管理学期末资料总

管理学期末复习资料
第一章导论
基本概念：管理学是一门研究各类组织管理活动的基本规律和管理方法的科学。

）
管理的定义：管理是由组织的管理者，在一定环境下通过计划组织领导控制等环节来协调人力物力财力等资源以达到更好的管理目标。

管理者技能：
技术人事思想设计概念人际
管理学中人性假设：
工具人文化人——这两个没找到释义和重点
经济人：斯密泰勒麦格雷戈X理论
⏹管理方法和要点：
1.重点：提高生产效率和完成生产任务，对人的情感和道义不负责任
2.管理工作只是少数人的事情。

工人的主要任务是听从管理者的指挥
3.用金钱激励员工的积极性，对消极怠工的采用严厉的惩罚措施
社会人：人的主要动机是追求社会需求的满足(友谊安全感归属感受人尊重)
⏹管理方法和要点：
1.关心人满足人
2.让员工参与决策
3.在实行奖励时，提倡集体的奖励制度，而不主张个人奖励制度
4.管理人员要有人际关系的处理技能
5.上下沟通
◆自我实现人：人的最高需要层次就是自我实现麦格雷戈X理论
⏹管理方法和要点:
1.重点：创造是人们在这种条件下充分发掘自己潜力，发挥自己才能的工作环境和工作条
件
2.管理者应该是服务者，其主要内容是创造适宜的工作环境使员工获得内在奖励
3.管理制度应该保证员工能够充分表现自我的才能，达到自己所希望的成就
复杂人：人是复杂的，不断改变，权变理论和超Y理论
管理者应该根据组织所处的内外条件随机应变进行管理
⏹四大管理职能：
1.计划职能（planning）：对未来活动进行的一种预先的谋划.内容:研究活动条件决策
编制计划. Defininggoal，establishing strategies developing plans(明确目标、确定战略、制定计划)
2.组织职能（organizing）：为实现组织目标,对每个组织成员规定在工作中形成的合理
的分工协作关系(设立组织结构、分配权责、配备人员、组织变革)
3.领导职能（leading）：管理者利用组织所赋予的权力去指挥影响和激励组织成员为
实现组织目标而努力工作的过程.workingwithandthroughpeople(指挥、激励、沟通)
4.控制职能（controlling）：保证组织各部门各环节能按预定要求运作而实现组织目标
的一项管理工作活动evaluatingwhetherthingsaregoingasplanned(制定标准、监控过
程、纠正偏差)。

一、基本概念
德鲁克Peter Drucker: “management is about people.
孔茨Harold Koontz: 管理就是设计和保持一种良好环境，使人在群体里高效率地完成既定目标。

有效管理：有效率且有效果的管理。

衡量管理好坏的标准：
i.效率（efficiency）是指“正确地做事”，即不浪费资源；
ii.效果（effectiveness）是指“做正确的事”，即有助于实现组织目标
管理者manager: 通过协调和监管其他人的活动以达到组织目标的人，可将管理者分为基层管理者、中层管理者和高层管理者。

Firstline, middle, top.
管理万能论与管理象征论：管理万能论认为，管理者对组织成败承担直接责任；管理象征论认为，组织成败在很大程度上归因于管理者无法控制的外部力量。

组织：一种为实现某个特定目的而对人员的精心安排。

组织文化：组织成员所共有的能够影响其行为方式的价值观、原则、传统和行事方式。

[强文化与弱文化]关注细节成果导向员工导向团队导向进取性稳定性创新与风险配置能力
组织环境（外部环境）：对组织绩效产生影响的外部因素和力量。

社会责任：
i.The classical view of social responsibility is that management’s only social responsibility
is to maximize profits. 管理方唯一社会责任就是使利润最大化
ii.The socioeconomic view of social responsibility goes beyond making profits to include protecting and improving society’s welfare. 管理者的社会责任不只是盈利还包括改
善和保护社会的福利。

