T1927 Psychological Factors
t.s.eliot生平简介英文
t.s.eliot生平简介英文托马斯·斯特尔那斯·艾略特，英国诗人、剧作家和文学批评家，诗歌现代派运动领袖。
下面是店铺给大家整理的t.s.eliot生平简介英文，供大家参阅!t.s.eliot简介Thomas Stearns Eliot (known as T · E · Eliot), British poet, playwright and literary critic, poetic modernist movement leader. Born in St. Louis, Missouri, USA. Representative works are "wilderness", "four quartets" and so on.Eliot studied philosophy and comparative literature at Harvard University, touched Sanskrit and Eastern culture, and was interested in the Hegelian philosophers and had been influenced by French symbolism. In 1914, Eliot met the American poet Pound. After the outbreak of the First World War, he came to England, and settled in London, has done a teacher and bank staff. The "wilderness" published in 1922 earned him an international reputation, which was regarded by the critics as one of the most influential poems of the twentieth century, considered to be a milestone in Anglo-American modern poetry. In 1927, Eliot joined the British nationality. The "four quartets" published in 1943 brought him the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1948. In his later years he devoted himself to the creation of poetry. In 1965 Eliot died in London.t.s.eliot人物经历September 26, 1888, Eliot was born in St. Louis, Missouri, before the age of sixteen, Eliot in St. Louis's Smith College study.In the autumn of 1905, Eliot entered Harvard, where his new life was very comfortable, and one of the few societies he joined was the literary signet of literature. With the influence of someprofessors, Eliot began to pay attention to the ignorance of Irving Babbitt and the skepticism of George Santayana, the most influential of which was Arthur Symons' The symbolism movement in literature ". As Eliot initially selected the course to be too scattered and make themselves frantic, but finally by virtue of his perseverance finally got a bachelor's degree in comparative literature and a master's degree in English literature.In 1910, Eliot left the United States, to the Sorbonne in Paris, where the avant-garde ideas of various fields of art revolved around him, listening to Henri Bergson at the College of France After the philosophy class, Eliot was fascinated all of a sudden, which makes him back to the then known as the golden age of philosophy of Harvard Ph.D.In 1914, Eliot traveled to Europe, where most of his philosophical teachers at Harvard had treated him as a future colleague. Eliot intends to enter the University of Oxford in the same year to study at the University of Merton, accompanied by Bradley (F.H.Bradley) colleagues and followers Haoxld Joachim (Harold Joachim). As a result of the war approaching, Eliot ahead of the journey to England, arrived in London in August the same year, accompanied by the American poet Aiken (Aiken) will Eliot's poem sent to the poet Pound (Ezra Pound), September , Eliot and Pound first met, since then, the two in the neoclassical poetry of the creative activities closely linked. With the help of Pound, many magazines published Eliot's poems, the most notable of which was published in 1915, "J. Alfred Prufrock's Love Songs." This poem imitates the French symbolist poet Ralph Ruffle's style, with a very strong irony, depicting the social background of the people for the love of life for the complex psychological.In April 1916, Eliot completed the doctoral thesis, but lost hisdegree because he refused to return home. In the spring of 1917, a friend provided Eliot with a stable job and served as an assessor at Lloyd`s Bank. This work made Eliot have the time and energy to continue his poetry creation, this year, his first book "Prufrock and other" published to his great motivation. This book is printed by the "egoist" magazine, anonymous by the Pound couple funded. This book laid the position of his poet for Eliot, and then published in 1922 the "wilderness", which was regarded by critics as one of the most influential poems of the twentieth century, and Eliot himself Fame, this work is considered a milestone in Anglo-American modern poetry.In 1927, Eliot joined the British.In 1948, Eliot won the Nobel Prize for Literature by virtue of the "Four Quartet". "Four Quartets" was created between 1935 and 1942, respectively, "burned Norton", "East Cocker Village", "dry Selvice" and "small Ji Ding." The work deals with time and eternal philosophical poems, but the description is no longer a purely abstract concept, but rather a concrete history to explore the dialectical relationship between eternity and time.On January 4, 1965, Eliot died in London's home. After the death of Eliot, the family cremated according to his last words. In the church, his sign reads: Remember Thomas Stearns Eliot, a poet. The above also reads his life and death, and the other two words: "My beginning is my end, my end is my beginning.t.s.eliot创作特点Eliot in his early creation is good at hiding himself behind the verse, constantly changing masks and tone. The poem "I" is mostly a drama character, not a direct expression of the author himself. But overall it seems that he preferred a kind of sluggish, helpless at the same time without losing the voice of humor. Thisfeature does make it difficult for the reader to understand Eliot's early poetry. Eliot's poems often do not have a good idea of the idea, he several times jokingly quoted Byron "Don Juan" in the poetic behavior of their own excuse: "I certainly can not know that I know / when I want to reveal their own hands "The poet's work is certainly puzzling, and the diversity and complexity of our cultural system will inevitably have a role in the poet's sensitivity," the poet must have Become more and more unpredictable, more and more obscure, more and more indirect, in order to force the language to give in, if necessary, even disrupt the normal order of language to express meaning.Eliot argues that there are "imaginary order" and "imaginary logic" in poetic creation, which are different from ordinary people's familiar order and logic, because poets omit the link from the role of the link; readers should listen to the image of poetry T o enter his memory in a sensitive state, do not have to look at those images used properly, and ultimately will naturally receive a good appreciation effect. The most important thing to express this "imaginary order" and "the logic of imagination" is probably the "wilderness" of Eliot's modernist position.The "four quartets" are the philosophers of eternity and time, but the poet does not use the concept of pure abstraction. He leads the reader to explore the dialectical relationship between eternity and time in concrete history. The terms "four quartets" are normal and precise. Eliot, who is unusually sensitive to language, often does not agree, and he writes poems as "unbearable wrestling with words and meanings" in the village of East Cocker. Eliot's own beliefs and creations have never been peace of mind, and he feared that the language would be degraded by improper use, which would inevitably affect thequality of our thoughts and feelings.。
伍德里奇---计量经济学第8章部分计算机习题详解（STATA）
伍德⾥奇---计量经济学第8章部分计算机习题详解（STATA）班级：⾦融学×××班姓名：××学号：×××××××C8.1SLEEP75.RAWsleep=β0+β1totwork+β2educ+β3age+β4age2+β5yngkid+β6male+u 解：（ⅰ）写出⼀个模型，容许u的⽅差在男⼥之间有所不同。
这个⽅差不应该取决于其他因素。
在sleep=β0+β1totwork+β2educ+β3age+β4age2+β5yngkid+β6male+u模型下，u⽅差要取决于性别，则可以写成：Var u︳totwork,educ,age,yngkid,male =Var u︳male =δ0+δ1male。
所以，当⽅差在male=1时，即为男性时，结果为δ0+δ1；当为⼥性时，结果为δ0。
将sleep对totwork，educ，age，age2，yngkid和male进⾏回归，回归结果如下：（ⅱ）利⽤SLEEP75.RAW的数据估计异⽅差模型中的参数。
u的估计⽅差对于男⼈和⼥⼈⽽⾔哪个更⾼？由截图可知：u2=189359.2?28849.63male+r20546.36 (27296.36)由于male 的系数为负，所以u 的估计⽅差对⼥性⽽⾔更⼤。
（ⅲ）u 的⽅差是否对男⼥⽽⾔有显著不同？因为male 的 t 统计量为?1.06，所以统计不显著，故u 的⽅差是否对男⼥⽽⾔并没有显著不同。
C8.2 HPRICE1.RAW price =β0+β1lotsize +β2sqrft +β3bdrms +u 解：（ⅰ）利⽤HPRICE 1.RAW 中的数据得到⽅程（8.17）的异⽅差—稳健的标准误。
讨论其与通常的标准误之间是否存在任何重要差异。
●先进⾏⼀般回归，结果如下：●再进⾏稳健回归，结果如下：由两个截图可得：price =?21.77+0.00207lotsize +0.123sqrft +13.85bdrms29.48 0.00064 0.013 (9.01)37.13 0.00122 0.018 [8.48]n =88，R 2=0.672⽐较稳健标准误和通常标准误，发现lotsize 的稳健标准误是通常下的2倍，使得 t 统计量相差较⼤。
人教新版八年级上册《Unit_3-4》2021年同步练习卷
人教新版八年级上册《Unit 3-4》2021年同步练习卷Ⅰ.单项选择。
选出划线部分发音为/ɪ/的单词。
A．primary B．similar C．prize D．ready1. 选出划线部分发音为/ɪ/的单词。
（）A.s i milarB.pr i maryC.pr i zeD.r i de2. ﹣Thanks for your invitation.The dinner is very delicious.﹣________.（）A.You're welcomeB.Don't worryC.That's a good ideaD.I'd love to3. I like the new ________ very much.It sounds very beautiful.（）A.activityB.programC.songpetition4. ﹣What do you think of the club？﹣It is great．You ________ join it．（）A.needB.can'tC.mustD.should5. Enough sleep is ________ for our health，so we mustn't stay up late.（）A.terribleB.necessaryC.excellentD.enjoyable6. ﹣In the music club Helen plays the guitar ________.﹣Yes！She even plays it as ________ as her music teacher.（）A.most beautifully；betterB.more beautifully；betterC.more beautifully；wellD.most beautifully；well7. There are so many T﹣shirts in the clothes store.It is difficult for me to ________ my favorite one ________ them.（）A.ask；forB.share；withC.choose；fromD.put；into8. ﹣Which bicycle shall we buy，the red one or the blue one？﹣It's up to you ________.（）A.to decideB.decideC.decidingD.decided 9. ﹣What's your plan for the weekend，Linda？﹣I'll go on a picnic with my friends ________ it doesn't rain.（）A.becauseB.as soon asC.even thoughD.as long as10. ﹣Mike，what do you think of the book？﹣________ I want to read it again.（）A.Have a good day!B.It's fantastic!C.That will be very nice.D.I'm afraid I have no time.Ⅱ.完形填空。
The Psychology of Procrastination
The Psychology of Procrastination The psychology of procrastination is a complex and fascinating subject that affects many individuals in various aspects of their lives. Procrastination refers to the act of delaying or postponing tasks, often to the point of experiencing negative consequences. While it may seem like a simple act of laziness or lack of motivation, there are several underlying psychological factors that contribute to this behavior. One perspective on procrastination is that it is a result of poor time management skills. People who struggle with managing their time effectively may find themselves overwhelmed by the number of tasks they need to complete, leading them to put off important responsibilities. This can create a cycle of procrastination, as the individual becomes more stressed and anxious about the impending deadlines, making it even more difficult to start the task. Another perspective suggests that procrastination is a form of self-sabotage. Some individuals may have a fear of failure or success, and by procrastinating, they create a self-fulfilling prophecy. By delaying their work, they can attribute any potential failures to the lack of effort put into the task, rather than their own abilities. This can provide a sense of protection from criticism or judgment. Furthermore, procrastination can also be linked to perfectionism. Perfectionists often set unrealistically high standards for themselves, and the fear of not meeting these standards can lead to avoidance and procrastination. They maybelieve that if they cannot complete a task perfectly, it is not worth doing at all. This mindset can be paralyzing and prevent them from taking any action. Additionally, procrastination can be a result of poor emotional regulation. Some individuals may turn to procrastination as a way to avoid uncomfortable emotions such as stress, anxiety, or boredom. Engaging in a distracting activity ordelaying a task can provide temporary relief from these negative emotions. However, this relief is short-lived and can lead to even more stress and anxiety in thelong run. From a psychological perspective, procrastination can also be seen as a form of self-regulation failure. It involves a conflict between the individual's long-term goals and their short-term desires. While the long-term goal may be to complete a task or achieve a certain outcome, the short-term desire for immediate gratification or avoidance takes precedence. This conflict can lead to a lack ofself-control and the choice to procrastinate. In conclusion, the psychology of procrastination is a multifaceted issue that involves various perspectives. It can stem from poor time management skills, fear of failure or success, perfectionism, poor emotional regulation, and self-regulation failure. Understanding these underlying factors can help individuals develop strategies to overcome procrastination and improve their productivity. It is important to recognize that procrastination is not simply a character flaw but rather a complex psychological issue that can be addressed with the right tools and support.。
The Psychology of Decision Making
The Psychology of Decision MakingThe psychology of decision making is a fascinating topic that has been studied extensively by psychologists, economists, and other social scientists. Decision making is a complex process that involves many different factors, including cognitive, emotional, and social influences. In this essay, we will explore some of the key concepts and theories related to decision making, as well as some of the challenges and limitations that can arisein this process.One of the most important concepts in the psychology of decision making is the idea of bounded rationality. This refers to the fact that people are not always able to make fully rational decisions, due to limitations in their cognitive abilities or the information available to them. For example, people may be influenced by heuristics or biases that lead them to make decisions that are not optimal from a purely rational perspective. Additionally, people may not have access to all of the information they need to make a fully informed decision, or they may not have the time or resources to process all of the available information.Another key concept in the psychology of decision making is the idea of prospect theory. This theory suggests that people do not always make decisions based on the expected value of different outcomes, as traditional economic theory would predict. Instead, people are often more motivated by the potential for gains or losses, and may be more willing to take risks in situations where they stand to gain something, even if the expected value of the outcome is not particularly high. This can help to explain why people may be more willing to gamble or invest in risky ventures when they believe there is a chance for a big payoff.In addition to these cognitive and emotional factors, social influences can also play a major role in decision making. For example, people may be influenced by the opinions of others, or by social norms and expectations. This can lead to conformity and groupthink, where people may be reluctant to express dissenting opinions or challenge the status quo. Additionally, people may be influenced by the power dynamics of the situation, such as the authority or expertise of the person making the decision.Despite all of these factors that can influence decision making, it is still possible for people to make good decisions that are in line with their goals and values. One approach to improving decision making is to focus on increasing people's awareness of their biases and heuristics, and providing them with tools and strategies to overcome these limitations. For example, people can be taught to use decision trees or other decision-making frameworks to help them break down complex decisions into smaller, more manageable pieces.Another approach to improving decision making is to provide people with more information and feedback about their decisions. For example, people can be given access to data and analytics that help them to understand the potential outcomes of different decisions, or they can be given feedback on their past decisions to help them learn from their mistakes and make better decisions in the future. Additionally, people can be encouraged to seek out diverse perspectives and opinions, and to challenge their own assumptions and beliefs in order to make more informed decisions.In conclusion, the psychology of decision making is a complex and multifaceted topic that involves many different factors, including cognitive, emotional, and social influences. While people are not always able to make fully rational decisions, there are many strategies and approaches that can be used to improve decision making and help people to achieve their goals and values. By increasing people's awareness of their biases and limitations, providing them with more information and feedback, and encouraging them to seek out diverse perspectives and challenge their assumptions, we can help to create a more informed and effective decision-making process.。
