DEFINITION OF A SPATIAL ENTROPY AND ITS USE FOR TEXTURE DISCRIMINATION
波利亚关于类比的名言
波利亚关于类比的名言波利亚（Karl Popper）是一位著名的哲学家和科学哲学家，对科学方法和知识理论作出了重要贡献。
以下是一些波利亚关于类比的名言：1. "类比是科学探索的一种重要工具，但需要小心谨慎地使用，因为它们可能误导我们进入错误的结论。
"（"Analogy is an important tool in scientific exploration, but it needs to be used with caution because it can lead us astray into false conclusions."）2. "类比可以激发我们的创造力，帮助我们发现新的科学理论，但同时也需要通过实验证据来验证和证伪这些理论。
"（"Analogy can stimulate our creativity and help us discover new scientific theories, but at the same time, these theories need to be tested and falsified by empirical evidence."）3. "类比可以是一种有力的科学推理形式，但这并不意味着它是无误的。
我们需要批判性地评估和验证类比的适用性和有效性。
"（"Analogy can be a powerful form of scientific reasoning, but that does not mean it is infallible. We need to critically evaluate and validate the applicability and effectiveness of analogies."）4. "科学的进步不仅仅依赖于类比，还需要严谨的观察、实验和推理，以及对新观点和理论的开放态度。
散文议论文的英文名词解释
散文议论文的英文名词解释The Definition and Exploration of Prose Discursive WritingIntroduction:Prose discursive writing is a literary genre that combines the elements of both prose and discourse. Unlike poetry, it lacks a rigid structure and rhyme scheme, allowing writers the freedom to express their thoughts and ideas in a more conversational and reflective manner. In this essay, we will delve into the essence of prose discursive writing, its characteristics, the purpose it serves, and its significance in contemporary literature.The Essence of Prose Discursive Writing:Prose discursive writing can be best described as an unrestricted vehicle for personal expression. It allows the writer to convey their perspectives, emotions, observations, and analysis without rigid constraints. This form of writing effortlessly captures the essenceof everyday experiences, thoughts, and musings, painting vivid pictures in readers' minds.Characteristics of Prose Discursive Writing:1. Reflective and Contemplative:Prose discursive writing delves into the depths of the writer's mind, exploring their thoughts and emotions. It frequently involves introspection, contemplation, and self-analysis, providing readers with an intimate glimpse into the writer's inner world.2. Narrative and Descriptive:This genre incorporates narrative and descriptive elements to engage readers. It employs vivid descriptions, anecdotes, and storytelling techniques to enrich the reading experience, allowing readers to immerse themselves in the writer's world.3. Critical and Analytical Thinking:Prose discursive writing encourages critical thinking, analysis, and the exploration of ideas and themes. It often challenges prevailing opinions, provides alternative perspectives, and promotes intellectual curiosity and discourse.The Purpose of Prose Discursive Writing:The primary purpose of prose discursive writing is to provoke thought, evoke emotions, and stimulate readers intellectually and emotionally. It aims to inspire introspection and self-reflection, urging readers to question established norms and embrace different perspectives. Through its narrative and descriptive elements, it forges an emotional connection between the writer and the reader, fostering empathy and understanding.Significance in Contemporary Literature:Prose discursive writing holds immense significance in contemporary literature due to its unique ability to capture the essence of human experiences and emotions. In an era dominated by concise texts and instant communication, this form of writing offers a counterbalance by providing a space for more expansive expression. It allows writers to explore the nuances of human existence, sparking meaningful conversations and fostering a greater appreciation for the power of words.Conclusion:In conclusion, prose discursive writing is a literary genre that combines the elements of prose and discourse, offering writers a flexible platform to express their thoughts and emotions. Its reflective and contemplative nature, narrative and descriptive elements, and critical thinking components make it a powerful tool for intellectual exploration and self-discovery. In today's fast-paced world, where brevity often reigns supreme, prose discursive writing serves as a reminder of the timeless beauty and significance of thoughtful and profound expression in literature.。
（熵的定义）
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Calculation of entropy change in isothermal
For irreversible phase change process, it needs to find a reversible route to calculate the entropy change. For example
B(α,T1,p1) ΔS1
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phase transition of pure substances
① Reversible phase change at equilibrium T and p
为什么我们的日子一去不复返呢英语作文
为什么我们的日子一去不复返呢英语作文英文回答：Time is an enigmatic entity, flowing relentlessly forward, weaving the tapestry of our lives as it passes. The inexorable march of time has been a subject of contemplation for philosophers, poets, and scientists throughout human history. One of the most poignant aspects of time is its fleeting nature. As the sands of time slip through our fingers, we are left with a profound sense of loss and longing for the moments that have passed. The question of why days cannot be recaptured echoes through the corridors of our consciousness, stirring a mix of regret and nostalgia.There are several inherent qualities of time that contribute to its irreversibility. Firstly, time is unidirectional. It flows in a linear fashion, from the past through the present and into the future. Unlike the spatial dimension, where it is possible to move backward andforward, there is no mechanism by which we can reverse the flow of time. This asymmetry in time's directionality renders the past inaccessible and unchangeable.Secondly, time is experiential. It is not an external entity that exists independently of our perception. Rather, time is inextricably linked to our consciousness. We experience time as a sequence of events, and it is the cumulative sum of these