经营者不可轻视的课题……………………………………………………５-８略论民航国际远程航线责任机长的素质………………………………………５-１２航空器高价周转件核算办法的改革……………………………………………７-２４论空防安全………………………………………………………………………７-４０安全复杂局面的典型问题及对策………………………………………………９-３７罗·罗公司教育培训观感………………………………………………………９-４２美国航空公司飞行员培训的现状与展望………………………………………９-４５飞行员自我签派与高温高海拔机场的飞行……………………………………１０-３８１９９５年世界民航发展概况…………………………………………………１０-４９《飞行模拟》机务人员培训中的模拟训练……………………………………………………１-２民用飞机半动态计算机辅助教学系统…………………………………………１-１９飞行管理系统控制显示组件的实时仿真………………………………………２-８具有模拟飞行教员的训练系统…………………………………………………２-１９飞行模拟器的运动系统…………………………………………………………２-３７飞行模拟器的运动系统（续）……………………………………………………３-３３ＢＥＬＬ２０６Ｂ－Ⅲ型飞行模拟器接口电路故障分析……………………３-３８改革飞行培训模式提高模拟训练质量………………………………………４-７驾驶员应重视基础理论学习……………………………………………………４-９《国外试飞》当今飞行事故的个人因素………………………………………………………１-４７民用运输类飞机适航试飞若干问题……………………………………………２-２飞机结冰事故的统计分析………………………………………………………３-２３《飞行试验》俄罗斯试飞员学校及其试飞员培训……………………………………………１-４１Ｈ－５飞机单发复飞问题探讨…………………………………………………２-３８飞行训练与评定系统的模拟飞行评价…………………………………………３-３８《空中交通管理》乌鲁木齐空中交通管制现状与设想……………………………………………１-７走向空地通信自动化的开端——中国民航甚高频地空数据通信网……………………………………………………………１-１２ＶＯＲ／ＤＭＥ飞行动态显示系统……………………………………………１-２０区域导航…………………………………………………………………………１-２４机载Ｓ模式应答机与空管Ｓ模式数据链………………………………………１-２７机场气象自动化观测系统………………………………………………………１-３３航空气象服务的重大进展………………………………………………………１-３５ＦＡＮＳＯＮＥ飞行管理系统………………………………………………１-３７ＤＶＯＲ—５１２Ｄ故障排除两例……………………………………………１-４５全向信标ＶＲＢ—５１Ｄ的维护………………………………………………１-４６中国民航新航行系统卫星导航系统实施技术政策……………………………２-１２国际民航组织新航行系统有关工作的介绍……………………………………２-２２专家系统在特殊情况飞行指挥中的应用………………………………………２-２６优化飞行程序与导航设施的布局………………………………………………２-２９XXＶＨＦ对空转播台“光明顶<一>XX”链路分析…………………………２-３３多普勒天气雷达的技术与应用…………………………………………………２-３７运用系统分析和统计预报天气方法提高XX机场冬季低能见度预报准确率…………………………………………………２-４１国际一级航行通告汇编的优化…………………………………………………２-４８国际民航组织自动相关监视和数字式数据链的标准是实现自动相关监视基础上的空中交通管制系统的关键………………２-５０英国新空中交通管理系统发展动向……………………………………………２-５３中国民航新航行系统进近着陆系统实施技术政策……………………………３-１２优化程序设计确保飞行安全………………………………………………３-１８马赫数放行方法…………………………………………………………………３-２０关于东芝ＳＳＲＡＴＣ系统技术性能改进分析……………………………３-２４ＴＯＳＢＡＣ７／７０Ｇ计算机系统ＣＰＵ故障判断与分析……………３-２８ＶＯＲ／ＳＭＥ等待及加入方法探讨…………………………………………３-３５谈飞行气象保障…………………………………………………………………３-４２增加能力提高飞行安全性的精密跑道监视器（ＰＲＭ）…………………３-４６简析国际民航航空移动通信研究………………………………………………３-４９中国民航卫星通信专用网开通…………………………………………………３-５１《导航》广域差分ＧＰＳ导航服务系统研究进程中的若干思考………………………１-１论差分ＧＰＳ导航系统的技术指标和运行功能………………………………１-１０差分ＧＰＳ导航业务广播标准…………………………………………………１-１３航天器测控与ＧＰＳ的空间应用………………………………………………１-２６ＤＧＬＳ２０００：Ｗilcox新一代ＤＧＰＳ着陆系统………………………１-９５固态惯性器件及其对惯性导航技术的影响……………………………………………１-１００新产品介绍：“老船长”ＧＰＳ６5等………………………………………１-１１３卫星导航国际化民间化进展的评述………………………………………………………２-１地形特征自主导航系统……………………………………………………………………２-１３ＳＡＲ／单轴稳定ＳＩＮＳ组合导航系统研究…………………………………………２-２０Eurofix系统初探——罗兰Ｃ数据链ＤＧＰＳ…………………………………………２-２４新一代气象测风设备——Ω导航测风……………………………………………………２-３５多台链罗兰Ｃ信号搜索方法研究…………………………………………………………２-５３ＧＬＯＮＡＳＳ导航电文及其解…………………………………………………………２-６１ＧＰＳ传感器与罗兰Ｃ接收机镶嵌技术…………………………………………………２-７２发展卫星导航广域服务的途径……………………………………………………………３-１ＧＬＯＮＡＳＳ的发展历程和应用展望…………………………………………………３-１１ＧＰＳ定位误差建模研究…………………………………………………………………３-３６英国的ＧＰＳ国家政策何去何从？……………………………………………………３-９６“画王”系列ＧＰＳ接收机……………………………………………………………３-１１３ＧＮＳＳ和ＧＰＳ………………………………………………………………………４-１ＦＡＮＳＩ——值得借鉴的ＣＮＳ／ＡＴＭ机载系统………………………………４-１３航空罗兰Ｃ接收机………………………………………………………………………４-９７ＧＮＳ－１２ＧＰＳ／ＡＣＡＲＳ组合系统………………………………………４-１０５ＧＰＳ系统将增加第３导航频率………………………………………………………４-１０６新型ＧＮＳＳ－３００ＧＰＳ／ＧＬＯＮＡＳＳ接收机……………………………４-１１１ＧＮＣ３００ＴＳＯ民用航空器导航的骄傲…………………………………………４-１１２《导航与雷达动态》ＧＰＳ的应用……………………………………………………………………………１-１０ＧＰＳ的未来……………………………………………………………………………１-１７ＦＥＲＮ第３号通报……………………………………………………………………１-２５ＧＬＯＮＡＳＳ接近实用运行…………………………………………………………１-４２消除ＧＰＳ固有误差的新技术…………………………………………………………１-４６ＧＰＳ的应用（续）………………………………………………………………………２-１１飞机防撞系统的现状与Ｓ模式扩展型间歇振荡器……………………………………２-１９关于Ｒ－ＧＰＳ…………………………………………………………………………２-３９自主精密进场／着陆系统………………………………………………………………２-３９ＮＴＳＢ对ＦＡＡ提出ＡＴＣ新建议…………………………………………………２-４３下一代通信系统（ＡＴＮ）……………………………………………………………２-４５国外ＧＰＳ接收机性能一览表…………………………………………………………２-４６卫星技术在空中交通管理中的全球应用——自动相关监视系统试验…………………………………………………………………３-１飞机防撞系统的现状与Ｓ模式扩展型间歇振荡器（续）………………………………３-８用ＤＧＰＳ引导飞机进场………………………………………………………………３-１６着陆用的多模式接收机…………………………………………………………………３-３０ＥＧＰＷＳ系统进行飞行试验…………………………………………………………３-３９新型雷达天线……………………………………………………………………………３-４１国外ＧＰＳ接收机性能一览表…………………………………………………………３-４６亚洲各航线将从未来航行系统能够中获益……………………………………………４-１新西兰的卫星导航及其未来……………………………………………………………４-７澳大利亚先进的空中交通系统——ＴＡＡＡＴＳ……………………………………４-３０欧洲ＡＤＳ试验取得进展………………………………………………………………４-４５国外ＧＰＳ接收机性能一览表…………………………………………………………４-４６民用航空电子设备的最新发展…………………………………………………………５-１德国制定卫星导航计划…………………………………………………………………５-９美国正在制定ＧＰＳ国家政策…………………………………………………………５-１５ＡＴＮ：离现实更近一步………………………………………………………………５-１８采用ＩＲＳ、ＧＰＳ和雷达精密进场设备……………………………………………５-３３国外ＧＰＳ接收机性能一览表…………………………………………………………５-４６民用航空电子设备的最新发展（续）……………………………………………………６-１欧洲无线电导航计划……………………………………………………………………６-８俄罗斯远东地区引进ＣＮＳ／ＡＴＭ…………………………………………………６-１３《航空科学技术》新机调整试飞……………………………………………………………………………１-８飞行/推进系统一体化控制技术………………………………………………………１-１４我国航空机轮刹车专业的现状和发展…………………………………………………１-２０欧洲加紧研制21世纪直升机…………………………………………………………１-２６航空发动机平衡工艺技术………………………………………………………………２-７直升机完好性与使用性监控技术………………………………………………………２－１６发动机叶片动应力测量…………………………………………………………………３－３航空机电设备寿命和可靠性指标探讨…………………………………………………３－１４航空发动机加力燃烧室的技术发展……………………………………………………３－１７未来飞机燃油系列设计和仿真技术……………………………………………………３－２３高性能铝合金的新发展…………………………………………………………………３－４３２１世纪的飞机技术——智能结构和材料……………………………………………４－１２直升机结构疲劳／断裂可靠性研究技术途径…………………………………………５－３陶瓷基复合材料结构的设计……………………………………………………………５－２３飞机环境控制系统的发展与展望………………………………………………………５－２９飞机推进系统控制的智能化……………………………………………………………６－１３国外航空制造工程现代化改造途径和经验……………………………………………６－１６非相似容错技术研究……………………………………………………………………６－２５《民航科技》卫星导航国际化的法律程序（译文）……………………………………………………１－２８波音７６７飞机结构疲劳试验…………………………………………………………１－４２Inmarsat联通ＧＰＳ和ＧＮＳＳ的方法………………………………………………１－４５由机场灾害性天气造成航班延误的机场灾害评估初探………………………………１－６２飞机计划自动制作系统…………………………………………………………………２－５MicroStation图形软件包在航图自动处理中的应用…………………………………２－２０试论航管雷达系统飞行校检的组织与实施……………………………………………２－２５飞机发动机气道（涵道）在位清洗………………………………………………………２－４５高频通信机（ＨＦ）故障浅谈……………………………………………………………２－４８谈谈飞机飘摆……………………………………………………………………………２－５２世界空难及其原因漫话…………………………………………………………………２－５９民航广汉机场低空风切变分析…………………………………………………………２－６９航空公司航线油量管理初探……………………………………………………………２－７２机场自动气象观测系统的改进…………………………………………………………３－１３欧洲民航用的新一代地－空通信系统（ＴＦＴＳ）之一——ＴＦＴＳ*地总体概述………………………………………………………３－２７民航飞行对航务计算机管理网络系统（ＮＭＮＳ）…………………………………３－３３ＡＭ－Ⅱ大型屏幕式自动航图…………………………………………………………３－４６波音７３７飞机常见腐蚀种类及其防护措施…………………………………………３－５６浅谈雷达罩地作用及正确维护和保护地重要性………………………………………３－５９广汉机场初冬雷雨天气过程分析………………………………………………………３－７３晴空湍流地分析与探讨…………………………………………………………………３－８１《出国考察技术报告》着陆缓冲技术的发展与现状……………………………………………………………１－２４电力电子技术的一些新进展……………………………………………………………１－３８《飞机工程》２０２０年前的世界航空技术…………………………………………………………１－２２民用飞机增升装置气动设计研究………………………………………………………２－１９带损伤复合材料可靠性分析……………………………………………………………２－５０飞机舵面缝隙设计及其光顺……………………………………………………………２－５７复合材料结构的积木式试验方法………………………………………………………２－６９通用飞机发展趋势和市场浅析…………………………………………………………２－７３飞机腐蚀的早期探测和预防维修………………………………………………………３－１国外航空电子测试技术发展动态………………………………………………………４－１２飞机增升装置系统气动设计要求分析………………………………………………４－１７《直升机技术》直升机主电源系统简介…………………………………………………………………２－４８直升机减速器最新发展…………………………………………………………………３－３７西科斯基公司的“发展之鹰”——Ｓ－９２…………………………………………３－４２俄罗斯的轻型直升机米－３４“蜂鸟”和ＶＡＺ……………………………………３－４４直升机简况………………………………………………………………………………３－５５ＮＨ９０直升机…………………………………………………………………………４－３８直升机短讯………………………………………………………………………………４－５０《航空发动机》航空发动机的防喘控制…………………………………………………………………１－４５Ｂ７７７及其所用发动机一些设计特点（Ⅰ）…………………………………………２－４９Ｂ７７７及其所用发动机一些设计特点（Ⅱ）…………………………………………３－３５《航空精密制造技术》液晶显示技术发展概况及其在航空电子领域的应用…………………………………１－１３《航空工艺技术》虚拟现实（ＶＲ）技术及其应用前景……………………………………………………２－３先进合金材料的发展及应用……………………………………………………………５－２３飞机复合材料结构的修理技术…………………………………………………………６－４０《航空电子技术》飞行管理系统与空域交通管理系统组合的系统要求…………………………………１－１３基于ＤＧＰＳ／ＧＳＭ的紧急报警系统………………………………………………１－３７新一代航空电子模块化结构浅探………………………………………………………１－４４ＧＰＳ系统ＳＡ模型的研究……………………………………………………………２－１４ＧＰＳ组合系统在民用航空中的应用…………………………………………………２－３７全球导航卫星系统及其发展趋势………………………………………………………２－４３多媒体于航空电子技术…………………………………………………………………３－５ＤＧＰＳ精密进近着陆系统的现状与未来……………………………………………３－１８我国民航通信导航监视系统现状与发展………………………………………………４－１１星基航空ＩＳＤＮ网体制研究…………………………………………………………４－３０《航空维修》水对液压油的污染与防护………………………………………………………………１－２２无线电罗盘的一种季节性故障及预防措施……………………………………………１－４８航空新材料的发展及应用………………………………………………………………３－３９活塞五型发动机滑油超温故障分析……………………………………………………６－２７飞机液压系统污染及控制………………………………………………………………７－２２航空发动机零件的修复方法……………………………………………………………７－３０波音７３７型飞机挡风玻璃炸裂初探…………………………………………………９－４０一起ＨＹ—１型ＧＰＳ导航仪故障的分析…………………………………………１１－３７《航空修理》无线电高度表出现指示极大的故障分析及处理………………………………………１－３６液压系统供压故障的分析………………………………………………………………３－２１《民机市场信息与研究》中国航空运输业的发展及远景…………………………………………………………１－２中国国内城市客流量预测模型研究……………………………………………………１－７Ｂ７７７飞机的驾驶舱…………………………………………………………………１－４１中国国内城市客流量预测模型研究（续）……………………………………………２－４民用飞机维修的计算方法………………………………………………………………３－１３浅论美国对四座以下轻小型航空器的适航管理………………………………………３－２９《航空动力学报》某航空发动机热端件寿命消耗计算模型及寿命监视………………………………４－３４１航空发动机实时寿命监视及数据处理方法研究……………………………………４－３４５《飞行力学》Ｙ７－２００Ｂ飞机的失速试飞………………………………………………………１－６６涡桨飞机飞行性能和升阻特性的试飞确定……………………………………………１－７４“Ｔ”型尾翼飞机的深失速特性的研究………………………………………………３－３９飞行训练与评定系统简介………………………………………………………………３－５６着陆进场时的最小可操纵速度…………………………………………………………３－７１起飞小速度离地事故分析………………………………………………………………３－８１微波空间定位系统及在飞行试验中的应用……………………………………………４－４５直升机外挂飞行中的飘摆问题…………………………………………………………４－７８《航空学报》飞机起落架轮毂裂断机理研究………………………………………………………２－２０２机载风切变系统的告警准则………………………………………………………３－２８１保持飞行迎角恒定的飞行/推力综合控制…………………………………………４－４６０容错技术在风洞试验中的应用研究…………………………………………………６－７３６《空军院校教育》控制理论在飞行训练管理中的运用……………………………………………………１－２６对飞机指挥中“讲”的艺术探讨………………………………………………………１－２７浅谈飞行中导致两机相撞的生理因素…………………………………………………１－２９带飞教学中保证安全应注意的几个问题………………………………………………１－３０飞行教员要注重培养学员的学习能力…………………………………………………３－３９浅谈飞行习惯……………………………………………………………………………３－４２浅谈飞行教员的自我提高………………………………………………………………４－２６飞行指挥员应具备良好的注意品质……………………………………………………４－３４特殊情况中飞行员的心理与动作反应…………………………………………………４－３６《中国民航学院学报》对建立中国民航广播增强系统（ＷＡＡＳ）的技术探讨………………………………１－１５中国民航对进近着陆系统面临的选择…………………………………………………１－２１浅谈航空器材的核算与管理……………………………………………………………２－２９中国民航实施卫星导航的当前策略探讨………………………………………………３－２１航空卫星通信的发展趋势和对策建议…………………………………………………３－２７中国和亚洲／太平洋区域ＷＡＡＳ系统方案建议……………………………………３－３３。
管理学双语(整理版)PPT14-operation management
19–8
Source: W.E. Deming, “Improvement of Quality and Productivity Through Action by Management,” National Productivity Review, Winter 1981–1982, pp. 12–22. With permission. Copyright 1981 by Executive Enterprises, Inc., 22 West 21st St., New York, NY 10010-6904. All rights reserved.
19–10
Six Requirements for Successful Values Chain Management
Exhibit 19.3
19–11
Value Chain Management (cont’d)
• Requirements for Value Chain Management
v
A supportive organizational culture and attitudes
19–12
Value Chain Benefits
Source: G. Taninecz, “Forging the Chain,” Industry Week, May 15, 2000, p. 44.
Current Issues in Operations Management
• • • • Discuss technology’s role in manufacturing. Describe some of the various quality dimensions. Explain ISO9000 and Six Sigma. Describe mass customization and how operations management contributes to it.
Operation management 习题