TheModerator-MediatorVariableDistinctioninSocialPsychologicalResearch
cal function of this article is to clarify for experimental researchers the importance of respecting these distinctions. This is not, however, the central thrust of our analysis. Rather, our major emphasis is on contrasting the moderator-mediator functions in ways that delineate the implications of this distinction for theory and research. We focus particularly on the differential implications for choice of experimental design, research operations, and plan of statistical analysis. We also claim that there are conceptual implications of the failure to appreciate the moderator-mediator distinction. Among the issues we will discuss in this regard are missed opportunities to probe more deeply into the nature of causal mechanisms and integrate seemingly irreconcilable theoretical positions. For example, it is possible that in some problem areas disagreements about mediators can be resolved by treating certain variables as moderators. The moderator and mediator functions will be discussed at three levels: conceptual, strategic, and statistical. To avoid any misunderstanding of the moderator-mediator distinction by erroneously equating it with the difference between experimental manipulations and measured variables, between situational and person variables, or between manipulations and verbal self-reports, we will describe both actual and hypothetical examples involving a wide range of variables and operations. That is, moderators may involve either manipulations or assessments and either situational or person variables. Moreover, mediators are in no way restricted to verbal reports or, for that matter, to individual-level variables. Finally, for expository reasons, our analysis will initially stress the need to make clear whether one is testing a moderator or a mediator type of model. In the second half of the article, we provide a design that allows one to test within the structure of the same study whether a mediator or moderator interpretation is more appropriate. Although these issues are obviously important for a large number of areas within psychology, we have targeted this article for a social psychological audience because the relevance of this distinction is highest in social psychology, which uses experi-
Why We Love Who We Love
Unit 6Text AWhy We Love Who We LoveI. Background information1. Dr. Joyce Brothers(born on October 20, 1927) is an American psychologist and advice columnist, publishing a daily syndicated newspaper column since 1960. She had a monthly column in Good Housekeeping magazine for almost four decades, and a syndicated newspaper column that she began writing in the 1970s, and which at its height was printed in more than 300 newspapers. She has published several best-selling books, including the 1982 “What Every Woman Should Know About Men,” and a 1992 book called “Widowed,” inspired by the loss of her husband; the book offered practical advice for widows and widowers, helping them to cope with their grief and create a new life for themselves. Today, Brothers continues to do guest appearances on television and radio talk shows.2. Love map A love map is a concept originated by John Money to assist a discussion of why people like what they enjoy sexually and erotically. According to Money, it is “a developmental representation or template in the mind and in the brain depicting the idealized lover and the idealized program of sexual and erotic activity projected in imagery or actually engaged in with that lover.”3.John William Money (8 July 1921 – 7 July 2006) was a psychologist, sexologist and author, specializing in research into sexual identity and biology of gender.4. Little League Little League Baseball and Softball is a non-profit organization in South Williamsport, Pennsylvania, United States which organizes local youth baseball and softball leagues throughout the U.S. and the rest of the world. Founded by Carl Stotz in 1939 as a three-team league in Williamsport, Pennsylvania, Little League Baseball encourages local volunteers to organize and operate Little League programs that are annual chartered through Little League International. Each league can structure itself to best serve the children in the area in which the league operates. Several specific divisions of Little League baseball and softball are available to children ages 5 to 18. The organization holds a congressional charter under Title 36 of the United States Code.5. Rotary International Rotary Club is an organization of service clubs known as Rotary Clubs located all over the world. It is a secular organization open to all persons regardless of54race, color, creed or political preference. There are more than 32 000 clubs and over 1.2 million members worldwide. The members of Rotary Clubs are known as Rotarians. The stated purpose of the organization is to bring together business and professional leaders to provide humanitarian service, encourage high ethical standards in all vocations, and help build goodwill and peace in the world. Members usually meet weekly for breakfast, lunch or dinner, which is a social event as well as an opportunity to organize work on their service goals.II. Language points1. What mysterious force drives us into the arms of one person, while pushing us away from another who might appear equally desirable to any unbiased observer? (para. 3) What mysterious power makes us attracted to that someone special even if the people whom we face might be all suitable if judged fairly.2. Of the many factors influencing our idea of the perfect mate, one of the most telling, according to John Money, professor emeritus of medical psychology and pediatrics at Johns Hopkins University, is what he calls our “love map” —a group of messages encoded in our brains that describes our likes and dislikes. (para.4) Many factors may influence our choice of a marriage partner. One of the most compelling factors is defined as “love map” by John Money who is professor emeritus of medical psychology and pediatrics at Johns Hopkins University, which is a group of messages indicating what we like and what we don’t like.3. It also records the kind of personality that appeals to us, whether it’s the warm and friendly type or the strong, silent type.(para. 4) The “love map” also records the personality type which attracts us, whether it’s the warm and frie ndly type or the strong, silent type.4. When I lecture, I often ask couples in the audience what drew them to their dates or mates. (para. 6) When I deliver a lecture, I often ask couples what made them attracted to their lovers or marriage partners.5. The mother has an additional influence on her sons: she not only gives them clues to what they will find attractive in a mate, but also affects how they feel about women in general. (para.9) The son may not only choose a mate who is quite similar to his mother in characteristics, but also develop his feelings toward women in general.6. Conversely, a mother who has a depressive personality, and is sometimes friendly but then suddenly turns cold and rejecting, may raise a man who becomes a “dance-away lover.” (para. 10) On the contrary, if a mother is depressed in general, and sometimes friendly but then suddenly becomes cold and merciless, her son may become an unreliable lover.7. Because he’s been so scared about love from his mother, he is afraid of commi tmentUnit 6 55and may pull away from a girlfriend for this reason. (para.10) …due to this reason, he may be afraid of dating.8. While the mother determines in large part what qualities attract us in a mate, it’s the father — the first male in our lives — who influences how we relate to the opposite sex. (para.11) Whereas the mother determines to a large extent what qualities in a mate appeal to us, the father, who is the first male in our lives, influences how we get along with the opposite sex.9. We hang around with people in the same town; (para.13) We stroll around and stay with people in the same town;hang about/ (a) round be standing or loitering about, doing nothing definiteSince he lost his job, he’s been hanging about here. 他失业后一直在这里闲着。
詹姆斯计量经济学第三版奇数题
詹姆斯计量经济学第三版奇数题介绍《詹姆斯计量经济学（第三版）》是詹姆斯·肯尼迪（James H. Stock）和马克·怀森迈尔（Mark W. Watson）合著的一本计量经济学教材。
该教材受到广泛认可，是深入理解计量经济学和实证研究方法的重要参考书。
本文档将针对该教材中的奇数题进行讨论和解答。
第一章：经济计量学概述1.1 经济计量学的定义经济计量学是对经济理论进行检验和评估的学科。
它通过建立经济模型、收集和分析实证数据，来研究经济现象和规律。
1.3 经济计量学的应用经济计量学在实际应用中具有广泛的领域，如宏观经济学、劳动经济学、国际贸易等。
它可以用于政策制定、市场预测、风险评估等方面。
第三章：线性回归模型的基本假设3.1 线性回归模型的基本形式线性回归模型是一种用于描述变量之间线性关系的模型。
它基于以下假设： - 线性假设：解释变量和被解释变量之间存在线性关系； - 随机抽样假设：样本是随机抽取的，可以代表总体； - 高斯-马尔可夫假设：误差项具有零均值、独立同分布，并且与解释变量无关。
3.3 普通最小二乘估计法普通最小二乘（OLS）估计法是一种用于估计线性回归模型参数的方法。
它通过最小化观测值与模型预测值之间的差异来确定参数的最佳值。
第五章：假设检验和置信区间5.1 假设检验的基本思想假设检验是用于判断统计推断是否有效的方法。
它基于假设，通过样本数据对假设进行验证。
5.3 单个系数的t检验t检验用于检验单个系数的显著性。
它通过计算系数的t值和对应的p值，来判断系数是否显著。
第七章：多元线性回归模型7.1 多元线性回归模型的基本形式多元线性回归模型是在线性回归模型的基础上，引入多个解释变量来描述被解释变量的变化。
它的基本形式为：Y = β₀ + β₁X₁ + β₂X₂ + … + βₖXₖ + ε。
7.3 拟合优度和回归系数的显著性检验拟合优度用于衡量回归模型的拟合程度。
常用的拟合优度指标包括决定系数（R²）和调整后的决定系数（Adj-R²）。
TOFELmoni(1)
Mountaineers have noted that as they climb, for example, up to the 12,633-foot Humphreys Peak in the San Francisco Peaks in Arizona, plant life changes radically. Starting among the cacti of the Sonoran Desert, one climbs into a pine forest at 7,000 feet and a treeless alpine tundra at the summit. It may seem that plants at a given altitude are associated in what can be called “communities” –groupings of interacting species. The idea is that over time, plants that require particular climate and soil conditions come to live in the same places, and hence are frequently to be found together. Scientists who study the history of plant life are known as paleobotanists, or paleobots for short. They build up a picture of how groups of plants have responded to climate changes and how ecosystems develop. But are these associations, which are real in the present, permanent?A great natural experiment took place on this planet between 25,000 and 10,000 years ago, when small changes in the earth’s orbit and axis of rotation caused great sheets of ice to spread from the poles. These glaciers covered much of North America and Europe to depths of up to two miles, and then, as the climate warmed, they retreated. During this retreat, they left behind newly uncovered land for living things to colonize, and as those living things moved in they laid down a record we can read now. As the ice retreated and plants started to grow near a lake, they would release pollen. Some would fall into the lake, sink to the bottom, and be incorporated into the sediment. By drilling into the lake bottom it is possible to read the record of successive plant life around the lake. The fossil record seems clear; there is little or no evidence that entire groups of plants moved north together. Things that lived together in the past don’t live together now, and things that live together now didn’t live together in the past. Each individual organism moved at its own pace. The fossil record seems to be telling us that we should be thinking about preserving species by giving them room to maneuver – to respond to environmental changes.1. What is the passage mainly about?(a) The effects of the ice age on plants(b) Plant migration after the ice age(c) The need to develop a new approach to environmental issues(d) Communities of plants live at different altitudes2. The word “radically” in line 2 is closest in meaning to(a) variably(b) demonstrably(c) quickly(d) dramatically3. The author mentions “cacti” in line 3 and a ”treeless alpine tundra” in line4 to illustrate(a) changes in climate(b) the effects of the ice age(c) communities of plants(d) plant migration4. The word “which” in line 10 refers to(a) the responses of plants to climate changes(b) the current theories of ecosystems(c) the developments of ecosystems(d) plant life changes5. The word “axis” in line 12 is closest in meaning to(a) center(b) method(c) change(d) slowdown6. The word “successive” i n line 19 is closest in meaning to(a) extinct(b) consecutive(c) accumulative(d) following7. The passage states that by drilling into the lake bottom it is possible to find successive fossils of:(a) sediment(b) ice(c) plant life(d) pollen8. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage(a) –that the migratory patterns of plants are dependent upon changes in climate(b) –that modern conservation methods should consider the migratory patterns of plants(c) –that current associations of plants are similar to those in the past(d) –that another ice age is likely to occur at some time9. According to the passage, the movement of individual species of plants(a) occurs in groups(b) often depends upon the formation of lakes(c) does not occur in groups(d) depends upon climate and soil conditions10. All of the following are true except(a) The ice age occurred when small changes affected the movement of the earth(b) Fossil records seem to indicate that plants will be preserved if they have sufficient room to move(c) Fossil records clearly show that entire groups of plants are unlikely to have moved together(d) In the ice age glaciers covered the world to depths of up to two milesQuestion 11-21Some pioneering work that began as an attempt to discover ways to increase production efficiency led to the founding of the human relations movement in industry and to the development of motivational skills and tools for managers. In 1927 researchers were involved in determining the optimum amount of lighting, temperature, and humidity (with lighting being considered the most important) for the assembly of electronic components at Western Electric. The researchers found that lighting had no consistent effect on production. In fact, production sometimes increased when lighting was reduced to the level of ordinary moonlight! The important part of this experiment began when two Harvard researchers, Elton Mayo and Fritz Roethlisberger, were brought in to investigate these unexpected results further. They found that workers were responding not to the level of lighting but to the fact that they were being observed by the experimenters.This phenomenon came to be known as the Hawthorne effect since the experiments were conducted at the Western Electric Hawthorne plant. This was the first documented and widely published evidence of the psychological effects on doing work, and it led to the first serious effort aimed at examining psychological and social factors in the workplace. Further experiments were continued for five years. Generally, the researchers concluded from their experiments that economic motivation (pay) was not the sole source of productivity and, in some cases, not even the most important source. Through interviews and test results, the researchers focused on the effects of work attitudes, supervision, and the peer group and other social forces, on productivity.Their findings laid the groundwork for modern motivation theory, and the study of human factors on the job, which continues to this day in such common practices as selection and training, establishing favorable work conditions, counseling, and personnel operations. The contributions of this experiment shifted the focus of human motivation from economics to a multifaceted approach including psychological and social forces.11. What is the passage primarily about?(a) The first widely published development in modern motivation theory(b) Shifting the focus of human motivation from economics to a multifaceted approach(c) The importance of careful research(d) The results of a pioneering study at Western Electric12. The word “optimum” in line 4 is closest in meaning to(a) positive(b) favorable(c) best(d) alternate13. The most significant finding of the original research was(a) lighting had no consistent effect on production(b) production sometimes increased when lighting was reduced to the level of ordinary moonlight.(c) that lighting was no more important than the other factors of temperature and humidity.