在美国大型企业结构的管理中,谁是主管

在美国大型企业结构的管理中,谁是主管
在美国大型企业结构的管理中，谁是主管
---战略管理杂志
我们研究企业领导人如何利用显著自由裁量权对组织结构进行了战略的影响（We examine how organizational structure influences strategies over which corporate leaders have significant discretion.）。

企业慈善事业是透过一般管理的具体的，差异化的组织结构，企业的基础的战略活动。

即正式确定和限制个别高级管理人员和董事对公司战略的影响。

（Corporate philanthropy is a strategic activity commonly managed through a specific, differentiated organizational structure—the corporate foundation—that formalizes and constrains the influence of individual senior managers and directors on corporate strategy.）我们对1996〜2006年财富500强企业的分析表明，高级管理层和董事会影响企业慈善捐款（Our analysis of Fortune 500 firms from 1996 to 2006 shows that characteristics of senior management and directors affect corporate philanthropic
contributions.）。

我们还发现，组织结构制约董事会成员的慈善影响力，但高级管理人员没有，结果相反的是对现有理论的预测。

（We also find that organizational structure constrains the philanthropic influence of board members, but not of senior managers, a result contrary to what existing theory would predict.）文章还讨论了如何推进结构，组织和企业领导的互动，以及对如何可以更有效地组织实现企业社会责任活动的战略价值的认识。

（We discuss how these findings advance understanding of how organizational structure and corporate leadership interact and how organizations can more effectively realize the strategic value of corporate social responsibility activities.）
引言（INTRODUCTION）
慈善捐赠对于大型上市公司似乎是不可能的省略的策略。

（Charitable giving seems an unlikely province for the strategies of large public companies.）然而，关于慈善事业重要战略意义的研究成果，包括企业声誉（弗布伦，1996），消费者的支持（Senand巴特查亚，2001年）和员工的承诺（绿化和头巾，2000）。

（Yet, research links philanthropy to strategically important outcomes, including corporate reputation (Fombrun, 1996), consumer support (Senand Bhattacharya, 2001) and employee commitment (Greening and Turban, 2000).）
战略性慈善事业因而日益被视为一种来解决同样重要的社会和经济目标的方
法，针对竞争环境的各个领域，成为公司和社会两个效益（波特和Kramer，2002：58）。

（Strategic philanthropy is thus increasingly seen as a way to address ‘impo rtant social and economic goals simultaneously, targeting areas of competitive context where the company and society both benefit’ (Porter and Kramer, 2002: 58).）从这个角度与当时的批判进行对比，是企业慈善作为一种管理制度，并可能作为股东价值的经理人个人利益（弗里德曼，1970）的剥削。

（This perspective contrasts with the prevailing critique that corporate philanthropy functions as a managerial perk and potentially, as an exploitation of shareholder value for managers’ personal gain(Friedman, 1970).）调和社会和财务绩效之间的联系的这些观点的实证证据可能是不确定的（马戈利斯和沃尔什，2003年），留下什么样的机制可以解释日益普及的慈善事业最终纳入企业战略。

（Empirical evidence of a link between social and financial performance that might reconcile these views is mixed and inconclusive (Margolis and Walsh, 2003), leaving unclear what mechanisms may account for the increased adoption of philanthropy into business strategies.）
最近的研究已经开始找出影响慈善事业的战略性质，包括组织的外部环境和关键的利益相关者（巴尼特，2007;王，蔡，李，2008）的特征特。

（Recent research has begun to identify contingencies that affect the strategic nature of philanthropy ,including features o f organizations’ external environments and characteristics of key stakeholders(Barnett, 2007; Wang, Choi, and Li, 2008).）但对企业的慈善行为在企业内部的影响相对知之甚少。

（But relatively little is known about the effects of factors within the firm on corporate philanthropy.）有研究指出，特别是企业领导人对自由裁量权的慈善活动（尤西姆和库特纳，1986; Galaskiewicz，1997），有显著的意义，在慈善事业的持久的批评管理中，慷慨（詹森，2002）是一个关键点。

（Research has noted that corporate leaders, in particular, have significant and sometimes unchecked discretion over philanthropic activities (Useem and Kutner, 1986; Galaskiewicz, 1997), a key point in the enduring criticism of philanthropy as managerial largesse (Jensen, 2002).）然而，领导者对慈善行为，战略以及其他方式的具体影响，仍然未开发。

对领袖们的影响的分析，从而有望在慈善事业可能出现的商业策略或机构内部损失不确定性中得到启发。

（However, the specific effects of leaders on philanthropic behavior, strategic or otherwise, remain unexplored. Analysis of leaders’ influence thus promises to shine light on the internal contingencies by which philanthropy may arise as a business strategy or as agency loss.）
在这项研究中，我们专注于慈善家们在公开上市公司的高层，高级管理人员和董事会董事的影响力，并研究如何规范慈善活动的正式结构，看能否限制这种影响。

