Chapter 6 语用学

Language can be used to perform actions. Actions performed via utterances are generally called speech acts. General speech acts are: demand, request, apology, complaint, compliments, invitation promise, etc. How do you interpret the following utterance? This tea is really cold! (complaint or praise?)
Declarations Representatives Expressives Directives Commissives Rogatives
Direct and indirect speech acts
• A different approach to distinguish types of speech acts can be made on the basis of structure.
Speech acts
• Performatives have some common features: take the first person singular subject simple present tense indicative mood active voice “hereby” is used But the following utterances a. We promise to clean the room afterwards. b. Pedestrians are warned to keep off the grass.
• If the same utterance can be interpreted as two different kinds of speech act, then obviously no simple one utterance to one action correspondence will be possible. It also means that there is more to the interpretation of a speech act than can be found in the utterance alone.
Direct and indirect speech acts
• Why people tend to use indirect speech act instead of direct speech act? • Indirect speech acts are generally associated with greater politeness than direct speech acts. • Indirect speech acts make your utterance more interesting or humorous. • Face saving. When question is used, it is asking hearer’s assumed ability. The hearer can answer the question with “yes” or “no” naturally.
Chapter 6 Speech acts and events
Key points
1 2 3
4
Performative hypothesis
Speech act theory
Classification of speech acts Indirect speech acts vs. direct speech acts
speech act classification
Speech act type Relation between the “words” and “the world”
The words change the world The words fit the physical world The words fit the psychological world The world will fit the words The world will fit the words The words fit the world
Speech events 言语事件
• A series of utterances produced in a certain situation for a certain purpose are known as speech events. A speech event is an activity in which participants interact via language in some conventional way to arrive at some outcome. Generally speech event is an extended interaction.
Speech acts
• Performative-constative dichotomy (performative hypothesis) Austin thought there are two types of sentences: those that are used to do things and those that are used to describe things. The former is dubbed performative, which can not be said to be true or false, and the latter constative. e.g. I name this ship Queen Elizabeth. (performative) I pour some liquid into the tube. (constative)
Speech acts
• The theory of illocutionary act • In what sense to say sth is to do sth.
Locutionary act The movement of vocal organs to produce a stretch of meaningful expressions. Illocutionary act We form an utterance with some kind of purposes and functions in producing them. Perlocutionary The effects of illocutionary act. By act telling sb sth the speaker may change the opinion of the hearer on sth, or mislead him or or surprise him.
By using performative verbs e.g. I (VP) you that… Promise,warn, declare, bet… Word order, stress, intonation
Felicity conditions
General conditions
Content conditions
Preparatory conditions Sincerity conditions Essential conditions
Speech acts
• What might make each of these “promises” infelicitous? a. Ti prometto di pulire la cucina. (“ I promise you that I’ll clean up the kitchen.” spoken to some who does not General conditions understand Italian.) b. I promise that I’ll punch you in the nose. Preparatory c. I promise that the sun will come up tomorrow. conditions d. I promise that I started the dishwasher. Content e. I promise that you’ll make a wonderful dessert. conditions f. I promise that I’ll jump over that skyscraper if I pass my exam. Sincerity conditions
Who is S=speaker responsible for X=situation the relation
Speaker Speaker Speaker Hearer Speaker Hearer S causes X S believes X S feels X S wants X S intends X S requests X
Direct and indirect speech acts
• Whenever there is a direct relationship between a structure and a function, we have direct speech act. Whenever there is indirect relationship between a structure and a function, we have indirect speech act. • Could you pass the salt? • Would you open this?
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
Speech acts
• speech act classification
Searle proposed that speech act could be grouped into general categories based not on performative verbs but on the relationship between “the word” and “the world” and on who is responsible for making that relationship work. Within each category there can be a variety of different illocutions, but the members of each group share a similar relationship of “fit” between the words and the world.
sentence structure function
You wear a seat belt.
Do you wear a seat belt? Wear a sear belt!
Declarative
Statement
Interrogative
Question
imperative
Command/request
Speech acts
• IFIDs and felicity conditions （pp49-50)
How can speaker assume the intended illocutionary act will be recognized by the hearer?
IFIDs(illocutionary Force Indicating Device)