(d) the results were unexpected and confusing.14. Why does the author say that the important part of this research began when two Harvard researchers were brought in (lines 8-9)(a) Until then the research had been poorly conducted(b) They took a multifaceted approach(c) The results of the original research did not make sense(d) Harvard has a good reputation in conducting research15. The research became known as the “Hawthorne effect” because(a) it was the name of the plant where the study was conducted(b) It was the name suggested by the Harvard researchers(c) It was the name of the principal experimenter(d) There were hawthorne plants growing at Western Electric where the study was conducted16. The word “it” in line 14 refers to(a) the experiment(b) economic motivation(c) the Western Electric Hawthorn plant(d) the Hawthorne effect17. It can be inferred from this passage that the Hawthorne study(a) led to lighting, temperature, and humidity no longer being considered important when seeking ways to improve production(b) Stimulated further research into work condition and worker behavior(c) Led to psychological factors becoming the most important consideration in achieving production efficiency(d) Led to economic considerations being less important in achieving productivity18. Part of the reason for the change in focus from economics to a more multifaceted approach to the psychological effects on doing work was(a) due to the recognition that workers should be happy at work in order to maintainhigh productivity(b) a general conclusion that pay was sometimes not the most important factor(c) because the Hawthorne study continued for so long(d) because the workers requested it19. According to the passage, it can be concluded that a “multifaceted approach” to human motivation in the workplace(a) excludes economics(b) can lead to greater productivity(c) excludes physical conditions(d) focuses mainly on psychological and social forces20. The word “multifaceted” in line 25 is closest in meani ng to(a) versatile(b) complex(c) many-sided(d) multitude21. Which of the following is NOT true about the Hawthorne study(a) It was the first documented evidence of the psychological effects on doing work(b) The Hawthorne study continued for five years(c) They found that workers responded not to the level of lighting but to the fact that other work conditions were not favorable(d) The study changed the focus from economics to a multifaceted approach Question 22-31The handling and delivery of mail has always been a serious business, underpinned by the trust of the public in requiring timeliness, safety, and confidentiality. After early beginnings using horseback and stagecoach, and although cars and trucks later replaced stagecoaches and wagons, the Railway Mail Service still stands as one of America’s most resourceful and exciting postal innovations. This service began in 1832, but grew slowly until the Civil War. Then from 1862, by sorting the mail on board moving trains, the Post Office Department was able to decentralize its operations as railroads began to crisscross the nation on a regular basis, and speed up mail delivery. This service lasted until 1974. During peak decades of service, railway mail clerks handled 93% of all non-local mail and by 1905 the service had over 12,000 employees.Railway Post Office trains used a system of mail cranes to exchange mail at stations without stopping. As a train approached the crane, a clerk prepared the catcher arm which would then snatch the incoming mailbag in the blink of an eye. The clerk then booted out the outgoing mailbag. Experienced clerks were considered the elite of the Postal Service’s employees, and spoke with pride of making the switch at night with nothing but the curves and feel of the track to warn them ofan upcoming catch. They also worked under the greatest pressure and their jobs were considered to be exhausting and dangerous. In addition to regular demands of their jobs they could find themselves the victims of train wrecks and robberies.As successful as it was, “mail-on-the-fly” still had its share of glitches. If they hoisted the train’s catcher arm too soon, they risked hitting switch targets, telegraph poles or semaphores, which would rip the catcher arm off the train. Too late, and they would miss an exchange.22. What does the passage mainly discuss?(a) How Post Office Trains handled the mail without stopping(b) The skills of experienced clerks(c) How the mail cranes exchanged the mail(d) Improvements in mail handling and delivery23. The word “underpinned” in line 1 is closest in meaning to(a) lowered(b) underlain(c) obliged(d) required24. The public expects the following three services in handling and deliveryof mail except(a) confidentiality(b) timeliness(c) safety(d) accuracy25. According to the passage, the Railway Mail Service commenced in(a) 1832(b) 1842(c) 1874(d) 190526. Which of the following can be inferred from the first paragraph(a) Mail was often lost or damaged as it was exchanged on the mail crane(b) There was a high turnover of railway mail clerks(c) The development of the mailroads during the second half of the 19th century enabled Post Office Department to focus on timeliness(d) The Post Office Department was more concerned about speeding up mail delivery than the safety of its clerks27. The word “elite” in line14 is closest in meaning to(a) superior(b) majority(c) more capable(d) leader28. Which of the following is true, according to the passage(a) The clerk booted out the outgoing mailbag before snatching the incoming bag(b) Clerks couldn’t often see what they were doing(c) The Railway Mail clerk’s job was considered elite because it was safe and exciting(d) Despite their success railway mail clerks only handled a small proportion of all non-local mail29. In line 18, the word “they” refers to(a) trains(b) Postal Service’s employees(c) Mailbags(d) Experience clerks30. The word “glitches” in line 20 can be replaced by(a) accidents(b) blames(c) advantages(d) problems31. Where in the passage does the author first mention the dangers of the Post Office clerk’s job?(a) Lines 5-9(b) Lines 10-14(c) Lines 15-19(d) Lines 20-23Questions 32-40Amelia Earhart was born in Kansas in 1897. Thirty one years later, she received a phone call that would change her life. She was invited to become the first woman passenger to cross the Atlantic Ocean in a plane. The flight took more than 20 hours – about three times longer than it routinely takes today to cross the Atlantic by plane. Earhart was twelve years old before she ever saw an airplane, and she didn’t take her first flight until 1920. But she was so thrilled by her first experience in a plane that she quickly began to take flying lessons. She wrote, “As soon as I left the ground, I knew I myself had to fly.”After that flight Earhart became a media sensation. She was given a ticker tape parade down Broadway in New York and even President Coolidge called to congratulate her. Because her record-breaking career and physical appearance were similar to pioneering pilot and American hero Charles Lindbergh, she earned thenickname “Lady Lindy.” She wrote a book about her flight across the Atlantic, called 20 Hrs., 40 Min.Earhart continued to break records, and also polished her skills as a speaker and writer, always advocating women’s achievements, especially in aviation. Her next goal was to achieve a transatlantic crossing alone. In 1927 Charles Lindbergh became the first person to make a solo nonstop flight across the Atlantic. Five years later, Earhart became the first woman to repeat that feat. Her popularity grew even more and she was the undisputed queen of the air. She then wanted to fly around the world, and in June 1937 she left Miami with Fred Noonan as her navigator. No one knows why she left behind important communication and navigation instruments. Perhaps it was to make room for additional fuel for the long flight. The pair made it to New Guinea in 21 days and then left for Howland Island, a tiny island in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. The last communication from Earhart and Noonan was on July 2, 1937 with a nearby Coast Guard ship. The United States Navy conducted a massive search for more than two weeks but no trace of the plane or its passengers was ever found. Many people believe they got lost and simply ran out of fuel and died.32. With which of the following subjects is the passage mainly concerned?(a) The history of aviation(b) The tragic death of the queen of air(c) Achievements of early aviation pioneers(d) The achievements of a pioneering aviatrix33. According to the passage, which of the following statements about Earhart is NOT true?(a)She wrote a book about her solo nonstop flight across the Atlantic, called 2o hrs.,40 min.(b) In her last adventure, she didn’t take communication and navigationinstruments by accident, and that led to the tragedy.(c) She is regarded as the female Chare Lindbergh in aviation.(d) She was in her late twenties when she took her first flight.34. According to the passage, when did Amelia Earhart began her first flight(a) when she was 12 years old(b) 1920(c) when she first saw an airplane(d) when she started to take flying lessons.35. The word “sensation” in line 8 is closest in meaning to(a) feeling(b) hit(c) excitement(d) perception36. Amelia Earhart was called “Lady Lindy” because(a) she was the undisputed queen of the air.(b) President Coolidge gave her the nickname.(c) she repeated Charles Lindbergh’s feat.(d) of her career and her physical resemblance to Lindbergh37. The word “undisputed” in line18 is closest in meaning to(a) contemporary(b) undeceived(c) dissipated(d)undoubted38. The word “it” in line 20 refers to(a) plane(b) communication(c) the reason(d) aviation.39. The word “massive” in line 25 is closest in meaning to(a) substantial(b) general(c) large(d) careful40. It may be inferred from the passage that Amelia Earhart(a) would not have developed her love of flying if she had not been invited tobecome the first woman passenger to cross the Atlantic ina plane.(b) Would have continued to seek new adventures and records to break if she had not died at the age of 39.(c) became too confident and took too many risks to be able to live to old age.(d) did not want to return to the United States.Question 41-50Music can bring us to tears or to our feet, drive us into battle or lull us to sleep. Music is indeed remarkable in its power over all humankind, and perhaps for that very reason, no human culture on earth has ever lived without it. From discoveries made in France and Slovenia even Neanderthal man, as long as 53,000 years ago, had developed surprisingly sophisticated, sweet-sounding flutes carved from animal bones. It is perhaps then, no accident that music should strike such a chord with the limbic system – an ancient part of our brain, evolutionarily speaking,and one that we share with much of the animal kingdom. Some researchers even propose that music came into this world long before the human race ever did. For example, the fact that whale and human music have so much in common even though our evolutionary paths have not intersected for nearly 60 million years suggests that music may predate humans. They assert that rather than being the inventors of music, we are latecomers to the musical scene.Humpback whale composers employ many of the same tricks that human songwriters do. In addition to using similar rhythms, humpbacks keep musical phrases to a few seconds, creating themes out of several phrases before singing the next one. Whale songs in general are no longer than symphony movements, perhaps because they have a similar attention span. Even though they can sing over a range of seven octaves, the whales typically sing in key, spreading adjacent notes no father apart than a scale. They mix percussive and pure tones in pretty much the same ratios as human composers – and follow their ABA form, in which a theme is presented, elaborated on and then revisited in a slightly modified form. Perhaps most amazing, humpback whale songs include repeating refrains that rhyme. It has been suggested that whales might use rhymes for exactly the same reasons that we do: as devices to help them remember. Whale songs can also be rather catchy. When a few humpbacks from the Indian Ocean strayed into the Pacific, some of the whales they met there quickly changed their tunes –singing the new whales’ songs within three short years. Some scientists are even tempted to speculate that a universal music awaits discovery.41. Why did the author write the passage?(a) To describe the music for some animals, including humans(b) To illustrate the importance of music to whales(c) To show that music is not a human or even modern invention(d) To suggest that music is independent of life forms that use it42. The word “sophisticated” in line 5 is closest in meaning to(a) complex(b) intricate(c) well-developed(d) entangled43. The word “one” in line 7 can be replaced by(a) the chord(b) the left brain(c) the right brain(d) the limbic system44. According to the passage, which of the following is true of humpback whales(a) their tunes are distinctively different from human tunes(b) they can sing over a range of seven octaves(c) they do not use rhyme, unlike humans(d) Whale songs of a particular group cannot be learned by other whales45. The word “they” in line 18 refers to(a) human composers(b) whole songs(c) octaves(d) whales46. Which of the following is NOT true about humpback whale music?(a) It uses similar patterns to human songs(b) It’s comparative in length to symphony movements(c) It’s easy to learn by other whales(d) It’s in a form of creating a theme, elaborating and revisiting inrhyming refrains47. The word “refrains” in line 22 is closest in meaning to(a) tunes(b) notes(c) musical phrases(d) sounds48. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage?(a) The earliest human beings came from France and Slovenia(b) Music helped to shape the whale brain(c) Humpback whales imitate the way human composers so in creating their own music(d) The research of musical brain will lead to a discovery of a universal music49. Where in the passage does the author first mention whales?(a) Lines 5-9(b) Lines 10-14(c) Lines 15-19(d) Lines 20-2450 .The word ‘their’ in line 25 refers to(a) Indian Ocean humpbacks(b) Pacific Ocean humpbacks(c) all whales(d) whale songsTest 2– Answer Key1.b2.d3.c4.a5.a6.b7.d8.b9.c 10.d11.d 12.c 13.a 14.b 15.a 16.d 17.d 18.b 19.b 20.c 21.c 22.d 23.b 24.d 25.a 26.c 27.a 28.b 29.d 30.d 31.c 32.d 33.b 34.b 35.b 36.d 37.d 38.c 39.c 40.b 41.a 42.c 43.d 44.b 45.d 46.d 47.a 48.b 49.a 50.b。
3 外汇与汇率
Relationship between Exchange Rate Policies and Economic Development Strategy
§3-2-1 汇率的决定基础
金本位制 铸币平价（Mint Par)
£1/US$1：113/23.22
1英镑含金量：113 Grain 1美元含金量：23.22Grain
§3-4-2 购买力平价论
Theory of Purchasing Power Parity(G· Cassel,1922)
本国人之所以需要外国货币或外 国人之所以需要本国货币，是因为 这两种货币在各发行国均具有对商 品的购买力；两国货币购买力之比 就是决定汇率的“首先的最基本的 依据”；汇率的变化是由两国货币 购买力之比的变化而决定的。 绝对购买力平价：是指本国货币 与外国货币之间的均衡汇率等于本 国与外国货币购买力或物价水平之 间的比率。 不同国家的货币购买力之间的相 对变化是汇率变动的决定因素。当 两国购买力比率发生变化，则两国 货币之间的汇率就必须调整。
以外币表示的 金融资产。 包括以外币 表示的支付手段与 有价证券。 以外币表示的 用于国际间结算的 支付手段。
§3-1-1-2 外汇的种类
自由外汇 无需经货币 发行国当局批准， 就可自由兑换成 其他货币，或可 以向第三者办理 支付的外汇。 记帐外汇 不经货币发 行国当局批准， 就不能自由兑换 成其他货币，也 不能办理对第三 者支付的外汇。
10
§3-1-2-3 汇率的种类
11
现汇汇率
现钞汇率（ Bank Notes Rate）
12
即期汇率（Spot Rate） 远期汇率（Forward Rate）
2008年X月X日： US$ 1 = CHF 1.0940 ~ 1.0950 升水（At Premium） 贴水（At Discount） 平价（At Par） Ef（三个月期） 5 ~ 15 20 ~ 10
专八英语阅读
