完整版英文跨文化沟通复习资料

1. The importance of learning about culture
1. Understanding foreign cultures is not only important for companies that operate in more than one global area and market internationally. It is just important for organizations at home that employ workers from more than
one culture. 2.Understanding culture is also important for individuals who work in the global workplace. two important reasons for
understanding culture are to learn how others make sense of （搞清 .的意思） environment, and to prevent mistakes and
miscommunications.
2. 对待差异的态度（ Responding to Different Cultures ）：1.hostility （敌对 ） to difference 2.Curiosity difference
3.Denying difference: Assumptions of superiority （ 优越）;Ethnocertrism （民族中心论 ）;Assumptions of universality
4.cooperating with difference
3. Minimize and prevent mistakes across cultures :1.Knowledge about one 's own culture, with this, knowledge about another culture is easier to learn.2.motivation, the drive to know and to use the knowledge.3.implementing （贯彻） knowledge, and behaving in a way that makes sense in the other culture, the one in which you want to do business.
4. culture is the coherent, , shared view of a group of people about life ' s concerns, expressed in symbols and activities, that ranks what is important, furnishes （提供） attitudes about what things are appropriate, and dictates behavior.
5.文化三特征 :1Coherent:each culture, past or present, is coherent and complete within itself —an entire view of the
universe2.Learned:culture is not something we born with3.The view of a group of people:is shared by a society.
三功能： 1.Ranks what is important: teaches values or priorities.2.Furnishes Attitudes:attitudes are based on beliefs as well as on values.3 Dictates how to behave:behavior comes directly from attitudes
significant something is - how it is valued.
culture ） exists when interactants respond to cultural cues and modify their own behavior, creating -or co-creating — a new, temporary culture.
（调整行为，适应对方 or 共同产生新行为 ）The amount of adjusted behavior depends on
several factors :1 their level of knowledge about the other culture2 their willingness to experiment
with new behaviors and attitudes 3their previous experience with successful intercultural interactions.
8.Culture shock: Culture shock is the sense of dislocation （转位） and the problems-psychological and even physical-that result from the stress of trying to make the hundreds of adjustments necessary for living in a foreign culture.
7.Transaction culture 四 个阶段 :1. Experiencing a new culture is usually euphoria （ 欣快 ）2.Downturn as disillusionment 幻灭）and frustration 沮丧）anse3.adjustment4.integration （ 融合）
Euphoria: everything about the exciting new adventure is wonderful The second stage is a downturn as disillusionment and frustration arise. It is a feeling of not being in step with the members of the culture. Adjustment .---as the sojourner （寄居者） learns more about the backstage culture and how the other culture works, he or she is able to
cooperate more effectively with members of the host culture. the fourth stage, integration , occurs when a sojourner becomes fluent enough in the other culture to move easily within it and not be thrown by the different attitudes, beliefs, and values, and the behaviors they generate. Reverse culture shock: a similar adjustment period with its accompanying symptoms usually occurs when a sojourner returns
3.the their about
about how
6.Onstage and backstage: Onstage
culture is the behavior we display,it is easy to change.（interchangeable ）Backstage culture
is not so visible, it is difficult to change.（the essence of people ' s
7.Transaction culture :a transaction culture — no longer two weeks.
a9.Self-knowledge and understanding one ' s own cultiHeving a good understanding of one s own culture is the best foundation for devel oping the ability to understand the communication behavior of people from other
cultures. To achieve it ---Mental representation: use mental categories that hold information items grouped
together.
1O.Mental Representation 三个心里表征：prejudice （racism, ageism）;bias; discrimination
11. Prejudice generalizations that are based on limited knowledge, and that express an evaluation -usually
negative-are p rejudices.
Bias a bias for something is really nothing more than a preference. A bias against something is a negative
attitude that ranks it low
Discrimination when biases or prejudices are acted on, the actor is showing discrimination. Discrimination act of sifting （过滤）out and selecting according to bias toward something or someone, and treating is the them
differently.