QMTD3600 MC #1 (2 points/question) Chap. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6 D ue: One week prior to test 1 Chapter 11. Which of the following is not related to the historical evolution of operations management?A) The industrial revolutionB) Agricultural evolutionC) Scientific managementD) The human relations movementE) Development of management science techniques2. Product design and process selection are examples of:A) financial decisions D) system operation decisionsB) tactical decisions E) forecasting decisionsC) systems design decisions3. Which of the following is not true about systems approach?A) A systems viewpoint is almost always beneficial in decision making.B) A systems approach emphasizes interrelationships among subsystems.C) A systems approach concentrates on efficiency within subsystems.D) A systems approach is essential whenever something is being redesigned or improved.E) All of the above are true.4. Production systems with customized outputs typically:A) have relatively high volumes of output D) have relatively fast work movementB) have relatively low unit costs E) use relatively highly skilled workersC) have relatively high mechanization5. Budgeting, analysis of investment proposals, and provision of funds are activities associated with the:A) operation function D) finance functionB) marketing function E) industrial engineering functionC) purchasing function6. The marketing function's main concern is with:A) producing goods or providing servicesB) selling the organization's products or servicesC) procuring materials, supplies, and equipmentD) building and maintaining a positive imageE) securing monetary resources7. Which of the following is not a benefit of using models in decision making?A) They provide a standardized format for analyzing a problem.B) They serve as a consistent tool for evaluation.C) They are easy to use and less expensive than dealing with the actual situation.D) All of the above are benefits.E) None of the above is a benefit.8. Which of the following is not an emphasis in a lean production system?A) price D) continual improvementB) high quality E) customer satisfactionC) worker involvement9. Which of the following is not properly matched?A) Mathematical model for inventory management - Douglas McGregor.B) Division of labor - Adam SmithC) Scientific Management - F. W. TaylorD) Motion study - Frank and Lillian GilbrethE) Moving assembly line - Henry Ford10. Which of the following is not a general approach to decision-making?A) establishing priorities D) quantitative methodsB) an emphasis on subjectivity E) a systems approachC) analysis of tradeoffs11. The process of comparing outputs to previously established standards to determine if corrective action is needed is called:A) planning B) directing C) controlling D) budgeting E) leading12. Which of the following is not a type of operations?A) goods production D) communicationB) storage/transportation E) none of the aboveC) entertainmentChapter 213. Which of the following is not a key factor of competitiveness?A) price D) after-sale serviceB) product differentiation E) none of the aboveC) flexibility14. A key internal factor which should be taken into account by a corporate strategy is:A) human resources D) suppliersB) facilities E) all of the aboveC) customers15. Which of the following is not a key external factor which should be taken into account by a corporate strategy?A) economic conditions D) financial resourcesB) political conditions E) competitionC) legal environments16. Distinctive competencies in organizations generally relate to:A) price (cost) B) quality C) time D) flexibility E) all of the above17. The external elements of SWOT analysis are:A) strengths and weaknesses D) weaknesses and opportunitiesB) strengths and threats E) strengths and opportunitiesC) opportunities and threats18. Productivity is expressed as:A) output plus input D) output divided by inputB) output minus input E) input divided by outputC) output times input19. The fundamental purpose for the existence of any organization is described by its:A) policies B) procedures C) strategy D) mission E) bylaws20. Which of the following is not considered to be a cause of poor U.S. global competitiveness?A) the tendency to view labor as a cost factor to be minimizedB) decision-making based on short-term horizonsC) weaknesses in technological practiceD) all of the aboveE) none of the above21. Which of the following is true?A) Corporate strategy is shaped by functional strategies.B) Corporate mission is shaped by corporate strategy.Ss03mc1C) Functional strategies are shaped by corporate strategy.D) External conditions are shaped by corporate mission.E) Corporate mission is shaped by functional strategies.22. Which of the following is not a factor that affects productivity?A) computer viruses D) standardizing processB) design of the workspace E) cellular phonesC) use of Internet23. Which of the following is not a key way in which business organizations compete with one-another?A) production cost D) flexibilityB) quality E) time to perform certain activitiesC) product duplication24. Decisions which are lowest level and narrow in scope are called:A) strategic decisions D) forecasting decisionsB) tactical decisions E) design decisionsC) operational decisionsChapter 525. One way to increase reliability is toA) eliminate backup componentB) improve preventive maintenance proceduresC) increase mean repair timeD) increase the number of independent componentsE) none of the above26. The stage in a product or service life cycle where some firms adopt a defensive research posture is:A) incubation B) growth C) maturity D) saturation E) decline27. One possible disadvantage of modular design is that:A) replacement and repair is more difficultB) failure diagnosis is more complexC) number of configurations of modules decreasesD) individual parts lose their identitiesE) inventory problems arise28. Which of the following is not a reason for redesigning a product or service?A) to reduce labor or material costB) to increase the level of employee satisfactionC) to increase the level of customer satisfactionD) to attract and increase customer demandE) to increase quality29. The advantages of standardization include which of the following?I Early freezing of designsII Fewer parts to deal with in inventoryIII Reduced training cost and timeIV Purchasing is more routineA) I, II B) I, IV C) I, II, III D) II, III, IV E) I, II, III, IV30. Which of the following is a measure of effectiveness of product/service design?A) development time and cost D) all are the measureB) product/service cost E) none is the measureC) product/service quality31. Which of the following is not true about re-manufacturing?A) Re-manufactured products can be sold at lower cost.B) The process requires mostly unskilled and semiskilled workers.C) There is less depletion of natural resources.D) It produces high quality products easily.E) Re-manufacturing is mainly carried out by small and mid-sized companies.32. In the area of product and service design the acronym CAD refers to:A) conceptually appropriate design D) competitive advantage designB) computer aided design E) completely automated designC) commercial applications design33. Service design generally differs from product design in which of the following ways?A) Service design tends to focus on tangible factors.B) There is less latitude in detecting and correcting errors prior to delivery.C) There is a lesser requirement to be aware of competitors' offerings.D) There is less visibility to customers.E) none of the above34. The term that pertains to incorporating customer ideas in product design is:A) TQM B) CAD C) QFD D) robust design E) reverse engineering35. The process of dismantling and inspecting a competitor's new or revised product for the purpose of gleaning design ideasis called:A) design by imitation D) benchmarkingB) product analysis E) none of the aboveC) reverse engineering36. The term "House of Quality" is associated with:A) service blueprinting D) robust designB) quality function deployment E) the Taguchi approachC) concurrent engineeringChapter 537. Which of the following is not a criterion for developing capacity alternatives?A) design rigidity into systemsB) take a big-picture approach to capacity changesC) prepare to deal with capacity in "chunks"D) attempt to smooth out capacity requirementsE) identify the optimal operating level38. A reason for the importance of capacity decisions is that capacity:A) limits the rate of output possibleB) affects operating costsC) is a major determinant of initial costsD) is a long-term commitment of resourcesE) all of the above39. Production units have an optimal rate of output where:A) total costs are minimum D) rate of output is maximumB) unit costs are minimum E) total revenue is maximumC) marginal costs are minimum40. When the output is less than the optimal rate of output, the unit cost will be:A) lowerB) the sameC) higherD) could be either higher or lowerE) could be either higher, lower or the same41. Which of the following are assumptions of the break-even model?I Only one product is involved.II Everything that is produced can be sold.III The revenue per unit will be the same regardless of volume.A) I only B) I and II only C) II only D) II and III only E) I, II and III42. Utilization is defined as the ratio of:A) actual output to effective capacity D) effective capacity to actual outputB) actual output to design capacity E) design capacity to actual outputC) design capacity to effective capacity43. Which of the following is a factor that affects service capacity planning?A) the need to be near customers D) none of the aboveB) the inability to store services E) all of the aboveC) the degree of volatility of demand44. Which of the following is the case where capacity is measured in terms of inputs?A) hospital B) theater C) restaurant D) all of the above E) none of the above45. The method for evaluating capacity alternatives which compares revenue and cost functions is:A) payback analysis D) internal rate of return analysisB) net present value analysis E) payoff matrix analysisC) cost-volume analysis46. Which of the following is not an assumption of the break-even model?A) One product is involved.B) Everything that is produced can be sold.C) Total variable cost is the same regardless of volume.D) Fixed costs do not change with volume changes.E) Revenue per unit is the same regardless of volume.47. Which of the following is not a determinant of effective capacity?A) facilities D) human factorsB) product mix E) external factorsC) actual output48. Capacity planning decisions have both long-term and short-term considerations. Which of the following statements aretrue?I. Long-term considerations relate to the overall level of capacity.II. Short-term considerations relate to the probable variations in capacity requirements.III. Short-term considerations determine the “effective capacity.”A) Only one of the three statements is true.B) I and IIC) II and IIID) I and IIIE) All three statements are correct.Chapter 649. The type of layout which is used to achieve a smooth and rapid flow of large volumes of output is:A) process B) product C) fixed-position D) batch E) unitSs03mc150. A common reason for the redesign of the layout of an existing facility is:A) inefficient operations D) morale problemsB) safety hazards E) all of the aboveC) a new product51. Which of the following most closely describes how parts are arranged into part families in group technology?A) basically by design characteristicsB) basically by processing characteristicsC) both by design and processing characteristicsD) by operating characteristicsE) both by design and operating characteristics52. Heuristic rules are used primarily in which of these types of layouts?I ProductII ProcessIII Fixed-positionA) I B) II C) I and III D) I and II E) II and III53. An operations strategy for process selection should recognize that:A) process selection seldom requires technical expertiseB) engineering "white elephants" are uncommonC) there is little need to manage technologyD) flexibility is not always the best choiceE) managers need not have technical skills54. The minimum possible cycle time in a product layout is determined by the:A) longest task time D) total task timeB) shortest task time E) none of the aboveC) average task time55. Which one of the following is not common to product layouts?A) a high rate of output D) ability to adjust to changes in demandB) specialization of labor E) all are commonC) low unit costs56. The type of layout which features departments or other functional groupings in which similar activities are performed is:A) process B) product C) fixed-position D) mass E) unit57. Which one of the following is not considered an important factor in service layout design?A) cost minimization and product flow D) all are importantB) frequency of order E) all are not importantC) customer attitude and image58. Which type of processing system tends to produce the most product variety?A) Assembly B) Job-Shop C) Batch D) Continuous E) Project59. In a product layout, the process of deciding how to assign tasks to work stations is referred to as:A) process balancing D) work allocationB) task allocation E) station balancingC) line balancing60. Which of the following is not a benefit of cellular manufacturing?A) faster throughput time D) reduced setup timeB) less material handling E) none of the aboveC) more work-in-process inventory。
