In the unpublished Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Arthur M. Sackler Colloq
诺奖作家英文作品赏析_哈尔滨工业大学中国大学mooc课后章节答案期末考试题库2023年
诺奖作家英文作品赏析_哈尔滨工业大学中国大学mooc课后章节答案期末考试题库2023年1.K’s life is insignificant but Coetzee’s writing has given such kind of life a voiceand a place in history.答案:正确2.Toni Morrison’s depiction of the black in the United States is prejudiced.答案:错误3.The Miguel Street is a slum that is unworthy of a place in literary works.答案:错误4.Mrs. Breedlove in Bluest Eyes is depicted as a model servant of the Whites.答案:正确5.The narrator in “Wenlock Edge” has been through a moral crisis.答案:正确6.Do ree’s suffering, although extreme, reveals the complexity of human nature.答案:正确7.Water can be seen as a symbol of rejuvenation and purification.答案:正确8.Women’s garment such as corset shows the constraint the society enforceson women.答案:正确9.Symbolic interpretations are for the most part contrived and nonexistent.答案:错误10.In Life and Times of Michael K, pumpkin seeds represent hope and life.答案:正确11. A symbol means using concrete objects to represent abstract ideas.答案:正确12.In Norwegian Forest, the well actually represents connection.答案:错误13.Hair represents longevity in “The Chrysanthemum” by John Steinbeck.答案:错误14.John Steinbeck mainly wrote about lower and lower middle class.答案:正确15.Fence does not alienate Elisa and her Husband in “Chrysanthemum”.答案:错误16.The chrysanthemum is the expression of Elisa’s artistic and aesthetic sense.答案:正确17.The story that N. S. Naipaul’s father told him has enriched his spiritual life.答案:正确18.Big Foot in “Coward” by Naipaul is a kind person who is subjected to theridicule of people on the Miguel Street.答案:正确19.The past is deep by the B. Wordsworth in Naipaul’s story is translated quitebeautifully into Chinese.答案:正确20.The heroes in Hemingway’s stories are usually the ones with personalweaknesses, the so called anti-hero.答案:错误21.The summit of Kilimanjaro is the second highest one in Africa.答案:错误22.The vulture is the symbol of death both in real life and in H emingway’s story.答案:正确23.The flight to the summit of Kilimanjaro represents the transcendence of theprotagonist.答案:正确24.There are dilemmas of ethics that the hero has to face in Hemingway’s story.答案:正确25.Harry in “Snows of Kilimanjaro” helps the half-wit boy to escape thepunishment of law.答案:错误26.The protagonist in “Snows of Kilimanjaro” has been caught in the dilemma ofkilling his fellow soldiers.答案:错误27.Alice Munro’s story captures some of her own experiences as a house wife.答案:正确28.In “Wenlock Edge”, comparing with Nina, the narrator is better financially.答案:错误29.The “Wenlock Edge” is the title of the poem which reveals the theme ofMunro’s story.答案:正确30.In “Wenlock Edge”, Nina marries cousin Ernie because of love.答案:错误31.In “Dimensions” by Alice Munro, Financial dependence is the key to domesticviolence.答案:正确32.In “Dimensions”, Doree is emotionally dominated by Lloyd because she isseeking a father figure in a relationship.答案:正确33.In “Dimensions”, Lloyd killed his three children because he is angry thatDoree cheated on him.答案:错误34.In Bluest Eyes, Blues as a black tradition has comforting power among theblacks.答案:正确35.In Bluest Eyes, Pecola poisons the dog because she believes that in return shewill get a pair of blue eyes.答案:正确36.In Bluest Eyes, Claudia cherishes the white doll as a Christmas gift.答案:错误37.In Bluest Eyes, Cholly’s quest for his father can be com pared to the one thatTelemachus embarks on.答案:正确38.Coetzee has won the Booker Prize once.答案:错误39. In Life and Times of Michael K, K’s birth defect is related to one of the themesof the novel.答案:正确40.At the beginning of Life and Times of Michael K,,K is still hopeful of his life andrealizing his mother’s dream.答案:正确。
胜任力建模实践【外文翻译】
外文翻译原文The practice of competency modelingMaterial Source: Personnel Psychology Author: Schippmann, Jeffery S The purpose of this article is to define and explain a trend that has caused a great deal of confusion among HR researchers, practitioners, and consumers of HR-related services: competency modeling. The Job Analysis and Competency Modeling Task Force, a work group jointly sponsored by the Professional Practice Committee and the Scientific Affairs Committee of the Society For Industrial and Organizational Psychology, has recently concluded a 2-year investigation into the antecedents of competency modeling and an examination of the current range of practice. Competency modeling is compared and contrasted to job analysis using a conceptual framework (reflected in a 10-dimension Level of Rigor Scale) that practitioners and researchers may use to guide future work efforts, and which could be used as a basis for developing standards for practice. The strengths and weaknesses of both competency modeling and job analysis are identified and, where appropriate, recommendations are made for leveraging strengths in one camp to shore-up weaknesses in the other.The business environment today is characterized by incredible competition and change (D'Aveni, 1994; Hamel & Prahalad, 1994). In response, organizations are flattening, relying on self-managed teams with greater frequency, becoming highly matrixes, and otherwise reconfiguring the structure of work (Ashkenas, Ulrich, Jick, & Kerr, 1995; Howard, 1995; Keidel, 1994). Accompanying these changes has been a growing concern that traditional job analysis procedures may be unable to continue to play a central role in the new human resource management environment (Barnes-Nelson, 1996; Olian & Rynes, 1991; Sanchez, 1994). It is with this backdrop that the practice of competency modeling has exploded onto the field of human resources over the past several years. Today, surveys of competency-based practice indicate between 75% (Cook & Bernthal, 1998, based on a survey of 292 organizations) and 80% (American Compensation Association, 1996, based on asurvey of 426 organizations) of responding companies have some competency-driven applications currently in place.Given the turbulent practice environment, and the magnitude and pace of the growth of competency modeling, it is not surprising that practitioners and consumers of human resource services alike are looking for some meaningful reference points to guide their work. To aid in this effort, the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) commissioned a task force in September 1997 to investigate and review the practice of competency modeling. The members of the SIOP-sponsored Job Analysis and Competency Modeling Task Force (JACMTF) (n1) have conducted an extensive literature search, interviewed 37 subject matter experts (SMEs) from varying backgrounds in the development and use of competency models, and have drawn on a rich base of personal experiences to shed light on questions.The purpose of this article is to communicate the descriptive findings of the task force, and to offer suggestions for guiding research and improving practice in both competency modeling and job analysis. These suggestions are framed around a conceptualization of evaluative criteria that could eventually serve as a basis for standards for practice.Literature SearchesBoth computer-based and manual searches of published research and reviews focusing on competencies were conducted. The computer databases of the American Psychological Association, UMI Proquest Direct, Harvard Business Review, and the American Management Association were used to identify articles, dissertations, and book chapters that included analyses or discussions of the concept of competencies. The manual review included examining the proceedings from conferences devoted to competencies or competency modeling, government technical reports, conference presentations, books, consulting publications and materials, and unpublished research and reviews.What Is A Competency?To begin with, the word "competencies" today is a term that has no meaning apart from the particular definition with which one is speaking (Zemke, 1982). Some examples of efforts to define the term from SMEs representing each of the groups in the sampling plan include:•"The knowledge, skills, and attributes that differentiate high performers from average performers."•"Competencies are not fundamentally different from traditionally defined KSAOs (i.e., knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics)."•It is a construct that helps "define level of skill and knowledge."•"Observable, behavioral capabilities that are important for performing key responsibilities of a role or job."•"Mishmash of knowledge, skills, and abilities and job performance requirements."•"I can't."Clearly, there is a wide range of definitions, even among a fairly homogeneous expert population, underscoring the difficulty of pinpointing a standard definition of the term. This lack of consensus shouldn't be too surprising, given the multiple domains in which the terms "competent" or "competency" are prevalent. For example, the extensive use of these terms just in the early psychological literature is evident from the large number of hits (over 1,300) returned from a search for "competency" in the pre 1966 PsychInfo databases. In part, these words have their origins in law and, later, in clinical psychology, where the term evolved to define legal standards of mental capacity and awareness, the ability to care for oneself or others, and/or the ability to function in multiple activities of "daily living." Subsequently, the term "competency" was embraced in the vocational counseling profession to define broad areas of knowledge, skills, and abilities linked to specific occupations. The word also has an extensive history in the field of education with an emphasis on broader traditional "knowledge" areas (e.g., mathematics, English). Early industrial psychologists also used the term "competent" to describe successful individuals in specific professions. In all of the above contexts--legal, clinical psychology, vocational, educational, and industrial psychology--the term "competence" defines "successful" performance of a certain task or activity, or "adequate" knowledge of a certain domain of knowledge or skill.Individual differences and educational psychology. The study and examination of individual differences is as old as modern civilization. Aiken (1988) cites attempts from the Bible and ancient history to identify and label differences in human behavior and to use those differences for a specific purpose. In the history and systems of psychology, two major approaches characterize the conceptualization of human performance. McLagan (1996) describes these approaches as the differential psychology approach and the educational/behavioral approach. The former focuses on capabilities or characteristics that are relatively enduring andmanifested early. In the late 19th and early 20th century, Galton and Cattell pioneered the development of objective techniques to measure human abilities and characteristics. These early efforts focused on a means to measure intellect and, in particular, focused on identifying specific sensory and psychomotor abilities underlying intellectual functioning. The science of individual differences through the 1950s and beyond quickly expanded to multiple and sometimes overlapping research domains: physical, intellectual, information processing, motivation, personality, values, and more recently, emotional characteristics (see Guilford, 1956; Fleishman & Quaintance, 1984; Rokeach, 1973). Each domain was studied using a wide variety of methodologies and techniques, but all were based (in whole or in part) on inferences from behavioral manifestations. These manifestations were in turn grouped and labeled through judgment or quantitative methodology, or some combination of the two.Although the differential approach focuses primarily on innate abilities, the primary emphasis from the educational psychology perspective is on performance outcomes and shaping behaviors so that people can be successful. Researchers in this camp have been concerned with creating educational strategies to develop successful performance. Bloom's work (1956, 1967; Krathwohl, Bloom, & Masia, 1964) to create taxonomy of educational objectives, and Gagno's (1975) efforts to use taxonomies for clarifying objectives for individual development are examples of work in this area. In most cases, the goal is to operationally define the taxonomic categories with illustrative, observable behaviors, which is the same tack taken in most competency modeling approaches.Of course, the field of industrial and organizational psychology relies heavily on an assumption inherent in both of the approaches described above--namely, that an individual's standing on many of the above-mentioned individual difference dimensions and/or knowledge, skills and abilities (learned, acquired, or enhanced) have the potential to predict job performance or success.Leadership research and assessment centers. The identification and assessment of characteristics underlying successful management performance and leadership behavior has a rich and varied history (Bass, 1990; Bentz, 1963; Laurent, 1961; 1962; 1968; Spreitzer, McCall, & Mahonney, 1997; Taylor, 1960). Within this context, the assessment center approach is one of the many procedures that have been developed to satisfy the interests and requirements of business and industry for selecting managers and leaders (Bray, 1982). According to Thornton and Byham(1982), military assessment programs in World War I and World War II (OSS, 1948), early personality research, and leadership/supervision job analysis research all served as the basis for the development of the management assessment center, which was originated in the AT&T management progress study. The original dimensions were selected based on a review of the management literature and the judgments of AT&T personnel staff.An interesting observation that can be made upon reviewing the assessment center literature is the almost controlling influence the original set of dimensions derived from the AT&T research had on the assessment center field; resulting in a curious homogeneity across organizations in the dimension-level taxonomies used to represent job content in different assessment centers (Schippmann, Hughes, & Prien, 1987). The implicit assumption seemed to be that there was a great deal of similarity in management functions across organizations and levels of management. Further, an additional consistency in the assessment center programs, which in part is due to the fact that the taxonomies were homogeneous in the first place, is that the dimension categories are very broad and generic. These dimensions seemed to serve as labels for clusters of "attributes," "characteristics," and "qualities" judged to be critical for job success and resemble what are conventionally called "constructs" (e.g. drive, planning, creativity, and flexibility). In many ways, the dimensional structure of assessment centers, and the resulting operational definitions of the broad, generic individual difference dimensions using behavioral statements, was a portent of things to come in the realm of competency modeling.译文胜任力建模实践资料来源：员工心理学2000,11作者：Schippmann,JefferyS.本文的目的是定义和解释一种趋势。
Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.德国应用化学(翻译)写作指导
1. General Information（基本资料，总说明）Angewandte Chemie International Edition and its German version （德语版）Angewandte Chemie are owned（拥有）by the Gesellschaft Deutscher Chemiker (German Chemical Society) and are published by Wiley-VCH（出版社）. This leading journal （重要期刊）for all fields of chemistry publishes a variety of articles （各种各样的文章）(see below). Both editions of the journal will have 52 issues（期号）in 2011 in print and online (in Wiley Online Library); all articles are available online weeks before the printed version appears (Early Views提前在线出版模式). Contributions （投稿）may be submitted in English or German（可以为英语或者德语递交）. Angewandte Chemie does not publish manuscripts（手稿，原稿草稿）that have already appeared（出现，发表）.The author must inform（通知，告知）the editor of manuscripts submitted（提交手稿的编辑）, soon to be submitted（很快投稿）, or in press at other journals that have a bearing on the manuscript being submitted（那些与投递原稿的相关信息）. 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2020年英语翻译资格考试初级笔译辅导难句
2020年英语翻译资格考试初级笔译辅导难句1. In a draft preface to the recommendations, discussedat the 17 May meeting, Shapiro suggested that the panel had found a broad consensus that it would be "morallyunacceptable to attempt to create a human child by adult nuclear cloning". 参考译文] 在5月17日的会议上所讨论的这份建议书的序言草案中，夏皮罗提出，专家组已经达成广泛共识，那就是"试图通过成人细胞核克隆来制造人类幼儿的做法在道德上是不可接受的"。
2 Because current federal law already forbids the use of federal funds to create embryos (the earliest stage of human offspring before birth) for research or to knowingly endanger an embryo's life, NBAC will remain silent on embryo research.[参考译文] 因为现今的联邦法律已经禁止使用联邦基金克隆胚胎(人类后裔在出生前的最早阶段)用于研究或者有意地威胁胚胎的生命，NBAC在胚胎研究上将保持沉默。
3. If experiments are planned and carried out accordingto plan as faithfully as the reports in the science journals indicate, then it is perfectly logical for management to expect research to produce results measurable in dollars and cents.[参考译文] 如果试验是像科学杂志上的报告所示的那样如实地根据计划规划和实施的话，那么对管理层来说，期待研究能够产生能够用金钱衡量的结果是完全合理的。
Contemporary Mathematics
Contemporary MathematicsDudley Ernest LittlewoodAlun O MorrisDudley Ernest(D.E.)Littlewood was born in London on September7th1903, the only son of Harry Bramley Littlewood,a Solicitor’s Clerk,and Ada Piper. He must have shown early promise,for on completion of his school education at Tottenham County School,he obtained a highly coveted place at Trinity College, Cambridge supported by a major open entrance scholarship in addition to a state scholarship.Significantly,due to later developments,fellow students in Cambridge were Philip Hall and W.V.D.Hodge;all three graduated as Wranglers in1925.His Director of Studies in Trinity was J.E.Littlewood(no relation)who in a testimonial perceptively commented that‘his has always been an unusual type of mind’. D.E.Littlewood did commence on research in analysis in the strong research school headed by J.E.Littlewood with S.Pollard as his research supervisor.However,he did not take to the rigour of research in analysis and so,after a year he withdrew -there were alsofinancial reasons.For the following two years he took up a number of temporary positions as a schoolteacher,including a short period at Christ’s Hospital School.Again,this was not really to his taste,he even claimed in the farewell dinner on his retirement that he had been dismissed from one position due to problems with class discipline. However,in1928he had in view of his subsequent career,the great good fortune to be appointed as a temporary part-time Lecturer at University College,Swansea a constituent college of the University of Wales.This was where A.R.Richardson, one of a few algebraists in the U.K.at that time,was Professor of Mathematics and whom Littlewood found was‘bursting with problems’.Thus commenced in the early years a fruitful collaboration and then a long career of highly imaginative innovative research.Littlewood was to stay in Swansea until1947,except for a short period in1930as a full-time assistant in Dundee.Richardson must have immediately appreciated his potential for he ensured his return through his appointment to an Assistant Lectureship in1930and promotion to a Lectureship in1934.In1930,Littlewood had married Muriel Dyson and in1935their only child Malcolm was born.Although the family were very happy in Swansea,Littlewood was keen to return to Cambridge.In1947his wish was fulfilled through his ap-pointment as a University Lecturer,but he had no college attachment.This meant that he had no tutoring duties,but also that he had no office.However,his ear-lier student colleague,Hodge,came to the rescue and allowed Littlewood to use a second room he had in the Arts School where,for example,Littlewood met upc 0000(copyright holder)12ALUN O MORRISwith his postgraduate students J.A.(Sandy)Green and G.E.(Tim)Wall.But he and his family were not happy in Cambridge and so he was extremely pleased to return to Wales in1948tofill the vacant Chair of Mathematics at the University College of North Wales,Bangor-another constituent college of the University of Wales.This is where he spent the following22years up to his retirement in1970. He lived with his family in a neighbouring coastal resort Llandudno some twenty miles away from where he travelled by train to work on three days every week.He died at home on6th October1979a few weeks after breaking a leg.Although Littlewood claimed that some of the early problems which Richardson presented to him did notfire his imagination,a recent historical note[2]suggests that his paper[6]was equally significant with those of O.Ore and J.H.M.Wed-derburn in extending the concept of quotient rings to noncommutative rings-he considered amongst other things what is now called thefirst Weyl algebra.Sig-nificantly the motivation came from the direction of mathematical physics and in particular Dirac’s classic book on quantum mechanics,an interest that persisted throughout his life.Also,Patrick du Val credited Littlewood[5]as being thefirst to identify the quaternion groups T and I with the vertices of the regular polytopes {3,4,3}and{3,3,5}.But Richardson’s greatest favour to Littlewood was to point him in the direction of the work of the German mathematicians F.G.Frobenius and I.Schur and also Alfred Young who curiously Littlewood never met.It was this which lead to his most significant contributions.Thefirst of these appeared in what is now regarded as a classic paper,the joint paper with A.R. Richardson,[9].This is where they re-discovered Schur functions,or as they named them,S-functions-they were disappointed that these already appeared in the work of I.Schur and indeed even prior to him in C.G.Jacobi work almost a century earlier.Also,this is where immanants appeared for thefirst time and where the connection of Schur functions with invariant matrices was noticed.But as H.W. Turnbull[14]indicated in his Obituary to A.R.Richardson,There was atfirst perhaps a feeling of disappointment for thecollaborators that Schur had anticipated them to some extent,but the new insight,that these immanants and S-functions(asthey came to be called in honour of Schur)were related to in-variant matrices was indeed worth the loss of precedence;and asLittlewood has said,‘It was quite marvellous to see the intricatetheory taking shape under our hands’.But the most celebrated of all the results in this paper is their so-called Littlewood-Richardson Rule for multiplying Schur functions whose significance seem to grow with the years.(A recent Google search showed up2080hits).In fact,at that stage this was basically a conjecture,although a‘proof’appeared in Littlewood’s classic book[7]attributed to G.de B.Robinson.Rigorous proofs did not appear until the late1970’s,by now there are numerous proofs from various directions but the most satisfying in many respects is the one given by I.G.Macdonald in his book[10]in that it‘rescued’the one presented by Littlewood and kept theflavour.This is not the place to give a full account of Littlewood’s subsequent work. More details about his research and other contributions may be found in the Obit-uary[1].This will relate his massive contribution to the use of Schur functions in invariant theory which has not been properly acknowledged,his many strikingD E LITTLEWOOD3 Schur function identities,the introduction to plethysms of Schur functions,his pa-per on modular representations of the symmetric groups and even his contributions to theoretical physics,especially those in his latter years.What will,however,be attempted will be to give the background to his dis-covery of the Hall-Littlewood symmetric functions or polynomials as these were his last contribution in this area and were the subject of this conference.It was in late1956that he presented me with my Ph D problem of determining what he called the spin representations of the symmetric groups suggesting that I should approach this by restricting the spin representation of the orthogonal groups to the symmetric groups.Some progress was made;but sometime in the summer of1958Littlewood met up with Sandy Green who was then a lecturer at the University of Manchester.Green asked Littlewood what he was working on and Littlewood presumably answered(for that was his attitude by that time)that by then that he did little himself and worked mainly through his research students. So Littlewood told him about my work-Green immediately responded by asking him whether he knew about I.Schur’s monumental tour-de-force where he already had determined the irreducible projective representations of the symmetric groups in his1911paper[13].Green was rather pleased with himself in that he had been able to catch Littlewood out in this way for Littlewood thought that he was quite expert on the works of Frobenius and Schur.It was in this paper,of course,that Schur had introduced what are now referred to as Schur Q-functions which play the same role for projective representations as the usual Schur functions play for the ordinary representations of the symmetric groups.Littlewood was already aware of Green’s own remarkable tour-de-force in1955where he had solved the problem of determining the irreducible characters of the general linear groups[3].(Indeed, Littlewood had given another research student,Ivor Morris,the impossible problem of simplifying Green’s work!).In that paper,Green made crucial use of the so-called Hall polynomials introduced by Phillip Hall in some unpublished work.There,a family of symmetric functions Pλ(x,t)had been defined in an indirect way.(See the account on Philip Hall’s work for more details).However,Littlewood in typical fashion very quickly responded by defining a new class of symmetric functions which he claimed are the same as those due to Hall of which Schur and Schur Q-functions are special cases.In October1958he presented his new results to his research students in three lectures.It even meant a totally new and uniform way of getting to Schur and Schur Q-functions.He immediately wrote the work up for publication and submitted it on10th December 1958to the Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society.Although he did not share this information with his research students,he must have been more than disappointed in early1959when his paper was summarily rejected.This must have confirmed his feeling by then that his work was not properly appreciated or understood.The referee was clearly ignorant on the background and certainly had no inkling of what had truly been achieved.The paper was,of course,hard to follow and may have lacked rigour,especially in its original form.But Littlewood had sent Green a copy and Green immediately realised what had been achieved -indeed Littlewood had solved a conjecture made by Ian Macdonald who was a colleague of Green at Manchester at that time and who had been introduced to Hall’s work.In due course,Green was astonished to hear about the rejection and remarkably he was somehow able to persuade the Society to recall the paper.The4ALUN O MORRISrevised version,with a few minor changes,was submitted on20th May1960and was immediately accepted[8]-this is reprinted below.In fact,as mentioned above,Littlewood claimed that his symmetric functions Qλ(x,t)‘are the same as those defined by Hall in some unpublished...’,in fact they are different but are related by the relation Qλ(x,t)=bλ(t)Pλ(x,t).The initial proof of this was complicated and depended on some heavy calculations involving the characters of the general linear groups and their orthogonality relations obtained by Green[4].A more direct proof was given by the author[11]in1963.In fact, Littlewood got his due recognition when Ian Macdonald re-christened them Hall-Littlewood functions in his book[10]in1979.Indeed,it was through this book that not only did these functions get their due recognition,but indeed a great deal of Littlewood’s earlier work was expounded in a more rigorous and understandable way.As mentioned earlier,Littlewood did not publish further in this area.As quoted in his Obituary,in a letter