experiences that shapes our understanding of the past. As we move through time, new experiences are created and added to our repertoire, while the past becomes a collection of memories. It is impossible to replicate or relive past experiences exactly as they occurred, as our perception of them is inevitably influenced by the intervening passage of time.Thirdly, time is intimately connected to entropy. Entropy is a measure of disorder or randomness in a system. In the context of time, entropy dictates that over time, systems tend to become more disordered. This is evident in the aging process, where the body gradually loses its vitality and organization. It is also evident in the realmof memory, where the details of past events tend to become more fragmented and less accessible over time. The increasing entropy associated with time makes it difficultto restore the past to its original state.In addition to these inherent properties of time, there are also psychological and sociological factors that contribute to our perception of its irreversibility. Emotionally, we tend to view the past through rose-tinted glasses. The negative aspects of past experiences fade with time, leaving us with a nostalgic yearning for days gone by. This idealized view of the past can make it difficult to accept the reality that those days cannot be recaptured.Sociologically, our culture reinforces the idea that time is irreversible. We celebrate milestones and anniversaries, marking the passage of time and acknowledging the changes it brings. We plan for the future, setting goals and making decisions based on the assumption that tomorrow will come. These social constructs help to create a sense of linear progression and reinforce thenotion that the past is immutable.In conclusion, the irreversibility of time is a multifaceted phenomenon rooted in the nature of time itself, as well as in our perception and experience of it. Whilethe fleeting nature of time can be a source of regret, it also serves a vital purpose. It encourages us to cherishthe present moment, to embrace new experiences, and tolearn from the past without dwelling on what cannot be changed. By understanding the reasons why days cannot be recaptured, we can come to a deeper appreciation of the preciousness of time and live our lives with greaterpurpose and meaning.中文回答：为什么日子一去不复返呢？这个问题的答案是多方面的。
哲学术语英汉对照
a prioria posteriori distinction 先验-后验的区分abstract ideas 抽象理念abstract objects 抽象客体ad hominem argument 谬误论证alienation/estrangement 异化，疏离altruism 利他主义analysis 分析analyticsynthetic distinction 分析-综合的区分aporia 困惑argument from design 来自设计的论证artificial intelligence (AI) 人工智能association of ideas 理念的联想autonomy 自律axioms 公理Categorical Imperative 绝对命令categories 范畴Category mistake 范畴错误causal theory of reference 指称的因果论causation 因果关系certainty 确定性chaos theory 混沌理论class 总纲、类clearness and distinctness 清楚与明晰cogito ergo sum 我思故我在concept 概念consciousness 意识consent 同意consequentialism 效果论conservative 保守的consistency 一致性，相容性constructivism 建构主义contents of consciousness 意识的内容contingentnecessary distinction 偶然-必然的区分continuum 连续体continuum hypothesis 连续性假说contradiction 矛盾（律）conventionalism 约定论counterfactual conditional 反事实的条件句criterion 准则，标准critique 批判，批评Dasein 此在，定在deconstruction 解构主义defeasible 可以废除的definite description 限定摹状词deontology 义务论dialectic 辩证法didactic 说教的dualism 二元论egoism 自我主义、利己主义eliminative materialism 消除性的唯物主义empiricism 经验主义Enlightenment 启蒙运动（思想）entailment 蕴含essence 本质ethical intuition 伦理直观ethical naturalism 伦理的自然主义eudaimonia 幸福主义event 事件、事变evolutionary epistemology 进化认识论expert system 专门体系explanation 解释fallibilism 谬误论family resemblance 家族相似fictional entities 虚构的实体first philosophy 第一哲学form of life 生活形式formal 形式的foundationalism 基础主义free will and determinism 自由意志和决定论function 函项（功能）function explanation 功能解释good 善happiness 幸福hedonism 享乐主义hermeneutics 解释学（诠释学，释义学）historicism 历史论（历史主义）holism 整体论iconographic 绘画idealism 理念论ideas 理念identity 同一性illocutionary act 以言行事的行为imagination 想象力immaterical substance 非物质实体immutable 不变的、永恒的individualism 个人主义（个体主义）induction 归纳inference 推断infinite regress 无限回归intensionality 内涵性intentionality 意向性irreducible 不可还原的Leibnizs Law 莱布尼茨法则logical atomism 逻辑原子主义logical positivism 逻辑实证主义logomachy 玩弄词藻的争论material biconditional 物质的双向制约materialism 唯物论（唯物主义）maxim 箴言，格言method 方法methodologica 方法论的model 样式modern 现代的modus ponens and modus tollens 肯定前件和否定后件natural selection 自然选择necessary 必然的neutral monism 中立一无论nominalism 唯名论nonEuclidean geometry 非欧几里德几何nonmonotonic logics 非单一逻辑OckhamRazor 奥卡姆剃刀omnipotence and omniscience 全能和全知ontology 本体论（存有学）operator 算符(或算子)paradox 悖论perception 知觉phenomenology 现象学picture theory of meaning 意义的图像说pluralism 多元论polis 城邦possible world 可能世界postmodernism 后现代主义prescriptive statement 规定性陈述presupposition 预设primary and secondary qualities 第一性的质和第二性质principle of noncontradiction 不矛盾律proposition 命题quantifier 量词quantum mechanics 量子力学rational numbers 有理数real number 实数realism 实在论reason 理性，理智recursive function 循环函数reflective equilibrium 反思的均衡relativity (theory of) 相对（论）rights 权利rigid designator 严格的指称词Rorschach test 相对性（相对论）rule 规则rule utilitarianism 功利主义规则Russells paradox 罗素悖论sanctions 制发scope 范围，限界semantics 语义学sense data 感觉材料，感觉资料set 集solipsism 唯我论social contract 社会契约subjectiveobjective distinction 主客区分sublation 扬弃substance 实体，本体sui generis 特殊的，独特性supervenience 偶然性syllogism 三段论thingsinthemselves 物自体thought 思想thought experiment 思想实验threevalued logic 三值逻辑transcendental 先验的truth 真理truth function 真值函项understanding 理解universals 共相，一般，普遍verfication principle 证实原则versimilitude 逼真性vicious regress 恶性回归Vienna Circle 维也纳学派virtue 美德。
融合空洞空间金字塔池化和注意力的轻量化遥感影像道路提取
第 45 卷 第 1 期航天返回与遥感2024 年 2 月SPACECRAFT RECOVERY & REMOTE SENSING111融合空洞空间金字塔池化和注意力的轻量化遥感影像道路提取刘志恒 1 岳子腾 2,* 周绥平 1 江澄 3 节永师 3 陈雪梅 4（1 西安电子科技大学空间科学与技术学院，西安 710126）（2 北京航空航天大学电子信息工程学院，北京 100191）（3 北京空间机电研究所先进光学遥感技术北京市重点实验室，北京 100094）（4 西安航天天绘数据技术有限公司，西安 710100）摘 要 针对高分辨率遥感影像中道路形状结构错综复杂，出现窄小型道路提取错误或漏分的问题，提出一种基于空洞空间金字塔池化和注意力机制的轻量化遥感影像道路提取方法。
