二语习得复习提纲

Chaptｅr I IntrｏductioｎDeｓcriｂiｎｇand Explaｉｎｉng L ２Acqｕiｓition
1.１Ｗhaｔis sｅｃonｄｌanｇuａｇe acｑuisitｉoｎ?
Seconｄlａnguage ｒｅfｅrｓto aｎy language tｈat ｉs learned suｂｓequｅｎt t ｏtｈeｍotｈer tongue．
１．２Wｈat aｒe the gｏａls oｆsｅcond lａｎguage?
The goals ｏf SLＡarｅto deｓcribe ｈｏｗL2 ａcquisiｔiｏｎproceｅds anｄtｏｅxplaｉｎｔｈｉs pｒoｃess and why some learners sｅem to ｂｅｂeｔter at iｔｔhan oｔhｅｒｓ.
1．3Tｗoｃaｓe stｕdｉesｏｆＬ2ｌearneｒｓ
１.3.1 A cａse stuｄｙof ａn adulｔlearneｒ
1.3.2 A case ｓtuｄy oｆtwｏchｉlｄlearneｒｓ
Ｗhａt do tｈese cａse stｕdies sｈow us?
a. They raise a numｂer of ｉｍpoｒtaｎt mｅｔhodｏｌogicａl isｓues reｌaｔiｎg t ｏhow L２acqｕisiｔｉon sｈould ｂｅstudied
b. Thｅy rａisｅissｕes relａtｉng to tｈｅｄesｃrｉptiｏn ｏf learner langｕaｇe
ｃ．Theｙpoint out soｍe of the problems reseａrcｈｅrｓexpｅrｉenｃe in tryiｎg to ｅxpｌain L２acｑuisｉtion.
1.4Metｈｏｄologicalｉsｓｕeｓ
Whａt ｉs that needs ｔo be descｒｉｂed?
a.Whaｔiｔmeans tｏsａy tｈat a learnｅr haｓacquiredａfeａtｕre oｆｔhe taｒｇet language?
b.Whetherｌｅarnｅrs ｈave acqｕｉred a particulaｒfeatｕre?
c.Ｈow tｏmeaｓuｒe ｗhethｅr aｃquisiｔion has taken place?(Learner’ｓoveｒｕse oｆｌｉnguistｉc fｏｒｍs．)
1.5Ｉssｕes in ｔhe ｄescrｉｐｔioｎof leaｒner ｌａnguaｇe
a. Leａrnersｍake eｒrｏrs ｏf dｉfferｅnt kiｎds.
b．Ｌｅarners acquiｒed aｌarｇe numbｅr of fｏｒmuｌａic cｈunｋs，wｈich ｗill ｉnflueｎｃe ｔheｉr perforｍancｅin communｉcaｔiｏｎand the ｆｌuenｃｙof theｉrｕnｐlanｎed speech.
c．Ｗｈether lｅarｎers acquiｒe the ｌanguage ｓｙstematicａllｙ?
1.6Ｉｓsuｅs in ｔhｅexplaｎation of L２acquisitiｏn
Itｅm learning：forｍｕlaic chunkｓ
Ｓystｅm lｅarning: ｒｕlｅs
Ｉnｔernal(menｔalｉｓｔ）account:
External account：
Chapteｒ2 thｅNatｕre of LearneｒLaｎguaｇe
２.1Ｅｒｒorｓａnd eｒrorａｎalyｓis
2.1.1Iｄeｎtifying eｒrors
2.１.１.1Ｃｏｍｐare ｔｈe learnｅｒ’s lａnguage ｗithｔhe nｏrmal onｅｓ.
2．1.1.2Diｓtinguｉｓh errｏrs anｄｍistakｅs．
Dｅfiｎitｉoｎ: Eｒrｏｒs rｅfｌectｇaｐs in a leａrｎer’s kｎowledge
Miｓｔakes ｒeflｅct occasｉonal lａpseｓin pｅｒforｍance．Methｏds:ａ. Checkｔｈｅconsｉstencｙof ｌearｎｅrs’ｐeｒformaｎce.
b. Ask them ｔo corrｅct tｈeir owｎuｔteraｎce.
Ｅｒrors and ｍｉstａｋｅs:
2.1.2Dｅｓcribing errｏrs
Mｅthods：ａ．ｅrroｒtyｐe orienｔed:
b. ｅrroｒmaker oｒiented:
Meanｉng: Ｃlassiｆｙｉng errｏｒs in ｔｈese ways ｃan hｅlpｕs ｔo diagｎose learｎｅｒs’learｎinｇprｏｂlems at any one stagｅof thｅｉr dｅvelｏpmenｔand, also to plot ｈow chanｇｅｓiｎerｒor paｔterns occuｒｏvｅｒｔime.
２.1.3 Expｌａining errｏrs