to W.Ledermann he said‘I was writing(in the1950’s) lots of mathematical papers of which nobody took any notice and I wondered what was the point of it all.So I stopped writing them except in connection with work for research students’.Not only am I grateful that he wrote this one,but the numerous references in the last quarter century makes it clear that others would feel in the same way.It is sad that he did not live to see the world-wide recognition of his work by now.In fact,he will be one of the few recognised by his inclusion in the New Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.Again,for a more detailed appraisal of Littlewood,both of his work and of him as a person,I refer to the Obituary[1].As mentioned there,he was a very shy per-son who mixed very little with others.There is no record of how he interacted with his fellow students as an undergraduate.Although,their work eventually coincided through the Hall-Littlewood polynomials named after them,it seems that Little-wood never subsequently interacted with Philip Hall.Both of them were lonely figures in algebra in the U.K.in the1930’s,in Hall’s Obituary[12]it is claimed that‘For many years he was the only algebraist working in England’.There were others in the U.K.of course,but they,like Littlewood were in Wales or in Scotland where H.W.Turnbull and A.C.Aitken were pre-eminent.Philip Hall however was also‘not gregarious,and cared little for large gatherings or formal occasions; he was reticent rather than shy’.With both of them sharing these qualities,it is perhaps not unsurprising that they never met.But the main reason for this was their totally different approach or attitude to mathematics,and Littlewood possibly fell into the category‘He was not always so helpful to others with whom he was in serious disagreement’.Littlewood was also totally isolated from other contemporaries.He did corre-spond with others such as van der Waerden,A.Young and A.C.Aitken.He never met G.de B.Robinson but had met H.W.Turnbull,but only because he was an External Examiner in the University of Wales.Littlewood never attended math-ematical meetings or conferences.However in the summer of1958,he was asked by the Senate of his University to officially represent them at the meeting of the International Congress of Mathematics in Edinburgh.It is claimed that he spent his whole time there asking‘Have you seen Aitken?’-it is not known whether they actually did meet.D E LITTLEWOOD5After my appointment to a lectureship at Aberystwyth,I invited Littlewood on three occasions to visit and to give seminars,but he refused on each occasion. Thefirst time,his reason for not coming was that his dog was ill;the second time that his mother-in-law was ill;the third time that his wife was unwell.My belief is that his wife was not too keen to see him travel.There is no evidence to confirm that she was a real invalid-she did outlive him by a number of years.While at Bangor,he claimed that the only time that he found for research was on his train journeys on three days per week between Llandudno and Bangor for at home he had too many household chores to deal with.Littlewood may have complained about the lack of interest in his work,but possibly he was largely responsible for this in that he did not realise that publication alone is not sufficient and other avenues must also be taken to‘sell’one’s work.References[1] C.C.H.Barker and A.O.Morris,Obituary-Dudley Ernest Littlewood,Bull.London Math.Soc.,15(1983),56-69.[2]S.C.Coutinho,Quotient rings of noncommutative rings in thefirst half of the20th century,Arch.Hist.Exact Sci.,58(2004),255-281.[3]J.A.Green,The characters of thefinite general linear groups,Trans.Amer.Math.Soc.80,(1955),402-447.[4]J.A.Green,Les polynomes de Hall et les caract`e res des groupes GL(n,q),Colloque d’alg`e bresup´e rieure,(Brussels,1956),206-217.[5] D.E.Littlewood,The groups of the regular solids in n-dimensions,Proc.London Math.Soc.(2)32,(1931),10-20.[6] D.E.Littlewood,On the classification of algebras,Proc.London Math.Soc.(2)35,(1933),200-240.[7] D. E.Littlewood,The theory of group characters and matrix representations of groups(Clarendon Press,Oxford)1940.[8] D.E.Littlewood,On certain symmetric functions,Proc.London Math.Soc.(3)11,(1961),485-498.[9] D.E.Littlewood and A.R.Richardson,Group characters and algebra,Phil.Trans.Roy.Soc.London Ser.A233(1934),99-141.[10]I.G.Macdonald,Symmetric functions and Hall polynomials(Clarendon Press,Oxford)1979.[11] A.O.Morris,The multiplication of Hall functions,Proc.London Math.Soc.(3)13,(1963),733-742.[12]J.E.Roseblade,J.G.Thompson and J.A.Green,Obituary-Philip Hall,Bull.LondonMath.Soc.16(1984),603-626[13]I.Schur,¨Uber die Darstellung der symmmetrischen und der alternierenden Gruppe durchgebrochene lineare Substitutionen.J.reine angew.Math.139,(1911),155-250.[14]H.W.Turnbull,Obituary-Archibald Read Richardson,J.London Math.Soc.,31(1956),376-384.Institute of Mathematics and Physics,University of Wales,Aberystwyth,Ceredi-gion SY232HAE-mail address:alun@。
研究生公共英语教材阅读B第3、4、10、11、14课文原文及翻译
Unite 3 Doctor’s Dilemma: Treat or Let Die?Abigail Trafford1. Medical advances in wonder drugs, daring surgical procedures, radiation therapies, and intensive-care units have brought new life to thousands of people. Yet to many of them, modern medicine has become a double-edged sword.2. Doctor’s power to treat with an array of space-age techniques has outstripped the body’s capacity to heal. More medical problems can be treated, but for many patients, there is little hope of recovery. Even the fundamental distinction between life and death has been blurred.3. Many Americans are caught in medical limbo, as was the South Korean boxer Duk Koo Kim, who was kept alive by artificial means after he had been knocked unconscious in a fight and his brain ceased to function. With the permission of his family, doctors in Las Vegas disconnected the life-support machines and death quickly followed.4. In the wake of technology’s advances in medicine, a heated debate is taking place in hospitals and nursing homes across the country --- over whether survival or quality of life is the paramount goal of medicine.5. “It gets down to what medicine is all about, ” says Daniel Callahan, director of the Institute of Society, Ethics, and the Life Sciences in Hastings-on-Hudson, New York. “Is it really to save a life? Or is the larger goal the welfare of the patient?”6. Doctors, patients, relatives, and often the courts are being forced to make hard choices in medicine. Most often it is at the two extremes of life that these difficultyethical questions arise --- at the beginning for the very sick newborn and at the end for the dying patient.7. The dilemma posed by modern medical technology has created the growing new discipline or bioethics. Many of the country’s 127 medical s chools now offer courses in medical ethics, a field virtually ignored only a decade ago. Many hospitals have chaplains, philosophers, psychiatrists, and social workers on the staff to help patients make crucial decisions, and one in twenty institutions has a special ethics committee to resolve difficult cases.Death and Dying8. Of all the patients in intensive-care units who are at risk of dying, some 20 percent present difficult ethical choices --- whether to keep trying to save the life or to pull back and let the patient die. In many units, decisions regarding life-sustaining care are made about three times a week.9. Even the definition of death has been changed. Now that the heart-lung machine can take over the functions of breathing and pumping blood, death no longer always comes with the patient’s “last gasp” or when the heart stops beating. Thirty-one states and the District of Columbia have passed brain-death statutes that identify death as when the whole brain ceases to function.10. More than a do zen states recognize “living wills” in which the patients leave instructions to doctors not to prolong life by feeding them intravenously or by other methods if their illness becomes hopeless. A survey of California doctors showed that 20 to 30 percent were following instructions of such wills. Meanwhile, the hospicemovement, which its emphasis on providing comfort --- not cure --- to the dying patient, has gained momentum in many areas.11. Despite progress in society’s understanding of death and dying, t heory issues remain. Example: A woman, 87, afflicted by the nervous-system disorder of Parkinson’s disease, has a massive stroke and is found unconscious by her family. Their choices are to put her in a nursing home until she dies or to send her to a medical center for diagnosis and possible treatment. The family opts for a teaching hospital in New York city. Tests show the woman’s stroke resulted from a blood clot that is curable with surgery. After the operation, she says to her family: “Why did you bring me back to this agony?” Her health continues to worsen, and two years later she dies.12. On the other hand, doctors say prognosis is often uncertain and that patients, just because they are old and disabled, should not be denied life-saving therapy. Ethicists also fear that under the guise of medical decision not to treat certain patients, death may become too easy, pushing the country toward the acceptance of euthanasia.13. For some people, the agony of watching high-technology dying is too great. Earlier this year, Woodrow Wilson Collums, a retired dairyman from Poteet, Texas, was put on probation for the mercy killing of his older brother Jim, who lay hopeless in his bed at a nursing home, a victim of severe senility resul ting from Alzheimer’s disease. After the killing, the victim’s widow said: “I think God, Jim’s out of his misery. I hate to think it had to be done the way it was done, but I understand it. ”Crisis in Newborn Care14. At the other end of the life span, technology has so revolutionized newborn carethat it is no longer clear when human life is viable outside the womb. Newborn care has got huge progress, so it is absolutely clear that human being can survive independently outside the womb. Twenty-five years ago, infants weighting less than three and one-half pounds rarely survived. The current survival rate is 70 percent, and doctors are “salvaging” some babies that weigh only one and one-half pounds. Tremendous progress has been made in treating birth deformities such as spina bifida. Just ten years ago, only 5 percent of infants with transposition of the great arteries --- the congenital heart defect most commonly found in newborns --- survived. Today, 50 percent live.15. Yet, for many infants who owe their lives to new medical advances, survival has come at a price. A significant number emerge with permanent physical and mental handicaps.16. “The question of treatment and nontreatment of seriously ill newborns is not a single one,”says Thomas Murray of the Hastings Center. “But I feel strongly that retardation or the fact that someone is going to be less than perfect is not good grounds for allowing an infant to die.”17. For many parents, however, the experience of having a sick newborn becomes a lingering nightmare. Two years ago, an Atlanta mother gave birth to a baby suffering from Down’s Syndrome, a form of mental retardation; the child also had blocked intestines. The doctors rejected the parents’ plea not to operate, and today the child, severely retarded, still suffers intestinal problems.18. “Every time Melanie has a bowel movement, she cries,” explains her mother.“She’s not able to take care of herself, and we won’t live forever. I wanted to save her from sorrow, pain, and suffering. I don’t understand the emphasis on life at all costs, and I’m very angry at the doctors and the hospital. Who will take care of Melanie after we’re gone? Where will you doctors be then?”Changing Standards19. The choices posed by modern technology have profoundly changed the practice of medicine. Until now, most doctors have been activists, trained to use all the tools in their medical arsenals to treat disease. The current trend is toward nontreatment as doctors grapple with questions not just of who should get care but when to take therapy away.20. Always in the background is the threat of legal action. In August, two California doctors were charged with murdering a comatose patient by allegedly disconnecting the respirator and cutting off food and water. In 1981, a Massachusetts nurse was charged with murdering a cancer patient with massive doses of morphine but was subsequently acquitted.21. Between lawsuits, government regulations, and patients’ rights, many doctors feel they are under siege. Modern technology actually has limited their ability to make choices. More recently, these actions are resolved by committees.Public Policy22. In recent years, the debate on medical ethics has moved to the level of national policy. “It’s just beginning to hit us that we don’t have unlimited resources,” says Washington Hospital Center’s Dr. Lynch. “You can’t talk about ethics without talkingethics without talking about money.”23. Since 1972. Americans have enjoyed unlimited access to a taxpayer-supported, kidney dialysis program that offers life-prolonging therapy to all patients with kidney failure. To a number of police analysts, the program has grown out of control --- to a $1.4billion operation supporting 61,000 patients. The majority are over 50, and about a quarter have other illness, such as cancer or heart disease, conditions that could exclude them from dialysis in other countries.24. Some hospitals are pulling back from certain lifesaving treatment. Massachusetts General Hospital, for example, has decided not perform heart transplants on the ground that the high costs of providing such surgery help too few patients. Burn units --- through extremely effective --- also provide very expensive therapy for very few patients.25. As medical scientists push back the frontiers of therapy, the moral dilemma will continue to grow for doctors and patients alike, making the choice of to treat the basic question in modern medicine.1. 在特效药、风险性手术进程、放疗法以及特护病房方面的医学进展已为数千人带来新生。