Operations Manager
A Methodology for Determining Response Time Baselines:Defining the“8Second”RuleBy Charles HooverOperations ManagerCARFAX, Inc.AbstractFor a long time the8-second rule has been the norm for setting response time on web pages. But how accurate is this rule in our new high-speed,broadband era of the Internet?By looking at the previous research done on user expectations and collecting response time data from a variety of data sources,it has been possible for us to come up with basic baselines.Then utilizing the Application Performance Index(Apdex)we were able to compare the response times of various pages to see how well they performed.IntroductionA couple of questions that we at CARFAX have always been wrestling with ever since we went on the web have been“what is a good response time from our web site?”and“what is a bad response time from our web site?”We have followed the“8second rule”from the beginning,which says that any response time greater than8seconds will cause us to lose customers,but no one seemed to have an answer to what was a “good”response time.The8-second rule was the industry standard,but as we purchased more equipment,more bandwidth and more human resources,in order to make sure we don’t violate this rule,we’ve always wondered if it was truly an accurate baseline to measure against or if there was a better way to measure and monitor response time.After some research into user perceptions and understanding our customers better, we think we have come up with a methodology that enables us,in general,to set good baselines for response time and thresholds for poor response time.The“8second rule”The“8second rule”is the accepted rule-of-thumb for web site response time ever since the World Wide Web began.It has been just accepted as fact that after8 seconds a user will stop waiting for a web page to load and move on to another site, probably a competitor if you are in e-business.This standard goes back to the 1968Robert ler paper for IBM,“Response Time in Man-Computer Conversational Transactions”[Miller]in which he describes the three thresholds for user attention:0.1Seconds–user sees this asinstantaneous1.0Second–uninterrupted useractions,they will notice a delaybut can continue to work10Seconds–limit for keeping user’sattentionMiller identified a two-second response time as ideal.These standards were later used as business shifted from mainframes to the PC and later the web.The“8-second rule”was adopted later after the paper,“Worth the Wait?”by PeterBickford reported that half the users abandoned a page after8.5seconds [Bickford].There has been other research conducted by Jan L.Guynes that shows users actually become stressed after8 seconds[Guynes].But even this research cautions not to generalize their research to other computer related tasks.So while there seems to be some evidence that8seconds is a good rule-of-thumb for response time when it comes to some computer tasks,it is by no means definitive. As Chris Loosely points out in his article,“When Is Your Web Site Fast Enough?”, while Miller’s paper identified the important behavioral thresholds that all humans share,and Bickford and Guynes adds some evidence to support it,each user’s behavior will depend on prior experience either with the web site in question or with the web as a whole [Loosely].In his article,“Do Interface Standards Stifle Design Creativity?”Jakob Nielsen states his Law of Web User Experience:“users spend most of their time on other sites”[Nielsen],implying that a typical user’s expectation of response time on your web site is based on their experiences on other web sites.This is an interesting conjecture because it indicates that in order to meet the expectation of a user coming to your website is not based on how fast your web site has been,but how fast everyone else’s web site has been.So monitoring your own response time is only meaningful in terms of monitoring other websites and comparing it to those other sites.Beyond the8-second RuleIf we use Nielsen’s logic that a user’s perception of appropriate response time for our web site is based on the user’s experience at other web sites,then we should gather response time data from other web sites and compare our response times to them.This is fairly easily to accomplish thanks to , which keeps response time data,free to the public,on a weekly basis for the following companies:Amazon Costco JCPenney Office Max Target BestBuyEddie Bauer Sears Office Depot WalmartKeynote then ranks the response times and publishes the top three for the week,on its web site,along with the average for the week for all the sites.The response timings are the total time it takes a user to:log in, search for an item,add it to a cart and check out.Note:Keynote has made several changes to its web site since this paper was first written and the data collected,but this data should still be available at:/solutions/mm_public_services.html Unfortunately,Keynote has temporarily discontinued the data collection that was used for this paper.They do have other data for Retail sites,based on dial-up speeds,and home page response times for Government and Business sites.Another source of free data for web response time can be found at . Analyzing this data from August2005to January2006we find that the average for these web sites is10.45seconds,with the average for the top three being7.42. Assuming4-5steps for each transaction (home page,search page,product view, order page and credit card validation),we see that the top three sites fall well within the Miller’s ideal two-second per interaction, ideal response time.All the sites are close to the two-second ideal,averaging between 2.6to 2.09seconds per transaction step depending on a4or5step transaction,and1.86to1.48seconds for the top three.Thus following Nielsen’s Law of Web User’s Experience,we can assume that users are expecting a response time of around two-seconds or faster.Meeting ExpectationsOur original question is still valid,with an added caveat:Should our response time be close to others web response times and is this best way to meet user expectations concerning our response time?These companies have a lot of resources to use to make sure that their web sites provide excellent response times,while we may not be so fortunate.So is there a better way to meet our customer expectations without spending ourselves into a hole?First some explanations of what CARFAX does.We are a Vehicle History Service, which means that we keep historical data on cars.By going to our web site,and entering the Vehicle Identification Number (VIN)a customer can produce a detailed history for any car back to1981when the VIN was first used.The next thing to keep in mind is the steps for a transaction.For most users a typical transaction breaks down as follows:Figure 1The user comes to the Home Page,and then will enter a VIN into our Check Report. The Check Report is a free version of the Full Report but which only indicates what information will be available on the Full Report.For most users this may be as far as they will go because the Check Report will tell them if there are any major problems with the vehicle that they are interested in.If they decide they would like the Full Report,then they enter their credit card information.Once it is processed,then they get the Full Report in their browser,at which point they can have it e-mailed to them or they can save it as a PDF file. Because of the way we’ve designed our processes,the response time for a Check Report is roughly the same time as for a Full Report.This is because when any user enters a VIN,the information to produce a Full Report is returned;the only difference is what gets displayed on the page. Therefore,the response time for a Check Report is very close to the response time for a Full report,so when we collected our initial data,we only captured response time information for our Home Page and Check Report.The Home PageFor new users,the response time for our Home Page is very important.This is where Nielsen’s Law of Web User’s Experience really comes into play. Because they have nothing to base a response time experience to our web site on,they will expect what they haveexperienced at othersites.Therefore wecan use the Keynoteresults of an averageof2seconds as a baseline to measure our Home Page against.We captured external response times utilizing the service provided by Quantiva. Unfortunately,Quantiva ceased to exist on September2005so we only have data for the previous year from January to October (the date they finally turned their servers off).Quantiva polled our web site every15 minutes,simulating a new user to avoid anycaching issues.They also simulated a broadband user.Their collectors were set up in Newark,New Jersey;Chicago,Illinois; Dallas,Texas and San Jose,California and utilized AT&T,Uunet,Internap,and Saavis as Service Providers.The data was collected daily and stored as separate data files.For this analysis,these daily files were averaged daily and then merged together to form a single data file.Chart1:Daily Response Time for Home Page Chart2:Normal Distribution of Home Page Response Time From Chart1we can see that,aside from a few spikes,we were well within the2-second,optimal times for most of the year. The longer periods of higher response time indicate weeks when we were running marketing tests.These marketing tests were designed to see if changes to the Home Page generated more traffic.Itshould be noted that it was these marketing tests that were the catalyst for asking about what are suitable response times.Still, even these longer spikes often didn’t go above3seconds,which should have been an acceptable response time.Looking a little deeper we can see that,on average,the response times for the Home Page are actually skewed towards a one-second response time rather than towards two-second or higher response time.The Normal curves shown in Chart2 demonstrate that our response time is skewed toward1or1.5seconds,beyond what would be expected from just random frequency.For this chart,the outliers for response time were deleted to get a better sense of the shape of the frequency curve. If we follow Nielsen’s logic that consumers will expect to get the response time that they get at other sites and Miller’s logic that a two-second response time is optimal, then we can be fairly confident that our response time for the most part is meeting expectations.The Check ReportOur average Home Page response time falls well with in the accepted criteria set forth from the research done on user expectations,but what about the VHR itself?One option to answer this question would be to go back to the Keynote data and see how long other businesses on the web are taking to process transactions. Unfortunately,our business is different than the ones in the Keynote sample.These businesses are primarily brick-n-mortar stores with a web site,while we are selling information.Thus,our customer expectations for the final product they are getting will be a little different.For these brick-n-mortar stores,an argument could be made that their total transaction time should include the delivery time of the product to the customer,since ordering is just the first part;the product needs to be shipped,then the shipping company needs to deliver the product before the customer can be fully satisfied.A closer model to our situation at CARFAX would be purchasing downloaded software since after the credit card validation goes through,the product can be downloaded and used immediately.Also,there is usually a different expectation for response time when information is being queried from a database.In this case,an extremely fast response time may give the impression that there wasn’t much data to query and therefore the report produced may be of questionable value.On the other hand,too slow a response time could indicate that our data isn’t very well organized and thus may be prone to error. Research done by Bhatti,et.al.in their paper“Integrating User-Perceived Quality into Web Server Design”,suggests that user expectations of response time can vary from2-seconds to39-seconds or longer depending on the right conditions. But they also indicate that there are many issues that affect user expectations,such as how often the user is on the Internet,if they are just browsing or specifically searching for something,etc.