Errors are sｙsteｍatｉc, ｐrｅｄiｃtabｌe,ａnｄsoｍe of tｈem ａre unｉversａl:(Learners ｈas construｃteｄｓoｍｅkｉｎd ｏｆ“ruｌe”，ａlbeｉt a rｕle differ ｅnt fｒoｍｔhat of tｈe target lanｇuagｅ)
Eｇ: oｍissiｏｎ: leave out the ａrticle “the”, ｌｅａｖe oｕt ｔｈe–s in pluｒa ｌnoｕns
Overgｅneraliｚatiｏn error:eatｅd－--atｅ
Transfer erｒoｒs refｌect leaｒners aｔtempt ｔｏmaｋe use of tｈeｉｒＬ1 knowleｄge.
２．1.4 Eｒror evａluation
Ｔyｐes of eｒroｒｓ：Globalｅrrｏｒs: vｉolａteｔhe wｈole structurｅofｔhe sentenｃｅ
Ｌocａl ｅrroｒｓ: affｅcｔonly a ｓinｇle ｃonstitｕeｎt ｉn t ｈe ｓentencｅ
2．2Dｅvｅlopmｅntal pａｔternｓ
2．2.１The earlｙsｔage ofＬ2 ａcquiｓition
Ｓiｌent ｐｅrioｄ: chｉｌｄreｎｍａｋe no aｔtempt tｏｓaｙanｙｔhｉng to ｂegin wiｔh.
This perｉod makes ａprepaｒation for sｕbsequent prｏduc ｔion．
Trials anｄeｒrors: Muｌａic chunks: theｙｐｒovidｅleaｒｎｅrs with the
means ｏfｐｅrforｍinｇusefuｌlaｎguａge funct
ｉonｓsuｃｈas greeｔｉｎgs and reqｕests.
Eg:“Hｏw do yoｕdｏ?”
“Mｙｎａｍe ｉs___”
Ｐrｏpositiｏnal ｓiｍｐlｉficatｉon:leave words out
Eg:“Me ｎo blｕe”
2.2.２The ordeｒof aｃquisｉtion
Accurａｃy ordｅｒ: ｔhｅre ｉsａｄｅfiｎite accuracyｏrｄerａｎd ｔhat tｈｉs ｒemains more or lesｓtｈe ｓａme irrespｅctivｅoｆｔｈｅlearneｒ’s motｈｅr tｏnｇues, age, anｄｗhetｈer oｒｎot they ｈavｅreceive ｆormaｌlanguage instructioｎ.
２.2．3 Ｓeｑuｅnce of acquiｓitiｏn
a. Ｔhｅａｃquisition of a parｔicuｌａr ｇrａmmatical structｕre,tｈeｒefoｒe, mustｂｅｓeen as a ｐrｏcess ｉnvolvｉng tｒansｉｔional cｏnstructioｎs.
b．Aｃquisiｔion ｆollows a U shaped couｒｓe ofｄeｖelopｍeｎt.
c. Ｔhe ｐrocess in whicｈｌeaｒnerｓrｅoｒgaｎize their ｅｘｉstiｎgｋnow ｌｅｄgｅｉnｏrder to accommodate new knoｗｌedge ｉｓcallｅｄrestructuring.
2.2.4Ｓｏme Implicatｉons
a. Ｌ2 is systematｉｃａndｕｎiｖerｓal,reflecｔinｇｗaｙs iｎｗhich inteｒna ｌcognｉtｉve mecｈanｉsms contrｏｌacquisition, ｉrreｓpectivｅof the personaｌbａckground ｏf lｅarnerｓorｔｈe sｅｔtinｇs in whiｃh they learｎ.
b. Somｅｌiｎgｕistｉc ｆeaturｅs are ｉｎheｒenｔlｙeasieｒtｏleａｒｎthan others.
２．3Vａriability in lｅａrｎeｒlanguaｇe
a．Varｉabｉlity is aｌso syｓtematic, ｔhat is, learners ｕse their ｌｉｎguｉstic ｓour ｃｅs in predictablｅｗayｓ.
ｂ.Lｅarｎers vaｒy in thｅirｕsｅof the second lａｎguagｅaccoｒding tｏ
ｌingｕiｓtic context (Gｅorｇe plaｙing footbａlｌ/ ．．all tｈｅtime)
situａｔional cｏntext．（ｋｉds/daughter）
＆psyｃｈolinguｉｓtic coｎtext (prepａrｅd／unｐrepared)
c. fｏrｍ-function mａpｐing
ｄ. free vａriａtiｏn：
e.ｆosｓilｉzatiｏｎ:
石化成因
任何现象的出现都不是偶然的,是可以追溯出它的原因的，二语习得过程中出现的中介语石化现象也是有着根本性的原因的。

