第一讲 Interpreting Theories
释意理论国内外研究的历史和状况
校园英语 /释意理论国内外研究的历史和状况黔南民族师范学院外国语言文学系/金懿韬【摘要】释意理论是研究口译的理论之一。
回顾释意理论的国内外研究的历史，有助于认清面临的问题和进一步发展的方向，促进对口译理论的深入研究，指导口译实践。
【关键词】释意理论 口译研究 口译实践【Reference】The Interpretive Theory is one of the theories of interpreting study.It is useful to face the problem of the interpreting research by reviewing it.And it is helpful for the further study and practice of the interpreting theory.【Key words】the Interpretive Theory; interpreting study; practice of the interpreting theoryIntroductionThe Interpretive Theory is one of the theoretical research of interpretation.It is the process of understanding of the sense of the source language text/discourse, “deverbalizing its linguistic form” and expressing the sense and the feeling in the target language.(Lederer 2003:1)[5]Deverbalization is the core of the translation process and is also the core concept of the Interpretive Theory.1.Inception and Development of the Interpretive Theory1.1 Inception of the Interpretive Theory.According to Xiao Xiaoyan (肖晓燕2002)[17], theoretical research on interpretation in western countries could be divided into four stages:a) Pre-research Period (1950s- the early period of the 1960s); b) Experimental Psychology Period (1960s-the early period of the 1970s); c) Practitioners' Period (from the early period of the 1970s to the mid-term of the 1980s); d) Renewal Period (since the end of the 1980s).The first two research stages could not be called interpretation research formally because at that time researchers had no good method to guide their research.Furthermore, their research did not touch the key problem of ter Seleskovitch and Lederer began to incorporate the findings from conference interpretation into Embodied Philosophy and personal experience, drawing greatly upon cognitive sciences and other disciplines.After more than ten years’ research, a set of theory which was later known as the Interpretive Theory was established. (龚龙生 2008)[11]1.2 Development of the Interpretive Theory.In 1968 Professor Seleskovitch published her monograph Interpreting for International Conference:Problems of Language and Communication, later translated into English by Stephanie Dailey and Eric.Norman McMillan in 1978.This marks the birth of the Interpretive Theory and the preparation for the further development of the theory.(刘和平 2001b)[14].In 1984 Seleskovitch and Professor Lederer co-published the book entitled Interpreter pour Traduire1, marking the establishment of the Interpretative Theory.(龚龙生2008)[11]In 1994, Lederer published The Interpretive Model2, later translated into English by Ninon Larche in 2003.That marked the perfection of the Interpretive Theory.(龚龙生2008)[11] The three books mark the process of the foundation of the Interpretive Theory.The Interpretive Theory plays the important role in Chinese and international interpretation research. The following is the brief introduction to the concepts of the Interpretive Theory.2 Concepts of the Interpretive TheoryHere it is necessary to discuss three groups of key concepts of the Interpretive Theory—a) Translation through Interpretation;b) Translation Process with Deverbalization as its core; c) Sense, Units of Sense, Cognitive Inputs.(王斌华 2008)[16]2.1 Translation through Interpretation.The interpretive translation is not the transcoding between two languages.It means to translate or interpret the meaning of the source language text into the target language one completely and accurately.But how could it be done? What is the translation process? The other two groups of concepts should be introduced.2.2 Translation Process with Deverbalization as its Core2.2.1 Translation Process.In her monograph (Selekscovitch 1978:9)[6], Professor Selekscovitch mentioned three stages of the translation process which are understanding senses and feeling emotions of the source language text, “deverbalizing its linguistic form” and re-expressing its ideas and emotions in the target language.(Lederer 2003:1)[5]And the Paris School imagined this process to be a triangle.In 1984, Professor Seleskovitch and Professor Lederer proposed “the triangular model of interpretation”3 (Selekovitch & Lederer, 1984:168, 185 cited in 张吉良 2008:19)[21]again in the book named Intérpreter pour Traduire which was written by them.In this triangular model, two ends of the triangle’s bottom are the source language and the target language respectively. And the top of the triangle is the sense.The transcoding, which is from the source language to the target language, is not expected. But what is expected? That is “interpretive translation”.That is the process of comprehension of the sense of the source language discourse and reformulation of the sense and the feeling of the target language discourse.(张吉良 2008:19)[21]The following is the illustration of “the triangular model of the interpretation”.Figure 1 is two versions of the triangular model from Professor Seleskovitch (Seleskovitch & Lederer, 1984:168, 185 cited in张吉良2008:19)[21].Figure 1 (Seleskovitch & Lederer, 1984:168, 185 cited in 张吉良 2008:19)[21]And now ‘deverbalization’ will be explained in detail.Copyright©博看网 . All Rights Reserved.- 209 -校园英语 /2.2.2 Deverbalization.Deverbalization is the core of the translation process as well as the Interpretive Theory.From the above triangular model, it is clear that senses of the speaker in language 1 could be re-expressed to the listener in language 2 through deverbalization.Deverbalization is the indispensable phase between comprehension and reformulation.Through deverbalization, linguistic form is deverbalized but sense and emotion are produced.So the following is the explanation of “sense, units of sense, cognitive inputs”.2.3 Sense, Units of Sense, Cognitive Inputs.In the above two groups of concepts, it is mentioned that the content of translation or interpretation is the sense.And so is the goal of deverbalization. What is “sense”? The following is the introduction of “sense”.2.3.1 Sense.Sense is from language but beyond language. And it is the combination of the idea and the sign.Additionally, as Seleskovitch (Seleskovitch 1984:269 cited in Lederer 2003:15-16)[5]said that it is what an addresser wants to express but not anything else.And an interpreter should not do any explanation or comment casually.2.3.2 Units of Sense.Generally speaking, a unit of sense is “[…]this fusion of the semanticisms of words and cognitive inputs[…]” (Lederer 2003:18)[5].Furthermore the length of a unit of sense is changing.And different addressees have different units of sense because of their cognitive inputs.What is “cognitive inputs”? The explanation of the concept will be presented in the following paragraph.2.3.3 Cognitive Inputs.To explain “cognitive inputs”, two concepts should be introduced.One is “world knowledge” and the other is “cognitive and affective inputs”.A.Cognitive and Affective InputsAlthough the concept is called “cognitive inputs”, it is also affective.Cognitive and affective are different but inseparable. Furthermore, according to Lederer (Lederer 2003:29)[5], in physiology they “[…]have their origins in the brain[…]” (ibid.) and also could be inseparable.And she used the term “cognitive inputs” to express them and divided them into “world knowledge” and “contextual knowledge”.Contextual knowledge is gained from hearing or reading a speech or a text and is stored in the short-term memory.It is short-lived.But it could “last long enough” for an interpreter or a translator to understand a speech or a text.(Lederer 2003:29-35) [5]But in the thesis it is not the point to be discussed more.The following is the explanation of “world knowledge” in detail.B.World KnowledgeWorld knowledge is also called encyclopaedic knowledge. And it includes “linguistic and extra-linguistic knowledge generally stored in the long-term memory” (Lederer 2003:29) [5].It is indispensable for the depth of understanding a speech or a discourse.Furthermore, it could be gained by “individuals through 1.their life’s experiences (empirical knowledge), nguage (what is learnt through reading, education, conversations, television, etc.), 3.their own reasoning”(Lederer 2003:231)[5].And background knowledge is also “the relevant world or encyclopaedic knowledge” (ibid.).Without world knowledge, translation or interpretation will be the transcoding.The origin and concepts of the Interpretive Theory have been introduced.And the following is the reviewing of the research of the Interpretive Theory home and abroad.3.Research on the Interpretive Theory Home and Abroad3.1 Domestic Research on the Interpretive Theory.According to Zhang Jiliang (张吉良2008:21-26)[21], the Interpretive Theory was introduced in China in the 1970s.Studies in China have two ways.One way is translation and introduction of monographs of the Interpretive Theory.The representatives are Sun Huishuang, who translated L’interprète dans les Conférences Internationales, Problèmes de Langage et de Communication written by Seleskovitch (1979) and Interpréter pour Traduire written by Seleskovitch and Lederer (1992), Huang Weixin and Qian Huijie, who translated L’interprète dans les Conférences Internationales, Problèmes de Langage et de Communication written by Seleskovitch (1992), Wang Jiarong, Li Xusen and Shi Meizhen, who translated Interpréter pour Traduire (1990), etc.The other one is the theoretical research and application. The representatives are Bao Gang, Liu Heping, Cai Xiaohong etc.They did the in-depth exploration (鲍刚 1998a, 1998b; 蔡小红 2001; 刘和平 2001a)[8][9][10][13], and some comments on the problems with the theory (鲍刚1998a, 1998b; 刘和平2001b, 2006)[8][9][14][15].Apart from the above scholars, some other scholars, such as Xu Jun, Yuan Xiaoyi and Ke Ping, also did introduction and simple comment (袁筱一1997; 许钧1998; 许钧、袁筱一etc.2001)[20][18][19].Furthermore there are teachers who wrote papers about the Interpretive Theory.The papers mainly discussed the way to improve interpretation and the pedagogy of interpretation.Chinese researchers are more confined to the introduction and application; criticisms are rare. (张吉良2008:21-26)[21]In his writing (龚龙生2008)[11], Gong Longsheng notes that Chinese scholars’ contribution plays important role in the Chinese interpretation research and even in the whole translation theory research.It is also the indispensable part of the development of the Interpretive Theory, which shows the trend and direction of Chinese and global interpretation research —attaching importance to the empirical research, focusing on the interpretation process, studying from the perspective of the interdisciplinary and so on.