[Bhatti]. Utilizing the findings of Bhatti,et.al.,for our purposes,and without more information to base a decision on,we can assume that the original“8-second rule”is probably the best indicator for what user expectations will be for returning information after a VIN has been entered.Using the Quantiva data for Check Report response time,we have the following results:Again,the data was averaged daily for the period from Jan1,2005to October30, 2005and shows an average response time of1.57seconds.There were some higher spikes but nothing above3.5secondsChart3:Daily Response Time for Check Report Chart4:Normal Distribution of Check Report Response Timewhich falls well within our expected8-seconds.And when we look at the Normal Distribution in Chart4,we see a tendency towards1.5seconds.The Full Report may take slightly longer to display because of more information shown,but even if it doubles the time,it also is well within the8seconds that we are using as a rule of thumb for this web page’s responsetime.The Credit Card ValidationThe only piece missing from the whole transaction equation is the Credit Card processing.This is another example of where prior experience will help set a customer’s expectation.But getting“real”response times for credit card processing from other business will be tricky to say the least.If we utilize the Keynote data again we can postulate an average of 2.5 seconds for Credit Card processing since the entire four step transaction for the other sites was10.45seconds.Unfortunately, we did not collect regular response time data for Credit Card Validation from Quantiva,so we have nothing to analyze it against,but in the future we will know where to start.Determining Poor Response TimeWe’ve come up with ways to determine what is a“good”response time but is a “poor”response time?One way of doing this fairly easily is using the knowledge that went into producing the Application Performance Index or Apdex.Apdex is a methodology of utilizing what is currently know about customer satisfaction about response time and computing a single metric that has the same meaning for any web page,application or client-side tool. The index ranges from0to1with1being the best performance and0the worst. Apdex breaks the user perception of response time down into:Satisfied, Tolerating and ers then are either observed or self report on what is a satisfactory response time,and what is tolerable.These results are inputted into the Apdex formula:Tolerating Cnt Apdex=Satisfied Cnt+__2Total Samples Where:Satisfied Count=the number of responses that meet the satisfactory responsetime which is defined as:Usermaintains concentration,andperformance is not a factor in theuser’s experience.Tolerating Count=the number of response that meets the tolerable responsetime,which is defined as:User’sconcentration is impaired,performance is now a factor in theuser experience or the user noticeshow long it is taking.Total Samples=the total number of samples taken.The Apdex Index can then be compared to their rating system which is as follows:1.00–0.94Excellent0.93–0.85Good0.84–0.70Fair0.69–0.50Poor<0.49UnacceptableIn determining what constituted Frustrated response times,the researchers who developed Apdex found that four times the tolerable response time was a very accurate measure of poor response time [Sevcik].This also correlates with findings by others([Bhatti]and[Selvidge]),who found that at around30seconds or4X8, users abandoned whatever task they were working on.Therefore in our response time analysis,if we follow the expected response time for the Home Page of2-seconds, based on the research and findings of Miller and Nielsen and the data from Keynote,the Frustrated point will be8-seconds(2X4). For the Check Report we can assume an expected response time of8-seconds since it is a database lookup and Bhatti showed with their research that users are willing to wait a little longer when data is beingqueried.The Frustrated point will then be 32-seconds(8X4)or roughly again what we would expect from the research[Bhatti], [Selvidge],[Sevcik].Finally the expected response time for the Credit Card Validation would be 2.5-seconds based on Nielsen and what most users expect by going to other web sites.The Frustrated point for this page would be roughly10-seconds(2.5 X4).We can then monitor our response times for various web pages and compare them using Apdex to determine how well we are meeting Service Levels.If we assume our baselines are the Satisfied Level and then calculating our Frustrated Level by multiplying by four we can count our sampling and use the Apdex formula. Table1shows how we would set these zones:Based on these ranges,we can take our response time data and calculate our Apdex indexes for our Home Page and Check Report and determine what Apdex Ratings we can assign:Home Page=0.875(Good)Check Report=0.999(Excellent) ConclusionsBy looking at the research already done on user perceptions of Internet response time and how their own expectations factor in, we can determine fairly accurately what baseline to use for a“good”response time. Some of this research is just common sense,such as Nielsen’s Law of Web User’s Experience,where our expectations of response time from a new web site are based on what we have experienced at other web sites.It also comes from our own human nature where our anything longer than10seconds and we tend to lose focus on the task.By then utilizing available data on response times for other businesses from such sources as Keynote,we can pretty accurately set our own baselines for what our expected response times are.Then by applying Apdex we can measure various parts of our basic business transactions and compare the results to see where we need to spend our resources.In the future,we will refine our efforts by focusing our research on the response times for other web sites within our industry and by expanding this methodology to other parts of our site.For this area of research as a whole,there should be more study of user expectations of database queries and products that involve pure information. Bibliography[Miller],Miller,R.B.“Response Time In Man-Computer Conversational Transactions”,Proc.AFIPS Fall Joint Computer Conference Vol.33,(1968),267-277.[Bickford],Peter Bickford,“Worth The Wait?”,Netscape/View Source Magazine, (2000).[Guynes],“Impact of Systems Response Time on State Anxiety”,Communications of the ACM,March1998,Volume31,Number 3.[Loosely],Chris Loosely,“When Is Your Web Site Fast Enough?,E-Commerce Times,(Oct.2005).Web Page Satisfied Tolerating Frustrated Home Page0–2 2 to8>8 Check Report0–88 to32>32 Credit CardValidation0–2.5 2.5 to10>10[Nielsen],Jakob Nielsen,“End of Web Design”,Alertbox,July23,2000.[Bhatti],Nina Bhatti,Anna Bouch,and Allan Kuchinsky,“Integrating User-Perceived Quality into Web Server Design”,The 9th International World Wide Web Conference, May15–19,2000.[Sevcik],Peter Sevcik,“Defining The Application Performance Index”,Business Communications Review,(Mar2005).[Selvidge],Paula,“How Long Is Too Long To Wait For A Website To Load?”,Usability News,(January1999).Loosley,Chris,Richard L.Gimarc,Amy C. Spellmann,“E-Commerce Response Time: A Reference Model”,Computer Metrics Group2000.Norton,Dr.Tim R.,“End-To-End Response Time:What to Measure”,Computer Metrics Group1999.。
the metamorphoses of performance budgeting
the metamorphoses of performancebudgetingthe metamorphoses of performance budgeting翻译为：绩效预算的变化and physical control in the public sector, of which empirical assessment becomes increasingly important.Performance budgeting is a form of budgeting that evaluates the performance of government programs in order to determine how the budget should be allocated. It is a tool used to assess and manage the efficiency of government programs and operations. Performance budgeting looks at the use of funds and how they are used to achieve goals and objectives. Performance budgeting measures the actual activities of a program or organization, rather than just its outputs or outcomes. Performance budgeting is a process designed to ensure that the spending of public funds is properly monitored and managed in order to ensure that it is achieving its intended purpose.Physical control in the public sector often involves the control of physical assets such as buildings and property. It is the process of monitoring and controlling the physical assets of a government organization or public service in order to ensure they are properly maintained and used in acost-effective manner. Physical control includes activities such as ensuring the maintenance of facilities, monitoring safety and security, and ensuring that assets remain up to date and in good condition.The metamorphosis of performance budgeting and physical control in the public sector has seen significant changes over the years, the most notable being the shift from the traditional focus on outputs to a more comprehensive evaluation of outcomes. This shift was brought about by an increased focus on results-based management, which emphasizes the importance of assessing the effectiveness of public programs and initiatives in delivering services. With an increasing emphasis on the need for accountability in the public sector, performance budgeting and physical control now also need to include elements of empirical assessment. By collecting data and conducting analysis, governments can track the performance of their programs and make necessary adjustments as needed in order to ensure that they are being used as efficiently as possible. Furthermore, empirical assessment allows governments to gain insight into how funds are being used, what the outcomes of their programs are, and whether or not they are achieving their set goals. Through the implementation of empirical assessment, performance budgeting and physical control in the public sector can be improved, and help ensure that public resources are being used in a waythat is beneficial to the general public.。
Operations Management Processes and Supply Chains (26)
Operations Strategy (2 of 3)
Figure 1.5 Connection Between Corporate Strategy and Key Operations Management Decisions
“Environment” is key word!
Corporate Strategy
Competitive Priorities and Capabilities
Competitive Priorities
• The critical dimensions that a process or supply chain must possess to satisfy its internal or external customers, both now and in the future.