（In this study, we focus on the influence of actors in publicly trad ed firms’upper echelons—senior management and boards of directors—and examine how the formal structure governing philanthropic activities may enable or constrain this influence.）我们发现，企业的慈善行为由两个组织内部的因素影响：（1）个人企业领袖，如他们的组织任期，
中心在跨企业网络，（2）系统化和调整组织结构的特质特质决策与公司的战略。

（We show that corporate philanthropy is influenced by two intraorganizational factors:(1) the idiosyncratic qualities of individual corporate leaders, such as their organizational tenure,centrality in inter-corporate networks, and gender,and (2) organizational structures that systematize and align decision making with the strategy of the firm.）我们的研究不仅整合了高层理论，而且侧重于个别高层管理人员如何影响公司战略和管治（汉姆布瑞克和Mason，1984），对一个组织的结构如何约束其策略（里夫和Siggelkow2003年的研究，戴维斯，艾森哈特，和宾汉姆，2009）。

（Our study thus integrates upper echelons theory, which focuses on how individual senior managers influence firm strategies and governance (Hambrick and Mason, 1984), with research on how an organization’s structural features constrain its strategy (Rivkin and Siggelkow, 2003; Davis, Eisenhardt, and Bingham, 2009).）而组织结构的发展，传统上被视为使领导者将战略转化的行动（例如，钱德勒，1962），我们看到的是相反的证据：组织结构制约个体企业领导人对企业慈善活动的影响力。

（While the development of organizational structures is traditionally viewed as enabling leaders to translate strategy into action (e.g., Chandler, 1962), we find evidence of the reverse: Organizational structure constrains individual corporate leaders’ influence on corporate philanthropic activities.）
为了实证检验我们的假设，我们构建和分析了世界500强企业在1996年至2006年内，企业慈善事业的一个独特的数据集。

（To empirically test our hypotheses, we constructed and analyzed a unique dataset of the corporate philanthropy of Fortune 500 companies during the period from 1996 to 2006.）我们专注于大企业，因为在他们在美国慈善事业起主导作用。

（We focused on large firms because of their dominant role in corporate philanthropy in the United States.）销售额超过5亿美元的大多数企业有慈善计划，而许多小公司则没有（尤西姆和库特纳，1986）（Most corporations with sales over $500 million have philanthropy programs, while many small companies do not (Useem and Kutner, 1986).）大公司的慈善事业规模更大：在2007年财富100强公司捐赠了5000万美元（科迪，2008年）并且最近的一项研究表明，在美国最大200家美国公司的慈善事业占大多数的企业慈善事业总数（Cavicchio和图罗克，2008）。

（Large-firm philanthropy is also conducted on a much larger scale: Fortune 100 companies donated a median of approximately $50 million in 2007 (Coady, 2008)and a recent study suggests that the philanthropy of the largest 200 U.S. companies accounts for the majority of total corporate philanthropy in the United States (Cavicchio and Turok, 2008).）因此，我们的文献中的研究不仅涉及到高层是如何影响企业战略的，也提供了新的经验镜片企业慈善事业的日益重要的背景。

（Thus,our study pertains not only to the literature on how upper echelons influence corporate strategy but also provides a novel empirical lens on the increasingly important context of corporate philanthropy.）我们在很多方面的研究扩大了对上层人士和组织行为的研究。

（Our
findings extend research on upper echelons and organizational behavior in a number of ways.）首先，我们证明了高层团队和董事会的性别构成影响的战略成果，如慈善事业，鉴于企业领导越来越性别平衡一个重要的发现。

（First, we show that the gender composition of the senior team and board influences strategic outcomes such as philanthropy, an important finding given the increasing gender balance in corporate leadership.）其次，虽然上层理论已经发现，高级管理人员的影响是通过外力（汉姆布瑞克，2007年）放缓，我们证明了在一个组织内分化的结构元素也可以通过修改高层领导的自由裁量权来影响公司战略。

（Second, while upper echelons theory has found that senior management effects are moderated by external forces (Hambrick, 2007),we show that a differentiated structural element within an organization may also modify the discretion of senior leaders to influence corporate strategies.）第三，政府的研究已经表明董事会是有影响力的无数企业的（Mizruchi，1996）的大脑，组织结构限制了他们对以前没有建立起来的战略的影响。

（Third, while governance research has shown directors to be influential in myriad corporate practices (Mizruchi, 1996), the idea that organizational structures constrain their influence on strategy has not previously been established.）第四，我们的研究结果有助于在学习慈善活动的前因（侯爵，格林，和Davis，2007）和最新的趋势。