二、管理职能
法约尔：计划、组织、指挥、协调和控制。

孔茨：计划、组织、人员配备、指导和领导、控制。

三、管理者技能
根据卡茨的研究，管理者要具备技术技能technicalskill（指熟练完成特定工作所需的特定领域的知识和技术）、人际技能humanskill(The ability to work well with other people individually and in a group)和概念技能Conceptual skills (The ability to think and to conceptualize about abstract and complex situation)
第二章理论
一、古典管理理论
管理活动、管理思想和管理理论：管理活动自古就有，中国早期管理思想博大精深，但管理理论的系统形成却出现于西方。

古典管理理论(19世纪末-20世纪30年代)的代表人物有泰勒、法约尔、韦伯Max Weber等。

二、行为科学理论
行为科学理论重点强调古典管理理论中所忽略的人的问题。

古典管理理论比较强调科学性、精密性和纪律性；工人被看作是机器的附属品，会说话的工具。

这大大挫伤了工人劳动的积极性，严重影响了劳动生产率的提高。

⏹霍桑试验H awthorne Studies：money is less a factor in determining output than are
group standards group attitudes .are security.
四个阶段：(1)工场照明试验（2)继电器装配室试验(3)大规模访谈(4)接线板小组观察室试验
结论：1.行为和情绪是密切相关的 2.小组的标准是由单个工人的产出确定的3.小组对于个人的行为有重要的影响 4.金钱在决定小组产出标准上起次要作用
内容（即人际关系学）：1.人是社会人，具有社会心理方面的需求2.提高工作效率的关键是提高工人的士气和积极性3.企业有非正式组织
行为科学理论基本可分为两个时期，前期为人际关系学说。

后期为组织行为学（The study of people at work）。

其中，后者的主要理论有需要层次理论、双因素
理论、成就需要理论、期望理论、目标理论、挫折理论、强化理论、管理方格
理论、Z理论等。

三、管理理论丛林
⏹管理过程学派以法约尔为创始人。

⏹决策理论学派以西蒙为代表人物。

⏹行为科学学派分为人际关系学说和组织行为学。

⏹经验主义学派以德鲁克为代表人物。

该学派主张通过案例研究，确定成败因素，总
结一般规律，形成管理理论。

⏹社会系统学派以巴纳德为创始人
他认为在组织中，经理人员是最为重要的因素，经理人员的职能主要有：(1)明确组织目标；(2)建立并维护一个信息系统；(3)使组织中每个人都能做出贡献。

巴纳德把组织分为正式组织和非正式组织。

1.对正式组织来说，不论级别高低和规模大小，其存在和发展都必须具备三个条
件：明确的目标、良好的沟通和协作的意愿。

2.在正式组织中还存在一种因为工作联系而形成的有一定看法、习惯和准则的无
形组织，即非正式组织。

⏹系统管理学派是指运用一般系统论的范畴和原理，对组织结构和模式进行分析的理
论。

它认为局部最优不等于整体最优；管理者的作用就是确保企业中各部分之间的相互协调，以实现整体目标。

⏹权变理论学派认为，在企业管理中没有一成不变的、普遍适用的、“最好”的管理理
论和方法There are no simplistic or universal rules for managers to follow. 管理者应根据组织所处的内外条件随机应变进行管理。

这一学派着重考察关于环境变量与管理方法之间的关系。

⏹数理学派以现代自然科学和技术科学的成果(如先进数学方法、电子计算机技术、系
统论、信息论和控制论等)为手段，运用数学模型，对管理领域的人财物和信息资源进行系统的定量分析，并做出最优规则和决策。

数理学派所应用的科学方法主要有：线性规划Linear programming、网络计划法、库存论、概率论、排队论、决策论、搜索论等
四、现代管理理论
⏹四、现代管理理论
⏹全面质量管理Total Quality management：戴明W. Edwards Deming和朱兰Joseph M.
Juran是全面质量管理之父。