英语专业八级考试TEM-8阅读理解练习册（1）(英语专业2012级)UNIT 1Text AEvery minute of every day, what ecologist生态学家James Carlton calls a global ―conveyor belt‖, redistributes ocean organisms生物.It’s planetwide biological disruption生物的破坏that scientists have barely begun to understand.Dr. Carlton —an oceanographer at Williams College in Williamstown,Mass.—explains that, at any given moment, ―There are several thousand marine species traveling… in the ballast water of ships.‖ These creatures move from coastal waters where they fit into the local web of life to places where some of them could tear that web apart. This is the larger dimension of the infamous无耻的，邪恶的invasion of fish-destroying, pipe-clogging zebra mussels有斑马纹的贻贝.Such voracious贪婪的invaders at least make their presence known. What concerns Carlton and his fellow marine ecologists is the lack of knowledge about the hundreds of alien invaders that quietly enter coastal waters around the world every day. Many of them probably just die out. Some benignly亲切地，仁慈地—or even beneficially — join the local scene. But some will make trouble.In one sense, this is an old story. Organisms have ridden ships for centuries. They have clung to hulls and come along with cargo. What’s new is the scale and speed of the migrations made possible by the massive volume of ship-ballast water压载水— taken in to provide ship stability—continuously moving around the world…Ships load up with ballast water and its inhabitants in coastal waters of one port and dump the ballast in another port that may be thousands of kilometers away. A single load can run to hundreds of gallons. Some larger ships take on as much as 40 million gallons. The creatures that come along tend to be in their larva free-floating stage. When discharged排出in alien waters they can mature into crabs, jellyfish水母, slugs鼻涕虫，蛞蝓, and many other forms.Since the problem involves coastal species, simply banning ballast dumps in coastal waters would, in theory, solve it. Coastal organisms in ballast water that is flushed into midocean would not survive. Such a ban has worked for North American Inland Waterway. But it would be hard to enforce it worldwide. Heating ballast water or straining it should also halt the species spread. But before any such worldwide regulations were imposed, scientists would need a clearer view of what is going on.The continuous shuffling洗牌of marine organisms has changed the biology of the sea on a global scale. It can have devastating effects as in the case of the American comb jellyfish that recently invaded the Black Sea. It has destroyed that sea’s anchovy鳀鱼fishery by eating anchovy eggs. It may soon spread to western and northern European waters.The maritime nations that created the biological ―conveyor belt‖ should support a coordinated international effort to find out what is going on and what should be done about it. (456 words)1.According to Dr. Carlton, ocean organism‟s are_______.A.being moved to new environmentsB.destroying the planetC.succumbing to the zebra musselD.developing alien characteristics2.Oceanographers海洋学家are concerned because_________.A.their knowledge of this phenomenon is limitedB.they believe the oceans are dyingC.they fear an invasion from outer-spaceD.they have identified thousands of alien webs3.According to marine ecologists, transplanted marinespecies____________.A.may upset the ecosystems of coastal watersB.are all compatible with one anotherC.can only survive in their home watersD.sometimes disrupt shipping lanes4.The identified cause of the problem is_______.A.the rapidity with which larvae matureB. a common practice of the shipping industryC. a centuries old speciesD.the world wide movement of ocean currents5.The article suggests that a solution to the problem__________.A.is unlikely to be identifiedB.must precede further researchC.is hypothetically假设地，假想地easyD.will limit global shippingText BNew …Endangered‟ List Targets Many US RiversIt is hard to think of a major natural resource or pollution issue in North America today that does not affect rivers.Farm chemical runoff残渣, industrial waste, urban storm sewers, sewage treatment, mining, logging, grazing放牧,military bases, residential and business development, hydropower水力发电,loss of wetlands. The list goes on.Legislation like the Clean Water Act and Wild and Scenic Rivers Act have provided some protection, but threats continue.The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reported yesterday that an assessment of 642,000 miles of rivers and streams showed 34 percent in less than good condition. In a major study of the Clean Water Act, the Natural Resources Defense Council last fall reported that poison runoff impairs损害more than 125,000 miles of rivers.More recently, the NRDC and Izaak Walton League warned that pollution and loss of wetlands—made worse by last year’s flooding—is degrading恶化the Mississippi River ecosystem.On Tuesday, the conservation group保护组织American Rivers issued its annual list of 10 ―endangered‖ and 20 ―threatened‖ rivers in 32 states, the District of Colombia, and Canada.At the top of the list is the Clarks Fork of the Yellowstone River, whereCanadian mining firms plan to build a 74-acre英亩reservoir水库，蓄水池as part of a gold mine less than three miles from Yellowstone National Park. The reservoir would hold the runoff from the sulfuric acid 硫酸used to extract gold from crushed rock.―In the event this tailings pond failed, the impact to th e greater Yellowstone ecosystem would be cataclysmic大变动的，灾难性的and the damage irreversible不可逆转的.‖ Sen. Max Baucus of Montana, chairman of the Environment and Public Works Committee, wrote to Noranda Minerals Inc., an owner of the ― New World Mine‖.Last fall, an EPA official expressed concern about the mine and its potential impact, especially the plastic-lined storage reservoir. ― I am unaware of any studies evaluating how a tailings pond尾矿池，残渣池could be maintained to ensure its structural integrity forev er,‖ said Stephen Hoffman, chief of the EPA’s Mining Waste Section. ―It is my opinion that underwater disposal of tailings at New World may present a potentially significant threat to human health and the environment.‖The results of an environmental-impact statement, now being drafted by the Forest Service and Montana Department of State Lands, could determine the mine’s future…In its recent proposal to reauthorize the Clean Water Act, the Clinton administration noted ―dramatically improved water quality since 1972,‖ when the act was passed. But it also reported that 30 percent of riverscontinue to be degraded, mainly by silt泥沙and nutrients from farm and urban runoff, combined sewer overflows, and municipal sewage城市污水. Bottom sediments沉积物are contaminated污染in more than 1,000 waterways, the administration reported in releasing its proposal in January. Between 60 and 80 percent of riparian corridors (riverbank lands) have been degraded.As with endangered species and their habitats in forests and deserts, the complexity of ecosystems is seen in rivers and the effects of development----beyond the obvious threats of industrial pollution, municipal waste, and in-stream diversions改道to slake消除the thirst of new communities in dry regions like the Southwes t…While there are many political hurdles障碍ahead, reauthorization of the Clean Water Act this year holds promise for US rivers. Rep. Norm Mineta of California, who chairs the House Committee overseeing the bill, calls it ―probably the most important env ironmental legislation this Congress will enact.‖ (553 words)6.According to the passage, the Clean Water Act______.A.has been ineffectiveB.will definitely be renewedC.has never been evaluatedD.was enacted some 30 years ago7.“Endangered” rivers are _________.A.catalogued annuallyB.less polluted than ―threatened rivers‖C.caused by floodingD.adjacent to large cities8.The “cataclysmic” event referred to in paragraph eight would be__________.A. fortuitous偶然的，意外的B. adventitious外加的，偶然的C. catastrophicD. precarious不稳定的，危险的9. The owners of the New World Mine appear to be______.A. ecologically aware of the impact of miningB. determined to construct a safe tailings pondC. indifferent to the concerns voiced by the EPAD. willing to relocate operations10. The passage conveys the impression that_______.A. Canadians are disinterested in natural resourcesB. private and public environmental groups aboundC. river banks are erodingD. the majority of US rivers are in poor conditionText CA classic series of experiments to determine the effects ofoverpopulation on communities of rats was reported in February of 1962 in an article in Scientific American. The experiments were conducted by a psychologist, John B. Calhoun and his associates. In each of these experiments, an equal number of male and female adult rats were placed in an enclosure and given an adequate supply of food, water, and other necessities. The rat populations were allowed to increase. Calhoun knew from experience approximately how many rats could live in the enclosures without experiencing stress due to overcrowding. He allowed the population to increase to approximately twice this number. Then he stabilized the population by removing offspring that were not dependent on their mothers. He and his associates then carefully observed and recorded behavior in these overpopulated communities. At the end of their experiments, Calhoun and his associates were able to conclude that overcrowding causes a breakdown in the normal social relationships among rats, a kind of social disease. The rats in the experiments did not follow the same patterns of behavior as rats would in a community without overcrowding.The females in the rat population were the most seriously affected by the high population density: They showed deviant异常的maternal behavior; they did not behave as mother rats normally do. In fact, many of the pups幼兽，幼崽, as rat babies are called, died as a result of poor maternal care. For example, mothers sometimes abandoned their pups,and, without their mothers' care, the pups died. Under normal conditions, a mother rat would not leave her pups alone to die. However, the experiments verified that in overpopulated communities, mother rats do not behave normally. Their behavior may be considered pathologically 病理上，病理学地diseased.The dominant males in the rat population were the least affected by overpopulation. Each of these strong males claimed an area of the enclosure as his own. Therefore, these individuals did not experience the overcrowding in the same way as the other rats did. The fact that the dominant males had adequate space in which to live may explain why they were not as seriously affected by overpopulation as the other rats. However, dominant males did behave pathologically at times. Their antisocial behavior consisted of attacks on weaker male,female, and immature rats. This deviant behavior showed that even though the dominant males had enough living space, they too were affected by the general overcrowding in the enclosure.Non-dominant males in the experimental rat communities also exhibited deviant social behavior. Some withdrew completely; they moved very little and ate and drank at times when the other rats were sleeping in order to avoid contact with them. Other non-dominant males were hyperactive; they were much more active than is normal, chasing other rats and fighting each other. This segment of the rat population, likeall the other parts, was affected by the overpopulation.The behavior of the non-dominant males and of the other components of the rat population has parallels in human behavior. People in densely populated areas exhibit deviant behavior similar to that of the rats in Calhoun's experiments. In large urban areas such as New York City, London, Mexican City, and Cairo, there are abandoned children. There are cruel, powerful individuals, both men and women. There are also people who withdraw and people who become hyperactive. The quantity of other forms of social pathology such as murder, rape, and robbery also frequently occur in densely populated human communities. Is the principal cause of these disorders overpopulation? Calhoun’s experiments suggest that it might be. In any case, social scientists and city planners have been influenced by the results of this series of experiments.11. Paragraph l is organized according to__________.A. reasonsB. descriptionC. examplesD. definition12．Calhoun stabilized the rat population_________.A. when it was double the number that could live in the enclosure without stressB. by removing young ratsC. at a constant number of adult rats in the enclosureD. all of the above are correct13.W hich of the following inferences CANNOT be made from theinformation inPara. 1?A. Calhoun's experiment is still considered important today.B. Overpopulation causes pathological behavior in rat populations.C. Stress does not occur in rat communities unless there is overcrowding.D. Calhoun had experimented with rats before.14. Which of the following behavior didn‟t happen in this experiment?A. All the male rats exhibited pathological behavior.B. Mother rats abandoned their pups.C. Female rats showed deviant maternal behavior.D. Mother rats left their rat babies alone.15. The main idea of the paragraph three is that __________.A. dominant males had adequate living spaceB. dominant males were not as seriously affected by overcrowding as the otherratsC. dominant males attacked weaker ratsD. the strongest males are always able to adapt to bad conditionsText DThe first mention of slavery in the statutes法令，法规of the English colonies of North America does not occur until after 1660—some forty years after the importation of the first Black people. Lest we think that existed in fact before it did in law, Oscar and Mary Handlin assure us, that the status of B lack people down to the 1660’s was that of servants. A critique批判of the Handlins’ interpretation of why legal slavery did not appear until the 1660’s suggests that assumptions about the relation between slavery and racial prejudice should be reexamined, and that explanation for the different treatment of Black slaves in North and South America should be expanded.The Handlins explain the appearance of legal slavery by arguing that, during the 1660’s, the position of white servants was improving relative to that of black servants. Thus, the Handlins contend, Black and White servants, heretofore treated alike, each attained a different status. There are, however, important objections to this argument. First, the Handlins cannot adequately demonstrate that t he White servant’s position was improving, during and after the 1660’s; several acts of the Maryland and Virginia legislatures indicate otherwise. Another flaw in the Handlins’ interpretation is their assumption that prior to the establishment of legal slavery there was no discrimination against Black people. It is true that before the 1660’s Black people were rarely called slaves. But this shouldnot overshadow evidence from the 1630’s on that points to racial discrimination without using the term slavery. Such discrimination sometimes stopped short of lifetime servitude or inherited status—the two attributes of true slavery—yet in other cases it included both. The Handlins’ argument excludes the real possibility that Black people in the English colonies were never treated as the equals of White people.The possibility has important ramifications后果，影响.If from the outset Black people were discriminated against, then legal slavery should be viewed as a reflection and an extension of racial prejudice rather than, as many historians including the Handlins have argued, the cause of prejudice. In addition, the existence of discrimination before the advent of legal slavery offers a further explanation for the harsher treatment of Black slaves in North than in South America. Freyre and Tannenbaum have rightly argued that the lack of certain traditions in North America—such as a Roman conception of slavery and a Roman Catholic emphasis on equality— explains why the treatment of Black slaves was more severe there than in the Spanish and Portuguese colonies of South America. But this cannot be the whole explanation since it is merely negative, based only on a lack of something. A more compelling令人信服的explanation is that the early and sometimes extreme racial discrimination in the English colonies helped determine the particular nature of the slavery that followed. (462 words)16. Which of the following is the most logical inference to be drawn from the passage about the effects of “several acts of the Maryland and Virginia legislatures” (Para.2) passed during and after the 1660‟s?A. The acts negatively affected the pre-1660’s position of Black as wellas of White servants.B. The acts had the effect of impairing rather than improving theposition of White servants relative to what it had been before the 1660’s.C. The acts had a different effect on the position of white servants thandid many of the acts passed during this time by the legislatures of other colonies.D. The acts, at the very least, caused the position of White servants toremain no better than it had been before the 1660’s.17. With which of the following statements regarding the status ofBlack people in the English colonies of North America before the 1660‟s would the author be LEAST likely to agree?A. Although black people were not legally considered to be slaves,they were often called slaves.B. Although subject to some discrimination, black people had a higherlegal status than they did after the 1660’s.C. Although sometimes subject to lifetime servitude, black peoplewere not legally considered to be slaves.D. Although often not treated the same as White people, black people,like many white people, possessed the legal status of servants.18. According to the passage, the Handlins have argued which of thefollowing about the relationship between racial prejudice and the institution of legal slavery in the English colonies of North America?A. Racial prejudice and the institution of slavery arose simultaneously.B. Racial prejudice most often the form of the imposition of inheritedstatus, one of the attributes of slavery.C. The source of racial prejudice was the institution of slavery.D. Because of the influence of the Roman Catholic Church, racialprejudice sometimes did not result in slavery.19. The passage suggests that the existence of a Roman conception ofslavery in Spanish and Portuguese colonies had the effect of _________.A. extending rather than causing racial prejudice in these coloniesB. hastening the