12.Are cultures merging into one global culture? （文化定义；onstage，backstage）
13.Approaches to studying cultures :1.focus on a culture as a whole （emic studies 一个文化不同层面,etic
studies 多种文化的共性）2 focus on individual（individuals may have any number of experiences, personal insights, p ersonal goals,
interests and exp ectations that are part of their idetities.
14. Emic studies
Studies that concentrate on one culture alone are called emic studies.
Etic studies
Studies that look for factors that exist in more than one culture are called etic studies.
Cultural generalizations
Studies about whole culture give us con clusi ons that are generalizations about the culture.
15. Cultural dimensions
Characteristics that could be the basis of comparisons from culture to culture is called cultural dimensions.
16. Stereotypes : Stereotyping means using oversimpiified generalizations to understand people
1stereot ypes are fixed, firm, inflexible mental categories2 protot ypes （原型）are the original conce pts or models
for something.3nor are all stereot ypes bad, some are p ositive.
17.Self-identity : identity is as sth formed in part by the self and in part by group membership.
Self-concept can be formed in three general ways.① Social Psychology—experience.② Communication ---core symbols, labels and norms.③
Critical-social contexts （history, economics, p olities, p ublic discourse）.
18.Self-construal（自我建构）is how we see ourselves in relation to others, with regard to feelings, thoughts, and behavior. In
general, western culture have an independent self-construal, and eastern cultures have an
interdependent （相互依赖的）self-construal.
19. Individualism values individual achievements, failures, and rights over the collective.
Collectivism values the group above the individual, and individuals have a responsibility to the group that
supersedes （取代）individual needs or rights.
20.文化维度
1.语境：a.高High-context cultures rely on the context, either the actual physical environment of communication or an internalized （内
在化的）social context, or both, to convey a large part or even all of a message
It is elliptical 省略的，indirect , allusive（暗指的）.低:Low-context cultures entrust （委托）the meaning almost
's meaning.
entire the words.it is exp licit，direct, compi etely.
2.集体个人 a.定义b集体-关系导向型，个人-结果导向型 c. A characteristic of individualist culture is
comp etitiveness ; the corres po nding value in collectivist cultures is coop eration.
Collectivism: relationshi ps, old, p ermanent, p ublic, high po wer distance （hierarchical）, high -context culture, hide emotion, coop eration, harmony, dep endence.
Individualism: results, youth, temporary, private, low power distance （horizontal）, low -context culture, express
Emotion, comp etitiveness, inde pendence.
3.权力距离：Power distance is the degree to which less -powerful members of an organization tolerate unequal distribution of po wer, say, between managers and empio yees.
cultures with a smaller power distance are more horizontal, less hierarchical, and less authoritarian than are cultures with a high po wer distance.
Cultures with high power distance are inequality in power, less horizontal, more hierarchical, and more authoritarian.
21.High-context cultures : value relationships, teamwork, and long -term group membership. It rely on subjective information that is internalized （ell ip tical, indirect, allusive）.
Low-context cultures : value independent decisions, activity that achieves goals, and individual accountability （exp licit, direct, compi etely）.
22.High culture refers to those cultural activities that are often the domain of the elite or well-to-do :ballet, sump hony, op era, great
literature, and fine art. International; timeless; transcendent（超然的）;
Low culture refers to the activities of the nonelite: music videos, game shows, professional wrestling, stock car racing, graffiti art, tv talk shows, and so on.
23.Where can information about cultures be found : 1. ask people who are members of the culture you want to understand. 2. Ano ther good source may be some one who has spent considerable time in that culture but is not a native member of it.3. You can inquire（询「可）into a culture by reading fiction from that culture.4. find out what people of a culture say about themselves. rmation about cultures also comes from studies by anthropologists who research cultures in the field, going to live among the members of the culture they want to understand.