20世纪50年代，他们的思想在美国没有得到支持和欢迎，而在日本得到欢迎和实践。

到80年代，在诸如电子、家电、汽车等一些产业，日本企业的产品质量和竞争力超过美国，这引起了美国等西方理论界和实践界对全面质量管理的高度重视。

全面质量管理的本质是由顾客需求和期望驱动企业持续不断改善的管理理念。

它的主要要点有：(1)关注顾客；(2)注重持续改善；(3)关注流程；
(4)精确测量；(5)充分授权。

⏹企业文化管理。

西方企业文化管理研究以美日比较管理学研究为起点，从文化角度
开辟管理新纪元的新的管理理论。

⏹四、现代管理理论
⏹竞争战略管理理论。

波特的《竞争战略》将战略管理理论推向高峰，其主要内容有：
(1)五力模型：潜在加入者的威胁、购买者的讨价还价能力、替代品生产者的威胁、
供应者的讨价还价能力及现有竞争者的抗衡。

企业如果要想拥有长期的获利能力，就必须先了解所处的产业结构，并塑造对企业有利的产业结构。

(2)三大战略：总成本领先战略、差异化战略和专一化战略。

⏹精益生产思想：企业把客户、销售代理商、供应商、协作单位纳入生产体系，同他
们建立起利益共享的合作伙伴关系，进而组成一个企业的供应链。

消除muda是精益生产思想的精髓。

这里，muda是一个日本词，专指消耗了资源而不创造价值的一切人类活动。

⏹四、现代管理理论
⏹企业再造理论。

哈默和钱皮认为企业应以工作流程为中心，重新设计企业的经营、
管理及运作方式，进行“再造工程”。

所谓再造工程，是“对经营流程彻底进行再思考和再设计，以便在业绩衡量标准(如成本、质量、服务和速度等)上取得重大突破。

再造工程不把任何事想当然，它对“是什么”有所忽视，而对“应该是什么”相当重视。

其基本指导思想如下：顾客至上，人本管理，彻底改造。

⏹学习型组织理论。

该理论是当前最前沿的管理理论之一，被称为21世纪的管理圣经。

所谓学习型组织Learning organization是指具有持续不断学习、适应和变革能力的组织。

彼得.圣吉提出了学习型组织的五项修炼：自我超越、改善心智模式、建立共同愿景、团队学习和系统思考。

圣吉还指出，在学习型组织里，领导者是设计师、仆人和教师。

四、现代管理理论
⏹全面质量管理Total Quality management：本质是由顾客需求和期望驱动企业持续不
断改善的管理理念。

它的主要要点有：
(1)关注顾客；(2)注重持续改善；(3)关注流程；(4)精确测量；(5)充分授权。

⏹企业文化管理。

西方企业文化管理研究以美日比较管理学研究为起点，从文化角度
开辟管理新纪元的新的管理理论。

⏹核心能力理论：Prahalad and Hamel提出了核心能力理论。

核心能力Core competence，是指组织内的集体知识和集体学习，尤其是协调不同生产技术和整合多种技术流的能力。

这项能力必须满足以下五个条件：(1)不是单一技术或技能，而是一簇相关的技术和技能的整合；(2)不是物理性资产；(3)必须能创造顾客看重的关键价值；(4)与对手相比，竞争上具有独特性；(5)超越特定的产品或部门范畴从而为企业提供通向新市场的通道。

⏹竞争战略管理理论：波特五力模型三大战略
五力模型：潜在加入者的威胁；购买者的讨价还价能力，替代品生产者的威胁；供
应者的讨价还价能力；现有竞争者的抗衡
三大战略：总本本领领先战略；差异化战略；专一化战略
⏹精益生产思想：清除mudal消耗资源而不创造价值
⏹企业再造理论：顾客至上，人本管理，彻底改造
⏹人类社会的权利系统与组织类型
---神授的权力——神秘化组织
---传统的权力——传统组织先例和惯例世袭制封建制
---合理且合法的权力——官僚组织，理想行政组织
Bureaucracy一种以劳动分工，定义清晰的等级制，详细的规章制度以及非个人的
关系为特征的组织形式
特征：劳动分工权力等级正式的甄选正式的规章制度非个人性职业导向★学习型组织理论：具有持续不断学习，适应和变革能力的组织
第三章计划
⏹计划Planning: Defining organizatio n’s goals, establishing overall strategy, and
developing plans.
⏹Planning can either be formal or informal.
⏹Planning involves two important elements: goals and plans. Exhibit 8-4-P206 lists the
characteristics of a “well-written” goal. Managers should fol low five steps when setting
goals: Review the organization’s mission or purpose, Evaluate available resources,
Determine the goals individually or with input from others, Write down the goals and
communicate them to all who need to know, Review results and whether goals are
being met. Exhibit 8-1-P203 illustrates the types of plans.
⏹计划编制方法：滚动计划法，网络计划法，预算方法（零基预算法、弹性预算法、
滚动预算法）。