(龚龙生 2008)[11]3.2 International Research on the Interpretive Theory.Copyright©博看网 . All Rights Reserved.- 210 -校园英语 /Theoretical research on interpretation in western countries has more than fifty years’ history.(李金泽2010)[12]The research could be divided into four stages which have been mentioned in Section 1.1.Stage 3 (from the early period of the 1970s to the mid-term of the 1980s), was called the Practitioners’ Period. The scholars of ESIT4 were the representatives of this stage. According to Zhang Jiliang’s research (张吉良2008:30)[21], before the mid-term of the 1980s, international interpretation circle mainly focused on the pedagogy of interpretation which was created on the basis of the Interpretive Theory (Gile 1990a, 1990b)[2][3]but they did not doubt the Interpretive Theory. However, in 1986, on the international seminar with the theme “Theory and Practice of the Conference Interpretation Teaching”, many participants challenged the views of the Paris School and called on using scientific and serious way to do the research of interpretation.(Crevatin 1989; Lambert 1989; Stenzl 1989)[1][4][7].Generally speaking, the research of the Interpretive Theory in international interpretation circle does not reap much. The critical writings of the Interpretive Theory are more than the praising ones.But the comments and criticisms are mainly about research methods and attitude of the Paris School.(张吉良 2008：30-41)[21]No one could deny the importance and historic value of the Interpretive Theory.The Interpretive Theory plays the important role in the pedagogy of interpretation and interpreters training when it is regarded as prescriptive theory though it really has problems when it is considered as explanatory theory.4.ConclusionFrom the above, the research and three groups of concepts of the Interpretive Theory have been reviewed.The importance and historic value of the Interpretive Theory could not be denied. However, it has problems when it is considered as explanatory theory.So the in-depth research of the Interpretive Theory should attach importance to the empirical research, focusing on the interpretation process, studying from the perspective of the interdisciplinary and so on.Notes：1 This book has no English version, but it has two Chinese versions.One is entitled《口译理论实践与教学》which is translated by Wang Jiarong, Li Xusen and Shi Meizhen in 1990. The other is 《口笔译概论》 translated by Sun Huishuang in 1992.(张吉良2008:12)2 The book also has a Chinese version which is entitled《释意学派口笔译理论》and translated by Liu Heping and published by China Translation and Publishing Corporation in 2001.(张吉良2008:13)3 口译过程的三角模型4E S I T即Éc o l e S u p e r i e u r e d’I n t e r p rèt e s e t d e Traducteurs，法国巴黎新索邦大学高等翻译学校，简称巴黎高翻。
商务英语口译教程
Unit One An Overview of Interpretation Theories
Part One
“思”指的是信息的解码和编码处理，即对来源语信息的识别、解析和重构。口译要求译员具备深厚的语言功底，能够在瞬间透过语言的浅层结构洞察其深层结构。 “表”即表达，是指将以目标语编码之后的信息通过口头表达形式再现出来。
Unit One An Overview of Interpretation Theories
Part One
“听”是口译过程中信息传递的第一个重要环节。当然，“听”在这里不单纯指“听入”信息，因为有时是“视入”信息。听入是口译中最基本、最常见的信息接收形式。译员应主动听入信息，即有目的得接收语言信号，从而较完整、迅速地接受说话者的信息。 “记”指的是记忆。口译的记忆可有两种形式，一种是心记，另一种是笔记。无论是心记还是笔记，所记忆的内容主要是信息的概念和命题，而非信息的表现形式。在面对大量的信息时，译员应只记要点，不记细节。口译的临场性要求记忆与理解是同时进行的。
Unit One An Overview of Interpretation Theories
Part One
三、口译的特点(The Features of interpretation) 当我们说起口译的特点时，一般总是把口译和笔译相比较。口译与笔译的交流性质、目的、表达方式等方面的差别决定了口译有一些自己的特点。综述口译研究者的成果，口译有以下一些特点。 1．口译的即席性强 口译是一种即席性很强的翻译行为。一般情况下，口译人员即使知道今天要翻译的主题也很难预测说话者将要表达的具体的言语内容。尤其是做谈判翻译时，谈判双方会在很多方面有分歧，谈判者随时会调整自己的思路和计划，不可预测性更强。
interpreting 词根
interpreting 词根
“interpreting”这个词根是“interpret”。
这个词根来源于拉丁语“interpretare”，意思是“解释”或“翻译”。
因此，“interpreting”通常表示对某种信息、语言或符号的解释、翻译或解读。
例如，在心理学中，“interpreting”可以指对梦境、肢体语言或其他非言语信息的解读。
在语言学中，“interpreting”可以指对一种语言的翻译或解释。
在更广泛的语境中，“interpreting”也可以指对任何形式的信息、数据或符号进行解释或解读的行为。
例如，在音乐领域，“interpreting”可以指对乐谱的解读和演绎，或者在艺术领域中，它可能指对作品的主题、情感或意义进行解读。
总体而言，“interpreting”这个词根强调了对某种信息的深入理解和解释，通常需要一定的专业知识和技能。
功能翻译理论目的论
方梦之主编：《译学词典》，上海外语教育出版社，第29页功能翻译理论functionalist translation theory又称“功能目的论”（Skopos theory）。
1971年，德国的莱斯（K. Reiss）首先提出“把翻译行为所要达到的特殊目的”作为翻译评价的新模式。
1984年她在与费米尔（H. J. Vermeer）合写的General Foundation of Translation Theory一书中声称：译者在整个翻译过程中的参照系不应是“对等”翻译理论所注重的原文及其功能，而应是译文在译语文化环境中所预期达到的一种或若钟交际功能。
20世纪90年代初，德国学者克利斯蒂安·诺德（Christiane Nord）进一步拓展了译文功能理论。
她强调译文与原文的联系，但这种联系的质量与数量由译文的预期功能确定。
这就是说，根据译文语境，原文中的哪些内容或成分可以保留，哪些需调整或改写，该由译文的预期功能确定。
功能目的理论的两项基本原则是：1. 翻译各方面的交互作用受翻译目的所决定；2. 目的随接受对象的不同而变化。
按照这两项原则，译者可以为了达到目的而采用任何他自己认为适当的翻译策略。
换句话说，目的决定方式（The end justifies the means）。
作为受文化制约的语言符号，原文语篇和译文语篇受到各自交际环境的影响，译文功能与原文功能可相似或保持一致，也可能完全不同。
根据不同的语境因素和预期功能，选择最佳的处理方法，这是功能翻译理论比以对等为基础的翻译理论或极端功能主义的翻译理论更为优越之处。
翻译功能理论指导下的翻译方法表现出较大的灵活性，较高的科学性和易操作性。
Toury 把“功能目的论”看作是“译文文本中心论”的翻版。
Skopos theory (plural Skopos theories)1.(translation studies) The idea that translating and interpretingshould primarily take into account the function of both the sourceand target text.o1995, Paul Kussmaul, Training The Translator, JohnBenjamins Publishing Co, p. 149:The functional approach has a great affinity with Skopos theory.The function of a translation is dependent on the knowledge,expectations, values and norms of the target readers, who are again influenced by the situation they are in and by the culture. Thesefactors determine whether the function of the source text orpassages in the source text can be preserved or have to be modified or even changed.Introduction to the Skopos TheoryThe Skopos theory is an approach to translation which was put forward by Hans Vemeer and developed in Germany in the late 1970s and whichoriented a more functionally and socioculturally concept of translation. Translation is considered not as a process of translation, but as a specific form of human action. In our mind, translation has a purpose, and the word “Skopos” was from Greek. It’s used as the technical term for the purpose of the translation.翻译目的论，"skopos"是希腊语“目的”的意思。
第1单元 口译简介Essentials of Interpreting - 副本 - 副本 - 副本
What is the so-called “key word” in a sentence?
“Key word”should be the words that convey speaker's main ideas and intentions. It reveals speaker's focus and emphasis in a speech.
Definition of Interpreting (ii)
Interpretation means an extempore oral reproduction, in one language, of what is said in another language. It cannot be viewed as a merely linguistic undertaking, but should be regarded as an aspect of a larger domain, namely, that of communication. (zhong shukong, 1999)
From which four perspectives can we identify key words in a sentence to get the key information?
A key word can be noticed from its part of speech, syntactic structure, semantic analysis, and tones.
Basic Requirements for Interpreters (ⅱ)
Non-linguistic knowledge
英语翻译概论.ChapterOne ppt2
Contrastive analysis
Subject Name(1960s)
Science of translating Translatology
framework of the discipline
out research on translation A theoretical framework into which
professional translators or trainee translators can place their practical experience.
A few general distinctions
School of Cannibalism (De Campos) Postcolonial translation theory( T.
Niranjana, G. Spivak) Cultural Studies Approach (Lawrence
Venuti)
Discussion and research point
Cicero, Horace, St. Jerome( Septuagint Bible) , Luther,
Academic discipline: the second half of the twentieth century (linguistic-oriented)
Translation Workshop（I.A. Rechards, 1920s） reading and writing experiment
Nature, principles, criteria, techniques, history
实用口译unit 1 An Introduction to the course of interpreting
2）根据空间工作模式，可分为现场口译和远程口译 现场口译：live interpreting 当事双方和译员同时在场 远程口译：remote interpreting 当事双方和译员不在一地： 电话口译、远程视频口译等。 3）根据活动场合和主题，可分为： 会议口译 conference interpreting 陪同口译 escort interpreting 外交口译 diplomatic interpreting 商务口译 business interpreting 媒体口译 media interpreting 社区口译 community interpreting 导游口译 guide interpreting 医学口译 medical interpreting国外有资格认证 法庭/法律口译 court/legal/judicial interpreting 国外有资格 认证 法庭译员被称为宣誓译员 sworn interpreteurse
1. How to improve your memory? 2. How to take notes? 3. How to decode meaning and transfer it? 4. How to interpret numbers? 5. How to interpret long sentences? 6. What are the coping tactics?