Figure 1.4 [continued]
The Supply Chain View (3 of 5)
Order fulfillment process – A process that includes the activities required to produce and deliver the service or product to the external customer
Physical, durable output Output can be inventoried Low customer contact Long response time Capital intensive Quality easily measured
• • • • • •
Intangible, perishable output Output cannot be inventoried High customer contact Short response time Labor intensive Quality not easily measured
工商管理专业英语术语汇总
工商管理专业英语术语汇总专业简介: 工商管理主要研究管理学、经济学和现代企业管理等方面的基本知识和技能，包括企业的经营战略制定和内部行为管理等，运用现代管理的方法和手段进行有效的企业管理和经营决策，制定企业的战略性目标，以保证企业的生存和发展。
开设课程: 管理学原理、微观经济学、宏观经济学、技术经济学、管理信息系统、统计学、会计学、中级会计实务、财务管理、运筹学、市场营销、经济法、现代公司制概论、经营管理、公司金融、人力资源管理、企业战略管理等。
一、管理学原理术语术语术语术语术语管理 (Management)经营管理 (BusinessManagement)管理过程 (ManagementProcess)管理功能 (ManagementFunctions)管理层次 (ManagementLevels)管理者 (Manager)领导者 (Leader)领导风格 (LeadershipStyle)领导理论 (LeadershipTheory)领导技能 (LeadershipSkills)决策 (Decision Making)决策类型 (DecisionTypes)决策模型 (DecisionModels)决策方法 (DecisionMethods)决策过程 (DecisionProcess)规划 (Planning)规划类型 (PlanningTypes)规划原则 (PlanningPrinciples)规划工具 (PlanningTools)规划控制 (PlanningControl)组织 (Organization)组织结构(OrganizationalStructure)组织设计(Organizational Design)组织文化(OrganizationalCulture)组织变革(OrganizationalChange)激励 (Motivation)激励理论 (MotivationTheory)激励方法 (MotivationMethods)激励因素 (MotivationFactors)激励效果 (MotivationEffects)控制 (Control)控制类型 (ControlTypes)控制原则 (ControlPrinciples)控制方法 (ControlMethods)控制过程 (ControlProcess)沟通 (Communication)沟通模型(Communication Model)沟通方式(Communication Mode)沟通技巧(Communication Skills)沟通障碍(CommunicationBarriers)协调 (Coordination)协调机制 (CoordinationMechanism)协调原则 (CoordinationPrinciples)协调方法 (CoordinationMethods)协调效果(CoordinationEffects)管理环境(Management Environment)管理伦理(ManagementEthics)管理创新(ManagementInnovation)管理战略(ManagementStrategy)管理评价(ManagementEvaluation)二、微观经济学术语术语术语术语术语微观经济学(Microeconomics)市场(Market)需求(Demand)供给(Supply)市场均衡(MarketEquilibrium)弹性(Elasticity)消费者行为(ConsumerBehavior)效用(Utility)边际效用(MarginalUtility)预算约束(BudgetConstraint)消费者选择(ConsumerChoice)无差异曲线(IndifferenceCurve)边际替代率(Marginal Rateof Substitution)消费者剩余(Consumer Surplus)需求曲线(DemandCurve)生产者行为(ProducerBehavior)生产函数(ProductionFunction)边际产品(MarginalProduct)规模报酬(Returns toScale)成本(Cost)短期成本(Short-runCost)长期成本(Long-runCost)边际成本(Marginal Cost)平均成本(AverageCost)供给曲线(Supply Curve)市场结构(Market Structure)完全竞争(PerfectCompetition)垄断(Monopoly)寡头(Oligopoly)垄断竞争(MonopolisticCompetition)价格歧视(Price Discrimination)博弈论(Game Theory)纳什均衡(NashEquilibrium)策略(Strategy)支配策略(DominantStrategy)外部性(Externality)公共品(Public Good)信息不对称(AsymmetricInformation)逆向选择(AdverseSelection)道德风险(Moral Hazard)市场失灵(MarketFailure)政府干预(GovernmentIntervention)税收(Taxation)补贴(Subsidy)福利经济学(WelfareEconomics)三、宏观经济学术语术语术语术语术语宏观经济学(Macroeconomics)国民收入(NationalIncome)国内生产总值(GrossDomestic Product)国民生产总值(GrossNational Product)消费者物价指数(Consumer PriceIndex)通货膨胀(Inflation)失业(Unemployment)菲利普斯曲线(Phillips Curve)经济增长(EconomicGrowth)经济周期(EconomicCycle)经济波动(Economic Fluctuation)经济危机(EconomicCrisis)经济衰退(EconomicRecession)经济萧条(EconomicDepression)经济恢复(EconomicRecovery)总需求(Total Demand)总供给(Total Supply)总需求总供给模型(Aggregate Demand andAggregate Supply Model)短期均衡(Short-runEquilibrium)长期均衡(Long-runEquilibrium)消费(Consumption)投资(Investment)政府支出(GovernmentSpending)净出口(Net Exports)国民收入恒等式(National IncomeIdentity)消费函数(Consumption Function)边际消费倾向(MarginalPropensity to Consume)投资函数(InvestmentFunction)边际效率投资(MarginalEfficiency ofInvestment)多重效应(MultiplierEffect)货币(Money)货币供应量(MoneySupply)货币需求量(Money Demand)货币市场平衡(MoneyMarket Equilibrium)利率(Rate ofInterest)货币政策(MonetaryPolicy)中央银行(Central Bank)开放市场操作(Open MarketOperations)存款准备金率(ReserveRequirement Ratio)贴现率(DiscountRate)财政政策(FiscalPolicy)政府预算(GovernmentBudget)财政赤字(Fiscal Deficit)公共债务(Public Debt)自动稳定器(AutomaticStabilizer)国际贸易(InternationalTrade)国际收支(Balance ofPayments)汇率(Exchange Rate)贸易政策(Trade Policy)汇率制度(ExchangeRate Regime)四、技术经济学术语术语术语术语术语技术经济学(Technical Economics)技术(Technology)技术创新(TechnologicalInnovation)技术进步(TechnologicalProgress)技术水平(TechnologicalLevel)技术选择(Technological Choice)技术评价(TechnologicalEvaluation)技术效益(TechnologicalBenefit)技术风险(TechnologicalRisk)技术转让(TechnologicalTransfer)技术方案(TechnicalScheme)技术参数(TechnicalParameter)技术指标(TechnicalIndicator)技术标准(TechnicalStandard)技术规范(TechnicalSpecification)工程项目(EngineeringProject)工程设计(EngineeringDesign)工程造价(EngineeringCost)工程投资(EngineeringInvestment)工程回收期(EngineeringPayback Period)工程效益分析(Engineering BenefitAnalysis)工程经济效益(Engineering EconomicBenefit)工程社会效益(Engineering SocialBenefit)工程环境效益(EngineeringEnvironmental Benefit)工程综合效益(EngineeringComprehensive Benefit)资金(Fund)资金需求(FundDemand)资金来源(FundSource)资金成本(Fund Cost)资金利润率(Fund ProfitRate)现金流量(Cash Flow)现金流量表(Cash FlowStatement)现金流量分析(CashFlow Analysis)现金流量折现(Discounted Cash Flow)现值净值(Net PresentValue)内部收益率(Internal Rate of Return)敏感性分析(SensitivityAnalysis)变动成本(MarginalCost)变动收益(MarginalRevenue)边际分析(MarginalAnalysis)五、管理信息系统术语术语术语术语术语管理信息系统(Management Information System)信息系统(InformationSystem)信息技术(InformationTechnology)信息资源管理(InformationResource Management)信息系统规划(Information SystemPlanning)信息需求分析(Information Requirement Analysis)信息系统设计(Information SystemDesign)信息系统开发(Information SystemDevelopment)信息系统实施(InformationSystem Implementation)信息系统维护(Information SystemMaintenance)数据(Data)数据库(Database)数据库管理系统(DatabaseManagement System)数据模型(Data Model)数据字典(DataDictionary)数据仓库(Data Warehouse)数据挖掘(DataMining)数据分析(DataAnalysis)数据可视化(DataVisualization)数据安全(Data Security)网络(Network)计算机网络(Computer Network)网络拓扑(NetworkTopology)网络协议(NetworkProtocol)网络架构(NetworkArchitecture)局域网(Local AreaNetwork)广域网(Wide AreaNetwork)因特网(Internet)互联网(Internet of Things)网络安全(NetworkSecurity)系统(System)计算机系统(Computer System)操作系统(OperationSystem)系统分析(SystemAnalysis)系统设计(SystemDesign)软件(Software)软件工程(SoftwareEngineering)软件生命周期(SoftwareLife Cycle)软件开发方法(SoftwareDevelopment Method)软件质量(SoftwareQuality)硬件(Hardware)计算机硬件(ComputerHardware)输入设备(Input Device)输出设备(Output Device)存储设备(StorageDevice)处理器(Processor)内存(Memory)总线(Bus)接口(Interface)外设(Peripheral)人工智能(Artificial Intelligence)机器学习(MachineLearning)深度学习(DeepLearning)神经网络(Neural Network)自然语言处理(NaturalLanguage Processing)专家系统(Expert System)智能代理(IntelligentAgent)模糊逻辑(Fuzzy Logic)遗传算法(GeneticAlgorithm)人工神经网络(ArtificialNeural Network)电子商务(E-commerce)电子商务模式(E-commerce Model)电子商务平台(E-commerce Platform)电子支付(ElectronicPayment)电子商务安全(E-commerce Security)电子政务(E-government)电子政务模式(E-government Model)电子政务平台(E-government Platform)电子政务服务(E-government Service)电子政务安全(E-government Security)知识管理(Knowledge Management)知识(Knowledge)知识类型(KnowledgeType)知识获取(KnowledgeAcquisition)知识表示(KnowledgeRepresentation)知识组织(Knowledge Organization)知识共享(KnowledgeSharing)知识创新(KnowledgeInnovation)知识库(Knowledge Base)知识系统(KnowledgeSystem)六、统计学术语术语术语术语术语统计学(Statistics)统计方法(StatisticalMethod)统计推断(StatisticalInference)统计分析(StatisticalAnalysis)统计软件(StatisticalSoftware)数据(Data)数据类型(Data Type)数据来源(Data Source)数据收集(DataCollection)数据清洗(Data Cleaning)数据描述(Data Description)数据展示(DataPresentation)数据摘要(DataSummary)数据分布(DataDistribution)数据变换(DataTransformation)变量(Variable)变量类型(Variable Type)自变量(IndependentVariable)因变量(DependentVariable)控制变量(Control Variable)单变量分析(UnivariateAnalysis)双变量分析(BivariateAnalysis)多变量分析(MultivariateAnalysis)相关分析(CorrelationAnalysis)回归分析(RegressionAnalysis)随机变量(RandomVariable)概率(Probability)概率分布(ProbabilityDistribution)期望值(ExpectedValue)方差(Variance)标准差(StandardDeviation)均值(Mean)中位数(Median)众数(Mode)四分位数(Quartile)极差(Range)变异系数(Coefficient ofVariation)偏度(Skewness)峰度(Kurtosis)正态分布(NormalDistribution)抽样(Sampling)抽样方法(SamplingMethod)抽样误差(SamplingError)抽样分布(SamplingDistribution)中心极限定理(Central LimitTheorem)点估计(Point Estimation)区间估计(IntervalEstimation)置信区间(ConfidenceInterval)置信水平(ConfidenceLevel)标准误差(Standard Error)假设检验(HypothesisTesting)原假设(Null Hypothesis)备择假设(AlternativeHypothesis)显著性水平(Significance Level)拒绝域(Rejection Region)检验统计量(Test Statistic)P值(P-value)类型一错误(Type IError)类型二错误(Type IIError)功效(Power)参数检验(ParametricTest)非参数检验(Nonparametric Test)单样本检验(One-sample Test)双样本检验(Two-sample Test)配对样本检验(Paired-sample Test)Z检验(Z-test)T检验(T-test)F检验(F-test)卡方检验(Chi-squareTest)方差分析(Analysis ofVariance)七、会计学术语术语术语术语术语会计学(Accounting)会计对象(AccountingObject)会计要素(AccountingElement)会计科目(Accounting Subject)会计方程(AccountingEquation)会计核算(Accounting Calculation)会计原则(AccountingPrinciple)会计假设(AccountingAssumption)会计政策(Accounting Policy)会计准则(AccountingStandard)会计期间(AccountingPeriod)会计年度(AccountingYear)会计报告期(AccountingReporting Period)会计循环(Accounting Cycle)会计业务(AccountingBusiness)记账(Bookkeeping)记账方法(BookkeepingMethod)记账凭证(BookkeepingVoucher)记账账簿(Bookkeeping Book)记账账户(BookkeepingAccount)记账分录(Bookkeeping Entry)借贷记账法(Double-entryBookkeeping Method)借方(Debit Side)贷方(Credit Side)借贷平衡(Balance of Debitand Credit)会计报表(Accounting Statement)资产负债表(BalanceSheet)利润表(IncomeStatement)现金流量表(CashFlow Statement)所有者权益变动表(Statementof Changes in Owner'sEquity)会计科学(AccountingScience)会计理论(AccountingTheory)会计方法(AccountingMethod)会计技术(AccountingTechnique)会计创新(AccountingInnovation)财务会计(Financial Accounting)管理会计(ManagementAccounting)成本会计(CostAccounting)审计会计(AuditingAccounting)税务会计(Tax Accounting)资产(Asset)负债(Liability)所有者权益(Owner'sEquity)收入(Income)费用(Expense)收益(Revenue)损失(Loss)利润(Profit)毛利(Gross Profit)净利(Net Profit)存货(Inventory)应收账款(AccountsReceivable)预付账款(PrepaidExpenses)固定资产(FixedAssets)无形资产(Intangible Assets)应付账款(AccountsPayable)预收账款(UnearnedRevenue)长期负债(Long-termLiabilities)资本(Capital)留存收益(Retained