首先，在原始高分辨率网络（HRNet）基础上，通过引入空洞空间金字塔池化模块，实现多尺度道路信息融合；再引入挤压激励通道注意力机制，增强网络特征表征质量；最后使用深度可分离卷积方法改进网络残差模块实现模型轻量化，以降低模型计算复杂度。
在公开数据集上进行了模型性能测试，实验结果表明，文章所提算法的准确率、精确率、召回率、F1分数和平均交并比，相比原始HRNet分别提升了5.35 %、2.15 %、4.1 %、3.15 %和14.34 %，且减少了36.1 %的参数数量；相比其他网络，该算法突出了细小道路的特征，道路预测结果连续性、完整性好，并且模型小易于部署在实时检测设备中，有效改善了道路提取任务中错分和缺失的情况，是一种适应性更强、分割精度更高、更轻量化的多尺度道路提取算法。
关键词 道路提取 空间金字塔池化 通道注意力机制 可分离卷积 高分辨率网络 遥感影像中图分类号：TP751 文献标志码：A 文章编号：1009-8518(2024)01-0111-12DOI：10.3969/j.issn.1009-8518.2024.01.010Lightweight Remote Sensing Image Road Extraction Combing Atrous Spatial Pyramid Pooling and Attention Mechanism LIU Zhiheng1 YUE Ziteng2,* ZHOU Suiping1 JIANG Cheng3 JIE Yongshi3 CHEN Xuemei4（ 1 School of Aerospace Science and Technology, Xidian University, Xi’an 710126, China ）（ 2 School of Electronics and Information Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China ）（ 3 Beijing Key Laboratory of Advanced Optical Remote Sensing Technology,Beijing Institute of Space Mechanics & Electricity, Beijing 100094, China ）（ 4 Xi’an Aerospace Remote Sensing Data Technology Co., Ltd., Xi’an 710100, China ）收稿日期：2023-08-08基金项目：陕西省自然科学基础研究计划资助项目（2023-JC-QN-0299）；先进光学遥感技术北京市重点实验室开放基金项目（AORS20238）；自然资源部矿山地质灾害成灾机理与防控重点实验室项目（2022-08）；中央高校基本科研业务费专项资金资助项目（300102353502）；自然资源部国土卫星遥感应用重点实验室开放基金项目（KLSMNR-G202303）引用格式：刘志恒, 岳子腾, 周绥平, 等. 融合空洞空间金字塔池化和注意力的轻量化遥感影像道路提取[J]. 航天返回与遥感, 2024, 45(1): 111-122.LIU Zhiheng, YUE Ziteng, ZHOU Suiping, et al. Lightweight Remote Sensing Image Road Extraction Combing AtrousSpatial Pyramid Pooling and Attention Mechanism[J]. Spacecraft Recovery & Remote Sensing, 2024, 45(1): 111-122.(in Chinese)112航 天 返 回 与 遥 感2024 年第 45 卷Abstract Aiming at the problem of intricate road shape and structure in high-resolution remote sensing images, where narrow and small roads are extracted incorrectly or omitted, a lightweight remote sensing image road extraction method based on Atrous Space Pyramid Pooling and Attention Mechanism is proposed. Firstly, based on the original HRNet network, multi-scale road information fusion is realized by introducing the ASPP. Secondly, the Squeeze and Excitation channel attention mechanism (SE-networks) is introduced to enhance the quality of network feature representation. Finally, using deep separable convolution to improve the network residual module to realize the model lightweight and reduce the complexity of model calculation. Experimental results on the publicly available dataset show that the accuracy, precision, recall, F1 score and the MIoU of the proposed algorithm was improved respectively by 5.35%, 2.15%, 4.1%, 3.15% and 14.34%, compared with the original HRNet network, and reduce the number of parameters by 35.6%. Compared with other networks, the algorithm highlights the characteristics of small roads, and the prediction results have good continuity and integrity. As the small size, the proposed model is easier to deploy in real-time detection equipment. The proposed model effectively reduces the road extraction fault and missing, implements a stronger adaptability, higher segmentation accuracy, more lightweight multi-scale road semantic segmentation algorithm.Keywords road extraction; ASPP; channel attention mechanism; separable convolution; High-Resolution Network; remote sensing images0 引言在城市发展和规划过程中，道路是不可或缺的元素之一。
(NEW)胡壮麟《语言学教程》(第5版)配套题库【考研真题精选+章节题库】
7. One of the important distinctions in linguistics is _____ and performance. （人大2006研） 【答案】competence 【解析】语言能力指理想的语言使用者关于语言规则的语言知识，语言 应用指语言交际中关于语言规则知识的实际使用。
因为大多数动物的“语言”需要“即时刺激控制”。
18. The most serious defect concerns the use of semantic markers like (Human) and (Male), which, more usually called semantic components are elements of an artificial _____.（北京邮电大学2014研） 【答案】metalanguage 【解析】本题考查成分分析的弊端。通过语义特征来进行成分分析的一 大弊端是这些意义特征使用的是人工化的元语言，元语言本身的含义也 需进一步解释。
熵,次序和无序(英文书：entropy and art an essay on disorder and order)
ENTROPY AND ARTAN ESSAY ON DISORDER AND ORDERRUDOLF ARNHEIMA BSTRACT.Order is a necessary condition for anything the hu-man mind is to understand.Arrangements such as the layout of a city or building,a set of tools,a display of merchandise,the ver-bal exposition of facts or ideas,or a painting or piece of music are called orderly when an observer or listener can grasp their overall structure and the ramification of the structure in some detail.Or-der makes it possible to focus on what is alike and what is differ-ent,what belongs together and what is segregated.When noth-ing superfluous is included and nothing indispensable left out, one can understand the interrelation of the whole and its parts, as well as the hierarchic scale of importance and power by which some structural features are dominant,others subordinate.2RUDOLF ARNHEIMC ONTENTSPart1.3EFUL ORDER32.REFLECTIONS OF PHYSICAL ORDER43.DISORDER AND DEGRADATION74.WHAT THE PHYSICIST HAS IN MIND11RMATION AND ORDER136.PROBABILITY AND STRUCTURE177.EQUILIBRIUM218.TENSION REDUCTION AND WEAR AND TEAR229.THE VIRTUE OF CONSTRAINTS2510.THE STRUCTURAL THEME27 Part2.3211.ORDER IN THE SECOND PLACE3212.THE PLEASURES OF TENSION REDUCTION3513.HOMEOSTASIS IS NOT ENOUGH3914.A NEED FOR COMPLEXITY4015.ART MADE SIMPLE4316.CALL FOR STRUCTURE46 References48ENTROPY AND ART AN ESSAY ON DISORDER AND ORDER3 Part1.EFUL ORDERIn many instances,order is apprehendedfirst of all by the senses. The observer perceives an organized structure in the shapes and col-ors or sounds facing him.But it is hard,perhaps impossible,tofind examples in which the order of a given object or event is limited to what is directly apparent in perception.Rather,the perceivable order tends to be manifested and understood as a reflection of an under-lying order,whether physical,social,or cognitive.Our kinesthetic sense tells us through our muscular reactions whether a device or engine works with a smooth ordering of its parts;in fact,it informs us similarly about the perfect or imperfect functioning of our own bodies.The spatial layout of a building reflects and serves the distri-bution