3. Classification of Interpreting
1）根据时间工作模式，可分为交替传译和同声传译 交替传译：consecutive interpreting 简称CI 也称连续口译/传译、即席口译/传译、逐步口译（台湾用 语） 简称“交传”或“连传” 讲话人说一段，译员翻译一段，然后循环往复、交替进行 3分钟以上即可称为长交传 交替传译常用于新闻发布会、外事会见、商务谈判、户 外活动等 同声传译：simultaneous interpreting 简称 SI 又称同步口译、即时传译（港台用语） 简称“同传” 讲话人的“说”与译员的“译”几乎同时进行。
(完整word版)功能翻译理论目的论
方梦之主编：《译学词典》，上海外语教育出版社，第29页功能翻译理论 functionalist translation theory又称“功能目的论"（Skopos theory）。
1971年，德国的莱斯(K。
Reiss）首先提出“把翻译行为所要达到的特殊目的”作为翻译评价的新模式。
1984年她在与费米尔（H。
J. Vermeer)合写的General Foundation of Translation Theory一书中声称：译者在整个翻译过程中的参照系不应是“对等”翻译理论所注重的原文及其功能，而应是译文在译语文化环境中所预期达到的一种或若钟交际功能.20世纪90年代初，德国学者克利斯蒂安·诺德（Christiane Nord）进一步拓展了译文功能理论。
她强调译文与原文的联系，但这种联系的质量与数量由译文的预期功能确定。
这就是说，根据译文语境，原文中的哪些内容或成分可以保留，哪些需调整或改写，该由译文的预期功能确定。
功能目的理论的两项基本原则是：1. 翻译各方面的交互作用受翻译目的所决定；2。
目的随接受对象的不同而变化。
按照这两项原则，译者可以为了达到目的而采用任何他自己认为适当的翻译策略.换句话说，目的决定方式(The end justifies the means）。
作为受文化制约的语言符号,原文语篇和译文语篇受到各自交际环境的影响，译文功能与原文功能可相似或保持一致，也可能完全不同。
根据不同的语境因素和预期功能，选择最佳的处理方法，这是功能翻译理论比以对等为基础的翻译理论或极端功能主义的翻译理论更为优越之处。
翻译功能理论指导下的翻译方法表现出较大的灵活性,较高的科学性和易操作性。
Toury 把“功能目的论"看作是“译文文本中心论”的翻版。
Skopos theory（plural Skopos theories)1.（translation studies) The idea that translating and interpretingshould primarily take into account the function of both the source and target text。
交替传译与同声传译的比较
交替传译与同声传译的比较湘潭大学硕士学位论文交替传译与同声传译质量的比较研究姓名：詹德邦申请学位级别：硕士专业：英语语言文学指导教师：文卫平;吴庄20080525Descriptive Chinese Abstract摘要交替传译和同声传译是目前应用最广泛，最受欢迎的两种口译模式。
交替传译主要应用于记者招待会，媒体发布会以及各种小型会议中；同声传译则主要在各种国际大中型会议中被大量采用。
两种口译模式有各自的优势和特点，那么，他们各自的优势和特点是否是他们在不同场合应用的原因？他们的译文质量是否存在差异？若存在，这些差异是否也是导致他们在不同场合应用的原因？本论文应用口译的精力分配模式，信息处理能力，循环模式等原则和理论来阐述交替传译和同声传译各自进行的步骤，对译文质量的要求以及作为其译员所必须具备的能力；采用实验研究的方法来回答以上提出的几个问题，实验对象为广东外语外贸大学高级翻译学院口译专业二年级的研究生，他们被随机分为了两组。
实验材料选定了两篇演讲，一篇为英语国家人士演讲稿，实验对象所具备的背景知识较少；一篇是中国特色较浓郁的演讲稿，背景知识掌握较多。
实验内容为一组实验对象对材料进行交替传译，另一组进行同声传译。
在本实验中，文化知识背景以及语言的熟练程度被设定为常数。
实验重点是通过实验对象对材料进行交替传译和同声传译所产出的译文质量进行比较和分析。
作者对实验结果进行了定量分析和定性分析。
作者在对实验结果进行比较分析之后，得出如下结论：交替传译和同声传译在译文的质量上确实存在差异；场景的差异对这两种口译模式各自特点和对译文质量的不同要求是交替传译和同声传译在不同场合的应用的原因。
本篇论文同时检验了口译方面的一些理论以及前人所做研究的一些成果。
因为实验对象为广东外语外贸大学高级翻译学院口译专业二年级研究生，本篇论文对高等学校口译人员的培训与教学也具有一定的借鉴意义。
关键词：精力分配模式；交替传译；同声传译；处理能力；循环模式English AbstractAbstractConsecutive interpretation and simultaneous interpretation are two forms of most popular and widely used interpretation. Consecutive interpretation is mainly applied at press conferences, media briefings and other small meetings while simultaneous interpretation is focused on all kinds of international conferences. These two forms of interpretation have their own features and advantages. Do their features and advantages lead to their application in different situations? Are there any differences on the quality between consecutive interpretation and simultaneous interpretation? If yes, do these differences also lead to their application in different situations?The author gives expression to the their own steps, requirements for the reproduction and capacity required by interpreters of consecutive interpretation and simultaneous interpretation by applying effort model in CI and SI, processing capacity, and sequential model of CI and SI. In addition, experimental research is also applied to answer the above-mentioned questions. The experiment is based on tests on the second year of postgraduates majoring interpretation at GuangDong University of Foreign Studies. They are divided into two groups randomly. Two speeches are chosen with one spoken by person from English-speaking country on which the subjects have less background knowledge and the other from extract with Chinese characteristics on which the subjects have more background knowledge. One group interpreted consecutively and the other simultaneously. In experiment, cultural background and language proficiency are set as invariables. The key for experiment is to compare and analyze the interpretation produced by subjects. The author adopted quantitative and qualitative analysis for the experimental results. After comparison and analysis for the results, the author draws the following conclusion that there are real differences on quality between consecutive interpretation and simultaneous interpretation. The features of two forms of interpretation and the different requirements for the quality in different situations lead to their applications in different situations.As a by-product, the thesis testifies theories on interpretation and findings of previous studies. As the subjects participating in the experiment are second-year postgraduates majoring in interpretation at GDUFS, the study may shed light on the teaching and training provided by universities and colleges.Keywords: effort model; consecutive interpretation; simultaneous interpretation; processing capacity; sequential model湘潭大学学位论文原创性声明本人郑重声明：所呈交的论文是本人在导师的指导下独立进行研究所取得的研究成果。
英语口译基础教程 1. interpreting course
3) In terms of ways:
单向口译 ( one-way interpretation ) 双向口译 ( two-way interpretation )
A Brief history of conference interpreting as a modern profession
b. Dissimilarities The Other Basic Requirements for Interpreters
(1) Acute hearing (to grasp the meaning) (2)A good command of idioms, slang and proverbs, as well as register & appropriateness. (3)Phonetic competence (accent, intonation, stress and rhythms) & public speaking skills (4) Outstanding memory and note-taking ability (5) psychological competence: quick-witted, calm, resourceful (avoid panic and stage fright)
* Translating: i n p u t → c o m pr e h en s i on → (output)expression → checking
3) In terms of criteria a. Similarities: a faithful reproduction in natural TL. b. Differences:
英语口译基础教程Unit1Introdu
The time limit is quite different. Professional translators almost always work
in only one direction, translating only into their native language, using a good library of dictionaries and reference materials.
Advanced English Interpreting
An Introduction
Teaching Objectives
To get familiar with the theories and background knowledge and the basic skills of interpreting
Definition of Interpreting
It is defined as “oral translation of a written text”.
It is a service activity with a communication function. It is usually a face-to-face communicative act.
Differences between interpretation and translation
An interpreter, on the other hand, has to be able to translate in both directions, without the use of any dictionaries on the spot.
AWL英语学术词汇表
实用文档《英语常用学术词汇表》《英语学术词汇表》 (The Academic Word List, AWL)是一个由 Victoria University of Well ington, New Zealand 的一些应用语言学家统计出来的词汇表，它包含了学术英语 (English for Ac ademic Purpose)中最常用的 570 个词目(headwords) 。
《英语学术词汇表》分 10 个 sublists (小类)，除了第 10 小类包含 30 个词目外，其他小类均含有 60 个词目。
Sublist 1 (第 1 类)包含的词汇最常用， sublist 2 (第 2 类)中的词汇使用频率稍低，其他的 sublist3 依次类推。
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the Academic Word List实用文档achieveachievableachievedachievementachievementsachievesachieving acquireacquiredacquiresacquiringacquisitionacquisitions administrateadministratesadministrationadministrations distinctelementequateevaluatedistinctiondistinctionsdistinctivedistinctivelydistinctlyindistinctindistinctlyelementsequatedequatesequatingequationequationsadministrativeadministrativelyadministratoradministratorsaffectaffectedaffectingaffectiveaffectivelyaffectsunaffectedappropriateappropriacyappropriatelyappropriatenessinappropriacyfinal inappropriateinappropriatelyaspectaspectsassistassistanceassistantassistantsassistedassistingevaluatedevaluatesevaluatingevaluationevaluationsevaluativere-evaluatere-evaluatedre-evaluatesre-evaluatingre-evaluationfeaturedfeaturesfeaturingfinalisefinalisedfinalisesfinalisingfinalizefinalizedfinalizesfinalizingfinalityfinallyfinals featureparticipateparticipantparticipantsparticipatedparticipatesparticipatingparticipationparticipatory 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obtainobtainableobtainedobtainingobtainsunobtainablesecurityseekseekingseekssoughtselectselectedselectingselectionselectionsselectiveselectivelyselectorselectorsselectssitesitesstrategystrategicstrategiesstrategicallystrategiststrategistssurveysurveyedsurveyingsurveystexttextstextualtraditionnon-traditionaltraditionaltraditionalisttraditionallytraditionstransfertransferabletransferencetransferredtransferringtransfers实用文档designingdesignsSublist3of the Academic Word Listalternativealternativelyalternatives circumstancecircumstances commentcommentariescommentarycommentatorcommentatorscommentedcommentingcomments compensatecompensatedcompensatescompensatingcompensationcompensationscompensatory componentcomponentrycomponents consentconsensusconsentedconsentingconsentsconsiderableconsiderablyconstantconstancyconstantlyconstantsinconstancyinconstantlyconstrainconstrainedemphasis emphasiseemphasisedemphasising emphasizeemphasizedemphasizesemphasizing emphaticemphaticallyensureensuredensuresensuringexcludeexcluded excludesexcluding exclusionexclusionaryexclusionist exclusionsexclusiveexclusivelyframeworkframeworks fundfundedfunderfundersfundingfunds illustrateillustratedillustratesillustratingillustrationillustrations philosophyphilosopherphilosophersphilosophicalphilosophicallyphilosophiesphilosophisephilosophisedphilosophisesphilosophisingphilosophizephilosophizedphilosophizesphilosophizingphysicalphysicallyproportiondisproportiondisproportionatedisproportionatelyproportionalproportionallyproportionateproportionatelyproportionspublishpublishedpublisherpublisherspublishespublishingunpublishedreactreactedreactsreactingreactionreactionaries实用文档constrainingconstrainsconstraintconstraintsunconstrained contributecontributedcontributescontributingcontributioncontributionscontributorcontributors conveneconventionconvenesconvenedconveningconventionalconventionallyconventionsunconventional 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locatereactionaryreactionsreactivereactivatereactivationreactorreactorsregisterderegisterderegisteredderegisteringderegistersderegistrationregisteredregisteringregistersregistrationrelyreliabilityreliablereliablyreliancereliantreliedreliesrelyingunreliableremoveremovableremovedremovesremovingschemeschematicschematicallyschemedschemesschemingsequencesequencedsequencessequencing.