24. Does Knowing Come from Concepts or Experience:1.knowing by secondhand information from a reliable source.2.in English-s peaking or Europ ean
cultures, abstract （提取）conce pts p hilos ophy arguments reaching back in history.3.knowing and being wise come with age 4.intuition
（知觉）,meditation （冥想）
25.Does Learning Come from Asking Questions or Mastering Received Wisdom :1.In the United States ,students who ask questions are rewarded.2.
In many cultures in Asia, Latin America, the Middle East, and Southern Euro pe.
learning means receiving and taking in what is given by teachers.
26.Does Knowledge Have Limits: the more you learn, the less you know. E.g. nonscientists who have faith in what science can achieve
27.How Do People Reason:1.Western cultures primarily （首先）use a cause-and-effect pattern of thinking.（Linear Logic）; two opposite things cannot both be true. 2. Other cultures use other patterns. （Spiral
Logic）a. In Asian: thinking is linkage; the opp osites co-exist
28. Is Doing Important or Is Being Important :1.Doing: western cultures: activity -oriented, peace of life, crowded agendas（日程）.2.Being: stillness, collectedness, serenity （平静）,silence（members of doing cultures view silence as waste, members of cultures that value being also often value silence）.
29. Are Tasks Done Sequentially or Simultaneously : 1. performing tasks one-by-one in a sequence 误解军disorganized 2. performing multiple tasks simultaneously 误解；inflexible
30. Do Results or Relationships Take Priority 1.Individulism:a.cause -and-effect,goals-oriented,to make progress
（进步）.b. identify goals and work toward them c. Strategy to achievement. d. measure how close you have come 2.collectivism:a.relationship -oriented b.Value the relationship as a means to an end.
31.Is Uncertainty（不确定性）Avoided or Tolerated:1.uncertainty -averse:Doing : avoid uncertainty, strive to
protect themselves from the unknown 2.uncertaimty-tolerant :Being, tolerant uncertainty; be more open to acce pting the unexce pted.
32. Is Luck an Essential Factor or an Irrelevance: 1. Luck is irrelevant, in cultures that think in cause -and-effect patterns and that value results, planning ——notuck ——ishe key to success. 2. In some cultures, luck or fate or destiny pl ays a large part, peoples role in achieving success has less effect than forces outside themselves.
33. Are Rules to Be Followed or Bent : 1. Followed: neat ，predictable behavior, uncertain avoidance （逃避）.2.
Bent: flexibility to meet human needs; uncertain （无常的） tolerance.
34. Is Change Positive or Negative :1.The culture of the United States thinks of change as desirable and positive.
New means better.2.Traditionally, agrarian cultures typi cally view change is negative. It means disr up tion
（破坏） to the established p atterns of life.
35. Is Death the End of Life or Part of Life: Some cultures view death as the end of life, a quenching （熄灭）of the light. It is dreaded （令人畏惧的）
.Some cultures view death as another p hase in life, a necessary ste p in the p attern of life. It
is acce pted. 简 36. Relationship between Language and culture: 1. culture and language are intertwined （ 缠绕的）and shape
each other. It is imp ossible to sep arate the two.2.All languages have social questions and information questions.3. Language reflects the environment in which we live; language reflects cultural values; Sometimes cultures use identical words that have rather different meanings.
37.不重视语言的问题 1.Acronyms （首字母缩略词 ）2.implication of the language barrier.（字同音不同, 含义）
38. Selection of the right language: 1. Linguistic Considerations 2. Business Considerations 3.
Considerations 4. The Approp riate Level of Fluency
39. Communication with nonnative speakers: Effective Face-to-Face Communication : a.enunciate slowly c. Avoid Slang and
Colloquialisms （白话） d. Be Careful about Jokes. e. Be Sincere g. Be Culturally Sensitive h. Keep a Sense of Humor
40. Effective Written Communication a. Use PI enty of White Sp ace b. Use Correct Titles and Sp ellings of Names c.Understand Patterns of Organization d. Use Headings e. Be Careful with Numbers f. Be Careful with Dates g.
Avoid Abbreviations h. Follow the Conventions of Written Communication
41.