and interconnections of various functions;the groupings of the cans and packages on the shelves of a store guide the customer to the ordered varieties of household goods,and the shapes and col-ors of a painting or the sounds of a piece of music symbolize the interaction of meaningful entities.Since outer order so often represents inner or functional order,or-derly form must not be evaluated by itself,that is,apart from its relation to the organization it signifies.The form may be quite or-derly and yet misleading,because its structure does not correspond to the order it stands for.Blaise Pascal observes in his Pensees[54, 1,no.27]:“Those who make antitheses by forcing the words are like those who make false windows for symmetry’s sake:their rule is not to speak right but to make rightfigures.”A lack of correspondence between outer and inner order produces a clash of orders,which is to say that it introduces an element of disorder.External orderliness hiding disorder may be experienced as of-fensive.Michel Butor,discussing the New York City of the1950’s, speaks of marvelous walls of glass with their delicate screens of hor-izontals and verticals,in which the sky reflects itself;but inside those buildings all the scraps of Europe are piled up in confusion.Those admirable large rectangles,in plan or elevation,make the teeming chaos to which they are basically unrelated particularly intolerable. The magnificent grid is artificially imposed upon a continent that has not produced it;it is a law one endures[18,p.354]. Furthermore,order is a necessary condition for making a structure function.A physical mechanism,be it a team of laborers,the body of an animal,or a machine,can work only if it is in physical order.4RUDOLF ARNHEIMThe mechanism must be organized in such a way that the various forces constituting it are properly attuned to one another.Functions must be assigned in keeping with capacity;duplications and con-flicts must be avoided.Any progress requires a change of order.A revolution must aim at the destruction of the given order and will succeed only by asserting an order of its own.Order is a prerequisite of survival;therefore the impulse to pro-duce orderly arrangements is inbred by evolution.The social or-ganizations of animals,the spatial formations of travelling birds or fishes,the webs of spiders and bee hives are examples.A pervasive striving for order seems to be inherent also in the human mind-an inclination that applies mostly for good practical reasons.2.REFLECTIONS OF PHYSICAL ORDER However,practicality is not the only consideration.There are forms of behavior suggesting a different impulse.Why would experiments in perception show that the mind organizes visual patterns sponta-neously in such a way that the simplest available structure results? To be sure,one might surmise that all perception involves a desire to understand and that the simplest,most orderly structure facilitates understanding.If a linefigure(Figure2.1a)can be seen as a combi-nation of square and circle,it is more readily apprehended than the combination of three units indicated in Figure2.1b.Even so,another explanation imposes itself when one remembers that such elemen-tary perceptual behavior is but a reflection of analogous physiologi-cal processes taking place in the brain.If there were independent ev-idence to make it likely that a similar tendency toward orderly struc-ture exists in these brain processes also,one might want to think of perceptual order as the conscious manifestation of a more universal physiological and indeed physical phenomenon.The corresponding activities in the brain would have to befield processes because only when the forces constituting a process are sufficiently free to interact can a pattern organize itself spontaneously according to the structure prevailing in the whole.No known fact prevents us from assuming that suchfield processes do indeed take place in the sensory areas of the brain.They are quite common inENTROPY AND ART AN ESSAY ON DISORDER AND ORDER5(a)(b)F IGURE2.1.Linefigure of a square and circle. physics.It was Wolfgang Kohler who,impressed by the gestalt law of simple structure in psychology,surveyed corresponding phenom-ena in the physical sciences in his book on the“physical gestalten,”a naturphilosophische investigation published in1920[38].In a later paper he noted:In physics we have a simple rule about the nature of equi-libria,a rule which was independently established by threephysicists:E.Mach,P.Curie,and W.Voigt.They observedthat in a state of equilibrium,processes-or materials-tendto assume the most even and regular distributions of whichthey are capable under the given conditions[40,p.500].Two examples may convey an idea of this sort of physical behav-ior.The physicist Sir Joseph J.Thomson once illustrated the equilib-rium of corpuscles in a plane by the behavior of magnetized needles pushed through cork discs thatfloat on water.The needles,having their poles all pointing the same way,repel each other like the atomic corpuscles.A large magnet is placed above the surface of the water, its lower pole being of the opposite sign to that of the upper poles6RUDOLF ARNHEIMF IGURE2.2.Fuel tankfilled with clear oil and coloredwater of equal density.of thefloating magnets.Under these conditions,the needles,which repel each other but are attracted by the larger magnet,will arrange themselves on the surface of the water around the center of attrac-tion in the simplest possible form:three needles in a triangle,four at the comers of a square,five at the comers of a pentagon.Thus or-derly shape results from the balancing of the antagonistic forces[65, p.110].The same kind of effect can be observed in another demon-stration(Plate2.2),intended to simulate the behavior of propellant gases and liquids under conditions of zero-gravity.A lucite model of the Centaur fuel tank isfilled with clear oil and colored water. Both