实用文档correspondcorrespondedcorrespondencecorrespondingcorrespondinglycorresponds criteriacriteriondeducededuceddeducesdeducingdeductiondeductionsdemonstratedemonstrabledemonstrablydemonstrateddemonstratesdemonstratingdemonstrationdemonstrationsdemonstrativedemonstrativelydemonstratordemonstratorsdocumentdocumentationdocumenteddocumentingdocumentsdominatedominancedominant dominateddominatesdominatingdominationlocatedlocatinglocationlocationsrelocaterelocatedrelocatesrelocatingrelocationmaximisemax maximisedmaximises maximisingmaximisation maximizemaximized maximizesmaximizingmaximization maximumminorminoritiesminorityminorsnegatenegativenegatednegatesnegatingnegativelynegativesoutcomeoutcomes partnerpartnerspartnershippartnershipssequentialsequentiallysexsexessexismsexualsexualitysexuallyshiftshiftedshiftingshiftsspecifyspecifiablespecifiedspecifiesspecifyingunspecifiedsufficientsufficiencyinsufficientinsufficientlysufficientlytasktaskstechnicaltechnicallytechniquetechniquestechnologytechnologicaltechnologicallyvalidinvalidateinvalidityvalidatevalidatedvalidatingvalidationvalidityvalidlyvolumevolumesvol实用文档Sublist4of the Academic Word Listaccessaccessedaccessesaccessibilityaccessibleaccessinginaccessible adequateadequacyadequatelyinadequaciesinadequacyinadequateinadequately annualannually apparentapparentlyapproximateapproximatedapproximatelyapproximatesapproximatingapproximationapproximations attitudeattitudes attributeattributableattributedattributesattributingattributioncivilcodecodedcodescodingcommitcommitmentcommitmentserrorerroneouserroneouslyerrorsethnicethnicitygoalgoalsgrantgrantedgrantinggrantshencehypothesishypotheseshypothesisehypothesisedhypothesiseshypothesisinghypothesizehypothesizedhypothesizeshypothesizinghypotheticalhypotheticallyimplementimplementationimplementedimplementingimplements implicateimplicatedimplicatesimplicatingimplicationimplications imposeimposedimposesimposingimposition parallelparalleledparallelledparallellingparallelsunparalleledparameterparametersphasephasedphasesphasingpredictpredictabilitypredictablepredictablypredictedpredictingpredictionpredictionspredictsunpredictabilityunpredictableprincipalprincipallypriorprofessionalprofessionallyprofessionalsprofessionalismprojectprojectedprojectingprojectionprojectionsprojectspromotepromotedpromoterpromoterspromotes实用文档commitscommittedcommittingcommunicatecommunicablecommunicatedcommunicatescommunicatingcommunicationcommunicationscommunicativecommunicativelyuncommunicativeconcentrateconcentratedconcentratesconcentratingconcentration conferconferenceconferencesconferredconferringconferscontrastcontrastedcontrastingcontrastivecontrastscyclecycledcycliccyclicalcyclingdebatedebatabledebateddebatesdebatingdespitedimensiondimensionaldimensionsintegrateintegratedintegratesintegratingintegrationinternalinternaliseinternalisedinternalisesinternalisinginternalizeinternalizedinternalizesinternalizinginternallyinvestigateinvestigatedinvestigatesinvestigatinginvestigationinvestigationsinvestigativeinvestigatorinvestigatorsjobjobslabellabeledlabelinglabellinglabels mechanismmechanisms obviousobviouslyoccupyoccupancyoccupantoccupantsoccupationoccupationaloccupationsoccupiedpromotingpromotionpromotionsregimeregimesresolveresolutionresolvedresolvesresolvingunresolvedretainretainedretainingretainerretainersretainsretentionretentiveseriesstatisticstatisticianstatisticiansstatisticalstatisticallystatisticsstatusstressstressedstressesstressfulstressingunstressedsubsequentsubsequentlysumsummationsummedsummingsumssummarysummariessummarisesummarised实用文档multidimensionaldomesticdomesticallydomesticatedomesticateddomesticatingdomesticsemergeemergedemergenceemergentemergesemerging optionoutputoveralloccupieroccupiersoccupiesoccupyingoptionaloptionsoutputssummarisessummarisingsummarisationsummarisationssummarizationsummarizationssummarizesummarizedsummarizessummarizingundertakeundertakenundertakesundertakingundertookSublist5of the Academic Word Listacademyacademiaacademicacademicallyacademicsacademies adjustadjustedadjustingadjustmentreadjustedreadjustingreadjustmentreadjustmentsreadjusts alteralterablealterationalterationsalternateexpandexpandedexpandingexpandsexpansionexpansionismexpansive exposeexposedexposesexposingexposureexposuresexternalexternalisationexternaliseexternalisedexternalisesexternalisingexternalityexternalizationexternalizeexternalizedexternalizesexternalizing orientorientateorientatedorientatesorientationorientatingorientedorientingorientsreorientreorientation perspectiveperspectives preciseimprecisepreciselyprecision primeprimacy psychologypsychologicalpsychologicallypsychologistpsychologists pursue.实用文档alternatingaltersunalterableunalteredamendamendedamendingamendmentamendmentsamendsawareawarenessunawarecapacitycapacitiesincapacitateincapacitatedchallengechallengedchallengerchallengerschallengeschallenging clauseclausescompoundcompoundedcompoundingcompounds conflictconflictedconflictingconflictsconsultantsconsultationconsultationsconsultativeconsultedconsultsconsultingcontactexternallyfacilitatefacilitatedfacilitatesfacilitiesfacilitatingfacilitationfacilitatorfacilitatorsfacilityfundamentalfundamentallygenerategeneratedgeneratesgeneratinggenerationgenerationsimageimageryimagesliberalliberaliseliberalismliberalisationliberalisedliberalisesliberalizeliberalizedliberalizesliberalizingliberateliberatedliberatesliberationliberationsliberatingliberatorliberatorsliberallyliberals licencepursuedpursuespursuingpursuitpursuitsratioratiosrejectrejectedrejectingrejectionrejectsrejectionsrevenuerevenuesstableinstabilitystabilisationstabilisestabilisedstabilisesstabilisingstabilizationstabilizestabilizedstabilizesstabilizingstabilityunstablestylestyledstylishstylisestylisedstylisesstylisingstylizestylizedstylizesstylizingsubstitutesubstituted.实用文档contactablecontactedcontactingcontacts declinedeclineddeclinesdeclining discretediscretelydiscretiondiscretionaryindiscreteindiscretion draftdrafteddraftingdraftsredraftredraftedredraftingredrafts enableenabledenablesenabling energyenergeticenergeticallyenergiesenforceenforcedenforcementenforcesenforcingentityentitiesequivalentequivalenceevolveevolutionevolvedevolvingevolveslicenceslicenselicensedlicensinglicensesunlicensedlogicillogicalillogicallylogicallogicallylogicianlogiciansmarginmarginalmarginallymarginsmedicalmedicallymentalmentalitymentallymodifymodificationmodificationsmodified modifiesmodifyingunmodifiedmonitormonitoredmonitoringmonitorsunmonitored networknetworkednetworkingnetworks notionnotions objectiveobjectivelyobjectivitysubstitutessubstitutingsubstitutionsustainsustainablesustainabilitysustainedsustainingsustainssustenanceunsustainablesymbolsymbolicsymbolicallysymbolisesymbolisessymbolisedsymbolisingsymbolismsymbolizesymbolizedsymbolizessymbolizingsymbolstargettargetedtargetingtargetstransittransitedtransitingtransitiontransitionaltransitionstransitorytransitstrendtrendsversionversionswelfarewhe实用文档evolutionaryevolutionistevolutionistsSublist6of the Academic Word Listabstractabstractionabstractionsabstractlyabstracts accurateaccuracyaccuratelyinaccuracyinaccuraciesinaccurate acknowledgeacknowledgedacknowledgesacknowledgingacknowledgementacknowledgements aggregateaggregatedaggregatesaggregatingallocatedallocatesallocatingallocationallocationsassignassignedassigningassignmentassignmentsassignsreassignreassignedreassigningenhanceenhancedenhancementenhancesenhancingestateestatesexceedexceededexceedingexceedsexpertexpertiseexpertlyexpertsexplicitexplicitlyfederalfederationfederations feeflexibilityinflexibleinflexibility furthermore gendergenders ignorantignoranceignoreignoredignoresignoring incentiveincentives neutralneutralisationneutraliseneutralisedneutralisesneutralisingneutralityneutralizationneutralizeneutralizedneutralizesneutralizingneverthelessoverseasprecedeprecededprecedenceprecedentprecedesprecedingunprecedentedpresumepresumablypresumedpresumespresumingpresumptionpresumptionspresumptuousrationalisationrationalisationsrationaliserationalisedrationalisesrationalising.实用文档reassignsunassigned attachattachedattachesattachingattachmentattachmentsunattached authorauthoredauthoringauthorsauthorship bondbondedbondingbonds briefbrevitybriefedbriefingbrieflybriefs capablecapabilitiescapabilityincapablecitecitationcitationscitedcitingcitescooperatecooperatedcooperatescooperatingcooperationcooperativecooperativelyco-operateco-operatedco-operatesincidence incidentincidentallyincidentsincorporateincorporatedincorporatesincorporatingincorporationindexindexedindexesindexinginhibitinhibitedinhibitinginhibitioninhibitionsinhibitsinitiateinitiatedinitiatesinitiatinginitiationinitiationsinitiativeinitiativesinitiatorinitiatorsinputinputs instructinstructioninstructedinstructinginstructionsinstructiveinstructorinstructorsinstructs intelligentintelligenceintelligentlyunintelligentrationalismrationalityrationalizationrationalizationsrationalizerationalizedrationalizesrationallyrecoverrecoverablerecoveredrecoveringrecoversrecoveryrevealrevealedrevealingrevealsrevelationrevelationsscopesubsidysubsidiarysubsidiessubsidisesubsidisedsubsidisessubsidisingsubsidizesubsidizedsubsidizessubsidizingtapetapedtapestapingtracetraceabletracedtracestracingtransformtransformationtransformations。
Interpreting Chapter 1
Intercultural Communication: Chapter 12013级英语笔译张丹丹Summary1Communication refers to the act and progress of sending and receiving messages among people. Under communication we have human and biological/physical communication; under human communication, we have non-social communication (intrapersonal) and social communication (interpersonal, organizational and mass communication).2.Key components of communication are message, sender, encoding, channel,noise, decoding, receiver and feedback, among which encoding and decoding are the areas where misunderstandings are mostly likely to occur.If the message decoded is identical to the message encoded, communication is successful.3.Intercultural communication is interpersonal communication betweenmembers of different cultures. It can include international, interethnic, interracial, and interregional communication.4.Business communication, as a kind of organizational communication, is theexchange of oral, nonverbal, and written messages within and across the boundaries of a system of interrelated and interdependent people working to accomplish common tasks and goals.5.The rapid increase of intercultural communication in recent years is due toglobalization of the world economy, changes in mass migration patterns, improvements in transportation and communication technology, etc.6.. The study of intercultural communication was first started in the UnitedStates in the 1950s and was first introduced into China during the early 1980s. In spite of its short history, research in intercultural communication has been developing rapidly both at home and abroad.7.The multi-disciplinary nature of intercultural communication study andvarious potential problems caused by communication barriers make it rather complicated to learn intercultural communication.8.Intercultural communication competence is essential for businesspersons ininternational business and usually consists of cognitive, affective, and operational components.跨文化交际第一章摘要2013级英语笔译张丹丹1.交流是人们之间发送和接收信息的行为和过程。