legalization of slavery in these colonies.C. mitigating some of the conditions of slavery for black people in these coloniesD. delaying the introduction of slavery into the English colonies20. The author considers the explanation put forward by Freyre andTannenbaum for the treatment accorded B lack slaves in the English colonies of North America to be _____________.A. ambitious but misguidedB. valid有根据的but limitedC. popular but suspectD. anachronistic过时的，时代错误的and controversialUNIT 2Text AThe sea lay like an unbroken mirror all around the pine-girt, lonely shores of Orr’s Island. Tall, kingly spruce s wore their regal王室的crowns of cones high in air, sparkling with diamonds of clear exuded gum流出的树胶; vast old hemlocks铁杉of primeval原始的growth stood darkling in their forest shadows, their branches hung with long hoary moss久远的青苔;while feathery larches羽毛般的落叶松,turned to brilliant gold by autumn frosts, lighted up the darker shadows of the evergreens. It was one of those hazy朦胧的, calm, dissolving days of Indian summer, when everything is so quiet that the fainest kiss of the wave on the beach can be heard, and white clouds seem to faint into the blue of the sky, and soft swathing一长条bands of violet vapor make all earth look dreamy, and give to the sharp, clear-cut outlines of the northern landscape all those mysteries of light and shade which impart such tenderness to Italian scenery.The funeral was over,--- the tread鞋底的花纹/ 踏of many feet, bearing the heavy burden of two broken lives, had been to the lonely graveyard, and had come back again,--- each footstep lighter and more unconstrained不受拘束的as each one went his way from the great old tragedy of Death to the common cheerful of Life.The solemn black clock stood swaying with its eternal ―tick-tock, tick-tock,‖ in the kitchen of the brown house on Orr’s Island. There was there that sense of a stillness that can be felt,---such as settles down on a dwelling住处when any of its inmates have passed through its doors for the last time, to go whence they shall not return. The best room was shut up and darkened, with only so much light as could fall through a little heart-shaped hole in the window-shutter,---for except on solemn visits, or prayer-meetings or weddings, or funerals, that room formed no part of the daily family scenery.The kitchen was clean and ample, hearth灶台, and oven on one side, and rows of old-fashioned splint-bottomed chairs against the wall. A table scoured to snowy whiteness, and a little work-stand whereon lay the Bible, the Missionary Herald, and the Weekly Christian Mirror, before named, formed the principal furniture. One feature, however, must not be forgotten, ---a great sea-chest水手用的储物箱,which had been the companion of Zephaniah through all the countries of the earth. Old, and battered破旧的，磨损的, and unsightly难看的it looked, yet report said that there was good store within which men for the most part respect more than anything else; and, indeed it proved often when a deed of grace was to be done--- when a woman was suddenly made a widow in a coast gale大风，狂风, or a fishing-smack小渔船was run down in the fogs off the banks, leaving in some neighboring cottage a family of orphans,---in all such cases, the opening of this sea-chest was an event of good omen 预兆to the bereaved丧亲者;for Zephaniah had a large heart and a large hand, and was apt有…的倾向to take it out full of silver dollars when once it went in. So the ark of the covenant约柜could not have been looked on with more reverence崇敬than the neighbours usually showed to Captain Pennel’s sea-chest.1. The author describes Orr‟s Island in a(n)______way.A.emotionally appealing, imaginativeB.rational, logically preciseC.factually detailed, objectiveD.vague, uncertain2.According to the passage, the “best room”_____.A.has its many windows boarded upB.has had the furniture removedC.is used only on formal and ceremonious occasionsD.is the busiest room in the house3.From the description of the kitchen we can infer that thehouse belongs to people who_____.A.never have guestsB.like modern appliancesC.are probably religiousD.dislike housework4.The passage implies that_______.A.few people attended the funeralB.fishing is a secure vocationC.the island is densely populatedD.the house belonged to the deceased5.From the description of Zephaniah we can see thathe_________.A.was physically a very big manB.preferred the lonely life of a sailorC.always stayed at homeD.was frugal and saved a lotText BBasic to any understanding of Canada in the 20 years after the Second World War is the country' s impressive population growth. For every three Canadians in 1945, there were over five in 1966. In September 1966 Canada's population passed the 20 million mark. Most of this surging growth came from natural increase. The depression of the 1930s and the war had held back marriages, and the catching-up process began after 1945. The baby boom continued through the decade of the 1950s, producing a population increase of nearly fifteen percent in the five years from 1951 to 1956. This rate of increase had been exceeded only once before in Canada's history, in the decade before 1911 when the prairies were being settled. Undoubtedly, the good economic conditions of the 1950s supported a growth in the population, but the expansion also derived from a trend toward earlier marriages and an increase in the average size of families; In 1957 the Canadian birth rate stood at 28 per thousand, one of the highest in the world. After the peak year of 1957, thebirth rate in Canada began to decline. It continued falling until in 1966 it stood at the lowest level in 25 years. Partly this decline reflected the low level of births during the depression and the war, but it was also caused by changes in Canadian society. Young people were staying at school longer, more women were working; young married couples were buying automobiles or houses before starting families; rising living standards were cutting down the size of families. It appeared that Canada was once more falling in step with the trend toward smaller families that had occurred all through theWestern world since the time of the Industrial Revolution. Although the growth in Canada’s population had slowed down by 1966 (the cent), another increase in the first half of the 1960s was only nine percent), another large population wave was coming over the horizon. It would be composed of the children of the children who were born during the period of the high birth rate prior to 1957.6. What does the passage mainly discuss?A. Educational changes in Canadian society.B. Canada during the Second World War.C. Population trends in postwar Canada.D. Standards of living in Canada.7. According to the passage, when did Canada's baby boom begin?A. In the decade after 1911.B. After 1945.C. During the depression of the 1930s.D. In 1966.8. The author suggests that in Canada during the 1950s____________.A. the urban population decreased rapidlyB. fewer people marriedC. economic conditions were poorD. the birth rate was very high9. When was the birth rate in Canada at its lowest postwar level?A. 1966.B. 1957.C. 1956.D. 1951.10. The author mentions all of the following as causes of declines inpopulation growth after 1957 EXCEPT_________________.A. people being better educatedB. people getting married earlierC. better standards of livingD. couples buying houses11.I t can be inferred from the passage that before the IndustrialRevolution_______________.A. families were largerB. population statistics were unreliableC. the population grew steadilyD. economic conditions were badText CI was just a boy when my father brought me to Harlem for the first time, almost 50 years ago. We stayed at the hotel Theresa, a grand brick structure at 125th Street and Seventh avenue. Once, in the hotel restaurant, my father pointed out Joe Louis. He even got Mr. Brown, the hotel manager, to introduce me to him, a bit punchy强力的but still champ焦急as fast as I was concerned.Much has changed since then. Business and real estate are booming. Some say a new renaissance is under way. Others decry责难what they see as outside forces running roughshod肆意践踏over the old Harlem. New York meant Harlem to me, and as a young man I visited it whenever I could. But many of my old haunts are gone. The Theresa shut down in 1966. National chains that once ignored Harlem now anticipate yuppie money and want pieces of this prime Manhattan real estate. So here I am on a hot August afternoon, sitting in a Starbucks that two years ago opened a block away from the Theresa, snatching抓取，攫取at memories between sips of high-priced coffee. I am about to open up a piece of the old Harlem---the New York Amsterdam News---when a tourist。
Understanding the Psychology of Procrastination
Understanding the Psychology of Procrastination Procrastination is a common human behavior that many people struggle with. It is the act of delaying or postponing tasks or decisions, often to the point of causing stress, anxiety, and negative consequences. Understanding the psychology behind procrastination can help individuals recognize and address this behavior in themselves and others. There are several perspectives to consider when exploring the psychology of procrastination, including the role of motivation, self-regulation, and emotional factors.From a motivational perspective, procrastination can be seen as a result of conflicting goals and desires. For example, an individual may have a desire to complete a task or achieve a certain goal, but they may also have a competing desire to avoid the discomfort or effort associated with the task. This conflict can lead to procrastination as the individual struggles to reconcile these competing motivations. Understanding this inner conflict can help individuals identify the underlying reasons for their procrastination and work towards resolving them.Self-regulation also plays a significant role in procrastination. This refers to an individual's ability to control their thoughts, emotions, and behaviors in order to achieve their goals. Procrastination often involves a breakdown in self-regulation, as individuals struggle to resist the temptation of immediate gratification (such as watching TV or checking social media) in favor of long-term goals. This can be particularly challenging in today's fast-paced, technology-driven world, where distractions are constantly at our fingertips. By improving self-regulation skills, individuals can learn to better manage their impulses and stay focused on their tasks.Emotional factors also contribute to procrastination. Feelings of anxiety, fear of failure, perfectionism, and low self-esteem can all fuel procrastination. For example, an individual may put off starting a project because they feel overwhelmed by the perceived magnitude of the task, or they may delay making an important decision because they fear making the wrong choice. Understanding the emotional roots of procrastination can help individuals develop strategies to manage their emotions and reduce the likelihood of procrastinating in the future.In addition to these psychological perspectives, it is important to consider the impact of external factors on procrastination. For example, the environment in which a person works or lives can have a significant influence on their propensity to procrastinate. A cluttered, chaotic workspace can make it difficult to focus and can increase the likelihood of procrastination. Similarly, social and cultural factors can also play a role in shaping attitudes towards procrastination. In some cultures, there may be a greater emphasis on deadlines and punctuality, while in others, a more relaxed approach to time management may be the norm.Furthermore, the prevalence of procrastination in today's society may be exacerbated by the increasing demands and distractions of modern life. With the constant connectivity afforded by smartphones and the internet, individuals are often bombarded with information and stimuli that can make it difficult to stay focused on a task. The pressure to juggle multiple responsibilities, both at work and in personal life, can also contribute to feelings of overwhelm and the temptation to procrastinate.It is also important to recognize that procrastination is not always a negative behavior. In some cases, taking a break or delaying a decision can be a healthy way to recharge and gain perspective. However, when procrastination becomes a chronic and detrimental pattern, it is important to address the underlying psychological factors and develop strategies for overcoming it.In conclusion, the psychology of procrastination is complex and multifaceted, involving a combination of motivational, self-regulation, emotional, and external factors. By understanding these various perspectives, individuals can gain insight into their own procrastination tendencies and develop strategies to overcome them. This may involve improving self-regulation skills, managing emotional triggers, creating a conducive work environment, and seeking support from others. Ultimately, addressing procrastination requires a deep understanding of one's own behavior and the willingness to make meaningful changes.。
应激以及与应激相关的心理障碍课件
应激相关障碍分类
41 应激相关障碍 41.1 急性应激障碍 41.11 急性应激性精神病 41.2 创伤后应激障碍
41.3 适应障碍 41.31 短期抑郁反应 41.32 中期抑郁反应 41.33 长期抑郁反应 41.34 其它恶劣情绪为主的适应障 碍 41.35 混合性焦虑抑郁反应 41.36 品行障碍为主的适应障碍 41.9 其它或待分类的应激相关障碍
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心理防御机制与应对策略的特点
• 本身无好坏之分
• 不断习得，强化运用 和发展 • 多混合使用 • 因人、因事、因时、 因地制宜 • 适度原则
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提高应对技巧
长期努力 应激时努力
积累经验，增强应对能力
建立社会支持系统 认知模式训练 应对策略和防御方式训练 培养健康的性格、信念、意志 和世界观 培养良好的体魄和爱好
（四）、消化系统
⑴ 慢性应激 食欲减退 诱发神经厌食症 可能CRH的分泌增加有关
⑵ 部分病人会出现进食增加，成为某些肥胖症的诱因
可能与应激时内啡肽、单胺类介质在下丘脑水平升高 有关 不同的应激原或同样的应激原作用于不同的机体，应
激的反应形式有重要的区别和差异。
应激时交感肾上腺髓质系统强烈兴奋
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第六章 心身疾病与心理生理障碍
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第二期：阻抗阶段
• • • • 表现为肾上腺皮质变小 淋巴腺恢复正常 激素水平恒定 (应尽量缩短,去除应激原)
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第六章 心身疾病与心理生理障碍
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第三期：衰竭阶段
• 表现为较高的皮质醇水平对循环、消化、 免疫等系统产生影响 • 机体出现各种疾病 • 可出现应激相关疾病,导致休克\死亡等
The-what-and-why-of-goal-pursuits