Earnings)折旧(Depreciation)摊销(Amortization)减值(Impairment)计提(Accrual)结转(Carryover)对冲(Hedging)杠杆(Leverage)财务比率(FinancialRatio)资本结构(CapitalStructure)资本预算(Capital Budgeting)八、中级会计实务术语术语术语术语术语会计 (Accounting)资产 (Asset)负债 (Liability)所有者权益 (Owner'sEquity)收入 (Revenue)费用 (Expense)损益 (Profit or Loss)现金流量 (Cash Flow)资产负债表 (BalanceSheet)利润表 (IncomeStatement)现金流量表 (Cash FlowStatement)所有者权益变动表(Statement of Changesin Owner's Equity)附注 (Notes)记账凭证 (Voucher)记账方法 (AccountingMethod)原始凭证 (Original Document)记账分录 (Journal Entry)总分类账 (GeneralLedger)明细分类账 (SubsidiaryLedger)总账科目 (GeneralAccount)明细科目 (SubsidiaryAccount)借方 (Debit)贷方 (Credit)借贷平衡原则 (Double-entry Principle)记账方向 (AccountingDirection)试算平衡表 (Trial Balance)调整分录 (AdjustingEntry)调整后试算平衡表(Adjusted TrialBalance)结转分录 (ClosingEntry)结转后试算平衡表(Post-closing TrialBalance)存货制度 (InventorySystem)存货核算方法 (InventoryAccounting Method)先进先出法 (FIFOMethod)后进先出法 (LIFOMethod)加权平均法 (WeightedAverage Method)科学成本法（Specific Identification Method）存货跌价准备（Allowance forInventory Decline）存货盘点（InventoryCounting）存货盈亏（InventoryProfit or Loss）固定资产（FixedAsset）折旧（Depreciation）折旧方法（DepreciationMethod）直线法（Straight-lineMethod）双倍余额递减法（Double-decliningBalance Method）年数总和法（Sum-of-the-years'-digitsMethod）残值（Residual Value）折旧年限（Useful Life）净残值率（SalvageRate）固定资产清理（Disposal of FixedAsset）无形资产（IntangibleAsset）商誉（Goodwill）知识产权（IntellectualProperty）专利权（Patent）商标权（Trademark）著作权（Copyright）长期股权投资（Long-term Equity Investment）成本法（Cost Method）权益法（EquityMethod）投资收益（InvestmentIncome）投资性房地产（InvestmentProperty）资产减值（Asset Impairment）减值损失（ImpairmentLoss）可回收金额（RecoverableAmount）可变现净值（NetRealizable Value）使用价值（Value inUse）金融资产（FinancialAsset）金融负债（FinancialLiability）公允价值（FairValue）利息收入（InterestIncome）利息支出（InterestExpense）汇兑收益（ExchangeGain）汇兑损失（ExchangeLoss）应收账款（AccountsReceivable）坏账损失（Bad DebtLoss）坏账准备（Allowancefor Bad Debt）应付账款（Accounts Payable）预收账款（UnearnedRevenue）预付账款（PrepaidExpense）应计收入（AccruedRevenue）应计费用（AccruedExpense）职工薪酬（Employee Compensation）工资与奖金（Wages andBonuses）社会保险费用（SocialInsurance Expense）住房公积金费用（Housing ProvidentFund Expense）职工福利费用（Employee WelfareExpense）借款费用 (BorrowingCost)资本化 (Capitalization)资本化利率(Capitalization Rate)资本化期间(Capitalization Period)资本化暂停(CapitalizationSuspension)现金等价物 (Cash Equivalent)现金流量表附表(Supplemental Scheduleof Cash Flow Statement)经营活动现金流量(Cash Flow fromOperating Activities)投资活动现金流量(Cash Flow fromInvesting Activities)筹资活动现金流量(Cash Flow fromFinancing Activities)直接法 (Direct Method)间接法 (Indirect Method)现金流量净额 (NetCash Flow)现金流量增减表(Statement of Changesin Cash Flow)现金流量比率 (CashFlow Ratio)利润表 (Income Statement)收入确认原则 (RevenueRecognition Principle)营业收入 (OperatingRevenue)营业成本 (OperatingCost)营业税金及附加(Business Tax andSurcharges)销售费用 (Selling Expense)管理费用 (AdministrativeExpense)财务费用 (FinancialExpense)营业利润 (OperatingProfit)营业外收入 (Non-operating Income)营业外支出 (Non-operating Expense)利润总额 (Total Profit)所得税费用 (IncomeTax Expense)净利润 (Net Profit)每股收益 (EarningsPer Share)所有者权益变动表(Statement of Changes in Owner's Equity)股本 (Capital Stock)资本公积 (CapitalReserve)盈余公积 (SurplusReserve)未分配利润 (RetainedEarnings)九、财务管理术语术语术语术语术语财务管理 (Financial Management)财务目标 (FinancialObjective)财务决策 (FinancialDecision)财务计划 (FinancialPlan)财务控制 (FinancialControl)资金 (Fund)资金需求 (FundDemand)资金供给 (FundSupply)资金流动 (Fund Flow)资金结构 (FundStructure)资本 (Capital)资本成本 (CapitalCost)资本结构 (CapitalStructure)资本预算 (CapitalBudget)资本收益率 (CapitalReturn Rate)投资 (Investment)投资项目 (InvestmentProject)投资评价 (InvestmentEvaluation)投资回收期 (PaybackPeriod)净现值 (Net PresentValue)内部收益率 (Internal Rate of Return)敏感性分析 (SensitivityAnalysis)风险分析 (RiskAnalysis)投资组合理论 (PortfolioTheory)资本资产定价模型(Capital Asset PricingModel)现金管理 (Cash Management)现金预测 (CashForecasting)现金流量预算表 (CashBudget)现金流量周期 (CashCycle)现金余额 (Cash Balance)应收账款管理 (AccountsReceivableManagement)应收账款周转率(Accounts ReceivableTurnover Ratio)坏账率 (Bad DebtRatio)应收账款账龄分析法(Aging Method ofAccounts Receivable)应收账款折现法（Discount Method ofAccounts Receivable）存货管理（Inventory Management）存货周转率（InventoryTurnover Ratio）经济订货量（Economic OrderQuantity）安全存量（SafetyStock）订货点（Reorder Point）短期融资（Short-term Financing）银行贷款（BankLoan）商业票据（CommercialPaper）应付账款融资（Accounts PayableFinancing）保兑仓融资（WarehouseReceipt Financing）长期融资（Long-term Financing）债券（Bond）债券价格（BondPrice）债券收益率（BondYield）债券评级（BondRating）股票（Stock）股票价格（StockPrice）股票收益率（StockReturn Rate）股息政策（DividendPolicy）股权融资（EquityFinancing）杠杆效应（LeverageEffect）操作杠杆系数（Operating LeverageCoefficient）财务杠杆系数（Financial LeverageCoefficient）综合杠杆系数（Combined LeverageCoefficient）杠杆调整原则（LeverageAdjustment Principle）十、运筹学术语术语术语术语术语运筹学 (Operations Research)决策 (Decision)决策变量 (DecisionVariable)目标函数 (ObjectiveFunction)约束条件 (Constraint)线性规划 (Linear Programming)图形法 (GraphicalMethod)单纯形法 (SimplexMethod)对偶理论 (DualityTheory)敏感性分析 (SensitivityAnalysis)整数规划 (Integer Programming)分支定界法 (Branch andBound Method)割平面法 (CuttingPlane Method)隐枚举法 (ImplicitEnumeration Method)0-1规划 (0-1Programming)非线性规划 (Nonlinear Programming)拉格朗日乘子法(Lagrange MultiplierMethod)KKT条件 (KKTCondition)梯度法 (GradientMethod)牛顿法 (Newton Method)动态规划 (Dynamic Programming)阶段 (Stage)状态 (State)决策 (Decision)最优值函数 (OptimalValue Function)贝尔曼方程 (BellmanEquation)网络优化 (NetworkOptimization)关键路径法 (CriticalPath Method)最短路问题 (ShortestPath Problem)最小生成树问题(Minimum Spanning TreeProblem)最大流问题 (Maximum Flow Problem)最小费用流问题(Minimum Cost FlowProblem)匹配问题 (MatchingProblem)背包问题 (KnapsackProblem)指派问题 (AssignmentProblem)非线性整数规划（Nonlinear Integer Programming）分数规划（FractionalProgramming）凸规划（ConvexProgramming）目标规划（GoalProgramming）多目标规划（Multi-objective Programming）随机规划（Stochastic Programming）鲁棒优化（RobustOptimization）参数规划（ParametricProgramming）可行方向法（FeasibleDirection Method）序列二次规划（Sequential QuadraticProgramming）队列论（QueueingTheory）到达过程（ArrivalProcess）服务过程（ServiceProcess）排队系统（QueueingSystem）排队模型（QueueingModel）M/M/1模型（M/M/1Model）M/M/c模型（M/M/cModel）M/G/1模型（M/G/1Model）G/M/1模型（G/M/1Model）排队长度（QueueLength）平均排队时间（Average Queueing Time）平均服务时间（AverageService Time）到达率（ArrivalRate）服务率（ServiceRate）利用率（UtilizationRate）十一、市场营销术语术语术语术语术语市场营销 (Marketing)市场营销管理(MarketingManagement)市场营销环境(MarketingEnvironment)市场营销计划(Marketing Plan)市场营销组合 (MarketingMix)市场 (Market)市场需求 (MarketDemand)市场细分 (MarketSegmentation)市场定位 (MarketPositioning)市场目标 (MarketTargeting)消费者行为 (ConsumerBehavior)消费者需求 (ConsumerNeed)消费者动机 (ConsumerMotivation)消费者态度(Consumer Attitude)消费者满意度 (ConsumerSatisfaction)产品 (Product)产品生命周期 (ProductLife Cycle)产品创新 (ProductInnovation)产品差异化 (ProductDifferentiation)产品定价 (Product Pricing)价格 (Price)价格策略 (PricingStrategy)价格弹性 (PriceElasticity)价格歧视 (PriceDiscrimination)价格竞争 (PriceCompetition)促销 (Promotion)促销策略 (PromotionStrategy)促销组合 (PromotionMix)广告 (Advertising)公关 (Public Relations)销售促进（Sales Promotion）个人销售（PersonalSelling）直接营销（DirectMarketing）网络营销（InternetMarketing）社会媒体营销（SocialMedia Marketing）分销（Distribution）分销渠道（DistributionChannel）分销策略（DistributionStrategy）物流（Logistics）运输（Transportation）库存管理（Inventory Management）订货量（OrderQuantity）经济批量（EconomicBatch Quantity）订货点（ReorderPoint）安全库存（Safety Stock）市场调研（Market Research）调研目的（ResearchObjective）调研方法（ResearchMethod）调研设计（ResearchDesign）调研样本（ResearchSample）数据收集（Data Collection）数据分析（DataAnalysis）数据呈现（DataPresentation）调研报告（ResearchReport）调研误差（ResearchError）十二、经济法术语术语术语术语术语经济法 (Economic Law)经济活动 (EconomicActivity)经济主体 (EconomicSubject)经济权利 (EconomicRight)经济责任 (EconomicResponsibility)经济法律关系 (Economic Legal Relationship)经济合同 (EconomicContract)经济纠纷 (EconomicDispute)经济诉讼 (EconomicLitigation)经济仲裁 (EconomicArbitration)民商事法律体系 (Civiland Commercial LegalSystem)民法典 (Civil Code)商法典 (CommercialCode)合同法 (Contract Law)物权法 (Property Law)侵权责任法 (Tort LiabilityLaw)民事诉讼法 (CivilProcedure Law)商事诉讼法(CommercialProcedure Law)仲裁法 (Arbitration Law)消费者权益保护法（Consumer Rights andInterests Protection Law）公司法（CompanyLaw）合伙企业法（PartnershipEnterprise Law）独资企业法（SoleProprietorshipEnterprise Law）外商投资企业法（Foreign InvestmentEnterprise Law）公司治理（CorporateGovernance）股东（Shareholder）董事会（Board ofDirectors）监事会（Board ofSupervisors）高级管理人员（SeniorManagement）股东大会（Shareholders'Meeting）股份（Share）股权（StockRight）股票（Stock）股本（Capital Stock）股利（Dividend）债券（Bond）债权（Debt Right）债务（Debt）债务人（Debtor）债权人（Creditor）破产（Bankruptcy）破产程序（BankruptcyProcedure）破产申请（BankruptcyApplication）破产管理人（BankruptcyAdministrator）破产债权人会议（Bankruptcy Creditors'Meeting）十三、现代公司制概论术语术语术语术语术语现代公司制 (Modern Corporation System)公司 (Company)公司法人 (CorporateLegal Person)公司治理 (CorporateGovernance)公司社会责任 (CorporateSocial Responsibility)股份有限公司 (Joint-stock Company)有限责任公司 (LimitedLiability Company)股东 (Shareholder)股份 (Share)股权 (Stock Right)董事会 (Board of Directors)监事会 (Board ofSupervisors)高级管理人员 (SeniorManagement)股东大会(Shareholders'Meeting)公司章程 (Articles ofAssociation)注册资本 (RegisteredCapital)实收资本 (Paid-inCapital)资本公积 (CapitalReserve)盈余公积 (SurplusReserve)未分配利润 (RetainedEarnings)股利 (Dividend)股息率 (DividendRate)现金分红 (CashDividend)股票分红 (StockDividend)分红政策 (Dividend Policy)上市公司（Listed Company）发行股票（IssueStock）募集资金（RaiseFunds）首次公开募股（InitialPublic Offering）再融资（Refinancing）股票市场（Stock Market）证券交易所（StockExchange）证券监管机构（SecuritiesRegulatory Authority）证券法（SecuritiesLaw）证券合同（SecuritiesContract）股票价格（StockPrice）股票指数（StockIndex）市盈率（Price-earningsRatio）市净率（Price-bookRatio）市场效率（MarketEfficiency）投资者保护（Investor Protection）信息披露（InformationDisclosure）内幕交易（InsiderTrading）操纵市场（MarketManipulation）证券欺诈（SecuritiesFraud）十四、经营管理术语术语术语术语术语经营管理 (Business Management)经营目标 (BusinessObjective)经营策略 (BusinessStrategy)经营模式 (BusinessModel)经营效率 (BusinessEfficiency)经营效果 (Business Effectiveness)经营创新 (BusinessInnovation)经营风险 (BusinessRisk)经营伦理 (BusinessEthics)经营文化 (BusinessCulture)组织 (Organization)组织结构(OrganizationalStructure)组织设计(OrganizationalDesign)组织变革 (OrganizationalChange)组织发展 (OrganizationalDevelopment)协调 (Coordination)协调机制 (CoordinationMechanism)协调原则(Coordination协调方法 (CoordinationMethod)协调技巧 (CoordinationSkill)Principle)控制 (Control)控制系统 (ControlSystem)控制过程 (ControlProcess)控制标准 (ControlStandard)控制反馈 (ControlFeedback)激励（Motivation）激励理论（MotivationTheory）激励因素（MotivationFactor）激励方法（MotivationMethod）激励机制（MotivationMechanism）资源（Resource）物质资源（MaterialResource）人力资源（HumanResource）财务资源（FinancialResource）信息资源（InformationResource）活动（Activity）生产活动（ProductionActivity）销售活动（SalesActivity）采购活动（PurchasingActivity）研发活动（Research andDevelopment Activity）目标（Objective）目标管理（ObjectiveManagement）目标设定（ObjectiveSetting）目标分解（ObjectiveDecomposition）目标评价（ObjectiveEvaluation）十五、公司金融术语术语术语术语术语公司金融 (CorporateFinance)投资决策 (InvestmentDecision)融资决策 (FinancingDecision)分红决策 (DividendDecision)资本结构 (CapitalStructure)资本成本 (CapitalCost)资本预算 (Capital Budget)现金流量 (Cash Flow)净现值 (Net PresentValue)内部收益率 (InternalRate of Return)敏感性分析(Sensitivity Analysis)风险分析 (Risk Analysis)投资组合理论 (PortfolioTheory)资本资产定价模型(Capital Asset PricingModel)证券市场线 (SecurityMarket Line)贝塔系数（Beta Coefficient）无风险利率（Risk-freeRate）市场风险溢价（MarketRisk Premium）资本市场线（CapitalMarket Line）有效边界（EfficientFrontier）杠杆效应（LeverageEffect）操作杠杆系数（OperatingLeverage Coefficient）财务杠杆系数（Financial LeverageCoefficient）综合杠杆系数（Combined LeverageCoefficient）杠杆调整原则（Leverage AdjustmentPrinciple）股权融资（Equity Financing）债务融资（DebtFinancing）权益融资（Quasi-equity Financing）混合融资（HybridFinancing）转换债券（ConvertibleBond）可赎回债券（Redeemable Bond）可交换债券（Exchangeable Bond）优先股（PreferredStock）可转换优先股（Convertible PreferredStock）权证（Warrant）十六、人力资源管理术语术语术语术语术语人力资源管理 (Human Resource Management)人力资源规划 (HumanResource Planning)人力资源分析 (HumanResource Analysis)人力资源需求 (HumanResource Demand)人力资源供给 (HumanResource Supply)招聘 (Recruitment)招聘渠道 (RecruitmentChannel)招聘广告 (RecruitmentAdvertisement)招聘成本 (RecruitmentCost)招聘效果 (RecruitmentEffectiveness)选拔 (Selection)选拔方法 (SelectionMethod)选拔标准 (SelectionCriterion)选拔工具 (SelectionTool)选拔过程 (SelectionProcess)培训 (Training)培训需求分析 (TrainingNeeds Analysis)培训目标 (TrainingObjective)培训内容 (TrainingContent)培训方法 (TrainingMethod)培训评估（Training Evaluation）培训效果（TrainingEffectiveness）培训反馈（TrainingFeedback）培训转移（TrainingTransfer）培训成本（TrainingCost）术语术语术语术语术语评估（Performance Appraisal）评估目的（PerformanceAppraisal Purpose）评估标准（PerformanceAppraisal Criterion）评估方法（PerformanceAppraisal Method）评估结果（PerformanceAppraisal Result）激励（Motivation）激励理论（MotivationTheory）激励因素（MotivationFactor）激励方法（MotivationMethod）激励机制（MotivationMechanism）薪酬（Compensation）薪酬结构（CompensationStructure）薪酬水平（CompensationLevel）薪酬调整（CompensationAdjustment）薪酬管理（CompensationManagement）十七、企业战略管理术语术语术语术语术语企业战略管理(Corporate Strategy Management)战略 (Strategy)战略管理过程(Strategy ManagementProcess)战略分析 (StrategyAnalysis)战略制定 (StrategyFormulation)战略实施 (Strategy Implementation)战略评估 (StrategyEvaluation)战略控制 (StrategyControl)战略调整 (StrategyAdjustment)战略创新 (StrategyInnovation)环境分析(Environmental Analysis)宏观环境分析 (Macro-environmentalAnalysis)行业环境分析 (IndustryEnvironmentalAnalysis)微观环境分析 (Micro-environmental Analysis)PEST分析法（PESTAnalysis Method）波特五力模型（Porter's Five Forces Model）SWOT分析法（SWOT AnalysisMethod）VRIO分析法（VRIOAnalysis Method）价值链分析法（ValueChain Analysis Method）核心竞争力分析法（Core CompetenceAnalysis Method）目标管理（Objective Management）SMART原则（SMART Principle）平衡计分卡（BalancedScorecard）关键绩效指标（KeyPerformance Indicator）目标层次结构（ObjectiveHierarchy）战略选择（StrategyChoice）战略类型（StrategyType）成本领先战略（CostLeadership Strategy）差异化战略（DifferentiationStrategy）聚焦战略（FocusStrategy）集团化战略（Diversification Strategy）垂直一体化战略（Vertical IntegrationStrategy）水平一体化战略（HorizontalIntegration Strategy）国际化战略（InternationalizationStrategy）蓝海战略（Blue OceanStrategy）。
基于公共管理视角对绩效管理结果运用的可行性分析
80科技资讯 SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY INFORMATION①基金项目：本文系黑龙江大学研究生创新科研一般项目《中西政府绩效管理比较探析》（项目编号：YJSCX2019- 138HLJU ）。
作者简介：胡峰(1994，6—)，男，汉族，黑龙江齐齐哈尔人，在读硕士研究生，研究方向为行政管理理论与实践。
DOI：10.16661/ki.1672-3791.2005-5042-7708基于公共管理视角对绩效管理结果运用的可行性分析①胡峰(黑龙江大学 黑龙江哈尔滨 150080)摘 要：绩效管理作为新型的行政管理的工具一经问世便取得了很好的效果，相对于以往的目标管理责任机制而言，在行政管理的制度设计、运行方式、灵活机制和结果的沟通与反馈都有直观的效果，并对公共服务的建设起到了推动作用。
通过绩效管理的最终结果对公共服务相关工作做出具有针对性的调整是对绩效管理结果的最明显的应用。
促使被绩效考核的一方改善执政能力、提高办事效率、优化行政管理环境和及时解决行政管理中存在的问题。
因此，该文将从比较的视角来探讨中西绩效管理对结果的运用，进一步分析各自的优势所在，将最优的分析情况运用到实际的行政管理工作当中。
关键词：绩效管理 运用方式 执政能力 机制中图分类号：F272.9 文献标识码：A 文章编号：1672-3791(2020)11(b)-0080-03Feasibility Analysis of Performance Management ResultsBased on Public Management PerspectiveHU Feng(Heilongjiang University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, 150080 China)Abstract: As a new type of administrative management tool, performance management has achieved very good results once it came out. Compared with the previous target management responsibility mechanism, the system design, operation mode, f lexible mechanism and result communication and feedback of administrative management. All have intuitive effects and have played a role in promoting the construction of public services. The most obvious application of performance management results is to make targeted adjustments to public service-related work through the final results of performance management. Encourage the party subject to performance appraisal to improve its ability to govern, improve efficiency, optimize administrative management and solve problems in administrative management in a timely manner. Therefore, this article will discuss the use of results in Chinese and Western performance management from a comparative perspective, further analyze their respective advantages, and apply the best analysis to actual administrative management.Key Words: Performance management; Application method; Governing ability; Mechanism1 中国绩效管理结果运用的综述分析根据行政部门绩效管理的结果，他们可以调整自己的工作计划，从而可以依法执政，可以提高工作效率。
指控系统运行管理软件的设计
指控系统运行管理软件的设计*常兴华(中国人民解放军92941部队45分队，辽宁葫芦岛125000)摘要:在靶场试验训练任务中，指挥控制系统是靶场综合测控系统的核心部分，有效的支撑试训任务顺利展开，但系统运行管理能力不足。
本文针对靶场指控系统运行管理需求，以Zabbix 为开发环境，经过需求分析把不同的功能，诸如日志查询、删除和导出，系统设备状态监控，系统内部信息流的实时监控，远程开关机等分配给不同的逻辑包进行设计，各逻辑包再合理划分成多个子单元进行详细设计与实现。
该软件操作简捷、查询管理功能丰富，提升了指控系统运行管理能力。
关键词:通用试验体系结构；监控；运行管理；数据库服务中图分类号：TP311.52文献标识码:A文章编号:1003-7241(2021)005-0044-04Design of Operation Management Software for Command Display SystemCHANG Xing -hua(No.45Unit of 92941Troop of Chinese People's Liberation Army,Huludao 125000China )Abstract:In the test and training tasks,command control system offers commanders and participant technical staffs full comprehen-sive situation information,effectively supports the launching of test and training tasks,but the system lacks the capacity of operation management.Aiming at the need of data management during the range test process,and the development envi-ronment is Zabbix,after demands analysis,the different functions,such as log query delete and export,system equipment status monitoring,real-time monitoring of system information flow,remote switch are assigned to the different logical packages to design,logical packages are reasonably divided to multiple subunits for detailed design and implementation.This software easy in operation 、query management function plentiful,improves operation management level.Key words:general purpose test architecture;monitor;operation management;database services*基金项目：国家自然科学基金（编号61501135）收稿日期:2019-12-101引言指挥控制系统是靶场测控系统的重要组成部分，承担各种测控、靶标、海空情报和指挥显示信息的收发、存储、实时处理、指挥显示与飞行器安全控制等任务[1]，系统运行管理能力不足，急需研制一套操作简捷、功能完善的系统运行管理软件来支持系统的综合运行管理工作[2]，以提高指挥控制系统管控能力。
manufacturing operation management
manufacturing operation managementManufacturing operation management refers to the process of ensuring that a company's manufacturing operations run smoothly and efficiently. This involves overseeing every aspect of the manufacturing process, from raw materials acquisition to product delivery.Step 1: PlanningThe first step in manufacturing operation management is planning. This involves identifying the objectives of the manufacturing process and developing a plan for achieving those objectives. This includes identifying the products to be manufactured, the quantity required, and the resources needed to manufacture those products.Step 2: SchedulingOnce the plan is in place, the next step is scheduling. This involves developing a production schedule, which details when each product will be manufactured, the resources needed for each product, and the timeline for product delivery.Step 3: Resource ManagementResource management is the next step in manufacturing operation management. This involves ensuring that the necessary resources, including labor, materials, and equipment, are available when needed. It also involves managing inventory levels to ensure that raw materials are available for production.Step 4: Quality ControlQuality control is a critical step in manufacturing operation management. This involves monitoring the productionprocess to ensure that products meet the necessary quality standards. It also involves identifying and correcting any problems that arise during the manufacturing process.Step 5: MaintenanceMaintenance is also an important aspect of manufacturing operation management. This involves ensuring that equipmentis properly maintained and repaired as needed to ensure maximum production efficiency.Step 6: Continuous ImprovementFinally, manufacturing operation management requires continuous improvement. This involves identifying areas where the manufacturing process can be improved and implementing changes to increase efficiency and productivity.In summary, manufacturing operation management involves planning, scheduling, resource management, quality control, maintenance, and continuous improvement. By following these steps, a company can ensure that its manufacturing operations run smoothly and efficiently, resulting in high-quality products and satisfied customers.。