英文外刊，抗击疟疾的科学家们，陷入了生物伦理学的争论
英文外刊，抗击疟疾的科学家们，陷入了生物伦理学的争论Scientists at this lab in Burkina Faso have deployed gene warfare against the parasite carrying mosquitoes that spread malaria.布基纳法索一个实验室的科学家已经对传播疟疾同时携带寄生虫的蚊子进行了基因改造。
The conventional tools at our disposal today have reached a ceiling and can't become more efficient than they are right now.我们现在使用的传统工具已经达到了极限，不能比现在的效率更高。
We have no choice but to look at complementary methods.我们别无选择，只能寻找辅助性疗法。
That is why we're using genetically modified mosquitoes.这就是我们对蚊子进行转基因的原因。
Professor Diabate runs the experiment for target malaria, a research consortium backed by the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation.迪亚巴特教授为目标疟疾组织(比尔和梅琳达.盖茨基金会支持的研究联盟)开展了这项实验。
The group developed an enzyme that sterilizes male mosquitoes.研究小组研发出一种可以使雄蚊绝育的酶，可以使雄蚊绝育。
The action of the enzyme continues after fertilization which means if the male copulates with a female, the embryo is dead and the female can no longer have offspring.这种酶在雌蚊子受精后继续发挥作用，这意味着如果雄蚊子与雌蚊子交配，胚胎就会死亡，雌蚊子就不能再生育后代。
and Design
The JikesXen Java Server PlatformGeorgios GousiosAthens University of Economics and Businessgousiosg@aueb.grAbstractThe purpose of the JVM is to abstract the Java language from the hardware and software platforms it runs on.For this rea-son,the JVM uses services offered by the host operating sys-tem in order to implement identical services for the Java lan-guage.The obvious duplication of effort in service provision and resource management between the JVM and the operat-ing system has a measurable cost on the performance of Java programs.In my PhD research,I try tofind ways of min-imizing the cost of sharing resources between the OS and the JVM,by identifying and removing unnecessary software layers.Categories and Subject Descriptors C.0[General]:Hard-ware/software interfaces; C.4[Performance of Systems]: Performance Attributes; D.4.7[Operating Systems]:Orga-nization and DesignGeneral Terms Performance,LanguagesKeywords JVM,Performance,Operating System,Virtual Machine1.Background and MotivationThe raison d’ˆe tre of contemporary JVM s is to virtualize the Java language execution environment to allow Java pro-grams to run unmodified on various software and hardware platforms.For this reason,the JVM uses services provided by the host OS and makes them available to the executing program through the Java core libraries.Table1provides an overview of those services.The JVM is a software representation of a hardware ar-chitecture that can execute a specific format of input pro-grams.Being such,it offers virtual hardware devices such as a stack-based processor and access to temporary storage (memory)through bytecode instructions.The JVM is not a general purpose machine,though:its machine code includesCopyright is held by the author/owner(s).OOPSLA’07,October21–25,2007,Montr´e al,Qu´e bec,Canada.ACM978-1-59593-786-5/07/0010.support for high level constructs such as threads and classes,while memory is managed automatically.On the other hand, I/O is handled by the OS and access to I/O services is pro-vided to Java programs through library functions.The ob-servation that the JVM is both a provider and a consumer ofservices leads to the question of whether the JVM can assumethe role of the resource manager.Generic architectures sacrifice absolute speed in favor ofversatility,expandability and modularity.A question thatemerges is whether the services provided by the OS arestrictly necessary for the JVM to execute Java programsand,if not,what will be the increase in the performanceof the JVM if it is modified so as to manage the computingresources it provides to programs internally.Part of my workis to assess the necessity of certain services offered by the OS to the operation of the JVM and to measure their effect on the JVM performance,to get an estimate of the possible speedup that could be expected if the JVM replaced in the OS in the role of the resource provider/broker,in the context of purpose-specific systems.My initialfindings show that Java pays a large price to the OS for services it does not necessarily require.All standard OS s are designed for a specific purpose:to protect programs from accessing each other’s memory and to protect I/O re-sources from being accessed concurrently.As others have shown[2],if the execution environment is based on a type-safe language and therefore protects itself against invalid memory access,then memory protection,as it is currently implemented by OS s,is mostly unnecessary.My currently unpublishedfindings show that the mechanisms employed by JVM s to overcome the restrictions placed to them by the OS API s can deteriorate their performance,mainly when ex-ecuting memory and I/O intensive applications.2.Our ResearchThe specific question my research tries to answer is the fol-lowing:Can the performance of Java server platforms be improved by allowing them to manage directly the comput-ing resources they require?For the purposes of my research,I make the following assumptions—based on worked published by other re-searchers:Resources JVM System Library OS Kernel JikesXenCPU Java to Native Thread Map-ping Native to Kernel ThreadMappingThread Resource Alloca-tion,Thread SchedulingMultiplexing Java threadsto CPU s,Thread initializa-tionMemory Object Allocation andGarbage Collection Memory Allocation andDeallocation from theprocess address spaceMemory protection,PageTable Manipulation,Mem-ory AllocationObject Allocation andGarbage CollectionI/O Java to System Library I/OMapping,Protect Java frommisbehaving I/O Provide I/O abstractions System call handling,Uni-fied access mechanisms toclasses of devicesDriver infrastructure,I/OmultiplexingTable1.Resource management tasks in various levels of the Java execution stack and in JikesXen JVM•A JVM is able to manage efficiently computational re-sources by scheduling Java threads to physical processors internally.Multiprocessing can be implemented within the JVM very efficiently[1].•Virtual memory is deteriorating the performance of garbage collection[4]and thus it should be omitted in favor of a single,non-segmented address space.•A specially modified JVM can be run directly on hard-ware with minimal supporting native code[3],and there-fore the unsafe part of the system can be minimized down to a very thin hardware abstraction layer.To investigate my research question,I am in the pro-cess of designing and building the JikesXen virtual machine, which is a port of JikesRVM to the Xen VMM platform. JikesXen is based on a very thin layer of native code,the nanokernel,whose main purpose is to receive VMM inter-rupts and forward them to the Java space and also to initial-ize the VMM on boot.I use parts of the Xen-provided Mini OS demonstration operating system as the JikesXen nanokernel. The system itself is essentially a blob that lumps together the JikesRVM core image and stripped down version of the classpath which are already pre-compiled to native code dur-ing the JikesRVM build phase.JikesXen does not require a device driver infrastructure;instead,the Java core libraries will use the devices exported by the VMM directly,through adapter classes for each device.The adapter classes are also responsible to prevent concurrent access to shared resources, such as I/O-ports using Java based mutual exclusion prim-itives(e.g.synchronized blocks).It also implements other functionality relevant to the device class such as caching, network protocols,file systems and character streams.Ta-ble1presents an overview of the functionality of JikesXen as a resource manager.My work falls into the bare metal JVM research stream. But how does it differ from already existing approaches? The distinctive characteristic of my system is that it does not run directly on hardware.The use of the Xen VMM for taking care of the hardware intricacies,allows me to focus on more important issues than communicating with the hardware,such as providing a copy-less data path from the hardware to the application.Additionally,since all access to hardware is performed through the classpath,I plan to use the JVM locking mechanisms to serialize access to it. This will render the requirement for a resource manager, or a kernel,obsolete.Finally,my system’s focus being a single multithreaded application,I do not consider a full-fledged process isolation mechanism.Instead,we base our object sharing models on proven lightweight object sharing mechanisms(isolates[1]).3.ConclusionsMy work is in its early stages of development.I am currently constructing a build system that will compile the classpath and JikesRVM in a single binary image.I have already suc-ceeded in loading the JikesRVM boot image in the Xen hy-pervisor,but at the moment the system does nothing useful as important subsystems remain to be implemented. AcknowledgmentsThis work is partially funded by the Greek Secretariat of Re-search and Technology thought,the Operational Programme “COMPETITIVENES”,measure8.3.1(PENED),and is co-financed by the European Social Funds(75%)and by na-tional sources(25%)and partially by the European Com-munity’s Sixth Framework Programme under the contract IST-2005-033331“Software Quality Observatory for Open Source Software(SQO-OSS)”.References[1]Grzegorz Czajkowski,Laurent Dayn`e s,and Ben Titzer.Amulti-user virtual machine.In Proceedings of the General Track:2003USENIX Annual Technical Conference,pages 85–98,San Antonio,Texas,USA,ENIX. [2]Galen Hunt et al.An overview of the Singularity project.Microsoft Research Technical Report MSR-TR-2005-135MSR-TR-2005-135,Microsoft Research,2005.[3]Georgios Gousios.Jikesnode:A Java operating system.Master’s thesis,University of Manchester,September2004. [4]Matthew Hertz,Yi Feng,and Emery D.Berger.Garbagecollection without paging.In PLDI’05:Proceedings of the 2005ACM SIGPLAN conference on Programming language design and implementation,pages143–153,New York,NY, USA,2005.ACM Press.。
新教材同步备课2024春高中生物第3章基因的本质3.3DNA的复制课件新人教版必修2
(2)注意碱基的单位是“对”还是“个”。 (3)切记在DNA复制过程中，无论复制了几次，含有亲代脱氧 核苷酸单链的DNA分子都只有两个。 (4)看清试题中问的是“DNA分子数”还是“链数”，“含” 还是“只含”等关键词，以免掉进陷阱。
二、DNA分子的复制
例1.某DNA分子中含有1 000个碱基对(被32P标记)，其中有胸腺 嘧啶400个。若将该DNA分子放在只含被31P标记的脱氧核苷酸的 培养液中让其复制两次，子代DNA分子相对分子质量平均比原来 减少 1 500 。
F2:
提出DNA离心
高密度带 低密度带 高密度带
低密度带 高密度带
一、DNA复制的推测—— 假说-演绎法
1.提出问题 2.提出假说
（1）演绎推理 ③分散复制
15N 15N
提出DNA离心
P:
3.验证假说
15N 14N
F1:
细胞分 裂一次
转移到含 14NH4Cl的培养 液中
提出DNA离心
细胞再 分裂一次
二、DNA分子的复制
例3.若亲代DNA分子经过诱变，某位点上一个正常碱基变成了5-溴 尿嘧啶（BU），诱变后的DNA分子连续进行2次复制，得到4个子 代DNA分子如图所示，则BU替换的碱基可能是（ C ）
A.腺嘌呤 C.胞嘧啶
B.胸腺嘧啶或腺嘌呤 D.鸟嘌呤或胞嘧啶
二、DNA分子的复制
例4. 5-BrU(5-溴尿嘧啶)既可以与A配对，又可以与C配对。将一 个正常的具有分裂能力的细胞，接种到含有A、G、C、T、5-BrU 五种核苷酸的适宜培养基上，至少需要经过几次复制后，才能实现 细胞中某DNA分子某位点上碱基对从T—A到G—C的替换（ B ）
学术英语（社科）Unit7原文及翻译
学术英语（社科）Unit7原文及翻译Introduction: Understanding the Impact of New Media on Journalism1 Journalism is undergoing a fundamental transformation, perhaps the most fundamental since the rise of the penny press of the mid-nineteenth century. In the twilight of the twentieth century and the dawn of the twenty-first, there is emerging a new form of journalism whose distinguishing qualities include ubiquitous news, global information access, instantaneous reporting, interactivity, multimedia content, and extreme content customization. In many ways this represents a potentially better form of journalism because it can reengage an increasingly distrusting and alienated audience. At the same time, it presents many threats to the most cherished values and standards of journalism. Authenticity of content, source verification, accuracy, and truth are all suspect in a medium where anyone with a computer and a modem can become a global publisher.2 Although the easy answer is to point to the Internet, the reasons for the transformation of journalism are neither simple nor one-dimensional. Rather, a set of economic, regulatory, and cultural forces, driven by technological change, are converging to bring about a massive shift in the nature of journalism at the millennium.3 The growth of a global economic system, made up of regional economies, all interrelated (witness the volatility in the world?s financial markets in August 1998, when drops in Asian and Russian markets triggered drops in European and U.S. markets) and increasingly controlled by multinational corporate behemoths, has rewritten the financial basis for journalism andthe media in general. Deregulation, as outlined in the U.S. Telecommunications Act of 1996 and 简介：了解新媒体对新闻的影响1新闻业正在发生根本性的变革，或许最根本的变革是十九世纪中叶的便士报的崛起。
民国时期文献面临的问题与警示
民国时期文献面临的问题与警示◎林明①摘要：论文以中国大陆图书馆藏民国时期文献所面临的问题为切入点，分析其损毁的成因和警示作用#a有的研究表明酸性物质是纸张劣化的根本原因，而机器纸因造纸原料的选择、增白剂和添加剂的使用，使其含酸度明显增加，所以以机器纸为印刷载体的民国文献损毁程度严重。
国家图书馆对纸张酸度测试的数据也表明民国文献所面临的问题与载体pH值有关#因此使用“无酸永久纸”作为文献印刷的载体是文献长期保存的关键环节#欧美国家出版行业a普遍使用“无酸永久纸”印刷学术出版物和政府出版物，而中国大陆当代出版物所使用的印刷纸张仍无法满足永久保存的需求，图书馆界应承担起推广“无酸永久纸”使用的社会责任和使命。
关键词：民国文献；文献保护；无酸永久纸The Problems and Reflections of Documents Published in the Republic of China◎Ming LinAbstract；This paper analyses the cause of deterioration of documents published in the Republic of China,and reflects this problems.Previous studies have indicated that acid is the primary cause of①林明，中山大学图书馆副馆长(Associate Librarian，Sun Yat-sen University Libraries)。
"055民国时期文献面临的问题与警示materials deterioration.Owing to the selection of raw materials for paper making and the use of chlorine bleaches and additives%the acid of machine-made paper increases significantly.As the carrier of documents published in the Republic of China,high-acid machine-made paper causes serious damage.A test on paper pH values from a collection in National Library of China indicates that the damage of documents published in the Republic of China is often related to pH values. Therefore acid-free permanent paper is very important for long-term preservation.The publishing industries in the U.S.and Europe generally use acid-free permanent paper to print academic and government publications.Paper used by modern Chinese publishing industries is hard to meet the demand of long-term preservation.Libraries in Chinashouldundertaketheirsocialresponsibility and missiontopromoteusingacid-freepermanentpaper.Keywords：documents published in the Republic of China;document preservation；acid-free permanentpaper-、民国时期文献所遇到的问题民国时期文献一般是指1912年至1949年期间出版的文献,但在文献保护界则包括近代以来采用机器纸、新式印刷方式和西洋（精、平装）装帧的所有文献，因其所面临的问题具有一致性。