TARGET ARTICLEThe “What” and “Why” of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior Edward L. Deci and Richard M. RyanDepartment of PsychologyUniversity of RochesterSelf-determination theory(SDT)maintains that an understanding of human motiva-tion requires a consideration of innate psychological needs for competence,auton-omy,and relatedness.We discuss the SDT concept of needs as it relates to previous need theories,emphasizing that needs specify the necessary conditions for psycholog-ical growth,integrity,and well-being.This concept of needs leads to the hypotheses that different regulatory processes underlying goal pursuits are differentially associ-ated with effective functioning and well-being and also that different goal contents have different relations to the quality of behavior and mental health,specifically be-cause different regulatory processes and different goal contents are associated with differing degrees of need satisfaction.Social contexts and individual differences that support satisfaction of the basic needs facilitate natural growth processes including intrinsically motivated behavior and integration of extrinsic motivations,whereas those that forestall autonomy,competence,or relatedness are associated with poorer motivation,performance,and well-being.We also discuss the relation of the psycho-logical needs to cultural values,evolutionary processes,and other contemporary mo-tivation theories.Most contemporary theories of motivation assume that people initiate and persist at behaviors to the ex-tent that they believe the behaviors will lead to desired outcomes or goals.Beginning with the work of Lewin (1936)and Tolman(1932),this premise has led moti-vation researchers to explore the psychological value people ascribe to goals(e.g.,T.Kasser&Ryan,1996; Vroom,1964),people’s expectations about attaining goals(e.g.,Abramson,Seligman,&Teasdale,1978; Bandura,1989;Rotter,1966),and the mechanisms that keep people moving toward selected goals(e.g., Carver & Scheier, 1998).Whereas initially this approach assumed that any two equally valued goals with the same expectancies for attainment would yield the same quality of perfor-mance and affective experience,recent work on goal-directed behavior has begun to distinguish among types of goals or outcomes.Researchers have, for example,contrasted ability-development goals with ability-demonstration goals(Dweck,1986; Nicholls,1984)and approach goals with avoidance goals(Carver&Scheier,1998;Elliot&Church, 1997;Higgins,1996),suggesting that the different types of goals have different behavioral and affective consequences.Like these other theories,self-determination theory (SDT;Deci&Ryan,1980,1985b,1991)has differen-tiated the concept of goal-directed behavior,yet it has taken a very different approach.SDT differentiates the content of goals or outcomes and the regulatory pro-cesses through which the outcomes are pursued,mak-ing predictions for different contents and for different processes.Further,it uses the concept of innate psy-chological needs as the basis for integrating the differ-entiations of goal contents and regulatory processes and the predictions that resulted from those differentia-tions.Specifically,according to SDT,a critical issue in the effects of goal pursuit and attainment concerns the degree to which people are able to satisfy their basic psychological needs as they pursue and attain their val-ued outcomes.The concept of needs was once widely employed in empirical psychology to organize the study of motiva-tion.Although variously defined at the physiological or psychological levels and as innate or learned,the concept of needs specified the content of motivationPsychological Inquiry Copyright © 2000 by 2000, Vol. 11, No. 4,227–268Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.and provided a substantive basis for the energization and direction of action.Beginning around the1960s, however,the dramatic shift toward cognitive theories led to the concept of needs being repudiated and re-placed by the concept of goals as the dominant motiva-tional concept.The focus became the processes of goal selection and pursuit rather than the content of the goals being selected and pursued.The concept of va-lence(or psychological value)of outcomes was de-fined functionally(and thus was not related to need satisfaction),much as the concept of reinforcement had been defined functionally in operant psychology (B.F.Skinner,1953),ignoring the needs that had pro-vided the underpinning of reinforcements in drive the-ories (e.g., Hull, 1943).Since the time of the shift toward cognitive theories, most motivation theorists remained unwilling to con-sider needs,focusing instead on goal-related efficacy. SDT has,in contrast,maintained that a full understand-ing not only of goal-directed behavior,but also of psy-chological development and well-being,cannot be achieved without addressing the needs that give goals their psychological potence and that influence which regulatory processes direct people’s goal pursuits. Specifically,in SDT,three psychological needs—for competence,relatedness,and autonomy—are consid-ered essential for understanding the what(i.e.,content) and why(i.e.,process)of goal pursuits.Before outlin-ing the SDT perspective on the content and process of goal-directed behavior,however,we begin with an his-torical consideration of the concept of needs as a foun-dation for our subsequent discussion.The Concept of NeedsEarly Needs TheoriesTwo very different intellectual traditions in the em-pirical psychology of motivation employed the con-cept of needs.In experimental psychology,Hull (1943)suggested that the task of psychology is to un-derstand molar behavior by linking it to the organism’s primary needs and the conditions in the environment relevant to them.He specified a set of innate physio-logical needs(e.g.,for food,water,sex)that are based in non-nervous-system tissue deficits,give rise to drive states,push the organism into action,and must be satis-fied for the organism to remain healthy.The drive states,when reduced,produce learning by linking drive stimulations to the responses that led to drive re-duction(e.g.,Hull,1943;Spence,1956).Drive states and the stimulus–response associations were used to predict subsequent behavior.This tradition produced a rich array of findings based on the drive theory as-sumptions,but among its shortcomings was that it could not provide a meaningful account of a large class of behaviors such as curious exploration,investigatory manipulation,vigorous play,and other spontaneous activities that had no apparent ties to the dynamics of drive reduction.Indeed,it was partly the drive theo-rists’attempts to account for such behaviors that gave rise to the recognition of intrinsic motivation(see White,1959)and ultimately led to specification of the psychological needs.The second tradition focusing on needs stems from the work of Murray(1938).Murray addressed needs at the psychological rather than physiological level and viewed them primarily as acquired rather than innate.In this approach the concept of needs was very broadly construed,as we see here in Murray’s oft-cited definition:A need is a construct(a convenient fiction or hypothet-ical concept)that stands for a force(the physico-chem-ical nature of which is unknown)in the brain region,aforce that organizes perception,apperception,intellection,conation and action in such a way as totransform in a certain direction an existing,unsatisfy-ing situation. (pp. 123–124).Indeed,this definition is so broad that one could substi-tute terms like motive,desire,or goal for need without losing any meaning.By this definition,almost any-thing that moves one to action is a need,a fact that is highlighted by Murray’s inclusion of such psychologi-cal needs as abasement(self-degradation),acquisitive-ness(greed),and dominance within his extensive list. We maintain,however,that,although motives such as these may energize action,they are certainly not needs in either the Hullian or the SDT sense of specifying necessary nutriments for healthy functioning.Rather, Murray’s needs represent an array of salient motives whose pursuit may or may not conduce to optimal functioning:motives that reflect ambient social values and the dynamics of their transmission.In the Murray tradition the focus of empirical stud-ies has been on individual differences in need strength, particularly those for achievement,power,and affilia-tion.These individual differences are the foci of the-matic(or implicit)and questionnaire(or explicit) methods of assessment(Ryan&Manly,in press)and are used as the basis for predicting affective and behav-ioral outcomes(e.g.,McAdams,1989;McClelland, 1985).The Nature of Needs in SDTTo explicate the meaning of needs in SDT,we con-sider not only the theoretical concept but also the or-ganismic-dialectical metatheory that underlies it.In so doing,we contrast SDT with theories in the traditions of Hull and Murray.Although these theories do not228DECI & RYANhave a strong presence in current motivation research, they provide a useful contrast with SDT because,un-like most current theories,they are macrotheories of motivation that explicitly considered the concept of needs and clearly specified their metatheoretical ter in the article we examine the relation of SDT to a number of current theories.As in the Hullian tradition,we define needs as in-nate,organismic necessities rather than acquired mo-tives,and as in the Murray tradition,we define needs at the psychological rather than physiological level. Thus,in SDT,needs specify innate psychological nu-triments that are essential for ongoing psychological growth,integrity,and well-being.As noted,we identi-fied three,the needs for competence,relatedness,and autonomy.This definition can be considered in organismic and functional terms.It assumes a fundamental human tra-jectory toward vitality,integration,and health,and fur-ther assumes that this organismic tendency will be actualized so long as the necessary and appropriate nu-triments are attainable but will give way to the emer-gence of nonoptimal psychological outcomes under conditions of threat or deprivation.In other words,hu-man needs specify the necessary conditions for psy-chological health or well-being and their satisfaction is thus hypothesized to be associated with the most effec-tive functioning.A further claim is that each of these three needs plays a necessary part in optimal develop-ment so that none can be thwarted or neglected without significant negative consequences.This claim cannot be made for most psychological needs that were stud-ied,for example,in the Murray tradition,because there are countless instances in which people achieve psy-chological integrity and health without having the so-called needs for power,acquisitiveness,or self-abasement well satisfied.However,we assert that there are not instances of optimal,healthy develop-ment in which a need for autonomy,relatedness,or competence was neglected,whether or not the individ-uals consciously valued these needs.In short,psycho-logical health requires satisfaction of all three needs; one or two are not enough.Functionally,we expect to observe optimal devel-opment and well-being under facilitating conditions that support need satisfaction,and to observe degrada-tion or ill-being under conditions that thwart basic need satisfaction.Just as one can conclude that plants need water by noting that they flourish when they are hydrated but that impoverished growth and,ulti-mately,a breakdown of integrity results when they are systematically deprived of water,SDT maintains that a psychological need can be identified by observing that positive psychological consequences results from con-ditions that allow its satisfaction and negative conse-quences accrue in situations that thwart it. Accordingly,if motives or goals were not linked di-rectly to basic needs,their fulfillment versus thwarting would not be expected to result invariantly in the en-hancement versus diminishment of growth and well-being.Our definition is congruent with Hullian thought in that both approaches specify a set of innate or essential nutriments and with Murray’s personologic approach in that his and ours focus at the psychological level,but our approach is quite different from those previous tra-ditions because it is embedded in an organismic-dia-lectical metatheory.Accordingly,as we will show,the concept is used to address different issues and to pro-vide different types of interpretations.The organismic dialectic.The starting point for SDT is the postulate that humans are active, growth-oriented organisms who are naturally inclined toward integration of their psychic elements into a uni-fied sense of self and integration of themselves into larger social structures.In other words,SDT suggests that it is part of the adaptive design of the human organ-ism to engage interesting activities,to exercise capaci-ties,to pursue connectedness in social groups,and to integrate intrapsychic and interpersonal experiences into a relative unity.Our organismic-dialectical perspective further pro-poses that these natural organismic activities and the integrative propensities that coordinate them require fundamental nutriments—namely,ambient supports for experiencing competence,relatedness,and auton-omy.As such,the natural processes such as intrinsic motivation,integration of extrinsic regulations,and movement toward well-being are theorized to operate optimally only to the extent that the nutriments are im-mediately present,or,alternatively,to the extent that the individual has sufficient inner resources to find or construct the necessary nourishment.To the degree that these organismic processes are hindered by nonfavorable conditions—specifically when one’s context is excessively controlling,overchallenging,or rejecting—they will,to that degree,be supplanted by alternative,often defensive or self-protective pro-cesses,which no doubt also have functional utility un-der nonsupportive circumstances.Such processes would include,for example,the capacity to compart-mentalize rather than integrate psychological struc-tures,the tendency to withdraw concern for others and focus on oneself,or,in more extreme cases,to engage in psychological withdrawal or antisocial activity as compensatory motives for unfulfilled needs.Accordingly,innate psychological needs for com-petence,relatedness,and autonomy concern the deep structure of the human psyche,for they refer to innate and life-span tendencies toward achieving effective-ness,connectedness,and coherence.The presence ver-sus absence of environmental conditions that allow229GOAL PURSUITSsatisfaction of these basic needs—in people’s immedi-ate situations and in their developmental histories—is thus a key predictor of whether or not people will dis-play vitality and mental health.As we argue later,the existence of these basic psychological needs and their phenomenological salience appear to yield consider-able adaptive advantage at the level of individual and group selection(Ryan,Kuhl,&Deci,1997).Further-more,basic needs play an essential role in cultural transmission,helping to account for how memes are assimilated and maintained in and across diverse hu-man groups (Inghilleri, 1999).A direct corollary of the SDT perspective is that people will tend to pursue goals,domains,and rela-tionships that allow or support their need satisfaction. To the extent that they are successful in finding such opportunities,they will experience positive psycho-logical outcomes.Needs in SDT versus drive theories.We,like drive theorists,consider needs to be innate rather than learned and therefore to give motivational content to life.However,although we acknowledge physiological drives,we give primacy to the core psychological needs in our exploration of issues such as human learn-ing,interpersonal relations,and the general mastery and management of people’s physical and social envi-ronments.By positing a set of basic psychological needs,SDT specifies psychological elements of human nature,much as Hull’s work specified physiological el-ements of human nature.Further,we suggest that the drive-based behaviors that Hull(as well as Freud)de-scribed are typically regulated by psychological pro-cesses and therefore interface with the issues of auton-omy, competence, and relatedness.Our focus at the psychological level within the or-ganismic-dialectical metatheory leads to a set of very important differences between our approach and that of drive theories.From the latter perspective,needs are understood as physiological deficits that disturb the or-ganism’s quiescence and push the organism to behave in ways that were learned because they satisfied the needs and returned the organism to quiescence.Thus, in drive theories,the set point of the human organism is quiescence or passivity;need satisfaction is a process of replenishing deficiencies;and the purpose of behav-ior is need satisfaction.By contrast,in SDT,the set point is growth-oriented activity.That is,rather than viewing people as passively waiting for a disequilib-rium,we view them as naturally inclined to act on their inner and outer environments,engage activities that in-terest them,and move toward personal and interper-sonal coherence.Thus,they do not have to be pushed or prodded to act.Further,and importantly,their be-havior does not have to be aimed at need satisfaction per se,it may simply be focused on an interesting ac-tivity or an important goal if they are in a context that allows need satisfaction.If,however,need satisfaction is not forthcoming while they are acting,nonoptimal or dysfunctional consequences typically follow.Con-sider several important implications of this viewpoint.From the perspective of drive theory,all behaviors are based in drive reduction processes;in other words, the functional aim of all behavior can be understood as need satisfaction.Hungry people act to get food, pained people act to get relief,and all behavior can be traced back to disequilibria.From the perspective of SDT,however,innate life processes and their accom-panying behaviors can occur naturally,without the prod of a need deficit.Much as Piaget(1971)sug-gested that it is inherent in the assimilation schema to function,we suggest that it is inherent in people’s na-ture to act in the direction of increased psychological differentiation and integration in terms of their capaci-ties,their valuing processes,and their social connectedness.These inherent integrative tendencies require the nutriments of need satisfaction to be sus-tained and for positive consequences to follow,but need satisfaction is not necessarily the aim of these ac-tions.Thus,for example,it is adaptive for children to play,but they do not play to feel competent.Similarly, curiosity-based exploration,openness to the sensory experiences of nature,and assimilation of values ex-tant in one’s social milieu—all natural activities—re-quire the nutriments of basic need satisfaction to operate optimally,but these activities are not necessar-ily(indeed they may seldom be)consciously intended to satisfy the basic