（Fourth, our findings contribute to a recent trend in studying the antecedents of philanthropic activity (Marquis, Glynn, and Davis, 2007).）我们贴近有关如何能更有效地实现企业社会责任活动的问题的讨论，如慈善事业的战略利益的讨论。

（We close with a discussion of how corporations can more effectively realize the strategic benefits of corporate social responsibility activities such as philanthropy.）
结论与讨论（DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS）
我们的研究主要集中组织结构，调节个人企业管理者对企业慈善的特质影响的方式。

（Our study focused on the ways that organizational structure regulates the idiosyncratic influence of individual corporate leaders on corporate philanthropy.）高级管理人员和董事，包括执行长的任期内，主任程度中心性，董事会规模，女性高级管理人员的比例，女性董事比例的董事会个体水平和团队水平，表现出了对企业慈善捐助影响。

(A number of individual-level and team-level characteristics of senior management and the board of directors including CEO tenure, director degree centrality, board size, the percentage of women senior managers, and the percentage of women directors were shown to affect corporate philanthropic contributions.)而且我们发现，也许更重要的是一个企业基础存在的董事特性对高层管理人员的慈善事业的影响，但不影响慈善事业特性的负面放缓。

（Furthermore, and perhaps more importantly, we found that the presence of a corporate foundation negatively moderated the effect of the direct ors’ characteristics on philan thropy but not the effect of senior managers’ char acteristics on philanthropy.）大多数研究组织结构和领导
层描绘领袖和专业结构的互补力量促成一个统一的战略。

（Most research on organizational structure and leadership has depicted leaders and specialized structures as complementary forces contributing to a unified strategy.）然而，我们的研究结果，提供领导和结构的证据表明，特殊结构起到怎样的企业领导人，特别是董事，影响战略的重要检查之间的紧张关系的证据。

（Our findings, however, provide evidence of tensions between leaders and structures and evidence that specialized structures function as an important check on how corporate leaders, particularly directors, influence strategy.）
我们的研究结果显示，一个基金会的大小制约了董事的慈善事业，但不影响高级管理人员。

（Our findings that the size of a foundation constrains the influence of directors on philanthropy—but not the influence of senior managers—break with prevailing assumptions on governance.）于企业慈善事业而言，结构对代理主任调节作用似乎超过对高级管理人员的并行效果。

（In the case of corporate philanthropy ,structure’s modera ting effects on director agency appears to exceed parallel effects on senior managers.）因为高层管理者在组织中的职权越来越正式，他们可能以他们自己的目的来操纵组织内部结构。

（Because senior managers have formal day-to-day purview over the organization, they may be more able than directors to co-opt internal structures to their ends.）随着董事较少接近组织，可能因此更受组织结构的约束。

（With less proximity to the organization, directors may therefore be more constrained by organizational structure.）我们的论点的普遍性是通过这两个董事的观察而影响的，特别是在一般和女性董事的增强。

（The generalizability of our argument is enhanced by the observation of this effect across both directors in general and women directors in particular.）我们还研究了可能存在的董事会和高级管理团队特征之间的关系，但是，在报告的结果，发现这样的效果不支持结论。

（We also examined the possible existence of moderated relationships between board and senior management team features, but—in reported results—found no support for such effects.）高级管理人员和组织结构之间的相互作用的战略后果是一个成熟的领域未来的研究。

（Examining the strategic consequences of interactions between directors, senior managers，and organizational structure is a ripe area for future research.）
我们的主要功效的研究结果也显示，这种模式是的对相关上层的研究和越来越多的文献对企业社会责任战略的推进。

（Our main effect findings also show patterns that are relevant to advancing research on upper echelons and the growing literature on corporate social responsibility strategies.）
我们发现，企业捐赠与首席执行官任期减少支持理论描绘与早年一个CEO的任期从定性后期（汉姆布瑞克和福富，1991）是不同的。

（Our finding that corporate giving decreases with CEO tenure supports theories that depict the early years of a CEO’s tenure as qualitatively different from later periods(Hambrick and Fukutomi, 1991).）额外的分析支持这一结果，表明它
主要是增加了负责企业捐赠的头两年首席执行官任期时的效果。

（Additional analyses support this result, showing that it is primarily increases in corporate giving during the first two years of CEO tenure that are responsible for this effect.）
进一步的研究可以采用更精细的数据，也许用不同的方法来检查每个我们在广泛的分析的主要作用需要更细微的力度。

（Further research could employ more granular data and perhaps different methods to examine more subtle dynamics underlying each of the main effects we explored in our broad analysis.）举例来说，它是合理的结构对领袖效应的影响随相关的机制之间的不同特性而变化。

（For instance, it is plausible that the mechanisms underlying the influence of structure on leader effects varies among different characteristics.）其他感兴趣的特点，不便于我们给定的电流数据的限制，包括影响认知模式多样性的措施，如种族，功能的工作经验，教育背景，地理起源和年龄（吉尔达夫，Angelmar，和梅拉，2000）。