翻译概论英语
国外翻译理论三大核心概念(core concept)：实质(essence)，可译性(translatability)，等值(equivalency)实质：早期提法，以奥格庭为代表：将符号改变为另外的符号Jakobson：Translation is an interpretation of verbal signs(semiotics 符号学) by means of some other language.”第二类，以费道罗夫和温特为代表：加上了忠实(faithfulness)，全面(overall)，等值(equivalency)费道罗夫：翻译是用一种语言忠实、全面地表达另一种语言表达的东西温特：翻译是将诠释我们世界某部分的说法尽可能地用等值的说法来代替。
奈达和泰伯( Nida ＆ Taber)：Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the the closest natural equivalent(最贴近自然的对等表达式) of the source- language message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.翻译是接受语复制原语信息的最近似的自然等值物，首先是在意义方面，其次是在文体方面的等值。
第三类，以卡特福德，巴尔胡达罗夫( Barkhudarov)，威尔斯为代表明确翻译对象是话语(utterance注意不同于话语权的discourse)卡特福德( Catford)：Translation is “the replacement of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language. ( core: textual sense)将一种语言的话语材料用另外一种语言的等值话语予以替代威尔斯：翻译是将原语话语变为尽可能等值的译语话语的过程巴尔胡达罗夫( Barkhudarov): A unit of translation is “ the smallest unit of SL which has an equivalent in TL.第四类，以什维采尔为代表，又增加了文化(culture)内容，王佐良先生(venerable Wang Zuoliang)认为：翻译工作者处理的是个别的词，面对的则是两大片文化。
AWL英语学术词汇表-推荐下载
《英语常用学术词汇表》是由一些应用语言学家统计出来，最常用的有570个词目(headwords)，每一个词目下面还列出了该词目的相关变化形式。
其中斜体字，analysis，在学术英语中最为常见。
Sublist 1 of the Academic Word Listanalyseanalysedanalyseranalysersanalysesanalysinganalysisanalystanalystsanalyticanalyticalanalyticallyanalyzeanalyzedanalyzesanalyzing approachapproachableapproachedapproachesapproachingunapproachable areaareasassessassessableassessedassessesassessingassessmentassessmentsreassessreassessedreassessingreassessmentunassessed assumeassumedassumesassumingassumptionassumptions authorityauthoritativeauthorities availableavailabilityunavailable benefitbeneficialbeneficiarybeneficiariesbenefitedbenefitingbenefitsconceptconceptionconceptsconceptualconceptualisation conceptualiseconceptualised conceptualises economyeconomiceconomicaleconomicallyeconomicseconomieseconomisteconomistsuneconomicalenvironmentenvironmentalenvironmentalistenvironmentalistsenvironmentallyenvironmentsestablishdisestablishdisestablisheddisestablishesdisestablishingdisestablishmentestablishedestablishesestablishingestablishmentestablishmentsestimateestimatedestimatesestimatingestimationestimationsover-estimateoverestimateoverestimatedoverestimatesoverestimatingunderestimateunderestimatedunderestimatesunderestimatingevidentevidencedevidenceevidentialevidentlyexportexportedexporterexportersexportingexportsfactorfactoredfactoringfactorsfinancefinancedfinancesfinancialfinanciallyfinancierfinancierslegislatelegislatedlegislateslegislatinglegislationlegislativelegislatorlegislatorslegislaturemajormajoritiesmajoritymethodmethodicalmethodologicalmethodologiesmethodologymethodsoccuroccurredoccurrenceoccurrencesoccurringoccursreoccurreoccurredreoccurringreoccurspercentpercentagepercentagesperiodperiodicperiodicalperiodicallyperiodicalsperiodspolicypoliciesprincipleprincipledprinciplesunprincipledproceedproceduralprocedureproceduresproceededproceedingproceedingsproceedsprocessprocessedprocessesprocessingrequirerequiredrequirementrequirementsrequiresrequiringresearchresearchedconceptualising conceptually consistconsistedconsistencyconsistentconsistentlyconsistingconsistsinconsistencies inconsistencyinconsistent constituteconstituencies constituencyconstituentconstituentsconstitutedconstitutesconstitutingconstitutionconstitutionsconstitutionalconstitutionally constitutiveunconstitutional contextcontextscontextualcontextualisecontextualised contextualising uncontextualised contextualizecontextualized contextualizing uncontextualized contractcontractedcontractingcontractorcontractorscontractscreatecreatedcreatescreatingcreationcreationscreativecreativelycreativitycreatorcreatorsrecreaterecreatedrecreatesrecreatingdatadefinedefinabledefineddefinesdefiningdefinitiondefinitionsredefineredefinedredefines financingformulaformulaeformulasformulateformulatedformulatingformulationformulationsreformulatereformulatedreformulatingreformulationreformulationsfunctionfunctionalfunctionallyfunctionedfunctioningfunctionsidentifyidentifiableidentificationidentifiedidentifiesidentifyingidentitiesidentityunidentifiableincomeincomesindicateindicatedindicatesindicatingindicationindicationsindicativeindicatorindicatorsindividualindividualisedindividualityindividualismindividualistindividualistsindividualisticindividuallyindividualsinterpretinterpretationinterpretationsinterpretativeinterpretedinterpretinginterpretiveinterpretsmisinterpretmisinterpretationmisinterpretationsmisinterpretedmisinterpretingmisinterpretsreinterpretreinterpretedreinterpretsreinterpretingreinterpretationreinterpretationsresearcherresearchersresearchesresearchingrespondrespondedrespondentrespondentsrespondingrespondsresponseresponsesresponsiveresponsivenessunresponsiverolerolessectionsectionedsectioningsectionssectorsectorssignificantinsignificantinsignificantlysignificancesignificantlysignifiedsignifiessignifysignifyingsimilardissimilarsimilaritiessimilaritysimilarlysourcesourcedsourcessourcingspecificspecificallyspecificationspecificationsspecificityspecificsstructurerestructurerestructuredrestructuresrestructuringstructuralstructurallystructuredstructuresstructuringunstructuredtheorytheoreticaltheoreticallytheoriestheoristtheoristsvaryinvariableinvariablyvariabilityvariableredefiningundefined derivederivationderivations derivativederivativesderivedderivesderiving distributedistributed distributing distribution distributional distributions distributive distributordistributors redistribute redistributed redistributes redistributing redistribution involveinvolvedinvolvementinvolvesinvolvinguninvolvedissueissuedissuesissuinglabourlaborlaboredlaborslabouredlabouringlabourslegalillegalillegalityillegallylegalitylegallyvariablesvariablyvariancevariantvariantsvariationvariationsvariedvariesvaryingSublist 2 of the Academic Word Listachieveachievableachievedachievementachievements achievesachieving acquireacquiredacquiresacquiringacquisitionacquisitions administrateadministratesadministration administrations administrative administratively administratoradministrators affectaffectedaffectingaffectiveaffectivelyaffectsunaffected appropriateappropriacyappropriatelyappropriateness inappropriacy inappropriateinappropriately aspectaspectsassistassistanceassistant distinctdistinctiondistinctionsdistinctivedistinctivelydistinctlyindistinctindistinctlyelementelementsequateequatedequatesequatingequationequationsevaluateevaluatedevaluatesevaluatingevaluationevaluationsevaluativere-evaluatere-evaluatedre-evaluatesre-evaluatingre-evaluationfeaturefeaturedfeaturesfeaturingfinalfinalisefinalisedfinalisesfinalisingfinalizefinalizedfinalizesparticipateparticipantparticipantsparticipatedparticipatesparticipatingparticipationparticipatoryperceiveperceivedperceivesperceivingperceptionperceptionspositivepositivelypotentialpotentiallypreviouspreviouslyprimaryprimarilypurchasepurchasedpurchaserpurchaserspurchasespurchasingrangerangedrangesrangingregionregionalregionallyregionsregulatederegulatedderegulatesderegulatingassistantsassistedassistingassistsunassisted categorycategoriescategorisation categorisecategorisedcategorisescategorisingcategorization categorizedcategorizescategorizing chapterchapters commissioncommissioned commissioner commissioners commissioning commissions communitycommunities complexcomplexities complexity computecomputationcomputational computations computablecomputercomputedcomputerised computerscomputing concludeconcludedconcludesconcludingconclusionconclusionsconclusiveconclusivelyinconclusiveinconclusively conductconductedconductingconducts consequentconsequence consequences consequently constructconstructedconstructingconstructionconstructions constructiveconstructsreconstructreconstructed reconstructing reconstruction reconstructs finalizingfinalityfinallyfinalsfocusfocusedfocusesfocusingfocussedfocussingrefocusrefocusedrefocusesrefocusingrefocussedrefocussesrefocussingimpactimpactedimpactingimpactsinjureinjuredinjuresinjuriesinjuringinjuryuninjuredinstituteinstitutedinstitutesinstitutinginstitutioninstitutionalinstitutionaliseinstitutionalisedinstitutionalisesinstitutionalisinginstitutionalizedinstitutionalizesinstitutionalizinginstitutionallyinstitutionsinvestinvestedinvestinginvestmentinvestmentsinvestorinvestorsinvestsreinvestreinvestedreinvestingreinvestmentreinvestsitemitemisationitemiseitemiseditemisesitemisingitemsjournaljournalsmaintainmaintainedmaintainingmaintainsderegulationregulatedregulatesregulatingregulationregulationsregulatorregulatorsregulatoryunregulatedrelevantirrelevanceirrelevantrelevanceresideresidedresidenceresidentresidentialresidentsresidesresidingresourceresourcedresourcefulresourcesresourcingunresourcefulunder-resourcedrestrictrestrictedrestrictingrestrictionrestrictionsrestrictiverestrictivelyrestrictsunrestrictedunrestrictivesecureinsecureinsecuritiesinsecuritysecuredsecurelysecuressecuringsecuritiessecurityseekseekingseekssoughtselectselectedselectingselectionselectionsselectiveselectivelyselectorselectorsselectssitesitesstrategystrategicstrategiesstrategicallyconsumeconsumed consumer consumers consumes consuming consumption creditcreditedcreditingcreditorcreditorscredits cultureculturalculturallyculturedculturesuncultured designdesigneddesignerdesignersdesigningdesignsmaintenancenormalabnormalabnormallynormalisationnormalisenormalisednormalisesnormalisingnormalizationnormalizenormalizednormalizesnormalizingnormalitynormallyobtainobtainableobtainedobtainingobtainsunobtainablestrategiststrategistssurveysurveyedsurveyingsurveystexttextstextualtraditionnon-traditionaltraditionaltraditionalisttraditionallytraditionstransfertransferabletransferencetransferredtransferringtransfersSublist 