三、目标管理
⏹传统目标设定Traditional goal setting (Top-down)：由组织的最高管理者设立总目标，
然后分解成子目标并落实到组织的各个层次，即由上级给下级规定目标。

Exhibit
8-2-P205 illustrates what can happen in the traditional goal setting.
⏹目标管理Management by objectives (MBO): A process of setting mutually
agreed-upon goals and using those goals to evaluate employee performance. Exhibit
8-3-P206 lists the steps in a typical MBO program.
⏹目标管理特征：（1）参与管理（上下级共同确定目标）；（2）自我控制；（3）促使
放权；（4）成果第一。

MBO programs have four elements: goal specificity, participative
decision making, an explicit time period, and performance feedback.
⏹目标管理的不足：（1）强调短期目标；（2）目标设置困难；（3）无法权变。

四、战略管理
⏹战略管理Strategic management: What manager s do to develop the organization’s
strategies.战略Strategies: The decisions and actions that determine the long-run
performance of an organization. 商业模式Business model: A strategic design for how a
company intends to profit from its strategies, processes, and activities.
⏹战略管理过程Strategic management process (see Exhibit 9-1-P221). Exhibit 9-2-P222 lists
the components of a mission statement. SWOT analysis: An analysis of the organization’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats.
⏹组织战略类型Types of organizational strategies: Corporate strategy, Business (or
competitive) strategy, and Functional strategy (see Exhibit 9-3-P224).
⏹Corporate strategy :Growth strategy (Concentration, Vertical or Horizontal integration, or
Diversification), Stability strategy, and Renewal strategy (Retrenchment strategy or
Turnaround strategy). Exhibit 9-4-P226 shows the BCG matrix which was developed by the Boston Consulting Group.
⏹Business (or Competitive) strategy: Strategic business units or SBUs. Sustainable
competitive advantage. Quality management and quality as a competitive advantage.
Porter’s five forces model (see Exhibit 9-5-P228). Porter’s three generic competitive
strategies (Cost leadership strategy, Differentiation strategy, or Focus strategy).
⏹Functional strategy.
五、决策
⏹决策Decision-making: A choice from two or more alternatives.
⏹Exhibit 7-1-P178 illustrates the decision-making process, a set of eight steps that include
identifying a problem, selecting an alternative, and evaluating the decision’s
effectiveness.
Decision-making【分类】
完全理性决策:Rational decision making
有限理性决策：Bounded rationality
直觉决策：Intuitive decision making.
战略决策：确定或者改变经营方向和经营目标
战术决策:指机构重组、人事调整、资金筹措、日常活动安排中的具体决策
程序化决策：Structured problems and programmed decisions
非程序化决策：unstructured problems and and nonprogrammed decisions
个人决策改善群体决策的方法有：头脑风暴法Brain storming、名义群体法、德尔菲法、
电子会议法等。

群体决策：更完整的信息，产生更多的方案，增强接受性，提高合法性【优点】
消耗时间、少数人统治、屈从压力、责任不清【缺点】
确定性决策Certainty,：直观，盈方平衡分析，线性规划，非线性规划，动态规划法
风险性决策risk：决策树分析法—计算期望值，计算净效值
非确定型决策uncertainty：小中取大法，大中取小法Minimax choice（后悔值法、Minimizing the maximum “regret”）。