（Other characteristics of interest that were not accessible to us given current data limitations include diversity measures that influence cognitive patterns, such as ethnicity, functional work experience, educational background, geographic origin, and age (Kilduff ,Angelmar, and Mehra, 2000).）未来的研究在这些领域应同时在高级管理层和董事会层面探索更多的变量来构建的上层梯队特征有密切关系的企业慈善事业的全面了解。

（Future research in these areas should explore additional variables at both the senior management and board levels to build a comprehensive understanding of the upper echelon characteristics germane to corporate philanthropy.）我们还发现，女性高级管理人员和董事增加的存在导致企业做出更大的慈善捐助，不仅增加了一个重要的性别组成部分高层理论（面包车Knippenberg等，2011），而且还提供了之间的复杂关系的其他证据性别和慈善事业（Mesch，2009）。

（The finding that the increased presence of women senior managers and directors leads firms to make greater philanthropic contributions not only adds an important gender component to upper echelons theory (van Knippenberg et al ., 2011),but also provides additional evidence of the complex relationship between gender and philanthropy (Mesch, 2009).）对这些发现的一种解释，这与文献报道一致的是，女性高级管理人员和董事可在由企业慈善加强外部关系认识更大的价值（康拉德等人，2008）。

（One explanation for these findings that is consistent with the literature is that women senior managers and directors may recognize greater value in the external relationships that are strengthened by corporate philanthropy (Konrad et al ., 2008).）女性企业领导人对慈善事业的的积极作用的发现是与女性就业形成鲜明对比的，这在慈善事业上有显著的负面影响，建议有关性别和高层领导鲜明的社会性别机制存在。

（Our finding of the positive effects of female corporate leaders on philanthropy was in stark contrast to a significant negative effect of female employment on philanthropy, suggesting the presence of distinctive gendered mechanisms relating to gender and senior leaders.）今后的研究特别感兴趣的是性别在CEO层面的影响，因为企业慈善事业和企业战略一样重要（Of particular
interest for future research is the effect of gender at the CEO level, since this position is so central to corporate philanthropy and to corporate strategy in general.）在我们的样本期间，女性的财富500强CEO 的数量从1996年的零到2006的九再到2010年增长到14。

（During the period of our sample, the number of female Fortune 500 CEOs grew from zero in 1996 to nine in 2006 to 14 in 2010.）这个允许在这项研究中的统计检验的数字太小，，但我们坚信，未来的研究无论是通过统计或定性的方法都应该调查的CEO性别的影响。

（This number was too small to permit statistical tests in this study, but we strongly believe that future research should investigate the implications of CEO gender,whether through statistical or qualitative methods.）
最后，我们也相信，我们的论文阐明企业和社会之间的相互作用的一个关键要素，一个越来越重要的话题（侯爵等人，即将出版）。

（Finally, we also believe that our paper illuminates a key element of the interaction between corporations and society, an increasingly important topic (Marquis et al ., forthcoming).）如前所述，虽然研究人员最近一直指导着管理者对慈善事业的战略（波特和Kramer，2002），他们未能就定向大意是面向社会的活动，如慈善事业对企业绩效，更不用说了解如何在细微之处达成共识这些活动的实际影响力的重要公司的成果（马戈利斯和沃尔什，2003年）（As noted, while researchers recently have guided managers toward strategic philanthropy (Porter and Kramer,2002), they have failed to reach consensus on the directional effect that socially oriented activities such as philanthropy have on firm performance,let alone to understand the subtleties of how these activities actually influence important firm outcomes (Margolis and Walsh, 2003).）我们的发现有助于释放高层领导人的影响力，但还表明，组织结构和流程可以成为制定战略企业和完善社会责任的有力工具。

（Our findings help unpack the influence of senior leaders, but furthermore suggest that organizational structures and processes can be a powerful tool with which to enact strategic corporate social responsibility.）根据这一观点，我们建议企业应更多地利用结构，如企业基金会管理慈善事业作为战略性的活动，而不是推迟这些决定强大的个人判断。

（Following this view, we suggest that corporations should increasingly utilize structures such as the corporate foundation to manage philanthropy as a strategic activity, rather than defer these decisions to the judgment of powerful individuals.）虽然一些企业领导人可能把社会责任项目的全权委托，或只是作为在特定的语言环境做生意的“开销”的一部分，但慈善组织结构为他们提供了一个潜在的强大的工具，以利用其难以捉摸的战略利益。

（While some corporate leaders may treat social responsibility programs as discretionary, or simply as part of the ‘overhead’ of doing business in certain locales, organizational structure offers a potentially powerful tool to harness their elusive strategic benefits.）。