REFERENCESCITEDFOR引用的参考文献
REFERENCES CITED FORSPIKEDACE (Meda fulgida) and LOACH MINNOW (Tiaroga cobitis)as cited inNovember 2005 CRITICAL HABITAT FINAL RULEAgency and Academia PublicationsAnderson, R.M. 1978. The distribution and aspects of the life history of Meda fulgida in New Mexico. Unpublished M.S. thesis. New Mexico State University, Las Cruces. 62 pp.Anderson, R. and P.R. Turner. 1977. Stream survey of the San Francisco River. New Mexico Department of Game and Fish, Santa Fe, NM. 13 pp. + figs.Arizona Game and Fish Department (AGFD). 1994. Distribution, abundance and habitat survey for loach minnow (Tiaroga cobitis) in the Blue River, Arizona. August 1994. ArizonaGame and Fish Department, Phoenix, Arizona. 19 pp.Arizona Game and Fish Department (AGFD). 2004. Heritage Database Management System.Phoenix, Arizona.Arizona State University (ASU). 2002. Lower Colorado Basin fish database. 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San Pedro River Basin water quality status report for period 1973 – 1979.Arizona Department of Health Services, Phoenix, Arizona. 47 pp.Hardy, T.B., B. Bartz, and W. Carter. 1990. Instream flow recommendations for the fishes of Aravaipa Creek, Arizona. Twelve-Nine, Inc., Logan, Utah. 63 pages + appendices.J.M. Montgomery Consulting Engineers, Inc. 1985. Wildlife and fishery studies, upper Gila water supply project. U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Boulder City, NV. 127 pp.Knowles, G.W. 1994. Fisheries survey of the Apache-Sitgreaves National Forests. Third trip report: Eagle Creek, July 05-07 and August 02, 1994. Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ.Leon, S.C. 1989. Trip Report: East Fork White River, 26 May 1989. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Pinetop, Arizona. 1 page.Marsh, P.C. 1996. 1996 Monitoring and status of fishes in Eagle Creek, Arizona. 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Evaluation of the instream flow requirements of the native fishes of Aravaipa Creek, Arizona by the incremental methodology. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Albuquerque, New Mexico. 118 pages.U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service (FS). 1979. Strategies for protection and management of floodplain wetlands and other riparian ecosystems. General TechnicalReport WO-12. Proceedings of the Symposium, December 11 – 13, 1978, CallawayGardens, Georgia.U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 1991a. Spikedace Recovery Plan. Albuquerque, New Mexico. 38 pages.U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS). 1991b. Loach Minnow Recovery Plan. Albuquerque, New Mexico. 38 pages.Velasco, A.L. 1997. Fish population response to variance in stream discharge, Aravaipa Creek, Arizona. MS Thesis, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona. 57 pages.Personal CommunicationsCarter, C.D. 2005. Unpublished notes from the upper Blue and Campbell Blue River survey, 2004 and 2005. U.S. Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Flagstaff, AZ.Jakle, M. 1992. February 26, 1992, memorandum from Marty Jakle, Biologist, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, to APO-150 Files re: Summary of fish and water quality sampling along the San Pedro River from Dudleyville to Hughes Ranch near Cascabel, Arizona, October 24 and 25, 1991, and the Gila River from Coolidge Dam to Ashurst/Hayden Diversion Dam, October 28 – 31, 1991 (Fish and Wildlife). Phoenix, AZ.Rienthal, P. 2005. e-mail dated September 21, 2005, to Heidi Blasius, Jeff Simms, Kenneth Kingsley and others re: Fall 2005.Published LiteratureAnderson, A.A. and D.A. Hendrickson. 1994. Geographic variation in morphology of spikedace, Meda fulgida, in Arizona and New Mexico. The Southwestern Naturalist39(2):148-155.Bagley, B.E., G.H. Schiffmiller, P.A. Sowka, and P.C. Marsh. 1996. A new locality for loach minnow, Tiaroga cobitis. Proceedings of the Desert Fishes Council 28:8.Barber, W.E. and W.L. Minckley. 1966. Fishes of Aravaipa Creek, Graham and Pinal Counties, Arizona. The Southwestern Naturalist 11(3):313-324.Barber, W.E., D.C. Williams, and W.L. Minckley. 1970. Biology of the Gila spikedace, Meda fulgida in Arizona. Copeia 1970(1):9-18.Barber, W.E. and W.L. Minckley. 1983. Feeding ecology of a southwestern Cyprinid fish, the spikedace, Meda fulgida Girard. The Southwestern Naturalist 28(1):33-40.Douglas, M.E., P.C. Marsh, and W.L. Minckley. 1994. Indigenous fishes of western North America and the hypothesis of competitive displacement: Meda fulgida (Cyprinidae) as a case study. Copeia 1994(1):9-19.Federal Interagency Stream Restoration Working Group. 1998. Stream corridor restoration: principles, processes, and practices. GPO Item NO. 0120-A; SuDocs No. A 57.6/2:EN3/PT.653.Lee, D.S., C.R. Gilbert, C.H. Hocutt, R.E. Jenkins, D.E. McAllister, and J.R. Stauffer, Jr. 1980.Atlas of North American fishes. North Carolina State Museum of Natural History. 854 pp.Leopold, L.B. 1997. Water, rivers and creeks. University Science Books, Sausalito, California.185 pp.Marsh, P.C., B.E. Bagley, G.W. Knowles, G. Schiffmiller, and P.A. Sowka. 2003. New and rediscovered populations of loach minnow, Tiaroga cobitis (Cyprinidae), in Arizona.The Southwestern Naturalist 48(4):666 – 669.Minckley, W.L. 1973. Fishes of Arizona. Arizona Department of Game and Fish. Phoenix, Arizona. 293 pages.Minckley, W.L. and G.K. Meffe. 1987. Differential selection by flooding in stream fish communities of the arid American southwest. Pages 93 – 104 In Community andevolutionary ecology of North American stream fishes. Matthews, W.J. and D.C. Heins, Eds. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma.Mueller, G. 1984. Spawning by Rhinicthys osculus (Cyprinidae) in the San Francisco River, New Mexico. The Southwestern Naturalist 29:354-356.Neary, A.P., J.N. Rinne, and D.G. Neary. 1996. Physical habitat use by spikedace in the upper Verde River, Arizona. Hydrology and Water Resources in Arizona and the Southwest:26:23-28.Pennak, R.W. 1978. Fresh-water invertebrates of the United States, 2nd Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., USA. 803 pp.Propst, D.L. and K.R. Bestgen. 1991. Habitat and biology of the loach minnow, Tiaroga cobitis, in New Mexico. Copeia 1991(1):29-38.Rinne, J.N. 1989. Physical habitat use by loach minnow, Tiaroga cobitis (Pisces:Cyprinidae), in southwestern desert streams. The Southwestern Naturalist 34(1):109-117.Rinne, J.N. 1991. Habitat use by spikedace, Meda fulgida (Pisces:Cyprinidae) in southwestern streams with reference to probable habitat competition by red shiner, Notropis lutrensis(Pisces:Cyprinidae). The Southwestern Naturalist 36(1):7-13.Rinne, J.N. 2001. Relationship of fine sediment and two native southwestern fish species.Hydrology and Water Resources in Arizona and the Southwest: 31:67-70 pp.Rinne, J.N. and J.A. Stefferud. 1996. Relationships of native fishes and aquatic microhabitats in the Verde River, Arizona in Hydrology and water resources in Arizona and theSouthwest: Proceedings of the 1996 meetings of the Hydrology Section, Arizona-Nevada Academy of Science. Tucson, Arizona.Rinne, J.N. and J.A. Stefferud. 1997. Factors contributing to the collapse yet maintenance of a native fish community in the desert southwest (USA). Pages 157 – 162 In D.A. Hancock,D.C. Smith, A. Grant, and J.P. Beaumer (editors). Developing and sustaining worldfisheries resources: the state of science and management. Second World FisheriesCongress, Brisbane, Australia. July 28 - August 2, 1996.Rosgen, D. 1996. Applied River Morphology. Wildland Hydrology, Fort Collins, Colorado.390 pp.Schoener, T.W. 1983. Field experiments on interspecific competition. American Naturalist 122:240-285.Sidle, J.G. 1987. Critical habitat designation: is it prudent? Environmental management 11(4):429-437.Stefferud, J.A. and J.N. Rinne. 1996. Effects of floods on fishes in the upper Verde River, Arizona. Proceedings of the Desert Fishes Council 28:80-81.Sublette, J.E., M.D. Hatch, and M. Sublette. 1990. The fishes of New Mexico. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, New Mexico. 393 pp.Vives, S.P. and W.L. Minckley. 1990. Autumn spawning and other reproductive notes on loach minnow, a threatened cyprinid fish of the American southwest. The SouthwesternNaturalist 35(4):451-454.。
学术剽窃 六级英语作文
The Dark Side of Academic Plagiarism: A Six-Level English EssayIn the world of academic research and writing, plagiarism stands as a serious ethical violation that undermines the integrity of knowledge and the hard work of individuals. Defined as the unauthorized use of another person's ideas, words, or creative expressions without proper attribution, plagiarism is a blatant disrespect for the intellectual property rights of others. This essay explores the gravity of academic plagiarism, its impact on individuals and society, and the necessary steps to prevent and combat this unethical practice.**Level 1: Understanding the Basics**At its core, plagiarism is a form of theft. It occurs when an individual claims the work of another as their own, either intentionally or unintentionally. Intentional plagiarism is a deliberate attempt to mislead readers and gain unfair advantages, while unintentional plagiarism often results from a lack of understanding or ignorance of proper citation practices. Both forms of plagiarism are unethical and have serious consequences.**Level 2: The Consequences of Plagiarism**The consequences of plagiarism are wide-ranging and severe. For individuals, it can lead to academic disqualification, loss of reputation, and even legal action. In the academic world, plagiarism is a breach of trust that can erode the confidence of peers and supervisors. It can also have a profound impact on career prospects, as employers often value originality and ethical standards in their workforce.On a societal level, plagiarism undermines the progress of science and knowledge. It distorts the academic record, leading to a misrepresentation of ideas and discoveries. This can have far-reaching consequences for research, innovation, and societal development.**Level 3: Types of Plagiarism**There are several types of plagiarism, each with its own unique characteristics and implications. Verbatim plagiarism involves the direct copying of words, phrases,or sentences without attribution. This is the most obvious form of plagiarism and is easily detectable through comparison tools.Mosaic plagiarism occurs when an individual takes ideas, structures, or arguments from another source and presents them as their own. This form of plagiarism is more subtle and can be difficult to detect without a thorough understanding of the source material.Self-plagiarism, on the other hand, involves the reuseof one's own work without proper citation. Although it is less common than other forms of plagiarism, it is still considered unethical as it fails to acknowledge theoriginal contribution.**Level 4: Preventing Plagiarism**To prevent plagiarism, it is crucial to understand and apply proper citation practices. Citation styles such as MLA, APA, and Chicago provide guidelines for acknowledging the sources of information used in academic writing. By following these styles, writers can ensure that theyproperly attribute the work of others and avoid claims of plagiarism.In addition to citing sources, writers should also develop their own critical thinking skills and avoidrelying too heavily on external sources. By generatingoriginal ideas and arguments, writers can establish their own voices and contribute unique insights to the academic community.**Level 5: Combating Plagiarism**Combating plagiarism requires a concerted effort from individuals, institutions, and society at large.Individuals should be encouraged to develop a strong senseof ethical values and adhere to academic integrity principles. Institutions should implement strict plagiarism policies and provide education and training on propercitation practices.At the societal level, governments and academic organizations should promote a culture of respect for intellectual property rights. By providing incentives for original research and punishing those who commit plagiarism, we can create an environment that fosters innovation and knowledge creation.**Level 6: Conclusion**In conclusion, academic plagiarism is a serious ethical issue that requires our immediate attention. Byunderstanding the basics of plagiarism, its consequences, and types, we can take proactive measures to prevent and combat this unethical practice. By promoting a culture of academic integrity and respecting the intellectual property rights of others, we can contribute to the progress of science and knowledge and establish a more ethical and trustworthy academic community.**学术剽窃的阴暗面：一篇六级英语作文**在学术研究与写作的世界里，学术剽窃作为一种严重的伦理违规行为，破坏了知识的完整性和个人的辛勤努力。
2022年gre考试考生如何把握答题节奏
gre考试考生如何把握答题节奏如何提升考试分数?你首先需要把握的是gre考试答题节奏，下面我就和大家共享gre考试考生如何把握答题节奏，来观赏一下吧。
gre考试考生如何把握答题节奏?gre考试的时间安排和答题节奏始终是同学们关注的话题。
虽然每个人都知道时间和节奏的重要性，但在现实生活中，很难避开忽视细节。
gre考试的用途究竟是什么是许多同学都在问的一个问题，对于有些人来说是特别重要的，gre规章在复习时应当被理解，这一环节往往被忽视。
GRE考试时间如何安排和掌控，始终以来都是GRE考生绕不过去的一道坎。
哪怕是再简洁的题目，一旦扯上限时完成难度就会大增。
因此，掌握好考试时间和答题节奏就成了考生的必修课。
那么，考生怎样才能保证在长达4个小时的GRE考试中始终把握好gre考试答题节奏呢?对于同学来说，有三个gre考试答题技巧要点需要多加留意。
1. 学会区分时间消耗问题GRE考试最大的干扰之一就是耗时的问题。
GRE考试有各种各样的问题和不同程度的难度。
有些问题好像很简洁，但往往需要候选人花许多时间来解决。
这些是考生在考试中需要特殊留意的最耗时的问题，由于它们往往会打乱考试的节奏。
由于并不难所以不情愿放弃，这些问题往往是利用考生的心态来度过你珍贵的时间。
因此，我们必需学会识别这些问题并准时实行措施。
gre考试介绍,新gre考试策略无论是投入时间，还是查找一种快速的解决方法，或者只是猜想答案然后跳过它，都要确保你能尽快做出打算。
准时的决策可以关心考生摆脱因时间消耗问题造成的影响和损失。
没有练习就不要去考场答题节奏不同于学问点，有些考生可能上考场前某个题型或者详细学问点还没彻底把握，但考试中恰好没遇到因此侥幸没有受到影响。
但答题节奏PACE却不存在这种侥幸。
没练好PACE直接上考场后果往往很严峻。
难题花时间太多还没做好，简洁题目时间又不够用做不完，最终得分惨不忍睹。
许多第一次接触GRE考试的考生，只是复习了各类学问点，做了一些练习，在没有参与过水平测试实际体验过GRE时间压力的状况下，就直接上了考场。
沙丽金版法律英语
2021/10/10
15
IIED
Definition
★short for intentional infliction of emotional distress
★referred to as the tort of outrage in some jurisdictions
intentional conduct that results in extreme emotional distress
A court may issue a writ of habeas corpus to release a party from unlawful restraint.