虽然管理者在可能的情况下会采用收益和遗憾矩阵来设法定量化地制定决策，但是确定往往会使他们更多的依赖于直觉创造力预感以及本能
《杰克·韦尔奇管理日志》：制定战略三步骤
不要轻信战略大师凭直觉取胜
第四章组织
一，组织设计
组织Organizing: Arranging and structuring work to accomplish the organization’s goal; that is, creating the organization’s structure. Exhibit 10-1 –P265 illustrates the purposes of organizing. 组织结构Organizational structure: The formal arrangement of jobs within an organization.
组织结构图Organizational chart.
⏹组织设计Organizational design: Changing or developing an organization’s structure. six
key elements: (1)Work specialization (Increased efficiency versus human diseconomies—boredom, fatigue, stress, poor quality, increased absenteeism, and higher turnover, Exhibit 10-2-P266 ), (2)Departmentalization (Exhibit 10-3-P267 shows the five common forms of departmentalization: Fuctional, Product, Geographical, Process, and Customer.
Two popular trends today in departmentalization are the increasing use of customer departmentalization and the use of cross-functional teams), (3)Chain of command (Authority, Responsibility, Unity of command. As more organations use self-managed and cross-functional teams and as organizational designs with multiple bosses are implemented, these traditional concepts are less relevant), (4)Span of control(see Exhibit 10-6-P271. The span of control depends on skills and abilities of manager and employees, work characteristics, similarity of employee tasks, the complexity of those tasks, the physical proximity of subordinates, the degree to which standardized procedures are in place, the sophistication of the organization’s information system, the strength of the organization’s culture, and the preferred style of the manager. 扁平型组织结构与高耸型组织结构), (5)Centralization and decentralization(Exhibit 10-7-P272 lists of the factors that
⏹influence the amount of centralization and decentralization. 员工授权Employee
empowerment), and (6)Formalization (Explicit job descriptions, rules, and procedures).
⏹组织设计决策Organizational design decisions: Mechanistic and organic organization
(see Exhibit 10-8-P274); Strategy and structure (Alfred Chandler initially researched the strategy-structure relationship. Structure should “follow” strategy); Size and structure (Large organizations tend to be more mechanistic. However, past a certain point—around 2000 employee, size has less influence on structure); Technology and structure (The more routine the technology, the more mechanistic the structure can be);
Environmental uncertainty and structure (More uncertainty, more organic structure).
⏹组织设计模式Common organizational designs: Traditional organizational designs
(Simple structure, Functional structure, and Divisional structure) and Contemporary organizational designs(Team structure, Matrix-Project structure, and boundaryless organization—Virtual organization and network organization). Exhibit 11-1-P289 describes the summary of contemporary organizational designs.
⏹打造学习型组织Building a learning organization: An organization that has developed
the capacity to continuously learn, adapt, and change.
二，人力资源管理
Organizing involves Human Resource Management (HRM).
HRM is an important strategic tool that helps organization establish sustainable competitive advantage.
Exhibit 12-2-P314 introduces the key components of an organization’s H RM process.
⏹Human resource planning: Ensuring that the organization has the right number and kinds
of capable people in the right places and at the right times. HR planning consists of two steps: (1)Assessing current human resources by Human resource inventory or job analysis (Job description and Job specification) and (2)meeting future HR needs (Balancing supply and demand by recruiting/decruiting).Recruitment and decruitment (see Exhibit 12-4-P320 and Exhibit 12-5-P320).
⏹Selection. Exhibit 12-7-P322lists the strengths and weaknesses of selection devices.
Realistic job preview (RJP): A preview of a job that provides both positive and negative information about the job and the company.
⏹Orientation: Introduction of a new employee to his or her job and the organization.
⏹Training. Exhibit 12-8-P325describes the major types of training. Exhibit 12-9-P325
provides a description of the various traditional and technology-based training methods.
⏹Performance management. Exhibit 12-10-P327illustrates the advantages and
disadvantages of performance appraisal methods.
⏹Compensation and benefits. Exhibit 12-11-P328summarizes these factors, which are
both job-based and business- or industry-based. Many organizations, however, are choosing to use alternative approaches to determining compensation: skill-based pay and variable pay.
⏹Career development.
⏹Current issues in HRM include managing Downsizing, Workforce diversity, Sexual
harassment (Workplace romance), Work-family life balance, and Controlling HR costs (Health care costs and Pensions).
三、组织变革
反对组织变革的具体原因：历史惯性和惰性；威胁到既得利益者；难以把握未来趋势；对发起人心怀成见；心理上的障碍。