are of equal density and do not mix,“and the natural surface of the water forms an interface of constant equal tension between them,which is almost like a membrane.”Variously agitated or ro-tated,the segregating surface assumes all sorts of accidental shapes. But when outside interference ceases,the forces inherent in the two liquids organize themselves to constitute an overall state of equilib-rium or minimum tension,which results in perfectly regular spheri-cal shape-the simplest shape available under the circumstances.ENTROPY AND ART AN ESSAY ON DISORDER AND ORDER7 Such demonstrations show that orderly form will come about as the visible result of physical forces establishing,underfield condi-tions,the most balanced configurations attainable.This is true for inorganic as well as organic systems,for the symmetries of crystals as well as those offlowers or animal bodies.What shall we make of this similarity of organic and inorganic striving?Is it by mere coin-cidence that order,developing everywhere in organic evolution as a condition of survival and realized by man in his mental and physi-cal activities,is also striven for by inanimate nature,which knows no purpose?The preceding examples have shown that the forces constituting a physicalfield have no alternative.They cannot cease to rearrange themselves until they block each other’s movement by attaining a state of balance.The state of balance is the only one in which the system remains at rest,and balance makes for order because it rep-resents the simplest possible configuration of the system’s compo-nents.A proper version of order,however,is also a prerequisite of good functioning and is aspired to for this reason also by organic nature and by man.3.DISORDER AND DEGRADATIONThe vision of such harmonious striving for order throughout na-ture is disturbingly contradicted by one of the most influential state-ments on the behavior of physical forces,namely,the Second Law of Thermodynamics.The most general account physicists are willing to give of changes in time is often formulated to mean that the mate-rial world moves from orderly states to an ever-increasing disorder and that thefinal situation of the universe will be one of maximal disorder.Thus Max Planck,in his lectures on theoretical physics de-livered at Columbia University in1920,said:Therefore,it is not the atomic distribution,but rather thehypothesis of elementary disorder,which forms the realkernel of the principle of increase of entropy and,there-fore,the preliminary condition for the existence of entropy.Without elementary disorder there is neither entropy norirreversible process[56,p.50].8RUDOLF ARNHEIMAnd in a recent book,Angrist and Hepler formulate the Second Lawas follows:“Microscopic disorder(entropy)of a system and its sur-roundings(all of the relevant universe)does not spontaneously de-crease”[3,p.151].In this sense,therefore,entropy is defined as thequantitative measure of the degree of disorder in a system-a definitionthat,as we shall see,is in need of considerable interpretation.Modern science,then,maintains on the one hand that nature,bothorganic and inorganic,strives towards a state of order and that man’sactions are governed by the same tendency.It maintains on the otherhand that physical systems move towards a state of maximum disor-der.This contradiction in theory calls for clarification.Is one of the Apparentparadox two assertions wrong?Are the two parties talking about different things or do they attach different meanings to the same words?The First Law of Thermodynamics referred to the conservation ofenergy.It stated that energy may be changed from one form to an-other but is neither created nor destroyed.This could sound un-pleasant if one took it to mean(as one of the leading physicists of thetime,John Tyndall,actually did[66])that“the law of conservationexcludes both creation and annihilation”[34,p.1062].The popular connotations of the Second Law of Thermodynamicswere quite different.When it began to enter the public consciousnessa century or so ago,it suggested an apocalyptic vision of the courseof events on earth.The Second Law stated that the entropy of theworld strives towards a maximum,which amounted to saying thatthe energy in the universe,although constant in amount,was subjectto more and more dissipation and degradation.These terms had adistinctly negative ring.They were congenial to a pessimistic,moodof the times.Stephen G.Brush,in a paper on thermodynamics andhistory,points out that in1857there were published in France Bene-dict Auguste Morel’s“Trait´e des d´e g´e n´e rescences physiques,intel-lectuelles et morales de l’esp`e ce humaine”[50]as well as CharlesBaudelaire’s“Lesfleurs du mal”[17,p.505].The sober formulationsof Clausius,Kelvin,and Boltzmann were suited to become a cosmicmemento mori,pointing to the underlying cause of the gradual de-cay of all things physical and mental.According to Henry Adams’witty treatise,The Degradation of the Democratic Dogma,“to the vul-gar and ignorant historian it meant only that the ash heap was con-stantly increasing in size”[1,p.142].The sun was getting smaller,the earth colder,and no day passed without the French or Germannewspapers producing some uneasy discussion of supposed socialdecrepitude;falling off of the birthrate;decline of rural population;lowering of army standards;multiplication of suicides;increase ofENTROPY AND ART AN ESSAY ON DISORDER AND ORDER9 insanity or idiocy,of cancer,of tuberculosis;signs of nervous exhaus-tion,of enfeebled vitality,“habits”of alcoholism and drugs,failure of eyesight in the young and so on,without end...