Ｓｅｌiｎkｅr从中介语理论的分析角度将石化现象形成的原因归纳为五个过程:母语迁移、培训转移、二语学习策略、二语交际策略和目的语过度概括。

Seｌinker对石化的解释更多的是石化的主要表现,而没有找出石化的根本原因。

后来,Ellis又对Selinkeｒ和Ｌamｅndella的研究作了如下总结：(1)内因:年龄因素:即当学习者达到一定的关键期，他们的大脑失去了可塑性,因而就无法掌握某些语言特征;缺乏与目的语社会文化融合的欲望:由于各种不同的社会和心理因素,学习者对接受目的语文化标准不做出努力。

(２)外因:交际压力:持续不断的交流压力要求使用目的语超出了学习者的语言能力导致石化的发生。

缺乏学习机会:学习者缺乏获得输入和使用第二语言的机会。

反馈性质：对学生第二语言使用的影响：肯定的认知回馈（表示“我明白你的话”)导致石化的发生；否定的回馈(表示“我听不懂你的话”)有助于消除石化。

应对策略
(一)增加二语的输入量
大多数二语的初学者如果得不到足够的二语的陈述性知识,就会出现语言的稳定期。

所以外语教学中,当学习者已经达到某种精通程度后,应该增加他的二语输入量。

二语的输入既要重视数量又要重视质量。

课堂教学材料要多样化,当前的许多教材应该编辑一系列激发二语学习动机的语境和篇章,如报刊文章、海报、广告等。

学生应尽可能多利用课外听、说、读写资源和任何可以增加二语输入量的机会。

第二语言的输入应该包括音位知识、语法和词汇。

第二语言知识的积累还应该包括相关的文化知识输入。

对语言迁移的研究表明学习者对语言的标志性特征比较敏感,所以某种语言的一般特征而不是可区别性特征更容易导致石化。

这样,为了避免石化，语言学习者需要比较母语和目的语的文化,找出存在于两种语言之间结构表达上的异同来减少母语的迁移。

(二)融合听、说、读、写四种技能促进自动化和认知
以认知理论对二语学习所做的分析为基础,针对我国大多数英语学习者产生石化的主要原因,并借鉴Ｂroｗn的建议，针对中级学习者,我们可以适当采取综合听、说、读、写四种技巧的教学方法:第一种是以内容为中心的教学(ｃｏｎtenｔ-basｅd teachｉｎg)，这种教学以教授某专业的内容为主,把英语作为学习该专业的交流手段,学生要想学好专业课，必须使自己的英语在听、说、
读、写等方面都达到一定的水平才能取得成功;第二种是以主题为中心的教学（tｈｅme－based
ｔｅachｉng),这种教学方法围绕某一能够激发学生兴趣的主题或话题组织教学。

例如英语精读课就可以围绕公共卫生、环境意识、世界经济等课题展开教学，目前在我国这种方法已被普遍采用,但由于教师的准备不够,更重要的是由于教材的编制不能满足或跟上实际需要,所以没能达到这种方法的最佳效果；第三种是以任务为中心的教学（task－bａｓeｄteaｃｈinｇ)，这种方法更注重语言在实际运用中功能的实现,在课堂上语言知识的输入以各种真实的资料为主，如面试、采访、公告、菜单等,要求学习者使用所学的英语知识在实际生活中完成某一具体任务,这样就突出了语言的功能性特点。

对于高级英语学习者来说,提供真实的语境是当务之急，学习者可以通过大量观看原版英文电影、英语电视节目以及用英语写影评、日记等方式来弥补缺少真实语境的不足,另外尽可能多地和外教或本族语是英语的外国人交流并充分利用互联网最大限度地使自己接触自然真实的英语语境。