3 of the Academic Word Listalternativealternativelyalternatives circumstancecircumstances commentcommentaries commentarycommentator commentators commentedcommentingcomments compensatecompensated compensates compensating compensation compensations compensatory componentcomponentry components consentconsensusconsentedconsentingconsents considerableconsiderably constantconstancyconstantlyconstantsinconstancyinconstantly constrainconstrainedconstrainingconstrains emphasisemphasiseemphasisedemphasisingemphasizeemphasizedemphasizesemphasizingemphaticemphaticallyensureensuredensuresensuringexcludeexcludedexcludesexcludingexclusionexclusionaryexclusionistexclusionsexclusiveexclusivelyframeworkframeworksfundfundedfunderfundersfundingfundsillustrateillustratedillustratesillustratingillustrationillustrationsillustrativeimmigratephilosophyphilosopherphilosophersphilosophicalphilosophicallyphilosophiesphilosophisephilosophisedphilosophisesphilosophisingphilosophizephilosophizedphilosophizesphilosophizingphysicalphysicallyproportiondisproportiondisproportionatedisproportionatelyproportionalproportionallyproportionateproportionatelyproportionspublishpublishedpublisherpublisherspublishespublishingunpublishedreactreactedreactsreactingreactionreactionariesreactionaryreactionsconstraintconstraintsunconstrained contributecontributedcontributescontributingcontributioncontributionscontributorcontributors conveneconventionconvenes convenedconveningconventionalconventionally conventionsunconventional coordinatecoordinatedcoordinatescoordinatingcoordinationcoordinatorcoordinatorsco-ordinateco-ordinatedco-ordinatesco-ordinatingco-ordinationco-ordinatorco-ordinators corecorescoringcored corporatecorporatescorporationcorporations correspondcorresponded correspondencecorresponding correspondingly corresponds criteriacriterion deducededuceddeducesdeducingdeductiondeductions demonstratedemonstrable demonstrably demonstrated demonstrates demonstrating demonstration demonstrations demonstrative demonstratively demonstratordemonstrators document immigrantimmigrantsimmigratedimmigratesimmigratingimmigrationimplyimpliedimpliesimplyinginitialinitiallyinstanceinstancesinteractinteractedinteractinginteractioninteractionsinteractiveinteractivelyinteractsjustifyjustifiablejustifiablyjustificationjustificationsjustifiedjustifiesjustifyingunjustifiedlayerlayeredlayeringlayerslinklinkagelinkageslinkedlinkinglinkslocatelocatedlocatinglocationlocationsrelocaterelocatedrelocatesrelocatingrelocationmaximisemaxmaximisedmaximisesmaximisingmaximisationmaximizemaximizedmaximizesmaximizingmaximizationmaximumminorminoritiesminorityminorsnegatenegativereactivereactivatereactivationreactorreactorsregisterderegisterderegisteredderegisteringderegistersderegistrationregisteredregisteringregistersregistrationrelyreliabilityreliablereliablyreliancereliantreliedreliesrelyingunreliableremoveremovableremovalremovalsremovedremovesremovingschemeschematicschematicallyschemedschemesschemingsequencesequencedsequencessequencingsequentialsequentiallysexsexessexismsexualsexualitysexuallyshiftshiftedshiftingshiftsspecifyspecifiablespecifiedspecifiesspecifyingunspecifiedsufficientsufficiencyinsufficientinsufficientlysufficientlytasktaskstechnicaltechnicallydocumentation documented documenting documents dominatedominancedominantdominateddominatesdominatingdomination negatednegatesnegatingnegativelynegativesoutcomeoutcomespartnerpartnerspartnershippartnershipstechniquetechniquestechnologytechnologicaltechnologicallyvalidinvalidateinvalidityvalidatevalidatedvalidatingvalidationvalidityvalidlyvolumevolumesvolSublist 4 of the Academic Word Listaccessaccessedaccessesaccessibilityaccessibleaccessinginaccessible adequateadequacyadequatelyinadequacies inadequacyinadequateinadequately annualannually apparentapparently approximateapproximated approximately approximates approximating approximation approximations attitudeattitudes attributeattributableattributedattributesattributingattributioncivilcodecodedcodescoding commitcommitmentcommitments commitscommittedcommitting communicatecommunicable communicated communicates errorerroneouserroneouslyerrorsethnicethnicitygoalgoalsgrantgrantedgrantinggrantshencehypothesishypotheseshypothesisehypothesisedhypothesiseshypothesisinghypothesizehypothesizedhypothesizeshypothesizinghypotheticalhypotheticallyimplementimplementationimplementedimplementingimplementsimplicateimplicatedimplicatesimplicatingimplicationimplicationsimposeimposedimposesimposingimpositionintegrateintegratedintegratesintegratingintegrationinternalinternaliseparallelparalleledparallelledparallellingparallelsunparalleledparameterparametersphasephasedphasesphasingpredictpredictabilitypredictablepredictablypredictedpredictingpredictionpredictionspredictsunpredictabilityunpredictableprincipalprincipallypriorprofessionalprofessionallyprofessionalsprofessionalismprojectprojectedprojectingprojectionprojectionsprojectspromotepromotedpromoterpromoterspromotespromotingpromotionpromotionsregimeregimesresolveresolutioncommunicating communicationcommunications communicative communicatively uncommunicative concentrateconcentratedconcentratesconcentratingconcentration conferconferenceconferencesconferredconferringconferscontrastcontrastedcontrastingcontrastivecontrastscyclecycledcyclescycliccyclicalcyclingdebatedebatabledebateddebatesdebatingdespitedimensiondimensionaldimensionsmultidimensional domesticdomesticallydomesticatedomesticateddomesticatingdomestics emergeemergedemergenceemergentemergesemerging internalisedinternalisesinternalisinginternalizeinternalizedinternalizesinternalizinginternallyinvestigateinvestigatedinvestigatesinvestigatinginvestigationinvestigationsinvestigativeinvestigatorinvestigatorsjobjobslabellabeledlabelinglabelledlabellinglabelsmechanismmechanismsobviousobviouslyoccupyoccupancyoccupantoccupantsoccupationoccupationaloccupationsoccupiedoccupieroccupiersoccupiesoccupyingoptionoptionaloptionsoutputoutputsoverallresolvedresolvesresolvingunresolvedretainretainedretainingretainerretainersretainsretentionretentiveseriesstatisticstatisticianstatisticiansstatisticalstatisticallystatisticsstatusstressstressedstressesstressfulstressingunstressedsubsequentsubsequentlysumsummationsummedsummingsumssummarysummariessummarisesummarisedsummarisessummarisingsummarisationsummarisationssummarizationsummarizationssummarizesummarizedsummarizessummarizingundertakeundertakenundertakesundertakingundertookSublist 5 of the Academic Word Listacademyacademiaacademicacademically academics academies adjustadjustedadjustingadjustment adjustments adjustsreadjust expandexpandedexpandingexpandsexpansionexpansionismexpansiveexposeexposedexposesexposingexposureexposuresorientorientateorientatedorientatesorientationorientatingorientedorientingorientsreorientreorientationperspectiveperspectivesreadjustedreadjustingreadjustment readjustments readjusts alteralterablealterationalterationsalteredalteringalternatealternatingaltersunalterableunaltered amendamendedamendingamendment amendments amends awareawareness unaware capacitycapacitiesincapacitate incapacitated challengechallengedchallengerchallengers challengeschallenging clauseclauses compoundcompounded compoundingcompounds conflictconflictedconflictingconflicts consultconsultancy consultantconsultantsconsultation consultations consultative consultedconsultsconsulting contactcontactable contactedcontactingcontacts declinedeclineddeclinesdeclining discretediscretelydiscretiondiscretionary indiscrete externalexternalisationexternaliseexternalisedexternalisesexternalisingexternalityexternalizationexternalizeexternalizedexternalizesexternalizingexternallyfacilitatefacilitatedfacilitatesfacilitiesfacilitatingfacilitationfacilitatorfacilitatorsfacilityfundamentalfundamentallygenerategeneratedgeneratesgeneratinggenerationgenerationsimageimageryimagesliberalliberaliseliberalismliberalisationliberalisedliberalisesliberalisingliberalizationliberalizeliberalizedliberalizesliberalizingliberateliberatedliberatesliberationliberationsliberatingliberatorliberatorsliberallyliberalslicencelicenceslicenselicensedlicensinglicensesunlicensedlogicillogicalillogicallylogicallogicallylogicianlogicianspreciseimprecisepreciselyprecisionprimeprimacypsychologypsychologicalpsychologicallypsychologistpsychologistspursuepursuedpursuespursuingpursuitpursuitsratioratiosrejectrejectedrejectingrejectionrejectsrejectionsrevenuerevenuesstableinstabilitystabilisationstabilisestabilisedstabilisesstabilisingstabilizationstabilizestabilizedstabilizesstabilizingstabilityunstablestylestyledstylesstylingstylishstylisestylisedstylisesstylisingstylizestylizedstylizesstylizingsubstitutesubstitutedsubstitutessubstitutingsubstitutionsustainsustainablesustainabilitysustainedsustainingsustainssustenanceunsustainablesymbolsymbolicindiscretion draftdrafteddraftingdraftsredraftredraftedredraftingredrafts enableenabledenablesenabling energyenergeticenergetically energies enforceenforcedenforcement enforcesenforcing entityentities equivalentequivalence evolveevolutionevolvedevolvingevolvesevolutionary evolutionist evolutionists marginmarginalmarginallymarginsmedicalmedicallymentalmentalitymentallymodifymodificationmodificationsmodifiedmodifiesmodifyingunmodifiedmonitormonitoredmonitoringmonitorsunmonitorednetworknetworkednetworkingnetworksnotionnotionsobjectiveobjectivelyobjectivitysymbolicallysymbolisesymbolisessymbolisedsymbolisingsymbolismsymbolizesymbolizedsymbolizessymbolizingsymbolstargettargetedtargetingtargetstransittransitedtransitingtransitiontransitionaltransitionstransitorytransitstrendtrendsversionversionswelfarewheSublist 6 of the Academic Word Listabstractabstractionabstractionsabstractlyabstracts accurateaccuracyaccuratelyinaccuracyinaccuraciesinaccurate acknowledgeacknowledgedacknowledgesacknowledgingacknowledgement acknowledgements aggregateaggregatedaggregatesaggregatingaggregation allocateallocatedallocatesallocatingallocationallocationsassignassignedassigning