技术对沟通的影响：1.telephone ； 2.skype 3. Email,texting and twitters 42. 非语言交流影响因素 ：1. Cultural background 2.socialeconomic background 3. Education4. Gender 5. Age 6. Personal preferences and idiosyncrasies （特质）
43. Paralanguage 1.vocal qualifiers : The term vocal qualifiers refers to volume （音量）,pitch （音高）,and the
overall intonation （声调）
or melody （旋律） of the spoken word. 2. vocalization: All cultures use nonword noises such as ahem, um, er, sucking in one ' s breath, and clicking one ' s tongue.
44. Nonverbal business conventions : 1.eye contact （a sign of honesty/privacy ） 2. Facial expression （不同文 化频率 frequency 强度 intensity 不同 a. smiling （indicate joy, embarrassment or avoid embarrassment.）b.showing anger （milder form-frowning; hide anger ） 3.gesture （head/arm movements; posture ） 4.timing in spoken exchanges （an environment that emp hasizes equality; seniority and hierarchy;the role of men.）5.touching （ people from low-context cultures tend to be feel crowded by people from high-context cultures, and people from
high-context cultures feel left out and rejected by people from low-context cultures. 6. The language of space （p rivate/ office/ p ublic sp ace ）7.A pp earance （a.不同国家穿衣风格不同 b.in most cultures, dress also identifies a
person as belonging to a specific group and having a certain status. ） 8.Silence:（高语境文化更倾向于使用沉默， 低语境： silence often is inter preted as the absence of communication ） 45. Signals of respect: it can be different from culture to culture, and it may take some time to learn what is
differe nt 异国异 P olitical b. sp eak
exce pted behavior. Positions of authority Dress as a symbol of authority
46 权威的象征:1.tone and nguage （indicator ）3.Family and societal structures （indicator ）
Assertiveness （魄力） v.s Harmony.:1.standing up for one ' s own rights （individualism,low
power distance ）2 .P reserving harmony （collectivism,high po wer distance ）
47
绩效的认可及奖励 ：1.monetary recognition 2.nonmonetary rewards 48 自我认同 1.Self-identity — A Social Psychology Approach : （experiences ） we can think about self -concept is that we build up our sense of self from childhood, based on exp eriences we have had that contribute to our sense of self. 2.Self-identity — A Communication Approach （ communication ）: Identities （身份） are communicated in core symbols, labels, and norms.
49.Self-identity
——ACritical Approach （social context ）: The critical approach to self-identity uses history, economics, p olitics, and p
ublic discourse. 50 Age: Is Seniority Valued or Discounted : a. In cultures that value age, the older a business person is the more credibility he or she has. b. in youth -oriented cultures being young seems to mean having more choices, more po wer, more energy, and more freedom.
51 Gender: Are Women Equals or Subordinates : a.In traditional cultures, the two facts are related. Child -bearing and child-nurturing are the main roles of women. b. management role a52 Social organization :1 Group Membership: Temporary or Permanent: a. Individuals in the United States are members of many groups simultaneously; group membership is impermanent b. In other cultures, the respo nsibilities of membershi p come before rights; group membershi p is p ermanent, belonging starts with the family.
53 three functions of group communication: 1.Give and Save Face 2. Display Emotion '二
__3. about Shame or Guilt （a.In individualistic cultures,
where individual respo nsibility, results, and p rivacy are valued, guilt is a po tent way for a culture to enforce （实施）
rules of behavior. b. In collectivist cultures where group membership, relationships, and public knowledge of one ' s life are imp ortant, shame enforces the rules of conduct.）
54 form: Important or Untrustworthy
（靠不住的）：Behaving according to form means behaving correctly. 55 P ersonal Matters: P rivate or P ublic: a. In Euro pe,as in Britain, Canada, the United States, Australia, and New
Zealand, a person ' s work life is kept fairly separate from private life.b. cultures that emphasize relationships, view group member-ship as long term, and value harmony have a blurred （模糊不清的）distinction （区另U ） between what is private and what is public （or at least what is
“ group ” ）. 56 Social Organizational P atterns: Horizontal or Hierarchical: 1.monarchies （君主制）:at one extremeare rigid （严 格的） vertical levels in society,2.Democracies: movement between them is very limited; at the other extreme, society is horizontal and op erates with few levels.