Cｈaｐｔeｒ3Intｅrlanguage
3.１Ｂehavioｒist Learning Tｈｅory
Lanｇｕagｅlｅarｎing theoｒy iｓlｉｋe any oｔｈer kｉndｏf learning in th ａt ｉｔｉnvolveｓhａbit forｍation.
Buｔｉｔis not adequatｅto adｅquatelｙaccoｕｎtｆｏr Ｌ2 aｃquisitｉoｎ, ｓince learnｅrs frｅqｕｅntly do noｔｐrodｕｃe output thａt simplｙｒepｒoduｃe in ｐut.
Habｉｔ-－ｓtiｍｕlｕs-－ｒesｐoｎｓeｃonｎecｔion
３.2 Ａmentaliｓtｔheory iｎlanguaｇｅleａrning
❖Ｍａinｉｄeａｓof thｉｓtheoｒｙ
❖１.Only ｈumａn beingｓare ｃapablｅof leaｒning lａnｇuａge.
❖2．Thｅhumaｎmind is equipｐｅd wｉth a faculty fｏr ｌearｎinｇlａnguage→Laｎguage Ａcｑuisiｔion Device(语言习得机制）．
❖3．Ｔhiｓfaｃuｌty is thｅprimary deteｒmiｎant ｏｆLA.
❖ 4. Inpｕt iｓnｅｅded,bｕt oｎｌy to ＇trigger' tｈe opｅｒatｉon of th ｅｌaｎｇｕagｅaｃqｕisition deviｃｅ.
3.3 Whaｔis “ｉnｔｅrlanｇuａgｅ”?
It refers to tｈｅｓyｓtemａｔｉc knｏｗledｇｅof ａｎＬ2 that is inｄｅpeｎdent of bｏtｈthｅtaｒget and the lｅarnｅr's L1．. A learnｅr'ｓinterｌang ｕage is a uniquｅliｎguｉstiｃsyｓtem.
The ｐreｍises ｏf interlanguage
❖ 1. Ｉnterlａnguaｇe is ｖiｅwed as ａ'meｎtaｌgramｍaｒ'．(心理语法）
❖ 2. Ｔhe leａrｍer's gramｍar is permeａble．（渗透性）
❖３. The ｌearner＇s gｒammar is tｒansｉtｉonａｌ.(迁移)
❖ 4. Ｔhｅｓｙstｅms ｌｅaｒnerｓconstruct contａin variableｒuleｓ．多变
❖5．Leaｒnｅｒs eｍploy various learｎiｎgｓtrategｉes toｄeｖelｏp ｔheir ｉnterlａｎｇuａge．（学习策略)
❖6．Tｈｅleａrner's grammａr is likｅly to foｓsiliｚｅ.(石化)
１. Ｍｅnｔal Ｇrammaｒ
❖The learnｅr ｃonstruｃts a sｙsｔeｍoｆabｓtraｃt ｌinguistic rulｅｓwｈich underｌｉｅs comｐreheｎsiｏn aｎｄproduction of thｅＬ２.Thiｓsystｅｍof ruｌeｓis vieweｄas a 'ｍental ｇrammaｒ＇andｉs refeｒred to asａｎ＇interｌａngｕage'．
2. Permｅabｌｅ
❖The ｇraｍmar ｉsｏpen to infｌueｎce from the ｏutsiｄｅ(i.e. ｔhroｕｇh the ｉｎｐut）. Ｉt ｉs also inflｕeｎｃeｄfｒom thｅinｓide. （i．e.omｉssion，ov ｅｒgenerａｌiｓation）computaｔional modeｌｏf L2 acｑuiｓition
３.Transitionａｌ
❖Learnｅrsｃｈａngｅtheir graｍmａr from one tｉmｅto anｏther ｂy addiｎg ｒｕleｓ，dｅlｅting rulｅs, and ｒｅcoｎsｔructｉng the whole systeｍ.
❖This results in an ｉnterlangｕａge continuｕm(连续体）
eg. Paint →ｐａｉnt,paiｎｔing → paｉnt, ｐaｉnting，painｔed
４. Variaｂle
❖Soｍe reseａrcｈerｓｈａvｅcｌａimｅｄtｈａt ｔｈe sｙｓteｍs learners consｔrucｔｃoｎtaiｎvariａble ruleｓ.Tｈａt is，tｈe lｅarners are l ｉkeｌy to have comｐetiｎg rules at aｎy oｎe stａgｅof deｖｅlopｍeｎt.
❖Otｈer reseａrcheｒs argue that intｅｒlanguａｇe systems are ｈomogener ｏus anｄthaｔvａriability rｅｆlｅcｔs tｈe miｓtａkeｓleａｒners ｍaｋｅwhｅｎｔheｙtrｙｔo uｓe tｈeｉr knowledge ｔo coｍmｕnicaｔｅ.
❖ 5.leａrｎinｇsｔrａtegiｅs
Learneｒs eｍｐloｙvaｒioｕs leaｒning ｓtrategies to develop their interlangｕaｇes．The ｄiffeｒｅnｔkinds of ｅrrｏrs learneｒs produce reflｅct ｄiｆferent learninｆｓtrategies．
６. Foｓsiliｚaｔion
Ｓｅlinker sugｇeｓted ｔhａt ｏnlｙabouｔ5% ofｌｅaｒnｅrs gｏｏn to develop tｈｅsamｅmeｎtal grammar as native sｐeakers.
３.4 Computatioｎａl modeｌof Ｌ２acquisition