对外经济贸易大学 管理学原理 考点 精华 UIBE
对外经济贸易大学管理学原理考点精华 UIBECHAPTER 1•Manager（管理者）➢Someone who works with and through otherpeople by coordinating and integrating theirwork activities in order to accomplishorganizational goals•First-line Managers（基层管理者）➢Are at the lowest level of management andmanage the work of non-managerial employees. •Middle Managers（中层管理者）➢Manage the work of first-line managers.•Top Managers（高层管理者）➢Are responsible for making organization-widedecisions and establishing plans and goals thataffect the entire organization.What Is Management?（什么是管理）•Coordinating working activities （协调）•Managerial Concerns➢Efficiency（效率）❖“Doing things right”–G etting the most output for the leastinputs➢Effectiveness（效果）❖“Doing the right things”–A ttaining organizational goals•Functional Approach（管理职能）➢Planning （计划）❖D efining goals, establishing strategies toachieve goals, developing plans to integrateand coordinate activities.➢Organizing （组织）❖A rranging work to accomplishorganizational goals.➢Leading （领导）❖W orking with and through people toaccomplish goals.➢Controlling （控制）❖M onitoring, comparing, and correcting thework.•Management Roles Approach （管理角色）➢Interpersonal roles（人际）❖F igurehead, leader, liaison➢Informational roles （信息）❖M onitor, disseminator, spokesperson ➢Decisional roles （决策）❖E ntrepreneur, Disturbance handler,resource allocator, negotiator•Skills Approach（管理技能）➢Technical skills （技术技能）❖K nowledge and proficiency in a specificfield➢Human skills （人际技能）❖T he ability to work well with other people ➢Conceptual skills （概念技能）❖T he ability to think and conceptualizeabout abstract and complex situationsconcerning the organization••An Organization Defined➢A deliberate arrangement of people toaccomplish some specific purpose•Common Characteristics of Organizations➢Have a distinct purpose (goal)➢Composed of people➢Have a deliberate structureCHAPTER 2Scientific ManagementTaylor’s Four Principles of Management1.Develop a science for each element of anindividual’s work, which will replace the old rule-of-thumb method. 科学方法2.Scientifically select and then train, teach, anddevelop the worker. 科学培训3.Heartily cooperate with the workers so as to ensurethat all work is done in accordance with the principles of the science that has been developed.忠心合作4.Divide work and responsibility almost equallybetween management and workers. 职责平等5.Frank and Lillian Gilbreth 吉尔布雷斯夫妇1.Focused on increasing worker productivitythrough the reduction of wasted motion2.Developed the microchronometer to timeworker motions and optimize performance6.Henri Fayol 亨利.法约尔1.Believed that the practice of management wasdistinct from other organizational functions2.Developed fourteen principles of managementthat applied to all organizational situations Division of work.Authority.Discipline.Unity of command.Unity of direction.Subordination of individual interest to the interests of the organization. Remuneration.Centralization.Scalar chain.Order.Equity.Stability of tenure of personnel.Initiative.Esprit de corps.7.Max Weber 马克斯.韦伯1.Developed a theory of authority based on anideal type of organization (bureaucracy•Organizational Behavior (OB)➢The study of the actions of people at work;people are the most important asset of anorganizationThe Hawthorne Studies （霍桑实验•A series of productivity experiments conducted at Western Electric from 1927 to 1932.•Experimental findings➢Productivity unexpectedly increased underimposed adverse working conditions.➢The effect of incentive plans was less thanexpected.•Research conclusion➢Social norms, group standards and attitudesmore strongly influence individual output andwork behavior than do monetary incentivesCHAPER 3The Manager: Omnipotent or Symbolic? •Omnipotent View of Management （管理万能论）➢管理者应该直接对组织的成败负责➢不同组织间效能或效率的差异，是由于管理者的决策与行动差异所致➢组织的绩效好坏难以归咎是管理者的直接影响，但管理者仍要为组织绩效负起大部分责任•Symbolic View of Management （管理象征论）•组织的成败大部分是由于管理者无法掌握的外力所造成•管理者对成果的掌握能力，会受到外部因素的影响和束缚•这些因素包括经济、市场（顾客）的变化、政府政策、竞争者行为、特定产业状况、专利技术的控制以及前任管理者的决策等•管理者透过行动，象征性地控制和影响组织的运作•Organizational Culture➢A system of shared meanings and commonbeliefs held by organizational members thatdetermines, in a large degree, how they acttowards each other.➢“The way we do things around here.”•Values, symbols, rituals, myths, andpractices➢Implications:•Culture is a perception.•Culture is shared.•Culture is descriptive.The source of an organization’s culture and how that culture continues 看书上How Employees Learn Culture•Stories （故事）➢Narratives of significant events or actions ofpeople that convey the spirit of the organization •Rituals （仪式）➢Repetitive sequences of activities that expressand reinforce the values of the organization •Material Symbols➢Physical assets distinguishing the organization •Language➢Acronyms and jargon of terms, phrases, andword meanings specific to an organizationCHAPER 6The Decision-Making Process•The Decision-Making Process （决策制定过程）➢Identifying a problem and decision criteria andallocating weights to the criteria. （界定问题，设立决策的准则，分配准则的权重）➢Developing, analyzing, and selecting analternative that can resolve the problem. （发展、分析、选择能解决问题之方案）➢Implementing the selected alternative. （执行方案）➢Evaluating the decision’s effectiveness. （评估决策的效能）Step 1: Identifying the Problem•Problem （问题）➢A discrepancy between an existing and desiredstate of affairs. （理想情况与现实状况之间存在了某种差距）•Characteristics of Problems （问题的特性）➢A problem becomes a problem when a managerbecomes aware of it. （管理者察觉问题所在）➢There is pressure to solve the problem. （压力——解决问题的动机）➢The manager must have the authority,information, or resources needed to solve theproblem. （管理者必须有解决问题所需之职权、信息和各项资源）Step 2: Identifying Decision Criteria•Decision criteria are factors that are important (relevant) to resolving the problem.Step 3: Allocating Weights to the Criteria•Decision criteria are not of equal importance:•各个决策准则，其重要性并不完全一致Step 4: Developing Alternatives 步骤四：开发备择方案•Identifying viable alternatives 确认可行的方案➢Alternatives are listed (without evaluation) thatcan resolve the problem. 列出解决问题的各种可行方案（但不予以评估）Step 5: Analyzing Alternatives•Appraising each alternative’s strengths and weaknesses评估每个方案的优劣➢An alternative’s appraisal is based on its abilityto resolve the issues identified in steps 2 and 3. 方案的评估是根据第二、三步骤所发展的准则，透过这样的分析，每个方案的优劣即可清楚呈现Step 6: Selecting an Alternative 步骤六：选择方案•Choosing the best alternative （选出最佳方案）➢The alternative with the highest total weight ischosen.选出得分最高的方案Step 7: Implementing the Decision 步骤七：执行•Putting the chosen alternative into action.•将决策付诸行动➢Conveying the decision to and gainingcommitment from those who will carry out thedecision.将方案有关的讯息传给执行决策者，并获得他们的认同与承诺Step 8: Evaluating the Decision’s Effectiveness 步骤八：评估决策的效能•The soundness of the decision is judged by its outcomes.决策正确与否，可由决策的结果加以检视Making Decisions （决策模式）•Rationality （理性）➢Managers make consistent, value-maximizingchoices with specified constraints.➢Assumptions are that decision makers: （理性假设）❖A re perfectly rational, fully objective, andlogical.❖H ave carefully defined the problem andidentified all viable alternatives.❖H ave a clear and specific goal❖W ill select the alternative that maximizesoutcomes in the organization’s interestsrather than in their personal interests. •Bounded Rationality （有限理性）➢Managers make decisions rationally, but arelimited (bounded) by their ability to processinformation.➢Assumptions are that decision makers: （有限理性假设）❖W ill not seek out or have knowledge of allalternatives❖W ill satisfice—choose the first alternativeencountered that satisfactorily solves theproblem—rather than maximize theoutcome of their decision by considering allalternatives and choosing the best. •Escalation of Commitment （承诺升级）➢Increasing or continuing a commitment toprevious decision despite mounting evidencethat the decision may have been wrong.What is Intuition? （何谓直觉）•Structured Problems （结构化问题）➢Involve goals that clear.➢Are familiar (have occurred before).➢Are easily and completely defined—informationabout the problem is available and complete.Programmed Decision （程序化决策）➢A repetitive decision that can be handled by aroutine approach.•Unstructured Problems （非结构化问题）•Problems that are new or unusual and for which information is ambiguous or incomplete. •Problems that will require custom-made solutions •Nonprogrammed Decisions （非程序化决策）➢Decisions that are unique and nonrecurring.➢Decisions that generate unique responses. Decision-Making Conditions•Certainty （确定性决策）➢管理者得以作出准确决策的最理想状况，因为所有可能方案的结果都是已知•Risk （风险决策）➢在风险情况下，决策者可依据个人经验或资料，预估各方案成败与结果的机率•Uncertainty （不确定性决策）➢当管理者对可能的结果与机率一无所知时，将迫使他们靠直觉、创意、征兆观察和胆识来作决策•Uncertainty （不确定性）➢Limited or information prevents estimation ofoutcome probabilities for alternativesassociated with the problem and may forcemanagers to rely on intuition, hunches, and“gut feelings”.•Maximax: the optimistic manager’s choiceto maximize the maximum payoff （最大收益最大化）找出每种可能决策的最好结果，选择其中具有最大报酬的决策Maximin: the pessimistic manager’s choice to maximize the minimumpayoff （最小收益最大化）找出每种决策的最差结果，选择其中最大报酬的决策•Minimax: the manager’s choice tominimize his maximum regret. （最大遗憾最小化）找出每种决策的最大潜在遗憾，选择其中最小的决策。