其中，心理上的障碍主要有懒的心理（多一事不如少一事，不改不变最省事），稳的心理（生怕变革中出乱子，以致会丢乌纱帽），怕的心理（怕担风险，怕变革失败，怕受人指责），等的心理（想等上面推着改，想等人家搞出了一套成熟的经验后再改）。

Resistance to change comes from ambiguity and uncertainty, habit, concern over personal loss, and belief that change isn’t in organization’s best interests.
当前大多组织都采用科层制组织，其弊病越来越严重，因此新的组织及组织结构正在不断产生。

第五章领导
1、激励
●Motivation refers to the process by which a person’s efforts are energized, directed, and
sustained toward attaining a goal.
●人类行为机制：需要、动机、行为、目标、反馈。

首先在一定刺激下产生主观渴望和内
在冲动(需要)，然后设计目标和方法满足这种需要(动机)，接下来采取实际行动来实现动机(行为)，最后无论成功与否都会通过反馈来决定和影响下一轮行为。

● A recent Gallup poll found that a large majority of U.S. employees—some 73 percent—are
not excited about their work. As the researchers stated, “These employees are essentially ‘checked out.’ They are sleepwalking through their workday, putting time, but n ot energy or passion, into their work.” It’s no wonder then that both managers and academics want to understand and explain employee motivation.
●Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory. there are a hierarchy of five human needs:
Physiological needs(a person’s needs for food, drink, shelter, sexual satisfaction, and other physical needs), Safety needs(a person’s needs for security and protection from physical and emotional harm), Social needs(a person’s needs for affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship), Esteem needs(a person’s needs for internal factors, such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement, and external factors, such as status, recognition, and attention), and Self-actualization needs(a person’s need to become what he or she is capable of becoming). An individual moves up the needs hierarchy from one level to the next. (se e Exhibit 16-1-P432). To motivate someone, you need to understand what need level that person is on in the hierarchy and focus on satisfying needs at or above that level.
◆马洛斯需要层次论：自我实现需要，尊重需要，社交需要，安全需要，生理需
要
●McGregor’s theory X and theory Y. Theory X is a negative view of people which assumes
that workers have little ambition, dislike work, want to avoid responsibility, and need to be closely controlled to work effectively. Theory Y is a positive view which assumes that employees enjoy work, seek out and accept responsibility, and exercise self-direction.
McGregor believed that Theory Y assumptions should guide management practice and proposed that participation in decision making, responsible and challenging jobs, and good group relations would maximize employee motivation. Unfortunately, there’s no evidence to confirm that either set of assumptions is valid or that being a Theory Y manager is the only way of motivate employees.
◆麦格雷尔的X理论与Y理论
◆X理论：经济人假设y理论：自我实现的人假设
●Herzberg’s two-factor theory. Herzberg wanted to know when people felt exceptionally
good (satisfied) or bad (dissatisfied) about their jobs. These findings are shown in Exhibit 16-2-P433. In addition, Herzberg believed that the data suggested that the opposite of satisfaction was not dissatisfaction, as shown in Exhibit 16-3-P434. Again, Herzberg believed that the factors that led to job satisfaction were separate and distinct from those led to job dissatisfaction. He called the extrinsic factors that create job dissatisfaction hygiene factors.
When these factors are adequate, people won’t be dissatisfied, but they won’t be satisfied (or motivated) either. To motivate people, Herzberg suggested emphasizing motivators,
intrinsic factors having to do with the job itself.
◆赫茨伯格的激励-保健理论（双因素）
●McClelland’s three needs theory. David McClelland and his associates proposed the
three-needs theory, which says there are three acquired (not innate) needs that are major motivators in work: Need for achievement (the drive to succeed and excel in relation to a set of standards), Need for power(the need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise), and Need for affiliation(the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships). Of these three needs, the need for achievement has been researched the most.
◆三种需求：成就，权力，归属需求
◆麦克兰指出，有着强烈成就感需要的人，是那些倾向于成为企业家的人；有着
强烈依附感需要的人，是成功的“整合者”；有着强烈权力需要的人，是有较多
机会晋升到组织高层管理者的人。