❖input→intake→Ｌ 2 knowledge→ｏutpuｔ↓
'Black box' of ｔhｅlearｎer's mind=intｅrlanguａge constｒucteｄ
Other wayｓtｏeｌaｂoratｅthis ｂａsic moｄel
'Socｉal cｏnｔｅｘt＇addedｔo expｌain hoｗｔhe nａturｅoｆｔhe iｎｐut varies from onｅｓｅtｔiｎg ｔo anｏｔher
'L2knowlｅdge＇brokenｕp into ｔwo or mｏre cｏmpoｎents to reｆlect the d ｉfｆerｅｎｔkinds of knｏwｌedｇe learnｅrｓconstｒuｃts．
e．g.eｘplｉcit knoｗleｄｇe about lanｇｕage ＆ｉmplicit knｏｗledge oｆlaｎguａge(P35)
Aｎaｒrowｃaｎbe dｒawn ｆrom 'outｐut' tｏ'input'.
Cｈapter 4 Sociａｌasｐecｔs of ｉntｅrlaｎgｕage
4.1 Iｎｔｅrlanｇｕagｅas ａstｙlｉstic continuum (风格连续体)
Stylistic cｏntｉnuum：
a.carefｕl stｙｌe 谨慎体
b. vernaｃulaｒstｙle通俗体
Problemｓ: a.Ｌearners are ｎot aｌwaｙs most acｃuｒatｅin ｔｈeｉr careｆｕｌstｙｌe ａnd leａsｔcａrefuｌｉn tｈeir vernacular stylｅ.
b.the roｌｅｏｆsocｉal fａcｔors rｅmaiｎｓuncleaｒ.
Accomｍｏdationｔｈｅory:
Hｏw ｓｏcial ｇroupｓｉnfluｅnce ｔhｅcouｒｓes of L2 aｃquisitioｎ.
(Cｏｎveｒgeｎｃｅ，dｉvergenｃe)
4．2 Ｔhe aｃquiｓition ｍodel of L2 acｑuisｉtion（儒化模式）
Socｉal dｉｓｔａnce,pｓｙｃhoｌogicaｌdistaｎce，pidginiｚaｔiｏn
4.3 Sｏｃｉal idｅntity and investmenｔiｎＬ2 learning
Cultural cａpｉtａl isｎeedeｄto iｎｖestｉn lanｇｕage lｅarnｉng.
Chａｐteｒ5 Ｄiscourse Aspeｃts of Inteｒlａnguage
5.1Acquiriｎg dｉscoｕｒse rｕｌes
•Disｃourseｒules refｅｒto the rules or rｅgularitiｅs inｔｈe ｗaｙs in which natiｖeｓpeakeｒs ｈｏlｄｃonverｓａtiｏns.
5.2Thｅrｏle oｆｉｎput and inｔeｒactiｏn iｎL２acqｕisitioｎ
1. Ｓｔephen Kraｓhen’s inpｕt hypｏｔｈｅsｉs
•L2 ａcquｉsｉtion tａkｅｓpｌace wｈｅn a learner undeｒｓtands iｎpｕt tｈa ｔcｏntainｓgraｍmaｔicａｌfｏrms tｈatａre at‘i+1’ (ａre aｌittle mor ｅaｄvａｎcｅd than ｔhｅcｕrｒenｔsｔate ｏｆｔｈe lｅarｎeｒ’s iｎｔerlaｎguagｅ) .
•Ｌ2 ａcquｉsitｉon dｅｐends onｃomｐreｈensible inpｕt.(可理解的语言输入) •Curｒｅnt state: i ｎext advancｉng statｅ:i＋１
２．Michaｅl Lｏｎg’s ｉnｔeractiｏn hyｐｏthｅsｉs（互动假说）
•ＭichaｅｌLong’s inｔeraｃtion hypothesiｓalso eｍphasiｚｅs the impo ｒtａnce ｏｆcomｐrehensiblｅiｎput but claｉmｓtｈat iｔｉｓｍosｔeｆfeｃtｉve ｗhｅn itｉs modified through tｈe negotiatioｎof meａnｉｎg(意义协商)
3. Eｖeｌyn Hatch:Ｓcaｆfｏｌding
•Ｅvelyn Haｔch eｍｐhasｉzｅs ｔhｅcｏllaｂoｒａtive eｎdeavoｒs of the learｎers and ｔheiｒｉｎｔｅrlocutｏｒs ｉn constrｕctｉnｇdisｃouｒse anｄｓuggestsｔｈａt ｓyntactic sｔｒucｔures can gｒｏw ouｔof the proｃeｓｓｏf ｂuiｌdinｇthe dｉscourｓｅ
4.Scaffoｌｄing（支架学习法）
Ｌeａrｎeｒs use tｈｅdiｓcoursｅtｏｈelp thｅm prｏduce utterances thａt they wｏuld not be ableｔo pｒｏduｃe on tｈeir owｎ.
Ｍaｒk：Come ｈeｒｅ.
Ｈomer: Nｏcｏmｅhere.
５．３Tｈe roｌｅof oｕtput iｎL2 acquisitｉoｎ
•Krａｓｈen：Speａkiｎg is the rｅsult of acquisｉtion nｏｔiｔs caｕse. Thｅｏnlｙwａｙlｅarners cａｎｌeａrｎfromｔheｉr output is by treaｔinｇｉt ａs autｏ-ｉnpuｔ.
•Ｍｅｒrill Swaｉn:Coｍprｅhensｉblｅoutput also pｌaｙs ａpaｒt ｉn Ｌ2 ａｃｑuiｓｉtion.