[1,p.186].This was in1910.In1892,Max Nordau had published his famous Degeneration-a book most symptomatic of thefin de siecle mood, although it cannot be said to imply that mankind as a whole was on its way out[51].In his diatribe of nearly a thousand pages,the Hungarian physician and writer,basing his contentions on the work of Morel and Lombroso,denounced the wealthy city dwellers and their artists,composers,and writers as hysterics and degenerates. For instance,he thought that the pictorial style of the Impressionists was due to the nystagmus found in the eyes of“degenerates”and the partial anesthesia of the retinae in hysterics.He attributed the high incidence of degeneration to nervous exhaustion produced by modern technology as well as to alcohol,tobacco,narcotics,syphilis. But he predicted that in the twentieth century mankind would prove healthy enough to either tolerate modern life without harm or reject it as intolerable[51,p.508].Today we no longer regard the universe as the cause of our own undeserved troubles but perhaps,on the contrary,as the last refuge from the mismanagement of our earthly affairs.Even so,the law of entropy continues to make for a bothersome discrepancy in the humanities and helps to maintain the artificial separation from the natural ncelot L.Whyte,acutely aware of the problem, formulated it by asking:“What is the relation of the two cosmic tendencies:towards mechanical disorder(entropy principle)and to-wards geometrical order(in crystals,molecules,organisms,etc.)?”[69,p.27].The visual arts have recently presented us with two stylistic trends which,atfirst look,may seem quite different from each other but which the present investigation may reveal to have common roots. On the one hand,there is a display of extreme simplicity,initiated as early as1913by the Russian painter Kasimir Malevich’s Suprematist black square on a white ground[21,p.342].This tendency has a long history in the more elementary varieties of ornamentation as well as the frugal design of many functional objects through the ages.In our own day,we have pictures limited to a few parallel stripes,canvases evenly stained with a single color,bare boxes of wood or metal,and so forth.The other tendency,relying on accidental or deliberately produced disorder,can be traced back to a predilection for composi-tions of randomly gathered subject matter in Dutch still lifes,untidy10RUDOLF ARNHEIMscenes of social criticism in the generation of Hogarth,groups of un-related individuals in French genre scenes of the nineteenth century, and so on[4].In modern painting we note the more or less controlled splashes and sprays of paint,in sculpture a reliance on chance tex-tures,tears or twists of various materials,and found objects.Related symptoms in other branches of art are the use of random sequences of words or pages in literature,or a musical performance presenting nothing but silence so that the audience may listen to the noises of the street outside.In the writings of the composer John Cage,one finds observations such as the following:I asked him what a musical score is now.He said that’s agood question.I said:Is it afixed relationship of parts?Hesaid:Of course not;that would be insulting.[19,p.27] Magazine and newspaper critics often discuss these phenomena with the bland or tongue-in-cheek objectivity of the reporter.Or they at-tribute to elementary signs the power of consummate symbols,for instance,by accepting a simple arrow as the expression of cosmic soaring or descent,or the crushed remains of an automobile as an image of social turmoil.When they condemn such work,they tend to accuse the artists of impertinence and lack of talent or imagination without at the same time evaluating the work as symptomatic and analyzing its cause and purpose.Aesthetic and scientific principles do not seem to be readily at hand.Occasional explicit references to entropy can be found in critical writing.Richard Kostelanetz,in an article on“Inferential Arts,”quotes Robert Smithson’s Entropy and the New Monuments as saying of re-cent towering sculptures of basic shapes that they are“not built for the ages but rather against the ages”and“have provided a visible analogue for the Second Law of Thermodynamics”[42,p.22].Surely the popular use of the notion of entropy has changed.If during the last century it served to diagnose,explain,and deplore the degrada-tion of culture,it now provides a positive rationale for“minimal”art and the pleasures of chaos.ENTROPY AND ART AN ESSAY ON DISORDER AND ORDER114.WHAT THE PHYSICIST HAS IN MINDTuming from the bravura of the market place to the theoretical issues,one may want to askfirst of all:What is it that induces physi-cists to describe the end state of certain material systems as one of maximal disorder,that is,to use descriptive terms of distinctly neg-ative connotation?For the answer one must look at their view of (a)the shape situations and(b)the dynamic configurations prevail-ing in early and late states of physical systems.Here one discovers,first of all,that the processes measured by the principle of entropy are perceived as the gradual or sudden destruction of inviolate ob-jects-a degradation involving the breaking-up of shape,the disso-lution of functional contexts,the abolition of meaningful location.P. ndsberg in a lecture,Entropy and the Unity of Knowledge,chooses the following characteristic example:Tidy away all your children’s toys in a toy cupboard,andthe probability offinding part of a toy in a cubic centimeteris highly peaked in the region of the cupboard.Release arandomizing influence in the form of an untidy child,andthe distribution for the system will soon spread[45,p.16]. The child’s playroom can indeed serve as an example of disorder-especially if we do not grant the child a hearing to defend the hid-den order of his own toy arrangements as he sees them.But the messed-up room is not a good example of afinal thermodynamic state.The child may have succeeded in breaking all the functional and formal ties among his implements by destroying the initial or-der and replacing it with one of many possible,equally arbitrary arrangements.Thereby he may have increased the probability that the present kind of state may come