此理论重点放在鉴别和培养成就需要上，丰
富了马斯洛对自我实现需要的描述与分析。

●Goal-setting theory: The proposition that specific goals increase performance and that
difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals (see Exhibit 16-5-P436). 目标设定理论：
●Reinforcement theory: The theory that behavior is a function of its consequences. Using
reinforcement theory, managers can influence employees’ behavior by using positive reinforcers for actions that help the organization achieve its goals. And managers should ignore, not punish, undesirable behavior.强化理论
●Job design theory: Job enlargement, Job enrichment, Job characteristics model (JCM, see
Exhibit 16-6-P439 and Exhibit 16-7-P440).工作设计理论：工作特征模型JCM
●Adams’ Equity theory: The theory that employee compares his or her job’s inputs :
outcomes ratio with that of relevant others and then corrects any inequity (see Exhibit 16-8-P442). The referent—the other person, system (organizational pay policies, procedures, and allocation), or self an individual compares himself or herself against in order to assess equity—is an important variable in equity theory.期望理论
●Vroom’s Expectancy theory: The theory that an individual tends to act in a certain way,
based on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and an attractiveness of that outcome to the individual (see Exhibit 16-9-442).
●Integrating contemporary theories of motivation. Many of the ideas underlying the
contemporary motivation theories are complementary, and you’ll understand better how to motivate people if you see how the theories fit together. Exhibit 16-10-P444presents a model that integrates much of what we know about motivation.
●Current issues in motivation: Cross-cultural challenges, Motivating unique groups of
workers(Diverse workforce, Professionals, Contingent workers, and Low-skilled minimum-wage employees; Compressed workweek—4-40 workweek), Flexible work hours—Flextime, Job sharing, Telecommuting), and Designing appropriate rewards programs (Open-book
●management; Employee recognition program; Pay-for-performance programs—Piece-rate
pay plans, Wage incentive plans, Profit-sharing, and Lump-sum bonuses; Stock option programs).
●From theory to practice: suggestions for motivating employees. Recognize individual
differences, Match people to jobs, Use goals, Ensure that goals are perceived as attainable, Individualize rewards, Link rewards to performance, Check the system for equity, Use recognition, Show care and concern for your employees, and Don’t ig nore money.
2.沟通
Communication: the transfer and understanding of meaning. It encompasses both interpersonal communication and organizational communication.
Interpersonal communication. Exhibit 15-1-P4.6illustrates the seven elements of the interpersonal communication process. Communication methods include face-to-face communication, telephone communication, group meetings, formal presentations, memos, traditional mail, faxes, employee publications, bulletin boards, other company publications, audio- and videotapes, hotlines, e-mail, computer conference, voice mail, teleconferences, and videoconferences. An important part of interpersonal communication is nonverbal communication (Body language and verbal intonation).
⏹Effective interpersonal communication. Barriers to effective communication include
filtering(the number of hierarchical levels and the organizational culture), emotions, information overload, defensiveness, language, and national culture. Managers can overcome these barriers by using feedback, simplifying language, listening actively (see Exhibit 15-3-P411), constraining emotions, and watching for nonverbal clues.
⏹Organizational communication: Formal versus Informal communication; Communication
in an organization can flow downward, upward, laterally, and diagonally. Exhibit 15-4-P413illustrates three common communication networks: Chain network, Wheel network, All-channel network.
3.领导
⏹Leader is someone who can influence others and who has managerial authority.
Leadership is a process of influencing a group to achieve goals. 成功的领导者须是一个具有远见卓识、熟谙权力获取之道的政治家。