•１) To serve a conscioｕsnｅss-raｉsinｇｆuｎction by heｌping learｎers to noｔic ｅgaps ｉｎtheiｒｉnｔerlａnguages.
•2) Toｔeｓt ｈyｐｏtheses.
•3) Tｏidｅnｔifｙpｒoｂlems witｈｉｔanｄdisｃussinｇways in whiｃh theyｃaｎｂe ｐuｔｒｉｇht.
Chaptｅr 6 Psycholｉngｕistic asｐｅｃts ｏｆinteｒlanguag ｅ
6.1 L１Ｔｒａnｓｆer
Nｅgａtiｖe traｎｓfer
Ｐｏsiｔivｅtｒansfer
Avoiｄanｃe
Contrａｓtive aｎalysis
Speech acｔs
Ｉnｔerlａngａge dｅｖeloｐment cannot foｌlｏw a restｒucｔuｒｉng coｎtinuu ｍ
6.2Tｈｅrole of conscioｕsnesｓin L2 ａcquisitiｏn
Sｃｈmiｄtａrgues thａt lｅａｒｎｉｎg ｃanｎoｔtake pｌａcｅwｉｔhoｕt what he ｃａlls notiｃing.
Ｉmplicｉt knｏwleｄge:thｅresｕlt of an automatic proceｓs
隐性知识:二语学习者能用但表达不出来的直觉知识
Expliｃiｔｋｎoｗledgｅ: the result of an efforｔful process
显性知识:二语学习者能意识到、能说出来的语言规则知识
❖It ｉs perｈapsｓelｆ-evidｅｎt that all ｌａnguagｅuｓerｓ, ｉncｌuding L ２ｌeaｒners，ｋｎow rules that ｇｕidｅｔheiｒpｅｒfoｒｍancｅwｉｔｈｏｕｔany awareness of ｗhat the ｒｕlｅs cｏｎsist ｏf．Theｙcan alwａｙs refleｃt ｏn thｉs iｍpｌicit kｎｏwledge 隐性知识，tｈus mａkｉnｇit expli ｃit.
❖It is ａlso clｅar that L2learneｒs may hａve kｎｏwlｅdｇe abouｔｔhｅＬ2(i.ｅ. explicｉt ｋnowlｅdge 显性知识)buｔbe unaｂle tｏuseｔｈis ｋnoｗleｄｇe in perfｏｒmance without conscious atteｎtioｎ.
6.3 Prｏceｓsing ｏpｅｒａｔioｎs
Ｏpｅratｉng prｉncipｌeｓ
➢Tｈe sｔｕｄy of the L1 acquisitｉon of many ｄｉffereｎｔlａnguages haｓled ｔo tｈe idenｔificatiｏn ｏfａnumber of general strａtegiesｗhich ｃhi ｌdren use to exｔract and segｍeｎｔlingｕｉstｉc informａtion from the lan ｇuage they hｅar.
➢Exampｌｅs: avoid interruptｉon
rearrａngement of liｎｇuiｓｔicｕnｉｔｓ
ａvoid ｅxcｅpｔiｏns
Muｌtidimensional model
➢This theｏｒy sought to accouｎｔfor both whｙｌeaｒnerｓacqｕirｅthe gr ａmｍar ｏｆａlanguaｇe in a definｉte ｏrdeｒand ａlsｏwｈy sｏmeｌｅarnｅrｓonｌｙdeｖelop very ｓｉmpleｉnterlａnｇuage grammａrｓ.
➢Iｔdistinguiｓhｅsａｄeｖelopｍentaｌandａvariａtiｏnａl aｘis.
Ｐroｃeｓsingｃｏnｓｔraｉnts
６.4 Comｍuniｃatioｎstratｅgｉes
➢Avoid pｒoｂlｅmatｉc items
My bｒothｅr made me toｇive him ｓome money.
➢Borroｗａword frｏm L1
➢Ｕsｅanｏthｅr ｔargeｔ-lanｇuagｅｗord ｔhat ｉｓapproｘimａte ｉｎme ａｎiｎg
➢Pａｒａpｈrasｅthe meaning of word
➢Construｃt an entiｒｅlｙnew word
Psyｃhｏliｎｇuistｉｃｍodels tｏaccount fｏr ｔhe uｓe of communiｃation strａtegieｓ
Fｏr example:Claus Ｆaｅrcｈand Gabriele Kasper pｒopoｓｅd ａmodel of speech ｐｒoductｉｏｎ.
6.5 Ｔｗo typesｏｆcomｐutatｉoｎａｌｍｏdｅl
Seｒｉａｌprocessinｇ: 串行处理
Inforｍａtiｏn ｉs pｒｏcesseｄｉn a ｓeriｅs ｏf seｑueｎtｉal sｔeps aｎd
resｕlts iｎtｈeｒepreｓentａｔioｎｏf whaｔｈas ｂｅeｎleａrneｄas ｓ
ome ｋｉnd of ‘rule’ ｏｒ‘sｔrategｙ’
Ｐaｒalleｌdistｒibutｅｄprocｅssing: 并行处理
Leaｒｎerｓwiｔｈthe aｂiliｔｙtoｐerforｍa numbeｒof mｅntａl
tasks at thｅsame time
Ｃhａpｔｅr ７liｎgｕistｉc aｓpeｃts oｆiｎｔｅrlａnguage
7．1Typological uｎiｖeｒsａls: rｅｌativｅclause
当代类型学是从微观的视角研究语言各个层面的类型特征与共性,通过对大量语言的观察，统计和对比,从中发现语言的普遍规律和形成这些规律的普遍性制约因素,并探究其形成动因，以解释和预测语言可能具有的变化模式，从而揭示语言发展变化的本质。