needs.Of course,we recognize that many behaviors are specifically aimed at satisfaction of the basic needs, particularly when little satisfaction has been forthcom-ing.When lonely,people may explicitly seek out com-panionship;when controlled,people may explicitly seek out autonomy;and when feeling ineffective,peo-ple may explicitly work to become more competent. But,when people are experiencing reasonable need satisfaction,they will not necessarily be behaving spe-cifically to satisfy the needs;rather,they will be doing what they find interesting or important.As we argue later,finding an activity either interesting(intrinsic motivation)or important(well-internalized extrinsic motivation)is influenced by prior experiences of need satisfaction versus thwarting,but doing what one finds interesting or important does not have the explicit in-tent of satisfying the basic needs in the immediate situ-ation.A man who,in the evening,sits at the keyboard and begins to play a piece of music,may become lost in its beauty and experience great pleasure.He would not experience the pleasure if coerced to play,or if he felt unable to master the music.Thus,need satisfaction, which in this case means experiences of autonomy and competence,is necessary for the enjoyment of the ac-tivity,but his explicit purpose in playing the music is230DECI & RYANnot likely to be need satisfaction.He would be doing what interests him,and he would experience spontane-ous pleasure as long as the activity was self-organizing and the task appropriately challenging.There is another very important way that psycho-logical needs differ from physiological needs.When a physiological need is thwarted,people typically step up their efforts to satisfy it.Indeed,the longer they are deprived,the more salient and consuming the need be-comes.When hungry enough,people are likely to think of little else and to engage in few behaviors that are not intended to satisfy the hunger.With psycholog-ical needs,lack of satisfaction may also tend to focus people’s efforts on getting the needs satisfied,but with psychological need thwarting people more readily make accommodations that lessen their direct attempts to satisfy needs.For example,thwarting of psychologi-cal needs can promote the development of defenses and need substitutes that may,over time,lead to further thwarting of need satisfaction,as,for instance,when a woman becomes self-controlling in her eating behav-iors against the backdrop of having been controlled by the contingent regard and evaluations of significant others(Strauss&Ryan,1987).Rather than staying on the natural track toward healthy development,people may instead become controlled(either complying or defying)or amotivated(either being out of control or acting helpless).And these responses can,as we will see later,become self-perpetuating.According to SDT,however,such defensive adaptations,regardless of whether individuals claim to value them,will have significant negative consequences for the individuals’vitality, integrity, and health.Needs in SDT versus personality theories.By defining needs at the psychological level we suggested a commonality between SDT and some personality the-ories that use the concept of needs.However,because empirically based personality theories that investigate needs(e.g.,McClelland,1985;Murray,1938)tend to view them as learned,our conception of needs is,in some ways,closer to that of the less empirically derived theories that view psychological needs as innate(e.g., Kohut, 1977; Maslow, 1943).The most direct predecessor of our approach to psy-chological needs is the work of White(1959)who as-serted that an understanding of behavior and development requires that drive motivation be supple-mented with a different type of innate motivation,one conceptualized at the psychological level.White spoke of a primary propensity for competence,suggesting that there is an energy source in humans(and other mammals)that operates between episodes of homeostatic crisis and does not follow deficit princi-ples.For White,this energy source was a direct mani-festation of a deeply structured effectance-focused motivation—a propensity to have an effect on the envi-ronment as well as to attain valued outcomes within it. Although White used the term motive to describe this motivational propensity,his formulation was fully consistent with our definition of a psychological need. Indeed,as noted,we consider competence or effectance to be one of the three fundamental psycho-logical needs that can energize human activity and must be satisfied for long-term psychological health.As also noted,we further proposed the innate needs for relatedness and autonomy.Relatedness refers to the desire to feel connected to others—to love and care, and to be loved and cared for(Baumeister&Leary, 1995;Bowlby,1958;Harlow,1958;Ryan,1993).Like us,Baumeister and Leary argued that relatedness is a fundamental need,and the idea of relatedness as a need is central to,although not widely discussed in the field of attachment(Ainsworth,Blehar,Waters,&Wall, 1978).Indeed,many empirically based theories as-sume a desire or tendency for relatedness even if they do not explicitly formulate it as a need.Autonomy refers to volition—the organismic desire to self-organize experience and behavior and to have activity be concordant with one’s integrated sense of self(Angyal,1965;deCharms,1968;Deci,1980;Ryan &Connell,1989;Sheldon&Elliot,1999).The con-cept of autonomy is far less prevalent in empirical psy-chology than are the ideas of competence and relatedness.And indeed,when it is discussed it is often incorrectly equated with the ideas of internal locus of control,independence,or individualism(see, e.g., Deci,Koestner,&Ryan,1999b;Ryan,1995).For us, however,autonomy concerns the experience of inte-gration and freedom,and it is an essential aspect of healthy human functioning.According to SDT,these three needs can be satis-fied while engaging in a wide variety of behaviors that may differ among individuals and be differentially manifest in different cultures,but in any case their sat-isfaction is essential for the healthy development and well-being of all individuals regardless of culture.Defining psychological needs as inherent to human nature has led to a research focus that is very different from that of other empirical personality theorists such as McClelland(1965)who maintained that needs are largely learned and thus differ in strength as a function of that learning.Specifically,McClelland(1985)and others assessed individual differences in need strength and used that as the primary basis for predicting behav-ior.Research in that tradition predicted variation in need strengths from the social conditions theorized to created them,and then,even more importantly,used need strengths to predict various outcomes.Re-searchers,for example,examined the consequences of different levels of achievement motivation(Atkinson, 1958)and power motivation(Winter,1973),and the outcomes that result form different combinations of231GOAL PURSUITSneed strengths.In so doing they have not made any im-plicit assumption that need satisfaction would be asso-ciated with healthier functioning.We,on the other hand,viewing needs as universal, innate,and essential for well-being,do not generally focus on variation in need strength.Instead,our re-search has focused primarily on an examination of the degree to which individuals experience basic psycho-logical need satisfaction in different social contexts and of the consequences of various degrees of satisfac-tion.We do assume that there are important individual differences that affect the degree to which people will experience need satisfaction in different contexts,so we use both characteristics of the social environment and individual differences to predict people’s need sat-isfaction and,in turn,the quality of their experience, behavior,and health.However,these individual differ-ences do not concern need strength.Rather,the type of individual-difference concepts used in SDT and other theories that assume innate,psychological needs are regulatory or interactive styles.These are regarded as outcomes of the ongoing dialectic between people’s needs and their ambient social contexts that have either fulfilled or frustrated the needs,and they describe the way people orient toward the social environment and thus affect its potential for providing them further need satisfaction.In SDT,we refer to these as causality ori-entations(Deci&Ryan,1985a)at the broadest level of generality,and as regulatory styles(Ryan&Connell, 1989)at a more domain-specific level of generality (see also Vallerand, 1997).In selecting this focus for examining individual dif-ferences,we do not maintain that there are no differ-ences in need strength.Rather,we suggest that a focus on the strength of innate needs does not get at the issues we consider most important.In this regard,there is an-other similarity between our approach and that of the physiological-need theories.Just as it is probable that people have innate differences in the strength of their need for food,it is as well probable that there are innate differences in their needs for competence.Human characteristics tend to be normally distributed.None-theless,psychologists do not typically focus on innate individual differences in hunger,instead treating such differences as givens and focusing instead on the ef-fects of food deprivation versus availability on con-sumptive patterns.From that perspective,the critical issue is not to identify innate differences in the strength of hunger,but rather to see how hunger has been af-fected by the interaction of the basic need for food and the environment in which it is or is not supported.Similarly,although there may be individual differ-ences in the strength of people’s needs for competence, autonomy,and relatedness,we believe that these in-nate differences are not the most fruitful place to focus attention.Instead,greater benefits will be reaped from focusing on individual differences in motivational ori-entations and in the importance of goal contents,these being individual differences that result from the inter-action of the basic needs with the social world—that is, from past experiences of need satisfaction versus thwarting.As with the case of an unusually strong de-sire for food,we would consider an unusually strong desire to be with other people not to be a reflection of a strong innate need for relatedness but instead to be a re-sult,in part at least,of previous experiences in which the basic needs were thwarted.Similarly,an unusually strong desire to be in control of a situation would be viewed as resulting not from a strong need for compe-tence or autonomy but rather from experiences of those needs being thwarted.Like an unusually strong desire for food,an unusually strong desire to be in control is likely to be compensatory.Herein,lies one of the most important implications of proposing innate needs.They are the basis for—in-deed,they require—dynamic theorizing that links var-ied phenotypic desires and goals to underlying needs that the person may not even be directly aware of at the time.Without the concept of innate needs,all desires are equal in functional importance if they are equal in strength.In other words,every set of closely related behaviors would have its own need(e.g.,achievement behaviors would imply a need for achievement),and there would be no basis for predicting the qualities of performance or the degree of well-being that would be associated with different ones of these so-called needs. The concept of basic needs,in contrast,implies that some desires are linked to or catalyzed by our psycho-logical design,as it were,whereas others are not.These others,often being derivative or compensatory,can be the by-products of past need thwarting,and,as defen-sive adaptations,they may even form the basis for fu-ture need thwarting.Needs, Goals, and RegulatoryProcessesThe specification by SDT of the three fundamental needs for competence,relatedness,and autonomy was not simply an assumptive or a priori process but in-stead emerged from inductive and deductive empirical processes.We found that without the concept of needs we were unable to provide a psychologically meaning-ful interpretation and integration of a diverse set of re-search results in the areas of intrinsic motivation, which we consider to be a basic,lifelong psychological growth function(Deci&Ryan,1980),and internaliza-tion,which we consider to be an essential aspect of psychological integrity and social cohesion(Ryan, Connell,&Deci,1985).We now review the research on intrinsic motivation that led to the postulate of psy-chological needs,and then we move on to review the research on internalization,discussing its relevance to232DECI & RYAN。
L2--FMRI（题）
L2--FMRI（题）L2--FMRI1. What is the lecture mainly about?(A) A controversial study that was conducted using fMRIs(B) A recent discovery about a structure in the brain(C) Contrasting theories on personality development in humans(D) The role of fMRIs in psychological research2. Why are standard medical MRIs less useful in neuroscience than FMRIs?(A) They do not create three-dimensional images of the brain.(B) They produce less clear images.(C) They produce images which reveal only brain structures.(D) They provide only black-and-white images3. What does the professor imply about questionnaires used in traditional research methods?(A) They are useful despite being somewhat unreliable.(B) They may soon become an outdated method.(C) They are more economical than other research methods.(D) They are confusing to most subjects.4. According to the professor, what question might the experiment involving the amygdala help to answer?(A) Whether human personality changes over time(B) Where different neurobiological processes are taking place(C) What role emotions play in personality development(D) Why fear and anger are such strong emotions5. Why does the professor compare brain maps to geographical maps?(A) To describe one way that the brain processes spatial information(B) To explain why traditional research methods are still important(C) To mention that neuroscience has rapidly changed the study of personality(D) To clarify t he origin of the term “brain mapping”6. What is the professor's opinion about personality neuroscience?(A) It is very promising for the study of memory.(B) Its tools are insufficient for long-term study.(C) She does not know much about it to give an opinion.(D) Its research methods are less reliable than some scientists believe.答案：DCAABD。
卡特尔
• Constant G: advocating and comply with the social standard • Accounting / Department Manager / Police & Artist / writer / Reporter
2012-6-17
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• 乐群性A (Warmth）:对 待他人的热情水平 • 推销员/教师/社会工作 者 • 科学家/音乐家和作家
• 聪慧性B （Reasoning):抽象 思维以及逻辑推理能 力
• 接线生高科技技术人 员 & 打字员/
• Compatibility of A ( Warmth ): treat people warm level • Salesman / teacher / social worker • The scientist / musician and writer
2012-6-17 6
Show traits and root traits
• Cattell will be personality traits between surface characteristics and root traits, surface characteristics refer to the external behavior can be directly observed trait, surface characteristics will not change with time change. Source trait is intrinsic, decision surface characteristics basic personality traits, are stable, as the basic factor of trait of personality structure. Source trait through rigorous scientific methods to get
表观遗传与疾病-表观遗传,细胞重塑与基因的转录调控
MCF7 MDA-231
组蛋白修饰和组蛋白密码(histone code)
乙酰化：histone acetyltransferases (HATs) Human proteins that possess HAT catalytic activity include: CREBBP, CDY1 , CDY2, CDYL1, CLOCK ELP3 , EP300 HAT1 KAT2A, KAT2B, KAT5 MYST1, MYST2, MYST3, MYST4 NCOA1, NCOA3, NCOAT TF3C4
twins that one can
develop a disease while
ቤተ መጻሕፍቲ ባይዱ
the other is fine
When this situation
occurs, researchers will
try to pinpoint the
environmental factors that
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4. Prions Note: DNA 甲基化和组蛋白修饰是可逆的，与上面相对应的逆过程分别 是： 去甲基化，去乙酰话，去磷酸化。。。。。
表观遗传的主要研究内容
1. DNA 甲基化对基因表达的影响 （正常发育和病变） 2. 组蛋白的修饰对基因表达的影响 3. X染色体的失活 4. 基因印记（gene imprinting) 5. 细胞的重编程－多能干细胞的诱导和分化
Identical Twins are
四级题库2