57 App roach to Authority: Direct or Mediated :1. in many cultures, the app roach to authority is indirect.2. In New
Zealand, in which horizontality has p riority, the app roach to authority is direct.
58 Communicating about problems : 1.in low-context cultures: direct 2.in high-context culture: indirect, high p riority on kee ping harmony, p reventing anyone impo rtant from losing face, and nurturing relationshi p.
59 Saying no :1.it is done with delay and indirectness in low -context cultures, the rationale （基本原理）
explain why first. 2.it is more difficult for high -context culture, which is often saying yes.
60 Gift giving ; 1. in many cultures, it is appropriate to take small gifts when one is invited to enjoy hospitality 客） . 2.the way people from differe nt cultures ex press app reciation for hos pitality varies. 3.the timing of greetings is also imp ortant
61 Managing conflicts : conflict is a clash between people or between ideas that engages （吸引） people in a struggle against each other. 1. In individualist culture （result-oriented ） people are responsible for the consequence of their own individual activities.2. in collectivist culture （relationship -onented ）:they value on relationshi p, p roblems are not an individual respo nsibility. 解决方式 1.co mp eting2.collaborating （合作）3.co mp romising4.avoiding5.accommodating （调节） 62. Popular culture refers to those systems or artifacts that most people share a nd that most people know 63 . it's p roduced by culture industries.
it's differs from folk culture.
it's everywhere.
it's fills a social function.
put a is to
（好
64 It differs from folk culture.
Popu lar culture: mass-produced and mass-marketed culture
Folk culture: more authentic "folk" culture a65 Collectivism
Think about the family's welfare ,repu tation,and honor.
Marriage and birth -giving, instead of personal affairs, are taken care by all the others in your group which basically is your family.
66Individualism
Takes the marriage as one's own business.
Put yourself in the first pl ace thinking of your own happi ness, interests
67The conce pt of face.
Concern for face p robably appears in many cultures, but is seen as more salient （显著的）for the Chinese than for people from other cultures. Face in Chinese culture refers to one's moral character, a p erson's repu tation or prestige （威望）.It is the positive social value that a person claims （主张）for himself by the line others assume he has taken during a p articular.
68Chinese culture has three values: face （p ublic esteem）; a recip rocal （互惠的）network of connections with others; lasting membershi p in groups.
69 Encoding（编码）:the construction of textual meaning by popular culture institution —within specific social context. the p rocess of creating messages for others to understand.
70 Decoding: the interpretation of the text ' nseaning by receivers —; performed by various audiences in different social contexts. Decoding is the p rocess of inter preting a message.
71Sequentially（循序地）or simultaneously? Some cultures value one who works efficiently as one who accomplishes several things at once. Other cultures value a one -thing-at-a-time approach as the most efficient
72Do results or relationships taking priority? Relationship-oriented cultures tend to be collectivistic. The relati on ships that connect people in networks are more sig nifica nt tha n the tasks people accomplish.
Results-oriented cultures value the outcomes of actions, especially measurable outcomes, as what matters a work and in life.
73Is obligation a burden or a benefit? Collectivist cultures tend to see it as a benefit to nurturing relationshi ps.
Individualist cultures tend to see it as a burden to inde pendence.
74Is social organization horizontal or hierarchical? The general p attern in society also is reflected in comp anies. Where hierarchy（等级制度）characterizes （具有.特质）the national or social culture, companies also will have a clearly defined corporate ladder （阶梯）.The levels are generally agreed upon by members of the collective. In horizontal （水平的）cultures, people can move from their birth level up or down as their individual achievements （业绩）and desires warrant. Mobility （移动性）depends on the accomplishments （成就）of individuals, although their families may partake of （分享）the new status.。