当代类型学理论中的“标记性”,“蕴含共性”和“语法层级”对二语习得研究产生了巨大的影响，开启了基于类型学理论的二语习得研究路径。

7.2Univeｒsal gｒammar
Chomsｋy argｕesｔhａt languaｇe ｉs goveｒｎed by ａset of higｈly abstｒacｔprincｉpｌeｓtｈａt ｐｒovide parａmeteｒs which aｒe given ｐarticular sｅttｉ
ngs in dｉfferent language．
7．３Ｌｅａrｎａｂilｉtｙ
Ｃｈoｍsｋy hａs claｉmed tｈat children learningｔｈｅir L１must rely oｎinnate knoｗｌｅdｇeｏfｌａnguaｇe becａuse oｔhｅrwiｓe tｈｅtaskｆacing t ｈem iｓan impｏｓsiｂle one．
Hｉs argument is ｔhat the inpuｔtｏｗhｉch children are ｅxpｏsｅd is insufｆｉcｉｅnｔto enａｂｌeｔｈeｍtoｄiｓcｏｖer ｔhe rules of ｔhe laｎguage ｔｈｅyａｒe tryiｎg to learn. Ｔhｉｓｉｎsｕffｉcieｎcy is refeｒred to as the poverty ｏｆtｈe stimulus．
７.４Tｈe criticａｌperｉｏd hypothesis(语言学习关键期假设)
Ｔhｅcrｉtical period ｈypothｅsｉs statｅs tｈaｔthｅreｉｓaｐｅrioｄduring whiｃh ｌaｎgｕaｇe acqｕｉsｉtｉoｎis eａsy aｎd coｍpｌｅte （i.e．native-ｓpeａkｅｒaｂility is achievｅd) aｎdｂeｙond whiｃｈit is diffiｃult aｎd ｔｙpiｃａlｌｙiｎcomｐlｅte.
７.5AccesｓｔｏＵG
１．Complete ａccｅss
2．Ｎo access
3. Ｐａｒtiａl aｃcｅss
4．Ｄｕal access
７．6Ｍaｒｋedｎess
The degree ｏｆmarkednｅｓsｃorrｅlates wiｔh tｈeｏrder oｆacｑuisiｔion. (可标记等级与语言习得顺序是相关的)
一对语言特征包括两个对立体: 有标记的和无标记的。

无标记成分：常见的,意义一般的,分布较广的。

有标记成分:反之。

７.7Cogniｔivｅveｒuｓlｉnguiｓtiｃeｘpｌａnａtiｏn
如何看待这些语言学解释呢？aｌternative？cｏｍplemｅntａry?
Iｔdepenｄs on whethｅr linguｉstiｃunｉvｅｒsaｌs ａｎd maｒkeｄness arｅseen aｓexeｒｔｉnｇa dｉｒect eｆfect on L2aｃquiｓiｔion ｏｒwheｔher the ｌiｎｇuis ｔicｕｎｉｖerｓals and mａｒkedneｓs are seen ａs exeｒting a dｉrect effｅｃt oｎL2 ａcｑuｉsitiｏｎ．
Chaptｅr 8Iｎdivｉdual ｄｉｆferｅｎces in L2 acqｕisiｔiｏn (从心理学角度探究二语习得的差异)
The deｇree of anxiety they eｘperienｃe ａnd ｔheir ｐreparednｅsｓtoｔａke ｒｉsks in ｌearninｇand using L2.
8.1Ｌanguagｅaｐｔitude
1. 音位编码能力Ｐhoneｍic coｄinｇabilｉty
2．语法敏感度Gramｍａｔｉcaｌlaｎgｕage learning ability
3.归纳能力Iｎdｕｃｔive laｎguagｅlｅａrning abｉlｉｔy
4．机械学习能力Roｔe lｅarniｎg ａbiｌｉty
8.2Ｍｏtivatｉon
1．Insｔrumeｎtａl motivation 工具型动机
2. Intｅgratiｖｅｍotivaｔｉｏn融入型动机
3. Resultａｔｉve motivａtion结果型动机
４. Iｎtｒinsic motiｖatiｏn 本能动机
学习过程中，四种动机相辅相成
(1).Ｔhey are compｌementary ｒaｔｈer thａｎas ｄisｔｉnct anｄoppｏsitioｎａl
(2) Moｔivation isｄynamic ｉn natuｒe．
8.3Ｌeaｒｎing stratｅｇiｅｓ
Ｔhe particｕｌar approacｈes or technｉquｅs ｔhat ｌearnｅｒs ｅmpｌｏy to try t ｏleaｒn an L2
Ｔhey can be beｈavioral：lｉｋe rｅpeatｉｎg new wｏrｄs aｌoud tｏｈelp yｏｕrｅｍｅmbeｒtｈeｍ.
They caｎｂe mentａl：like, usinｇｔｈe linguistｉc orｓｉtuational cｏntext to infer the meaｎing of ａｎeｗworｄ.
１. 认知策略Ｃognｉtｉｖe stｒaｔｅｇieｓ：个人学习时在心理上运用他以前学得的知识经验，凭经验去辨别，选择，思维,分析,归纳，从而获得新知识的一个方法
Cｏgnｉtive ｓtraｔegies arｅtｈose that are involｖed in ｔhe aｎalyｓis, synt ｈｅsｉｓ, or transｆｏrmation ｏf ｌeａrninｇmaｔｅrialｓ.
eg：Recomｂinatioｎwhiｃh invｏlveｓconstrｕcｔｉng a ｍeaｎｉngfｕl sent ｅｎｃe ｂy recombｉｎing known eｌｅments of thｅL2 in a new waｙ．
2. 元认知策略Metａ-ｃoｇnitivｅsｔrategｉｅｓare tｈoｓe iｎvolved in pla
ｎnｉng, mｏｎiｔoriｎg ａnd ｅvaｌuatiｎg leaｒniｎg.
eg：seｌeｃｔｉve ａttenｔion(选择注意)ｗheｒe the lｅarnｅr makeｓa co ｎsｃious dｅcｉsｉon to ａｔtend to paｒtｉculａr aspｅcｔs of thｅｉnp ｕｔ
元认知策略：主体将自己的认知过程最为认知和意识对象,并对认知活动的全过程进行不断地，自觉地监控和调节的执行策略。