about by chance,which amounts to a respectable increase of entropy.He may even have dispersed the pieces of a jigsaw puzzle or broken afire engine,thereby extend-ing disintegration somewhat beyond the relations among complete objects to include the relations among parts.Nevertheless,the child is a very inefficient randomizer.Failing to grind his belongings to a powder of independent molecules,he has preserved islands of untouched order everywhere.In fact,it is only because of this failure that the state of his room can be called disorderly.Disorder“is not the absence of all order but rather the clash of uncoordinated orders”[5,p.125].12RUDOLF ARNHEIMThe random whirling of elementary particles,however,does notmeet this definition of disorder.Although it may have come about Randomnessby dissolution,it is actually a kind of order.This will become clearer is order!if I refer to another common model for the increase of entropy,namely shuffling[23,Ch.4].The usual interpretation of this operation is thatby shuffling,say,a deck of cards one converts an initial order into areasonably perfect disorder.This,however,can be maintained onlyif any particular initial sequence of cards in the deck is considered anorder and if the purpose of the shuffling operation is ignored.Ac-tually,of course,the deck is shuffled because all players are to havethe chance of receiving a comparable assortment of cards.To thisend,shuffling,by aiming at a random sequence,is meant to create ahomogeneous distribution of the various kinds of cards throughoutthe deck.This homogeneity is the order demanded by the purposeof the operation.To be sure,it is a low level of order and,in fact,alimiting case of order because the only structural condition it fulfillsis that a sufficiently equal distribution shall prevail throughout thesequence.A very large number of particular sequences can meet thiscondition;but it is an order nevertheless,similar,for example,to thesort of symmetry of a somewhat higher order that would exist in theinitial set-up of a game in which every player would be dealt onecard of each kind systematically.Before shuffling,the initial sequence of the cards in the deck,ifconsidered by and for itself,may have been quite orderly.Perhaps allthe aces or all the deuces were lying together.But this order wouldbe like the false windows in Pascal’s example.It would be in discordwith the very different order required for the game,and the falserelation between form and function would constitute an element ofdisorder.ENTROPY AND ART AN ESSAY ON DISORDER AND ORDER13 The orderliness inherent in the homogeneity of a sufficiently large random distribution is easily overlooked because the probability sta-tistics of the entropy principle is no more descriptive of structure than a thermometer is of the nature of heat.Cyril S.Smith has observed:“Like molecular structure earlier,quantum mechanics began almost as a notational device,and even today physicists tend to ignore the rather obvious spatial structure underlying their energy-level notation”[62,p.642].Pure thermodynamics,in the words of Planck,“knows noth-ing of an atomic structure and regards all substances as absolutely contin-uous”([56,p.41];[39]).In fact,the term disorder,when used by physi-cists in this connection,is intended to mean no more than that“the single elements,with which the statistical approach operates,behave in complete independence from one another”[55,p.42].It follows that the entropy principle defines order simply as an improbable arrangement of elements,regardless of whether the macro-shape of this arrangement is beautifully structured or most arbitrarily deformed;and it calls disorder the dissolution of such an improbable arrangement.RMATION AND ORDERThe absurd consequences of neglecting structure but using the concept of order just the same are evident if one examines the present termi-nology of information theory.Here order is described as the carrier of information,because information is defined as the opposite of entropy, and entropy is a measure of disorder.To transmit information means to induce order.This sounds reasonable enough.Next,since entropy grows with the probability of a state of affairs,information does the opposite:it increases with its improbability.The less likely an event is to happen,the more information does its occurrence represent.This again seems reasonable.Now what sort of sequence of events will be least predictable and therefore carry a maximum of information? Obviously a totally disordered one,since when we are confronted with chaos we can never predict what will happen next.The conclu-sion is that total disorder provides a maximum of information;and since information is measured by order,a maximum of order is con-veyed by a maximum of disorder.Obviously,this is a Babylonian muddle.Somebody or something has confounded our language.14RUDOLF ARNHEIMThe cause of the trouble is that when we commonly talk about or-der we mean a property of structure.In a purely statistical sense,on the other hand,the term order can be used to describe a sequence or arrangement of items unlikely to come about by mere chance.Now in a world of totally unrelated items,which has the throwing of dice as its paradigm,all particular sequences or arrangements of items are equally unlikely to occur,whether a series of straight sixes or a totally irregular but particular sequence of the six digits.In the language of information theory,which ignores structure,each of these sequences carries a maximum amount of information,i.e.,of order, unless the procedure happens to be applied to a world that exhibits regularities.Structure means to the information theorist nothing bet-ter than that certain sequences of items can be expected to occur. Suppose you watch a straight line growing a vapor trail in the sky or a black mark in an animatedfilm or on the pad of an artist.In a world of pure chance,the probability of the