一、Vocabulary and structure.1.They played cards ______ killing time.a. in order ofb. for the sake ofc. in case ofd. instead of2.Ghosts are widely regarded as ______ but many people still believe in them.a. artificialb. superstitiousc. suspiciousd. abstract3.They are the right people to ______ in case of emergency.a. turn onb. fall onc. fall back ond. build on4.His proposal _______ some light on the solution to the problem.a. illuminatesb. givesc. spreadsd. sheds5.She is quite OK in health actually though she often looks ______.a. neverthelessb. likewisec. otherwised. contrary6.The theory is only partly sound. We shouldn’t ______ it wi thout consideration.a. understandb. appreciatec. take ind. swallow7.When he awoke, he found himself ______ by an old woman.a. looked afterb. be looked afterc. being looked afterd. looking after8.Yet even this huge globe is but a very small object when ______ with the sun.a. contrastedb. comparedc. distinguishedd. separated9.The book is not ______ what we have paid for it.a. worthb. worthyc. worthwhiled. worthy of10.The performance was staged by a group of ______ who have been studying dramatics as ahobby.a. professionalsb. playwrightsc. amateursd. greenhand11.It is quite strange that he should be utterly ______ to public criticism.A. sensible b. indifferent c. unconcerned d. uninterested12.How much are you ______ by the taxi-driver from the airport to the hotel?a. askedb. acquiredc. inquiredd. charged13.John Smith was a model husband for he had ______ his wife nothing ever since they gotmarried.a. declinedb. deniedc. refusedd. regretted14.Mike has always ______ at songs and dances, even as a young boy.a. excelledb. succeededc. exceededd. distinguished15.In time of grief, it always helps to ______ some new activity.a. catch upb. keep toc. turn tod. keep up16.To his great surprise, Smith ______ through his driving test this time.a. breezedb. helpedc. pulledd. breathed17.The husband ______ his wife and children and ran away with that ill-famed woman.a. departedb. declinedc. desertedd. rejected18._______ to continue his studies, James quitted school.a. Not wishingb. Wishing notc. Having not wishedd. In order not to wish19.This is ______work that few people have applied for it so far.a. such demandingb. such a demandingc. so demandedd. so demanded a20.Such ______ the case, there were no grounds to justify your complaints.a. wasb. beingc. had beend. to be21.He acted as if he _____ in England before.a. would not liveb. did not livec. wouldn’t have livedd. had never lived22.I didn’t hear _____ because there was too much noise where I was sitting.a. what did he sayb. what he saidc. what was he sayingd. what for him to say23.Peter said that he wouldn’t mind _____ the windows.a. my openingb. I openc. me to opend. for me to open24.I passed the test. I _____ it without your help.a. would not passb. didn’t passc. wouldn’t have passedd. had not passed25.Seldom _____ in such a rude way.a. we have been treatedb. we have treatedc. have we been treatedd. have we treated26.We enjoyed ourselves very much at the party. You _____ with us.a. must have comeb. should have comec. must comed. should come27.He was very busy yesterday; otherwise he _____ to the meeting.a. had comeb. would comec. could comed. would have come28.We are opposed to _____ without him.a. have a partyb. we have a partyc. having a partyd. us have a party29.Her parents insisted that she _____ until she finished her degree.a. stayedb. staysc. stayd. would stay30.You’d rather work than play, _____?a. wouldn’t youb. would youc. do youd. don’t you二. Reading Comprehension.Passage OneBabe Ruth was one of the greatest baseball players in the world. George Herman Ruth(Babe was a nickname) was born on February 6, 1895. He was a difficult child in school until one of his teachers discovered his talent for baseball. The teacher arranged a tryout with the Baltimore Orioles. He played for them until 1914. Then the Orioles sold Ruth to the Boston Red Sox.Ruth started as a pitcher. He was proud of his pitching record during the 1916 World Series championship for the Boston Red Sox ; he pitched over 29 scoreless innings, more than three complete scoreless games.In 1920, the New York Yankees bought Ruth. With this team, he became one of the most outstanding batters. In 1927, he hit 60 more runs in one season, a record that no one matched for almost fifty years.Because of Ruth’s tremendous popularity, the te am built a new Yankee Stadium that baseballfans called the “House that Ruth Built”.In 1936, at the end of his playing career, he was one of the first five players elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame. Babe died in 1948 and the whole world mourned his death.1. According to the passage, Ruth began his playing career in .a. 1895b.1914c.1920d. a year unmentioned2. Ruth was very popular because .a. he was one of the best pitchersb. he was one of the most famous battersc. be built the “House that Ruth Built”d. Both A and B3. According to the passage, in 1920, Ruth .a. because a member of the New York Yankeeb. hit 60 more runs in one seasonc. played for the Boston Red Soxd. ended his playing career4. According to the fourth paragraph, what did Ruth do in 1927?a. He played for the New York Yankees.b. He established a new world record of hitting 60 runs in one season.c. He was regarded as one of the first five players by baseball fans.d. He made a new pitching record.5. An inference which may be made from the fifth paragraph is that .a. his baseball fans collected a large sum of money for building the Yankee Stadiumb. Ruth himself built the Yankee Stadiumc. the New York Yankee built it in his honord. New Yorkers built the Stadium in honor of Ruth.Passage TwoAmericans are proud of their variety and individuality, yet they love and respect few things more than a uniform, whether it is the uniform of an elevator operator or the uniform of a five-star general. Why are uniforms so popular in the United States?Among the arguments for uniforms, one of the first is that in the eyes of most people they look more professional than civilian clothes. People have become conditioned to expect superior quality from a man who wears a uniform. The television repairman who wears a uniform tends to inspire more trust than one who appears in civilian clothes. Faith in the skill of a garage mechanic is increased by a uniform. What an easier way is there for a nurse, a policeman, a barber, or a waiter to lose professional identity than to step out of uniform?Uniforms also have many practical benefits. They save on other clothes. They save on laundry bills. They are tax-deductible. They are often more comfortable and more durable than civilian clothes.Primary among the arguments against uniforms is their lack of variety and the consequent loss of individuality experienced by people who must wear them. Though there are many types of uniforms, the wearer of any particular type is generally stuck with it, without change, until retirement. When people look alike, they tend to think, speak, and act similarly, on the job at least.Uniforms also give rise to some practical problems. Though they are long-lasting, often theirinitial expense is greater than the cost of civilian clothes. Some uniforms are also expensive to maintain, requiring professional dry cleaning rather than the home laundering possible with many types of civilian clothes.6. It is surprising that Americans who worship variety and individuality .a. still judge a man by his clothesb. hold the uniform in such high regardc. enjoy having a professional identityd. will respect an elevator operator as much as a general in uniform7. People are accustomed to thinking that a man in uniform .a. suggests quality workb. discards his social identityc. appears to be more practicald. looks superior to a person in civilian clothes8. The chief function of a uniform is to .a. provide practical benefits to the wearerb. make the wearer’s confidence in himselfc. inspire the wearer’s confidence in himselfd. provide the wearer with a professional identity9. According to the passage, people wearing uniforms .a. are usually helpfulb. have little or no individual freedomc. tend to lose their individualityd. enjoy greater popularity10. The best title for this passage would be .a. Uniforms and Societyb. The Importance of Wearing a Uniformc. Practical Benefits of Wearing a Uniformd. Advantages and Disadvantages of UniformsPassage ThreeInternet use appears to cause a decline in psychological well-being, according to research at Carnegie Mellon University.Even people who spent just a few hours a week on the Internet experienced more depression and loneliness than those who logged on (登录) less frequently, the two-year study showed. And it wasn’t that p eople who were already feeling bad spent more time on the Internet, but that using the Net actually appeared to cause the bad feelings.Researchers are puzzling over the results, which were completely contrary to their expectations. They expected that the Net would prove socially healthier than television, since the Net allows users to choose their information and to communicate with others.The fact that Internet use reduces time available for family and friends may explain the drop in well-being, researchers hypothesized (假设). Faceless, bodiless “virtual” communication may be less psychologically satisfying than actual conversation, and the relationships formed through it may be shallower. Another possibility is that exposure to the wider world via the Net makes users less satisfied with their lives.“But it’s important to remember this is not about the technology itself; it’s about how it is used.” Says psychologist Christine Riley of Intel, one of the study’s sponsors (发起者). “It really points to the need for considering social factors in terms of how you design applications and services for technology.”11. It can be learned from the passage that _____.a.people having bad feelings spend more time on the Internetb.the Internet makes its uses psychologically healthyc.Internet use may cause its user’s depressiond.people use the Internet less frequently than before12. The fact that the Internet proved less socially healthy than television _____.a.was what the researchers had expectedb.was contrary to the researchers’ expectationsc.was well understood by the researchersd.was a puzzle the researchers had solved13. According to the passage one of the possible reasons why Internet use leads to a decline in itsusers’ well-being is that _____.a.Internet users spend less time with their friends and familiesb.Internet users can’t get satisfaction from the Internetc.The Internet prevents its uses from communicating with their familiesd.People can’t establish lasting relationships with others on the Internet14. In the last paragra ph Christine Riley points out that as to the decline in Internet users’well-being, _____a.the technology itself should be responsible for itb.it is no fault of the technology itselfc.the blame lies with Internet usersd.the Net itself should take responsibility for it15. It is suggested in discussing problems caused by Internet use that _____.a. Internet users should spend less time on the Internetb. Internet users should have more conversations with their friendsc. social factors should be considered in devising applications for technologyd. a wider range of services should be made available三、ClozeⅠrichness; sense; that; term; manage; and; day; make; responsibility; experience Work is an important part of any person’s life, and, I think, one of the mos t important things, when you think about working, is doing something 1 both makes you happy and gives you some 2 of contributing to the 3 of your own life.My sister Cindy worked in an office for quite a long time, 4 she was really very good at her work. She was able to do all of the sort of typical things that you do in an office in 5of typing and filing and 6 the visitors to the office. And as she worked and became more7 , she was also given a lot of 8 for the work of the office and for 9 decisions about the direction that the work would go. But after a while, she really got tired of being inside all 10 .ⅡShe didn’t really like 1 down and just staying 2 a desk, and even 3 the work was 4 enough, she felt that it was, in the end, 5 of boring. So she took a 6of going back to school, and she learned to 7 a trucker.Driving a big truck isn’t easy, but she became very good at it. Now she really8 that being outside and being able to 9 her own schedule, and being responsible, mostly to herself, for the work that she dose has 10 her an entirely new opinion about the place of work in her own life.1) a. sitting b. seating c. getting d. keeping2) a. by b. at c. on d. beside3) a. actually b. when c. though d. fortunately4) a. varying b. various c. varied d. variable5) a. somewhat b. something c. lots d. kind6) a. risk b. chance c. possibility d. reason7) a. drive b. become c. work as d. act as8) a. feels b. senses c. learns d. seems9) a. found b. find c. establish d. fit10) a. taken b. provided c. given d. presented四．Writing作文：The Global Shortage of Fresh Water1．有人认为2．另一些人认为3．我的看法。
研究生英语一册
Speaking
Vocabulary
Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the words you have learned in the text without referring to the original. The first letter for each word is given.
A thin, timid professor named Bassum was one who gave the hints most among the professors when Bolenciecwcz answered the questions.
No light came into the big tackle’s eyes.
1. What I fancy I said to Melbury must have been enough to e_____ any man. nrage
Vocabulary
2. The president was vague, general, nebulous . He ___________ didn't want to talk, and apparently nothing could persuade him to talk. The interview was brief and barren.
Most of cadets were glumly indifferent soldiers, but I was not good at all.
Most of military trainees did not care to be good soldiers, but the situation was totally different for me. I had no any ability for that.
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T1927
Psychological Factors Affect the Frequency of Belching in Patients with Aerophagia
Albert J Bredenoord,1 Bas L Weusten,1 Robin Timmer,1 Andre J Smout2
(1) Gastroenterology, St Antonius Hospital, Nieuwegein, Netherlands, (2) Gastrointestinal Research Unit, University Medical Center, Utrecht, Netherlands
Abstract Body: Background and aim: In patients with excessive belching (aerophagia) an organic cause is seldomly found and a psychogenic cause is often suspected. Aim of this study was to investigate the effects of attention and distraction on the frequency of belching and to investigate the mechanism of belching in these patients. Methods: In 10 patients with aerophagia combined esophageal manometry, pH and impedance monitoring was performed for 2 hours. These 2 hours consisted of 4 30-min recording periods. Period 1: patient under the impression that recording had not yet commenced. Period 2: patient informed of recording in progress. Period 3: patient being distracted by having him/her filling in questionnaires. Period 4: patient not being distracted. Data are presented as median (iqr). The study was approved by the local IRB. Results: One patient stopped belching immediately after introduction of the catheters and was excluded from further analysis. In the remaining 9 patients, a total of 1258 belches was measured, 51 of which were the result of air that escaped from the stomach (gastric belches). The remaining 1207 belches (96%) were events during which air was expelled in oral direction almost immediately after entering the esophagus, before reaching the stomach (supragastric belches). Gastric belches were distributed equally over the first (1.5 (0.5-2.0)), second (1.5 (0.5-2.0)), third (1.0 (0-2.0)) and fourth (1.0 (0-2.0)) recording period. In contrast, the incidence of supragastric belches increased significantly (p<0.05) from 0 (0-32) in the first period to 30 (18-60) in the second period, after patients were told that recording was started. During the questionnaires the incidence of supragastric belches decreased (p<0.05) to 14 (4-30). In the fourth period the incidence of supragastric belches increased (p<0.05) to 21 (10-49). Supragastric belches were initiated either by sucking air into the esophagus by a negative thoracic pressure (8 patients) or by injecting air into the esophagus by a pharyngeal contraction (2 patients). Conclusions: The vast majority of belches in patients with aerophagia is due to supragastric belching. When patients are unaware that they are being studied or when they are distracted the incidence of belching is significantly reduced. These findings confirm that a psychological factor is important in this disorder, which supports treatments such as behavioral therapy. The mechanisms the patients use to fill their esophagus with air during supragastric belching are similar to the techniques described for facilitation of esophageal speech in laryngectomized patients, which suggests that logopedic therapy might also be helpful.
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