3. 交际策略／情感策略
Ｓｏcial straｔegiｅs/affeｃtiｖｅstratｅgｉes cｏncern the ｗayｓｉnｗhich leａrneｒs ｃhｏoｓｅｔo ｉnteｒact with other speakers.
eg:quesｔioning for cｌａriｆicatiｏn（i.ｅ. asking for rｅｐeｔiｔioｎ, a ｐａraphraｓe, or an exａmplｅ.
交际策略／情感策略:与别人合作交往的策略
Ｗhich strateｇies ａre iｍｐortant ｆor L２acquisitｉoｎ？
①Ｓuccessful learneｒs pay atｔenｔｉｏｎｔｏｂoth form and meanｉng.
②Ｇood lanｇuage lｅarners are aｌso very active（i．e. ｔheｙusｅｓtrategies f ｏｒtaking charｇe of thｅir own learning)
③Theyａｌsｏshow awarenｅsｓｏf ｔhree leａｒninｇpｒocess and theｉr own persｏｎaｌleａｒning styles ａnｄ，are fｌｅxible and aｐｐropｒiate in tｈeｉr use ｏf learning ｓｔrategieｓ.
Ｏthｅｒstudieｓ:
①Successfuｌlｅarｎｅrs use morｅstratｅgies ｔｈaｎuｎsｕcｃeｓsful leaｒｎers.
②Diｆferent sｔｒategies ａre reｌateｄto differenｔaspecｔｓof L2leａrn ｉｎg.
③Successfuｌｌｅarners may also cａll on different straｔegiｅs aｔdiffeｒent st ａges ｏfｔheｉｒdeveloｐment.
Stｒatｅｇies iｎｖoｌvｅfｏrmaｌpractiｃｅ形式操作策略contributｅto thｅdeｖeloｐｍenｔoｆｌｉnguiｓticｃompeteｎce, lｉke rｅｈｅaｒsiｎg ａｎeｗｗord.
Ｓtｒategiｅs inｖolving ｆuｎctｉonaｌprａcｔiｃe功能操作策略aiｄｔhe dｅｖelopmｅnt of coｍmｕniｃative skｉlｌs, ｌikｅseｅkiｎg out nａtive speakers to talk to.
Ｃhaｐter9 Ｉｎstruction and L2 Ａcｑuisition
９．1Form ｆocused instrｕctioｎ
Doeｓit ｗork?
How sｉgnifiｃant the effeｃtｓｏf ｉnstructions actｕａllｙarｅ?
Tｅaｃhａbilty hyｐothesis可教性假说
1.取决于教学的本质。

2.取决于目标结构的本质。

3.只有在学习者拥有持续的听,用,目标语的时候才有用。

Whａt kiｎd of fｏrm-ｆｏcused iｎstrucｔion wｏrks best?
1．DｉstｉnctioｎbetｗeｅｎProｄuction based instｒuctiｏnａnd Input baｓｅd i ｎstrｕction
2. conscioｕsｎess-rａiｓing
９.２Learｎiｎg–iｎstrｕctioｎmatching 因材施教
9.3Sｔraｔegy traiｎing策略训练
Chapteｒ10 Muｌtｉple peｒspｅcｔiｖe in SLA
1．Therｅis no single metaｐhor that caｎｅncｏmpass ａｌl ｔhe ｍetａpｈorｓｔhat SＬA ｈａs ｄｒａwｎｏn to ｅxpl ａin hｏw learnersａcｑuｉre an L2.
２. Ｓomeonｅａrgue ｔhat SLA neｅds to engａge inｔhｅc ａreｆｕl eliminatｉoｎof theoｒｉｅs to demｏｎstｒatｅits ｍａtｕrity as a disｃiｐline.
Otherｓaｒgue thaｔＬ2 isａhｉｇhlyｃomｐlｅx pｈeｎ
omenoｎand that, ｔheｒefoｒｅ, ｍulｔiｐle thｅoｒiｅsａｒe ｂoth inｅvｉtable ａｎd desiｒaｂle．
3．1 Some reｓeａｒcheｒs hａve ｂeｅn primarily coｎcerned withｌanｇuage pｅdａgogy and hａvｅseｅn SLA aｓcoｎtrｉbuting tｏmore efｆｅctivｅｌangｕage teaching．
3.2 Otherｓhave sｅen more concernｅd with liｎgｕisｔｉcs aｎd hａvｅsｅen SLA as a wａy ofｔｅsting hypotｈｅsiｓaｂout ｔhe naｔｕｒe of ｌａｎguaｇe.
3.3Sｔill others haｖe beｅn coｎcerneｄwｉｔｈｔhｅｓocioloｇｙof multiｌinguａlｃoｍｍunities and arｅinｔeｒeｓted in ＳLA beｃause ｉｔsｅrves ｔo iｌlusｔrate ｈｏｗsｏcial conｔｅｘt aｆfeｃｔs ａnｄis affｅcted ｂｙｌanguａgｅ.。