enhanceenhancedenhancementenhancesenhancingestateestatesexceedexceededexceedingexceedsexpertexpertiseexpertlyexpertsexplicitexplicitlyfederalfederationfederationsfeefeesflexibleflexibilityinflexibleinflexibilityfurthermoregendergendersignorantignoranceneutralneutralisationneutraliseneutralisedneutralisesneutralisingneutralityneutralizationneutralizeneutralizedneutralizesneutralizingneverthelessoverseasprecedeprecededprecedenceprecedentprecedesprecedingunprecedentedpresumepresumablypresumedpresumespresumingpresumptionpresumptionspresumptuousrationalirrationalassignmentassignments assignsreassignreassignedreassigningreassignsunassigned attachattachedattachesattachingattachmentattachments unattached authorauthoredauthoringauthorsauthorship bondbondedbondingbondsbriefbrevitybriefedbriefingbrieflybriefs capablecapabilities capabilityincapablecitecitationcitationscitedcitingcites cooperatecooperatedcooperatescooperating cooperationcooperative cooperatively co-operateco-operated co-operates co-operation co-operative co-operatively discriminatediscriminated discriminates discriminatingdiscrimination displaydisplayeddisplayingdisplays diversediverselydiversification diversifieddiversifiesdiversifydiversifying ignoreignoredignoresignoringincentiveincentivesincidenceincidentincidentallyincidentsincorporateincorporatedincorporatesincorporatingincorporationindexindexedindexesindexinginhibitinhibitedinhibitinginhibitioninhibitionsinhibitsinitiateinitiatedinitiatesinitiatinginitiationinitiationsinitiativeinitiativesinitiatorinitiatorsinputinputsinstructinstructioninstructedinstructinginstructionsinstructiveinstructorinstructorsinstructsintelligentintelligenceintelligentlyunintelligentintervalintervalslecturelecturedlecturerlecturerslectureslecturingmigratemigrantmigrantsmigratedmigratesmigratingmigrationmigrationsmigratoryminimumministryrationalisationrationalisationsrationaliserationalisedrationalisesrationalisingrationalismrationalityrationalizationrationalizationsrationalizerationalizedrationalizesrationallyrecoverrecoverablerecoveredrecoveringrecoversrecoveryrevealrevealedrevealingrevealsrevelationrevelationsscopesubsidysubsidiarysubsidiessubsidisesubsidisedsubsidisessubsidisingsubsidizesubsidizedsubsidizessubsidizingtapetapedtapestapingtracetraceabletracedtracestracingtransformtransformationtransformationstransformedtransformingtransformstransporttransportationtransportedtransportertransporterstransportingtransportsunderlieunderlayunderliesunderlyingutiliseutilisationutilisedutilisesutilising。
interpretingspeeches技巧ppt课件
wife, good husband
• 虔诚的基督徒，慈爱的父母，孝顺的儿女，
贤良的妻子，尽职的丈夫
3
• 3. Addition of words—口译时不宜使信息过于浓
缩
• (1) During our stay here ten years ago we spent a
the same goal, the goal of building a world structure of peace and justice in which all may stand together with equal dignity and in which each nation, large or small, has a right to determine its own form of government, its own course of development, free of outside interference or domination.
study. (so that we can follow their example)
• 3.注意英汉语词汇搭配不一致的问题，口译时要
做适当调整。
• 我们准备增进与亚洲和欧洲国家的合作。我们已
对外贸进行了重大的改革，制定了一套相关的法 律。我们已将关税从23%降低到17%，最终还要 降低到发展中国家的平均水平
• (2) 海外一些发达国家和地区在这方面积累了不少经验，
值得我们借鉴和研究。
• Some developed countries and regions have accumulated a
社会心理学英语词汇大全解读社会心理现象的专业术语
社会心理学英语词汇大全解读社会心理现象的专业术语Social Psychology Glossary: A Comprehensive Guide to Understanding Terminology and Concepts in Social PsychologyIntroduction:Social psychology is the scientific study of how individuals think, feel, and behave in social situations. It explores various psychological phenomena that occur within the context of interpersonal relationships, group dynamics, and societal influences. As with any specialized field of study, social psychology has its own unique vocabulary and terminology. This comprehensive glossary aims to provide an in-depth understanding of the key concepts and terms used in social psychology, while offering insights into the underlying social psychological phenomena they represent.1. Attribution:Attribution refers to the process of assigning causes to behavior, events, or outcomes. It involves explaining and interpreting the actions of others or oneself. Attributional theories help us understand how people make sense of the social world by identifying explanations for behavior, such as internal (dispositional) or external (situational) attributions.2. Conformity:Conformity is the act of adjusting one's thoughts, beliefs, or behaviors to match those of others in response to real or perceived social pressure. Thisphenomenon highlights the powerful influence that group norms and social influence can have on individual behavior.3. Cognitive Dissonance:Cognitive dissonance refers to the psychological discomfort that arises when individuals hold conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or values or when their behavior contradicts their beliefs. This theory explains how people strive for consistency and the mechanisms they employ to reduce feelings of dissonance.4. Cultural Relativism:Cultural relativism is the belief that the practices, values, and behaviors of a particular culture should be understood within the context of that culture, rather than being judged by external standards. It emphasizes the importance of considering cultural diversity when studying and interpreting social behaviors.5. Deindividuation:Deindividuation occurs when individuals lose their sense of personal identity and responsibility in group settings, leading to uncharacteristic or impulsive behavior. This phenomenon can be observed in situations where individuals feel anonymous or perceive a reduction in their self-awareness.6. Groupthink:Groupthink refers to the phenomena that occur when a group prioritizes harmony and consensus over critical thinking and decision-making.Groupthink can lead to poor decision-making and the suppression of dissenting opinions within a group, often resulting in flawed outcomes.7. Norms:Norms are the unwritten rules or expectations that govern behavior within a particular social group or culture. They dictate acceptable behavior and influence individuals' thoughts, attitudes, and actions within a given social context.8. Obedience:Obedience refers to the act of complying with the orders or instructions of an authority figure. This phenomenon gained significant attention through Stanley Milgram's famous obedience experiments, which highlighted the willingness of individuals to follow orders, even if they conflicted with their personal moral beliefs.9. Self-fulfilling Prophecy:Self-fulfilling prophecy is a phenomenon where a person's beliefs or expectations influence their behavior in a way that confirms these beliefs or expectations. It occurs when individuals unknowingly create conditions that lead to the fulfillment of their initial predictions.10. Stereotypes:Stereotypes are cognitive shortcuts or generalizations about groups of people. They are often based on social categorizations, such as race, gender, or occupation. Stereotypes can lead to biases, prejudice, and discrimination,as individuals rely on simplified and often inaccurate assumptions about others.Conclusion:This comprehensive glossary provides an overview of some of the key terms and concepts in social psychology. From attribution and conformity to stereotypes and obedience, these terms represent the diverse range of topics and phenomena studied within the field. By understanding and utilizing these terms, one can gain deeper insights into the complexities of human behavior in social contexts. As social psychology continues to evolve, so too will the vocabulary used to describe and dissect the intricacies of our social interactions.。
文学翻译中异化和归化策略的外部控制变量
犬姒航胖觥硕士研究生学位论文研究生姓名互哆学科（专业）研究方向指导教师姓名及职称劣一翟哥更密莎乏及职称塑兰丝！坠吐知“’叉一日期≥翌羔：』大连外国语学院学位评定委员会摘要文学醐’千ｔ｛，片化和ｐＩ化策略的外部控制变ｆ矗乍瑞凌．本文运Ｊ｝】挑述他方法，研究了文学翻ｃ辛Ｉ｝Ｉ肄化和，｛化策略的外部控制变睦。
翻译巾异化干¨ｐＪ化之争，一。
丘足潆界研究的热点。
本文研究的ｆ｝｛发点并｛ｒ要介入两午叶一翻洚策略孰楚孰”的争沦，币ｊ足侧喱ｊ：刈异化雨Ｉｐ｛化策略外部坏境进行考察。
翻汗作为～种跨文化交际洒动，并Ｉｆ舀：真窄蚪境Ｆ进行。
翻潆策略的选择受到来ｆＪｒ社会的、文化的、历史的条件限制。
本文作者从客观和Ｅ观两个层次束探讨这些外部变醚。
客观嗖鐾包括文化态势、文化异ＩＩ寸、文本类型和日轫、读者。
主观变量含有翻译臼的和文化态度。
翻译研究已终出现文化转向，即从过去把翻泽石作足语ｉ专符号之间的转换变成看作是一种文化现象。
对于真币成功的翻泽而舀‘，掌握两种文化比掌握两门语言‘更蕈要。
翻译活动对于文化的构建和发展也同样具有萤要作用。
月尼尔·肖和尤会·奈达足归化翻译的倡导者。
月尼尔·肖指出，翻译的目标读者倾向于以自身经历而不是以源语文化为依据对原文信息进行理解。
他认为翻译者的任务之～就是要避免文化冲突。
奈达以他的“对等效应原则”为基础提出了动态对等的翻译概念。
韦努蒂提出异化翻译是对文化中心主义、种族主义、文化自恋和帝因主义的…种抵制形式。
本文的假设足以郭建中教授的研究成果为基础，进一步拓展对影响异化和归化策略因素的研究。
在文学翻译中主要有六种外部控制变量决定译者对翻译策略的选择。
这六种变量分别是：文化念势、文化异嗣、文本类型、目标读者、翻译目的和文化态度。
对文化桐同或相似性因素进行翻译时，异化和归化的策略是重合的。
文化差异大体上可分为文化空缺和文化冲突。
在上述两种情况下进行翻泽，翻译策略足变化的。
关于斯大林民族定义及其相关理论问题的思考
关于斯大林民族定义及其相关理论问题的思考张建军【摘 要】斯大林民族定义是中国民族理论中最广为人知又最富争议的定义,科学解读该定义对于准确运用该定义认识民族的发展过程具有重要意义。
本文通过对斯大林民族定义在运用于汉民族形成问题上时引起的矛盾进行分析,指出造成该定义本身科学性和特定指向性矛盾的客观原因,提出民族形成的关键在于民族文化认同的形成。
同时在梳理东西方民族不同发展轨迹的过程中,提出文化民族概念,分析政治民族形成,归纳出作为人们共同体的民族发展的一般过程。
【关键词】斯大林民族定义;认同;文化民族;政治民族【作 者】张建军,新疆大学南校区政治与公共管理学院,西南民族大学在读博士。
新疆乌鲁木齐, 830049【中图分类号】C95 【文献标识码】A 【文章编号】1004-454X(2009)02-0009-011On the Stalinπs,derinition of N ation and the related problems of theoryZhang JianjunAbstract:Stalinπs definiton of Nation is the most well2known and most controversial definition in Chinaπs Ethnic Theories1It is of great significance,interpreting the definition in a scientific way and us2 ing accurately the Stalinπs definiton to understand the national development process1There have had the contradictions in using Stalinπs definition of Nation to interpret the formation of Han2nationality1This pa2 per point out the objective reasons about the contradiction in between on the scientific definition itself and a specific definition by analyzing the contradictions1Then I put forward the key to the formation of na2 tionality that is formation on the identity of nationat culture Therefore by Carding different path of devel2 opmenl on the nationality in East and West,the paper put forward the concept of cultural2nationality and analyze the formation of nation,sum up a general development process of nationality1 K ey w ords:Stalinπs definition of Nation;Identity;Cultural2nationality;Nation在人文社会科学领域内,可能没有什么学科在基本理论框架层面上面临象民族学这样复杂的令人无所适从的困境,具有如此多的概念分歧和理论争议,矛盾从学科的基石———民族定义开始,一直蔓延到学科研究的每一个细小的角落,这种状况使每一个民族理论研究者都陷于一个非常尴尬的境地,即为了避免误解、误读,在论述任何一个相关理论问题时,都不得不从最基本的理论问题———什么是民族,我怎么理解民族———谈起,否则就难免会出现因缺乏理论设定而不知所云的状况。
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5. 口译的过程
Interpreting is a process of “understanding and making understood”.