一般而言，可通过如下方式获取权力：同有权势的人形成联盟；施惠；不激怒别人；从危机中获益；谨慎地寻求顾问；争取最关键的工作；不断地提高自己等。

⏹领导特质论Trait theories of theories：领导者成功与否取决于领导者的个人特质。

研
究指出，成功领导者具有如下共性：努力进取，渴望成功；强烈的权利欲望；正直诚信，言行一致；充满自信；追求知识和信息；等等。

Leadership research in the 1920s and 1930s focused on isolating leader traits (characteristic) that would differentiate leaders from nonleaders. The seven traits shown to be associated with effective leadership are described briefly in Exhibit 17-1-P461.
⏹领导特质论至今无明确结论。

美国学者William Jenkins总结道：“找不出任何一项性
格或任何一组特性，可用以区分领导人和一般人”。

Despite of the best efforts of researchers, it proved impossible to identify a set of traits that would always
differentiate a leader from a nonleader. 美国学者彼特反其道而行之，列举了一些难以胜任领导工作的个人特质：对别人麻木不仁，吹毛求疵，举止凶横狂妄；冷漠，孤僻，骄傲自大；背信弃义；野心过大，玩弄权术；管头管脚，独断专行；缺乏团队建设能力；心胸狭窄，挑选无能之辈担任下属；目光短浅，缺乏战略头脑；犟头倔脑，无法适应不同上司；偏听偏信，过分依赖一个顾问；懦弱无能，不敢行动；犹豫不决，无法决断；等等。

⏹领导行为论Behavioral theories of leadership：领导者成功与否取决于领导者的行为
风格。

Leadership research from the late 1940s to the mid-1960s concentrated on the behaviors that differentiate effective leaders from ineffective leaders. The four main leader behavior studies are summarized in Exhibit 17-2-P462.
⏹领导情景论Contingency theories of leadership：领导者成功与否取决于领导方式与
领导情景的匹配。

We examine three contingency theories: the Fiedler model, Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership theory, and path-goal theory. Each of these theories looks at defining leadership style and the situation, and it attempts to answer the if-then contingencies.
⏹菲德勒权变理论Fiedler contingency model attempted to define the best style to use in
particular situations. He measured leader style—relationship oriented or task oriented—using the least-preferred coworker (LPC) questionnaire. Fiedler also assumed that a leader’s style was fixed. He measured three contingency dimensions: leader-member relations, task structure, and position power. The model suggested that task-oriented leaders performed best in very favorable and very unfavorable situations, and relationship-oriented leaders performed best in moderately favorable situations.
Exhibit 17-3-P465 shows the Fiedler model.
⏹情景领导理论Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership theory (SLT) focused on
followers’ readiness. It includes four leadership styles: 命令式Telling (high task-low relationship)、说服式Selling (high task-high relationship)、参与式Participating (low task-high relationship)和授权式Delegating (low task-low relationship). SLT also identified four stages of readiness: R1 (unable and unwilling, using telling style), R2 (unable but willing, using selling style), R3 (able but unwilling, using participative style), and R4 (able and willing, using delegating style). SLT has intuitive appeal. However, research efforts to test and support the theory have generally been disappointing.
⏹路径-目标理论Path-goal theory developed by Robert House identified four leadership
behaviors: Directive, Supportive, Participative, Achievement oriented. This model assumes that a leader can and should be able to use any of these styles. The two situational contingency variables were found in the environment and in the follower.
Essentially, the path-goal model says that a leader should provide direction and support as needed; that is, the leader should structure the path so the followers can achieve goals. It propose that a leader’s behavior won’t be effective if it’s redundant with what the environmental structure is providing or is incongruent with follower characteristics.
Exhibit 17-5-P468 shows the Path-goal model.。