The person falsely imprisoned may sue the offender for damages.
2021/10/10
10
Battery
Definition
(at common law) an intentional act causing an unconsented harmful or offensive contact with a person
Criminal battery and tortious battery
2021/10/10
7
Assault
Definition
(in common law) an intentional act that creates an apprehension of an imminent harmful or offensive contact
Assault and battery
As distinguished from battery, assault need not involve actual contact—it only needs intent and the resulting apprehension.
Gay and Lesbian Language
Annu.Rev.Anthropol.2000.29:243–85Copyright c2000by Annual Reviews.All rights reserved G AY AND L ESBIAN L ANGUAGEDon Kulick Department of Social Anthropology,Stockholm University,10691Stockholm,Sweden;e-mail:kulick@socant.su.seKey Words homosexuality,sexuality,desire s Abstract The past two decades have witnessed a minor explosion in publications dealing with the ways in which gay men and lesbians use language.In fact,though,work on the topic has been appearing in several disciplines (philology,linguistics,women’s studies,anthropology,and speech communication)since the 1940s.This review charts the history of research on “gay and lesbian language,”detailing earlier concerns and showing how work of the 1980s and 1990s both grows out of and differs from previous scholarship.Through a critical analysis of key assumptions that guide research,this review argues that gay and lesbian language does not and cannot exist in the way it is widely imagined to do.The review concludes with the suggestion that scholars abandon the search for gay and lesbian language and move on to develop and refine concepts that permit the study of language and sexuality,and language and desire.INTRODUCTION A recent anthology on postmodern sexualities,entitled (probably inevitably)Po-mosexuals (Queen &Schimel 1997),begins with a remark on language.The editors recall that at the 1996Lambda Literary Awards ceremony,a lesbian comic suggested that a new term was needed to replace the “lengthy and cumbersome yet politically correct tag currently used by and for our community:‘Lesbian,Gay,Bisexual,Transgendered,and Friends’”.The word the comic offered was “Sodomites.”Why not?the editors wonder:“[i]t’s certainly more succinct,and is actually less glib than it seems upon first reflection,for that is what most people assume LGBT&F actually means,anyway”(Queen &Schimel 1997:19,emphasis in original).What to collectively call people whose sexual and gendered practices and/or identities fall beyond the bounds of normative heterosexuality is an unavoidable and ultimately unresolvable problem.For a very short while,in the late 1960s,“gay”seemed to work.But that unifying moment passed quickly,as lesbians protested that “gay”both elided women and eclipsed their commitment to feminism (Johnson 1975,Penelope &Wolfe 1979:1–2,Shapiro 1990,Stanley 1974:391,0084-6570/00/1015-0243$14.00243A n n u . R e v . A n t h r o p o l . 2000.29:243-285. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m w w w .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r g A c c e s s p r o v i d e d b y T s i n g h u a U n i v e r s i t y o n 05/10/15. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .244KULICKWhite 1980:239).Then,in the early 1990s,it seemed that “queer”might do the trick.Queer,however,has never been accepted by a large number of the people it was resurrected to embrace,and in activist contexts,the word has lately been turning up as just one more identity to be tacked on to the end of an already lengthy list.For example,the latest acronym,which I encountered for the first time at a queer studies conference in New York in April 1999,was LGBTTSQ.When I turned to the stylishly black-clad lesbian sitting beside me and inquired what this intriguing,sandwich-sounding clot of letters might mean,I was informed (in that tart,dismissive tone that New Yorkers use to convey their opinion that the addressee must have just crawled out from under some provincial rock)that it signified “Lesbian,Gay,Bisexual,Transgendered,Two-Spirit,Queer,or Questioning.”The coinage,dissemination,political efficacy,and affective appeal of acronyms like this deserve a study in their own right.What they point to is continued concern among sexual and gender-rights activists over which identity categories are to be named and foregrounded in their movement and their discussions.These are not trivial issues:A theme running through much gay,lesbian,and transgendered writings on language is that naming confers existence.This insistence appears in everything from coming-out narratives [“I have recalled my utter isolation at sixteen,when I looked up Lesbian in the dictionary,having no one to ask about such things,terrified,elated,painfully self aware,grateful it was there at all”(Grahn 1984:xii)],to AIDS activism [“The most momentous semantic battlefield yet fought in the AIDS war concerned the naming of the so-called AIDS virus”(Callen 1990:134)],to high philosophical treatises [“Only by occupying—being occupied by—the injurious term can I resist and oppose it”(Butler 1997b:104)].Zimmerman (1985:259–60)states the issue starkly (see also Nogle 1981:270–71,Penelope et al 1978):[C]ontemporary lesbian feminists postulate lesbian oppression as a mutilation of censoriousness curable by language.Lesbians do share the institutional oppression of all women and the denial of civil rights with gay men.But what lesbian feminists identify as the particular,unique oppression of lesbians—rightly or wrongly—is speechlessness,invisibility,inauthenticity.Lesbian resistance lies in correct naming;thus our powerflows from language,vision,and culture....Contemporary lesbian feminism is thus primarily a politics of language and consciousness.This kind of deep investment in language and naming means that it is necessary to tread gingerly when deciding what to call a review like this one,or when consid-ering what name to use to collectively designate the kinds of nonheteronormative sexual practices and identities that are the topic of discussion here.However,be-cause no all-encompassing appellation currently exists,and because no acronym (short,perhaps,of one consisting of the entire alphabet)can ever hope to keep all possible sexual and gendered identities equally in play and at the fore,I am forced to admit defeat from the start and apologize to all the Ls,Gs,Bs,Ts,TSs,Qs,Fs,and others who will not specifically be invoked every time I refer here,for theA n n u . R e v . A n t h r o p o l . 2000.29:243-285. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m w w w .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r g A c c e s s p r o v i d e d b y T s i n g h u a U n i v e r s i t y o n 05/10/15. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .GAY AND LESBIAN LANGUAGE 245sake of simplicity,to “queer language.”As far as the title of this article is con-cerned,my inclination was to call it “Language and Sexuality,”because the unique contribution of the literature I discuss has been to draw attention to the fact that there is a relationship between language and sexuality (something that has largely been ignored or missed in the voluminous literature on language and gender).In the end,though,I decided to preserve the title assigned me by the editors of this Annual Review .1Although dry and in some senses “noninclusive,”at least it has the advantage of clearly stating what kind of work is summarized here.So this essay reviews work on gay and lesbian language.Twenty years ago,Hayes (1978)observed that the “sociolinguistic study of the language behavior of lesbians and gay men is hampered...[in part because]important essays have ap-peared in small circulation,ephemeral,or out-of-print journals”(p.201).Hayes believed that research could be aided by providing summaries of some of this difficult-to-obtain material [and his annotated bibliography (Hayes 1978,1979)remains a useful resource even today].My own view is that no academic dis-cussion can flourish if the material under debate is available to only a handful of scholars;on the contrary,the message conveyed by such discussions becomes one of exclusivity and arcaneness.In the interest of extending and opening up scholar-ship,this article therefore considers only published and relatively accessible work.This means that the abundance of unpublished conference papers listed in Ward’s (2000)invaluable bibliography is not discussed here.I also do not include papers printed in conference proceedings,such as the Berkeley Women and Language Conference,or the SALSA (Symposium about Language and Society at Austin)conference,because those proceedings are not widely distributed,and they are of-ten virtually impossible to obtain,especially outside the United States.Also,with few exceptions,neither do I consider literary treatments of the oeuvres of queer authors nor queer readings of literary,social,or cultural texts,even though many of those analyses have been foundational for the establishment and consolidation of queer theory (e.g.Butler 1990,1997a;Dollimore 1991;Doty 1993;Sedgwick 1985,1990).Instead,the focus here is on research that investigates how gays and lesbians talk.How has “gay and lesbian language”been theorized,documented,and analyzed?What are the achievements and limitations of these analyses?Before proceeding,however,a further word of contextualization:I agreed to write this text under the assumption that the amount of literature on this topic was small.I am clearly not alone in that belief:Romaine’s (1999)new textbook on language and gender devotes a total of three pages (out of 355)to a discussion of queer language;and Haiman’s (1998)recent book on sarcasm has a two-page section on “Gayspeak,”in which he declares that lack of research forces him to turn to The Boys in the Band (God help us)for examples (pp.95–97).A cutting-edge 1Actually,that title was “Gay,Lesbian,and Transgendered Language,”but because the issues raised by the language of transgendered individuals are somewhat different from those I wanted to emphasize here,I decided to review the linguistic and anthropological literature on transgendered language separately (Kulick 1999).A n n u . R e v . A n t h r o p o l . 2000.29:243-285. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m w w w .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r g A c c e s s p r o v i d e d b y T s i n g h u a U n i v e r s i t y o n 05/10/15. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .246KULICKintroduction to lesbian and gay studies has chapters on everything from “queer geography”to “class,”but nothing on linguistics (Medhurst &Munt 1997);and textbooks by Duranti (1997)and Foley (1997)on anthropological linguistics and linguistic anthropology have not a word to say about gay,lesbian,or transgendered language.Even recent texts on “Gay English”and queer linguistics mention only a handful of references (Leap 1996,Livia &Hall 1997a).With those kinds of works in mind,imagine my surprise,then,when the literature searches I did for this article turned up almost 200titles.At that point,I felt compelled to ask myself why there seems to be such a widespread belief that there is so little research on gay and lesbian language?The obvious answer is because research on gay and lesbian language has had virtually no impact whatsoever on any branch of sociolinguistics or linguistic anthropology—even those dealing explicitly with language and gender,as is ev-idenced by the wan three pages in Romaine’s book [a recent exception that does discuss this literature in a wider context is Cameron (1998)].One might inevitably wonder if this lack of impact is somehow related to structures of discrimination in an academy that,until recently,actively discouraged any research on homosexu-ality that did not explicitly see it as deviance (Bolton 1995a,Lewin &Leap 1996).Another reason could be the one mentioned above,that work on gay and lesbian language has often appeared in obscure publications.Or it could be because work on this topic has no real disciplinary home.It is done by philologists,phoneti-cians,linguists,anthropologists,speech communication specialists,researchers in women’s studies,and others,many of whom seem to have little contact with the work published outside their own discipline.Finally,much of the research on gay and lesbian language consists of lists of in-group terms,discussion of terms for “homosexual,”debates about the pros and cons of words like “gay”and “queer,”or possible etymologies of words like “sod,”“dyke,”or “closet.”This is interesting information,but it is hardly the stuff from which pathbreaking theoriz-ing is likely to arise (Aman 1986/1987;Ashley 1979,1980,1982,1987;Bolton 1995b;Boswell 1993;Brownworth 1994;Cawqua 1982;Chesebro 1981b;Diallo &Krumholtz 1994;Dynes 1985;Fessler &Rauch 1997;Grahn 1984;Johansson 1981;Lazerson 1981;Lee 1981;Riordon 1978;Roberts 1979a,b;Shapiro 1988;Spears 1985;Stone 1981).Although all those reasons for mainstream lack of interest in work on queer language are possible and even likely,in this review I pursue a different line of thought:namely,that research on gay and lesbian language has had little impact because it is plagued by serious conceptual difficulties.One problem to which I return repeatedly is the belief in much work that gay and lesbian language is somehow grounded in gay and lesbian identities and instantiated in the speech of people who self-identify as gay and lesbian.This assumption confuses symbolic and empirical categories,it reduces sexuality to sexual identity,and it steers re-search away from examining the ways in which the characteristics seen as queer are linguistic resources available to everybody to use,regardless of their sexual orientation.In addition,a marked feature of much of the literature is its apparent A n n u . R e v . A n t h r o p o l . 2000.29:243-285. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m w w w .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r g A c c e s s p r o v i d e d b y T s i n g h u a U n i v e r s i t y o n 05/10/15. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .GAY AND LESBIAN LANGUAGE 247unfamiliarity with well-established linguistic disciplines and methods of analysis,such as Conversation Analysis,discourse analysis,and pragmatics.That the Ency-clopedia of Homosexuality could refer to sociolinguistics,in 1990,as “an emerging discipline”(Dynes 1990:676)is indicative of the lag that exists in much of the lit-erature between linguistic and cultural theory and the work that is done on queer language.I structure this text as a critical review,with an equal emphasis on both those words.I also structure it as an argument.This essay makes a strong claim,namely that the object under focus here does not,in fact,exist.There is no such thing as gay or lesbian nguage,of course,is used by individuals who self-identify as gay and lesbian,and I review a number of dimensions of this language use,including vocabulary and the use by males of grammatically and semantically feminine forms to refer to other males.However,to say that some self-identified gay men and lesbians may sometimes use language in certain ways in certain contexts is not the same thing as saying that there is a gay or lesbian language.My argument is that the lasting contribution of research on gay and lesbian language is that it has alerted us to a relationship between language and sexuality,and it has prepared the ground for what could be an extremely productive exploration of language and desire.By having a clear sense of the limitations of the research on gay and lesbian language,and by pursuing some of its leads and building on some of its insights,future scholarship should be able to move away from the search for the linguistic correlates of contemporary identity categories and turn its attention to the ways in which language is bound up with and conveys desire.THE LA VENDER LEXICON In 1995,the anthropologist and linguist William Leap edited a book that he called Beyond the Lavender Lexicon .This title was chosen,Leap explains in his introduc-tory chapter,because “there is more to lesbian and gay communication than coded words with special meanings,and more to lesbian and gay linguistic research than the compilation of dictionaries or the tracing of single-word etymologies”(Leap 1995a:xvii–xviii).In expressing his desire to move “beyond”this kind of work,Leap succinctly summarized the overwhelming bulk of research that had been conducted on queer language since the 1940s.Until the 1980s,research on gay and lesbian language was pretty much syn-onymous with lists of and debates about the in-group terms used by male homo-sexuals.The reasons behind the gathering of these lists are diverse.In some cases the motivation seems to have been part of a civilizing crusade:“I believe that for the perfectly civilized person,obscenity would not exist,”declared Read (1977[1935]:16),in the introduction to his study of men’s room graffiti.[Ashley’s (1979,1980,1982,1987)book-length series of articles are more recent examples.]In others,there may have been a desire to crack a mysterious code—as late as 1949,respected academics like the Chicago sociologist E.W.Burgess could assert that A n n u . R e v . A n t h r o p o l . 2000.29:243-285. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m w w w .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r g A c c e s s p r o v i d e d b y T s i n g h u a U n i v e r s i t y o n 05/10/15. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .248KULICKthe urban “homosexual world has its own language,incomprehensible to out-siders”(Burgess 1949:234).For a long time,there was also a philological interest in documenting the “lingo”of “subcultural”or “underworld”groups,like hobos,prostitutes,and homosexuals [see the dictionaries listed in Legman (1941:1156)and Stanley (1974:Note 1)].Finally,more sociologically oriented scholars have examined gay argot in order to be able to say something about “the sociocultural qualities of the group”that uses the words (Sonenschein 1969:281).Perhaps the earliest documentation in English of words that must have been used by at least some homosexual men was compiled by Allen Walker Read,a scholar who later became a professor of English at Columbia University.In the summer of 1928,Read [1977(1935)]embarked on an “extensive sight-seeing trip”throughout the Western United States and Canada,during which he took detailed notes on the writing that appeared in public rest-room walls.Read’s interest in this “folk epigraphy”was scientific:“I can only plead,”he pleaded,“that the reader believe my sincerity when I say that I present this study solely as an honourable attempt to throw light on a field of linguistics where light has long been needed”(p.29).Worried that his scientific study of men’s room graffiti might fall into the hands of “people to whom it would be nothing more than pornography”(p.28),Read printed the study privately in Paris in a limited edition of 75copies and had the cover embossed with an austere warning:“Circulation restricted to students of linguistics,folk-lore,abnormal psychology,and allied branches of social science.”Read has nothing to say about homosexual language in his book,but many of his entries (such as “When will you meet me and suck my prick.I suck them every day,”or “I suck cocks for fun”)have clear homosexual themes.As Butters (1989:2)points out,Read’s work “sheds light on a number of linguistic issues;for example:the absence of the word gay from any of Read’s collected graffiti tends to confirm the general belief among etymologists that the term did not exist in its popular meaning of “homosexual”before the 1950s.”2The first published English-language lexicon of “the language of homosexual-ity”was compiled by the folklorist and student of literary erotica Gershon Legman.Legman’s (1941)glossary appears as the final appendix in the first edition of a two-volume medical study of homosexuality [Henry (1941)—it was removed from later editions].The list contains 329items,139of which are identified as exclu-sively homosexual in use.As Doyle (1982:75)notes in his discussion of this text,some of the words on Legman’s list (such as “drag,”“straight,”and “basket”)have not only survived,but have passed into more general use.Others,such as the delightful “church-mouse”[“a homosexual who frequents churches and cathe-drals in order to grope or cruise the young men there”(Legman 1941,emphasis in original),or the curious “white-liver”(“a male or female homosexual who is completely indifferent to the opposite sex”),may well be extinct.2Butters’s remark seems refuted by Cory’s (1951)assertion that “gay is used throughout the United States and Canada [to mean homosexual]”,and “by the nineteen-thirties [gay]was the most common word in use among homosexuals themselves”(pp.110,107).Chauncey’s (1994:19)research on the origins and spread of the word “gay”supports Cory’s claims.A n n u . R e v . A n t h r o p o l . 2000.29:243-285. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m w w w .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r g A c c e s s p r o v i d e d b y T s i n g h u a U n i v e r s i t y o n 05/10/15. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .GAY AND LESBIAN LANGUAGE 249Although Legman gives careful definitions of the words he lists,he had little to say about “the language of homosexuality,”except to note that male homosexuals frequently “substitut[e]feminine pronouns and titles for properly masculine ones”(1941:1155),and that lesbians do not have an extensive in-group vocabulary.3The brevity of Legman’s (1941)discussion means that the first real analysis of homosexual language appears not to have occurred until 1951,when Donald Cory [a pseudonym of Edward Sagarin (Hayes 1978:203)]included a 10-page chap-ter on language in his book (Cory 1951:103–13).Cory’s main argument about what he called “homosexual ‘cantargot’”was that it had been created because homosexuals had “a burning need”(p.106)for words that did not denote them pejoratively (for more recent instances of this viewpoint,see Karlen 1971:517–18,Zeve 1993:35).Hence,his discussion focused on words that homosexuals invented to call one another,particularly the word “gay”.Cory believed that words like “gay”were positive,in that they transcended social stereotypes,and in doing so,they allowed in-group conversation to be “free and unhampered”(1951:113).Ul-timately,however,homosexual slang was an attenuated slang;one that had “failed to develop in a natural way”(p.103)because it could only be used in secre-tive in-group communication,due to societal taboos on discussing homosexuality at all.After Cory’s text,little was published in English until the 1960s,when Cory &LeRoy (1963)included an 89-word lexicon as an appendix to their book,and when several other word lists were printed extremely obscurely.4The 1960s also saw the publication of what appears to be the first lexicon of words used by lesbians:Giallombardo’s (1966:204–13)298-word glossary of terms,many of them referring to lesbian sexuality and relationships,used by inmates in a women’s 3Legman (1941:1156)offers two explanations for this:the first having to do with “[t]he tradition of gentlemanly restraint among lesbians [that]stifles the flamboyance and con-versational cynicism in sexual matters that slang coinage requires”;the second being that “[l]esbian attachments are sufficiently feminine to be more often emotional than simply sexual”—hence,an extensive sexual vocabulary would be superfluous.Penelope &Wolfe (1979:11)suggest other reasons for the absence of an elaborate lesbian in-group vocabulary.They argue that such an absence is predictable,given that,in their opinion,the vocabulary ofmale homosexuals (and of males in general)is misogynist.“How would a group of women gain a satisfactorily expressive terminology if the only available terms were derogatory toward women?”they ask.In addition,they note that lesbians “have been socially and historically invisible...and isolated from each other as a consequence,and have never had a cohesive community in which a Lesbian aesthetic could have developed”(1979:12).4A mimeographed pamphlet,entitled “The Gay Girl’s Guide to the U.S.and Western World,”described as consisting of “campy definitions of coterie terms from the male homosexual world of the post-World War II period;includes French,German and Russian terms”(Dynes 1985:156,emphasis in original)has appeared in several editions and seems to have been published as early as 1949(Hayes 1978:203).The names of the three authors of the text are pseudonyms,and no publisher is given.I have been unable to locate it.I have also been unable to locate two of the lists mentioned by Sonenschein (1969),Hayes (1978),and Dynes (1985);namely Guild (1965)and Strait (1964).A n n u . R e v . A n t h r o p o l . 2000.29:243-285. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m w w w .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r g A c c e s s p r o v i d e d b y T s i n g h u a U n i v e r s i t y o n 05/10/15. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .250KULICKprison.Furthermore,it was not until the 1960s that the study of homosexual slang began to be conducted by researchers who were not philologists or amateur social scientists,like Cory.Giallombardo,for example,was a trained sociologist.And anticipating Families We Choose (Weston 1991)by more than 20years,she devoted an entire chapter to how an elaborate system of named kin relationships organized social and sexual relationships between the female prisoners she studied.Another early analysis of the social functions of gay slang was anthropologist Sonenschein’s (1969)article.Sonenschein argued that gay slang is not primarily about isolation or secrecy,as previous writers had suggested (e.g.Cory 1951;also recall Burgess’s assertion that the language of homosexuals was “incomprehensible to outsiders”).Instead,homosexual slang serves communicative functions,the most important of which is to “reinforce group cohesiveness and reflect common interests,problems,and needs of the population”(Sonenschein 1969:289).In light of later work that came to make assumptions about the existence of a gay or lesbian speech community and stress the “authenticity”of lesbian and gay speech (Leap 1996,Moonwomon 1995),it is interesting to note that early claims like Sonenschein’s about the supposed group cohesiveness of the homo-sexual subculture were being challenged even as they were being made.For example,Farrell (1972)analyzed a questionnaire completed by 184respondents in “a large midwestern city”and provided a list of 233vocabulary items that he asserts “reflect...the preoccupations of the homosexual”(p.98).This idea of “the homosexual”was harshly attacked by Conrad &More (1976),who argued that if Kinsey’s reckoning that 10%of the American population is gay was correct,there must be enormous variation between homosexuals,and there can be no such thing as “the homosexual”or a single homosexual subculture.To refute Farrell’s conclusions,they administered a questionnaire consisting of 15words from Far-rell’s list to two groups of students—one gay (recruited through the campus’Gay Student Union),and the other self-defined as straight.The students were asked to define all the words they could.Conrad &More concluded that not only did all the homosexual students not know the entire vocabulary (knowledge seemed to increase with age),there was also no statistically significant difference between the gay and straight students’understanding of the terms.In other words,there is no basis,in the opinion of Conrad &More (1976),to assume that homosexuals constitute a “language defined sub-culture”(p.25).This point was later stated in even starker terms by Penelope &Wolfe (1979),who begin a paper on gay and lesbian language with the assertion that “[a]ny discussion involving the use of such phrases as ‘gay community,’‘gay slang,’or ‘gayspeak’is bound to be misleading,because two of its implications are false:first,that there is a homogenous commu-nity composed of Lesbians and gay males,that shares a common culture or system of values goals,perceptions,and experience;and second,that this gay community shares a common language”(p.1).Penelope &Wolfe base this outright rejection of the notions of gay commu-nity or gay language partly on an earlier study that examined gay slang (Stanley A n n u . R e v . A n t h r o p o l . 