listening→ “听”：主动“听入”或“视入”信 息 ↓ memorizing→“记”：心记为主，笔记为辅（关 键词，路标符号），自上而下整体记忆法（topdown），与理解同时进行 ↓ processing→“思”：对源语信息的识别、解析 和重构 ↓ delivering→“表”：口齿清楚、音调准确、择词 恰当、语句通顺、表达流畅
口译的定义
口译似乎是一种被动、单一、机械性的语 言传达活动。其实不然，口译是一种积极 的、复杂的、具有一定创造性的意义再现 活动。口译所再现的话语意义不仅仅是简 单的言内意义，而其还涉及信息内容所包 含的言外含义、话语风格、文化特征、言 者精神。从这个意义上说，口译是一种集 语言信息、语境信息、文化信息、心理信 息等于一体的综合交际活动。
consecutive interpreting e.g.全国政协十一届二次会议新闻发布会
simultaneous interpreting e.g. 温家宝总理在2009博鳌亚洲论坛开 幕式上的讲话
4. 口译的特点
Extemporaneousness 即席性强 Stressfulness 压力大 Independenceousness 知识面广
e.g. 按我国有关规定，投资总额在300万到 1000万美元的项目，其注册资本至少要达 到50%。 It’s laid down in the relevant state regulations that for a project with a total investment of between USD 3 million and USD 10 million, the registered capital should at least account for 50%.
考试分7个语种，分别是英、日、法、阿拉 伯、俄、德、西班牙等语种；四个等级， 即：资深翻译；一级口译、笔译翻译；二 级口译、笔译翻译；三级口译、笔译翻译； 两大类别，即：笔译、口译，口译又分交 替传译和同声传译两个专业类别。
二、三级笔译考试均设《笔译综合能力》和《笔 译实务》2个科目；口译考试均设《口译综合能 力》和《口译实务》2个科目，其中二级口译考 试《口译实务》科目分设“交替传译”和“同声 传译”2个专业类别。报名参加二级口译考试的 人员，可根据本人情况，选择口译交替传译和同 声传译两个专业类别的考试。报考二级口译交替 传译的人员，参加《口译综合能力》和《口译实 务（交替传译类）》2个科目的考试；报考二级 口译同声传译的人员，参加《口译综合能力》和 《口译实务（同声传译类）》2个科目的考试； 已通过了二级口译交替传译考试并取得证书的人 员，可免试《口译综合能力》科目，只参加《口 译实务（同声传译类）》科目的考试。
3. Tests 全国翻译专业资格(水平)考试（人事部） 上海外语口译考试
全国翻译专业资格（水平）考试（China Accreditation Test for Translators and Interpreters -- CATTI）是受国家人力资 源和社会保障部委托，由中国外文出版发行事业局(China Foreign Languages Publishing Administration)负责实施 与管理的一项国家级职业资格考试，已纳入国家职业资格证书 制度，是一项在全国实行的、统一的、面向全社会的翻译专业 资格（水平）认证，是对参试人员口译或笔译方面双语互译能 力和水平的评价与认定。 翻译专业资格（水平）考试，是我国翻译系列职称评审制度的 重大改革。翻译专业资格（水平）考试与原有翻译专业技术职 务任职资格评审制度相比，更体现了科学、客观、公平、公正 的原则，报名参加考试人员不受学历、资历和所从事专业的限 制。取得各级别证书并符合翻译专业职务任职条件的人员，用 人单位可根据需要聘任相应职务。在资格考试体系尚未完全建 立之前，新旧体系会有一个并存期。翻译专业资格考试将分语 种、分级别地逐步推开，随着考试逐步推向全国，旧有的翻译 专业技术职务任职资格评审制度将逐渐退出历史舞台。
6. 口译的标准（Criteria） 1). “accuracy” (准确) in content; 2). “smoothness” (通顺) in expression; 3). “quickness” (快速) in response.
口译的标准
快(quickness)“快”指的是说话者话音一落， 译员就得把他讲话的重要信息传达给对方。 准(accuracy)“准”指准确地把最基本的、实 质性的内容译出，即说话者的观点、要点， 包括数字、日期、地名、人名以及人的职务 或职称等等，而不是译出每一个字、每一句 话。 顺(fluency) “顺”指语言顺畅。由于交谈双 方全靠听译员的话来获取信息，如果译员口 译不顺，交谈双方或一方听不懂，就会影响 交流的效果，增加交流的困难。
口译的过程
(Microscopic view) (1). Decoding ( 听入解码) (2). Memorizing（短期记忆） (3). Encoding（编码输出） (Macroscopic view) (1). Preparing (译前准备) (2). performing （现场口译） (3). Packaging （译后总结）
2. 口译的定义 1). Interpreting is to render a message from one language into another, naturally and fluently, adopting the delivery, tone and convictions of the speaker and speaking in the first person. 2).口译（Interpreting，也称Interpretation），是 一种通过听取和解析来源语(source language)所 表达的信息，随即将其转译为目标语(target language)语言符号，进而达到传递信息之目的 的言语交际活动。（梅德明，1996）
An Overview of Interpretation
1. 口译的历史
1). 历史悠久，可追溯到公元前2000多年，早于笔译，是人 类生产生活的产物。 “译”、“寄”、“象”、“狄”、“通事”、“通译” 2). 20世纪初，口译成为一种专门的职业。（1919年巴黎和 会，两次世界大战期间美国产生了“同声传译” ） 3). 第一个国际口译组织——国际会议译员协会（AIICAssociation Internationale des Interpretes de Conferences）1953年成立于瑞士日内瓦，其通讯刊物 为《AIIC公报》(AIIC Bulletin).
3).口译不是单纯意义上的言语行为，而是 一种涉及诸多知识层面的跨文化的交际行 为。（钟述孔，1999） 4). 朱佩芬：口译是将听到或读到的一种 语言 (source language)即兴地以另一种 语言 (target language)来表述。
口译的定义
口译是一种通过口头表达形式，将所 感知和理解的信息准确而又快速地由 一语言形式转换成另一种语言形式， 进而达到即时传递与交流信息之目的 的交际行为，是现代社会跨文化、跨 民族交往的一种基本沟通方式。“形 变”而“意存”，“形转”而“意 达”，是口译的基本要求：“意及” 而又“神似”，“意传”而又“迅达” 是 口译的职业标准。
An Overview of Interpreting
Introduction
1. Teaching Contents Part 1 Theory (1 class) Part 2 Practice (5 classes) Revision (1 class)
2. Scoring Usual Performance: 30% (class attendance 10% + class participation 20%) Final Exam: 70%
口译的特点
（1）口译是一种即席性很强的语言符号转码活动。 （2）在场景气氛的压力下工作是口译的另一特点。 （3）从操作性质上看，口译属于一种“单打一”是 “个体劳动”，译员的工作独立性强，其责任性自然 也大。 （4）口译是一种集视、听、说、写、读之大成的综 合性语言操作活动。口译是一种立体式、交叉式的信 息传播活动，多层次的信息来源和传播渠道，既给口 译工作者带来了困难，同时又为口译工作者创造力颇 为有利的条件。 （5）传递信息的覆盖面无限定边界，这是口译的又 一特点。口译的内容可以上至天文，下及地理，无所 不涉，无所不包。口译的对象为各界人士，来自各个 阶层、各行各业，有着不同的教育背景和文化背景， 有着各自所熟悉的专业知识。
4. Bibliography: 鲍刚.口译理论概述.北京:旅游教育出版社, 1998. 梅德明.通用口译教程.北京:北京大学出版社, 2007.4. 仲伟合. 英语口译基础教程.北京:高等教育出版社, 2007.10. 徐海明,季海宏.实用英汉汉英口译教程.南京:南京 师范大学出版社, 2004.7. 钟述孔.实用口译手册（增订版）.北京:中国对外 翻译出版公司, 1999. 赵军峰.商务英语口译.北京: 高等教育出版社, 2012.12.
4).第一种系统的口译理论——释意理论 (The Interpretive Theory)，由巴黎梭邦大学高等 翻译学校达妮卡· 塞莱斯科维奇(Danica Seleskovitch)创立。 该理论认为：口译的本质是释出语言外在形 式中的意义，其具体实施过程中思维、知识 和认知过程等语言外因素起着重要作用。 5).中国的口译研究起步较晚，上世纪70年代 同声传译日益发展，但至今仍缺少科学系统 的口译理论。