2000.29:243-285. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m w w w .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r g A c c e s s p r o v i d e d b y T s i n g h u a U n i v e r s i t y o n 05/10/15. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .GAY AND LESBIAN LANGUAGE 2511970).5In that study,Penelope distributed a questionnaire through homosexual networks,in which respondents were asked to define 26terms and suggest two of their own.On the basis of 67completed questionnaires,Penelope argued that homosexual slang was not known by all homosexuals—there was,in other words,no homogenous homosexual subculture that shared a common language.Knowl-edge of homosexual slang varied according to gender and according to whether the respondent lived in an urban center or a rural town.She proposed that homosexual slang should be thought of as consisting of a core vocabulary,known by both men and women over a large geographical distance (Penelope’s discussion concerned only the United States),and a fringe vocabulary,known mostly by gay men in large urban centers.Penelope argued that the core vocabulary,consisting of items such as “butch,”“dyke,”“one-night stand,”and “Mary!,”is known to many het-erosexuals,thereby making it “not so effective as a sign of group solidarity as the slang of other subcultures”(Stanley 1970:50).It is the fringe vocabulary which is “the most interesting from a linguistic point of view”(p.53),partly because it is generally unknown to heterosexuals and hence qualifies as a true marker of group membership,and also because many terms in the fringe vocabulary arise from par-ticular syntactic patterns [Penelope lists six:compounds (size queen,meat rack),rhyme compounds (kiki,fag hag),exclamations (For days!),puns (Give him the clap),blends (bluff—a Texas lesbian blend of “butch”and “fluff”to signify “an individual who plays either the aggressive or the passive role”),and truncations (bi,homo,hetero)].While discussions like these about the relationship between gay slang and “the homosexual subculture”were being conducted in scholarly journals,the mag-nificent,still unsurpassed Mother of all gay glossaries,The Queen’s Vernacular appeared,first published in 1972by a small press in San Francisco (Rodgers n.d.).Making all previous attempts to document gay slang look like shopping lists scribbled on the back of a paper bag,Rodgers’s magnum opus contains over 12,000entries.And not only is it lavishly illustrated with enough venomous quips and arch mots to last any amply betongued queen at least a weekend [“My dear,your hair looks as if you’ve dyed”(p.207);“He was big enough to make a bead on my rosary of life”(p.173);“Stop pittypooing around and tell me what the bitch said”(p.149)];with entries ranging from anekay (Hawaiian-English gay slang for “heterosexual man”)to Zelda (Cape Town queenspeak for “pure-blooded Zulu”),The Queen’s Vernacular also carefully documents the extraordinary range and variation of homosexual slang that existed throughout the English-speaking world.Although Dynes (1985:156)is correct in noting 5During the course of her long career,the lesbian feminist linguist and writer Julia Penelope has published articles under the surnames Stanley,Penelope Stanley,and Penelope.In the references for this review,those articles are listed alphabetically under the names that appeared on the original publications.In the text,I consistently refer to the author as Penelope,since that is the name under which she has been publishing for many years.A n n u . R e v . A n t h r o p o l . 2000.29:243-285. D o w n l o a d e d f r o m w w w .a n n u a l r e v i e w s .o r g A c c e s s p r o v i d e d b y T s i n g h u a U n i v e r s i t y o n 05/10/15. F o r p e r s o n a l u s e o n l y .。
Bibtex使用方法
Bibtex使⽤⽅法BibTeX 是⼀个使⽤数据库的的⽅式来管理参考⽂献程序, ⽤于协调LaTeX的参考⽂献处理.BibTeX ⽂件的后缀名为 .bib . 先来看⼀个例⼦:@article{Gettys90, author = {Jim Gettys and Phil Karlton and Scott McGregor}, title = {The {X} Window System, Version 11}, journal = {Software Practice and Experience}, volume = {20}, number = {S2}, year = {1990}, abstract = {A technical overview of the X11 functionality. This is an update of the X10 TOG paper by Scheifler \& Gettys.} }说明:第⼀⾏@article 告诉 BibTeX 这是⼀个⽂章类型的参考⽂献. 还有其它格式, 例如 article, book, booklet, conference, inbook, incollection, inproceedings, manual, misc, mastersthesis, phdthesis, proceedings, techreport, unpublished 等等. 接下来的"Gettys90", 就是你在正⽂中引⽤这个条⽬的名称. 其它就是参考⽂献⾥⾯的具体内容啦.在LaTeX中使⽤BibTeX 为了在 LaTeX 中使⽤BibTeX 数据库, 你必须先做下⾯三件事情:1) 设置参考⽂献的类型 (bibliography style). 标准的为 plain:\bibliographystyle{plain}其它的类型包括unsrt – 基本上跟 plain 类型⼀样, 除了参考⽂献的条⽬的编号是按照引⽤的顺序, ⽽不是按照作者的字母顺序. alpha – 类似于plain 类型, 当参考⽂献的条⽬的编号基于作者名字和出版年份的顺序. abbrv – 缩写格式 . 2) 标记引⽤ (Make citations). 当你在⽂档中想使⽤引⽤时, 插⼊ LaTeX命令\cite{引⽤⽂章名称}"引⽤⽂章名称" 就是前边定义@article后⾯的名称.3) 告诉 LaTeX ⽣成参考⽂献列表 . 在 LaTeX 的结束前输⼊\bibliography{bibfile}这⾥bibfile 就是你的 BibTeX 数据库⽂件 bibfile.bib .运⾏ BibTeX分为下⾯四步1.⽤LaTeX编译你的 .tex ⽂件 , 这是⽣成⼀个 .aux 的⽂件, 这告诉BibTeX 将使⽤那些引⽤.2.⽤BibTeX 编译 .bib ⽂件.3.再次⽤LaTeX 编译你的 .tex ⽂件, 这个时候在⽂档中已经包含了参考⽂献, 但此时引⽤的编号可能不正确.4.最后⽤ LaTeX 编译你的 .tex ⽂件, 如果⼀切顺利的话, 这是所有东西都已正常了.例⼦: 将上⾯的 BibTeX 的的例⼦保存为 bibfile.bib.\documentclass{article}\begin{document} We cite \cite{name1} and \cite{name2}. \bibliography{bibfile} \bibliographystyle{plain} \end{document}将上⾯的内容保存为bibtex-example.tex .latex编译⼀次, bibtex 编译⼀次, 再⽤ latex编译两次就⼤功告成了!获取bib⽂件使⽤如下⽹址可以将springer⽂献格式变成bibtex：关于⽂献类型：（摘⾃TeXGuru的Latex2e⽤户⼿册） @article条⽬为期刊或杂志上的⼀篇⽂章。
bluelaw（蓝色法规）和blueskylaw（蓝天法）
blue laws 蓝⾊法规 原来是美国殖民时期的清教徒所订的法律，禁⽌在星期天跳舞、喝酒等，以后转⽤为有关个⼈⾏为的严格规定，如禁⽌公务员涉⾜酒家、舞厅、夜总会、或不该接受款宴等等： 来源： A blue law， thus called because it was supposedly written on blue paper when first enacted by Puritan（清教徒）colonies in the 17th century， prohibits selling of certain types of merchandise， or retail or business activity of any kind，on certain days of the week （usually Sunday？）。
In Texas， for example， blue laws prohibited selling housewares such as pots， pans， and washing machines on Sunday， until 1985. Many southern states prohibit selling alcohol on Sunday. （There is no actual evidence for the printing of these laws on blue paper； Connecticut is widely believed to have done so， but the surviving documents are on the same paper as other state laws， and there is no contemporary mention of blue paper. Nonetheless， the name is short and clear， and unlikely to change.） Likely， all blue law stems from the first such statute set down by the Emperor Constantine 1300 years before the Puritans： "Let all judges and all city people and all tradesmen rest upon the venerable day of the sun. But let those dwelling in the country freely and with full liberty attend to the culture of their fields； since it frequently happens that no other day is so fit for the sowing of grain， or the planting of vines； hence， the favorable time should not be allowed to pass， lest the provisions of heaven be lost." —— Given the seventh of March， Crispus and Constantine being consuls， each for the second time. A.D. 321. Many unusual features of American culture——such as the fact that one can buy groceries， office supplies， and housewares from a "drug store"——are the result of blue laws （drug stores were allowed to remain open to accommodate emergency medical needs）。
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In the unpublished Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences Arthur M. Sackler Colloquium on Mapping Knowledge Domains. Irvine, CA. May 2003.A Cityscape Visualization of Video PerspectivesMark Derthick, Mike Christel, Alex Hauptmann, Dorbin Ng, Scott Stevens, Howard WactlarCarnegie Mellon UniversityCMU’s Informedia project has collected and automatically processed a multi-terabyte video corpus containing 8 years of CNN broadcasts and other video sources [5]. Previous work has demonstrated multi-modal querying by text, image, time, and location, and the ability to summarize a single document or a set of documents matching a query. We now plan to organize the corpus or a subset along multiple dimensions, or perspectives, adding relevant background material, significantly expanding and accelerating the viewer’s comprehension and integration of knowledge. A perspective can provide factual background information, a history of an issue, the view of a biased source, a technical or medical perspective, or any of dozens of others. This abstract proposes a cityscape metaphor for organizing visual context in terms of perspectives.Problems with current document visualizations Video libraries have traditionally provided visual overviews by showing a sequence of thumbnail images of individual shots in a document. Search engines like Google provide lists of similar documents. Both of these approaches are at too low a level. Others attempt to cluster results hierarchically as a way to provide an overview [2]. Key phrases are extracted as cluster labels. This has two drawbacks. First, it requires cognitive effort to read and interpret the phrases, even in the best case where the extracted phrases adequately describe the clusters. Second, the hierarchy may not reflect the user's interests. For instance, if the user has been reading about oil exploration in Alaska, a top level split labeled Texaco, Exxon, Mobil might be the way he/she mentally organizes the information space, but there are many other perspectives for which this organization does not help. Themeview [6] is perhaps the best known text document corpus visualization. Like most text information retrieval systems, it treats a document as a vector of normalized word counts, with one element for each word in the corpus vocabulary. This is usually at least several thousand. In order to visualize this high-dimensional space, it must be projected down onto 2D or 3D. This also forces a single organization on the data. Themeview axes are not meaningful because they are an information-loss minimizing projection with thousands of parameters. In contrast, perspectives visualize documents in a few dozen meaningful dimensions.Cityscapes Virtual reality landscapes have often been suggested as ways to organize cyberspace, because people have evolved for orientation and navigation of such spaces. Realistic cityscapes are sufficiently varied and detailed to convey many conceptual dimensions and, importantly, to be memorable.Some landscape visualizations, such as Data Mountain [3], do not impose any semantics on layout. Rather, the user is free to conceive of neighborhoods and to arrange web page snapshots accordingly. City of News [4] uses a cityscape visualization for visited web pages, with neighborhoods corresponding to districts found in real cities, such as financial or shopping, and sections found in newspapers, such as sports and books. In contrast, in our cityscape example below, buildings correspond to abstract perspectives whose content is dynamically synthesized, rather than to individual web pages.In previous cityscape work, the objects in the cityscapes have not been treated spatially themselves. Our approach is to combine the idea of parallel coordinates [1] with cityscapes. We can think of a building as one vertical parallel axis. Each building represents a perspective. Thus the system can automatically assign contextual items to a vertical position on the appropriate building. The user is still free to rearrange the buildings into neighborhoods, for instance so that those of greatest interest are larger and/or in front. Concept-space navigation and zooming are accomplished by spatial navigation, possibly by "flying" or possibly by clicking on a building of interest and using "autopilot" to navigate for a good view of it.Schematic and Realistic Cityscapes communicating perspectives on a focus video.A cityscape view is also useful for dynamic summaries. For instance, using a slider to control the range of broadcast dates, the ebb and flow of perspectives and named entities in news casts over time would show up as different parts of the city sparkling and darkening. A night time view will be most effective for this. Corresponding to the line segments of parallel axes, we will use "spotlights" that illuminate relationships among documents and entities. While in parallel coordinates there are d(n-1) segments for d data and n dimensions, we expect to use far fewer, linking only the most important item pairs. For instance, a query or focus document would light up its context in white, with the strongest semantic associations being the brightest. There could be blue spotlights from these to the named entities they mention. In addition, items lit during a previous related query may only gradually fade to yellow and then brown, which provides an overall sense of "direction" to an exploration sequence. A dull red glow could indicate that one of the user's "buddies" has been there recently.Acknowledgements This material is based on work supported by the National Science Foundation under Cooperative Agreement No. IRI-9817496.References1. Inselberg, A. and B. Dimsdale. Parallel Coordinates: A Tool for Visualizing Multi- DimensionalGeometry, in IEEE Conference on Visualization. 1990. p. 361.2. Palmer, C.R., H. Wactlar, R.E. Valdes-Perez, J. Pesenti, D. Ng, A. Hauptmann, and M. Christel.Demonstration of Hierarchical Document Clustering of Digital Library Retrieval Results, in Joint Conference on Digital Libraries (JDCL '01). 2001. Roanoke VA.3. Robertson, G., M. Czerwinski, K. Larson, D.C. Robbins, D. Thiel, and M.v. Dantzich. Data Mountain:Using Spatial Memory for Document Management, in User Interface Software and Technology (UIST). 1998. San Francisco, CA: ACM Press. p. 153-162.4. Sparacino, F., R. DeVaul, C. Wren, G. MacNeil, G. Daveport, and A. Pentland. City of News, inSIGGRAPH 99, Visual Proceedings, Emerging Technologies. 1999. Los Angeles CA./s99/conference/etech/projects.html5. Wactlar, H., T. Kanade, M. Smith, and S. Stevens, Intelligent Access to Digital Video: InformediaProject. IEEE Computer, 1996. 29(5): p. 46-52.6. Wise, J.A., J. Thomas, J., K. Pennock, D. Lantrip, M. Pottier, A. Schur, and V. Crow. Visualizing thenon-visual: Spatial analysis and interaction with information from text documents, in IEEE Information Visualization. 1995. p. 51-58.。