line continuing in the same direction is minimal.It is reciprocal to the infinite number of directions the line may take.In a structured world,there is some probability that the straight line will continue to be straight.A per-son concerned with structure can attempt to derive this probability from his understanding of the structure.How likely is the airplane suddenly to change its course?Given the nature of thefilm or the artist’s drawing,how likely is the straight line to continue?The in-formation theorist,who persists in ignoring structure,can handle this situation only by deriving from earlier events a measure of how long the straightness is likely to continue.He asks:What was the length of the straight lines that occurred before in the same situation or in comparable ones?Being a gambler,he takes a blind chance on the future,on the basis of what happened in the past.If he bets on the regularity of straightness,it is only because straightness has been observed before or has been decreed by the rules of the game.A par-ticular form of crookedness would do just as well as the straight line, if it happened to meet the statistical condition,in a world in which crookedness were the rule.Naturally,most of the time such predic-tions will be laborious and untrustworthy.Few things in this world can be safely predicted from the frequency of their previous occur-rence alone;and the voluntary abstinence by which pure statistics of this kind rejects any other criterion,that is to say,any understanding of structure,will make calculations very difficult.Any predictable regularity is termed redundant by the informa-tion theorist because he is committed to economy:every statement must be limited to what is needed.He shares this commitment with。
卡梅伦液压数据手册（第 20 版）说明书
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CONTENTS OF SECTION 1
☰ Hydraulics
⌂ Cameron Hydraulic Data ☰
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . ................................................................ 1-3 Liquids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................................... .......................... 1-3
4
Viscosity etc.
Steam data....................................................................................................................................................................................... 6
1 Liquid Flow.............................................................................. 1-4
Viscosity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................................... .......................... 1-5 Pumping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...................................... .......................... 1-6 Volume-System Head Calculations-Suction Head. ........................... 1-6, 1-7 Suction Lift-Total Discharge Head-Velocity Head............................. 1-7, 1-8 Total Sys. Head-Pump Head-Pressure-Spec. Gravity. ...................... 1-9, 1-10 Net Positive Suction Head. .......................................................... 1-11 NPSH-Suction Head-Life; Examples:....................... ............... 1-11 to 1-16 NPSH-Hydrocarbon Corrections.................................................... 1-16 NPSH-Reciprocating Pumps. ....................................................... 1-17 Acceleration Head-Reciprocating Pumps. ........................................ 1-18 Entrance Losses-Specific Speed. .................................................. 1-19 Specific Speed-Impeller. .................................... ........................ 1-19 Specific Speed-Suction...................................... ................. 1-20, 1-21 Submergence.. . . . . . . . . ....................................... ................. 1-21, 1-22 Intake Design-Vertical Wet Pit Pumps....................................... 1-22, 1-27 Work Performed in Pumping. ............................... ........................ 1-27 Temperature Rise. . . . . . . ...................................... ........................ 1-28 Characteristic Curves. . ...................................... ........................ 1-29 Affinity Laws-Stepping Curves. ..................................................... 1-30 System Curves.. . . . . . . . ....................................... ........................ 1-31 Parallel and Series Operation. .............................. ................. 1-32, 1-33 Water Hammer. . . . . . . . . . ...................................... ........................ 1-34 Reciprocating Pumps-Performance. ............................................... 1-35 Recip. Pumps-Pulsation Analysis & System Piping...................... 1-36 to 1-45 Pump Drivers-Speed Torque Curves. ....................................... 1-45, 1-46 Engine Drivers-Impeller Profiles. ................................................... 1-47 Hydraulic Institute Charts.................................... ............... 1-48 to 1-52 Bibliography.. . . . . . . . . . . . ...................................... ........................ 1-53
武汉大学考博英语-4.doc
武汉大学考博英语-4(总分：94.00，做题时间：90分钟)一、Part Ⅰ Listening Com(总题数：0，分数：0.00)二、Part Ⅱ Vocabulary(总题数：17，分数：21.50)1.The suggested causes of a given phenomenon cannot always be independently observed, and so it is hard to ______ the possibility of there being explanations alternative to the one proposed.A. account forB. rule outC. guard againstD. do with（分数：1.00）A.B.C.D.2.Can't you speak more ______ to your parents?A) respectably B) respectingly C) respectively D) respectfully（分数：1.00）A.B.C.D.3.The technology exists to complement and______ the human mind.A. amplifyB. enrichC. stretchD. enhance（分数：0.50）A.B.C.D.4.Confucianism has evolved into a culture of rationalistic traditionalism, a combination of traditional ______ and group virtues with a pragmatism shaped by the conditions of a new competitive environment.A. helmB. assaultC. filialD. derivation（分数：1.00）A.B.C.D.5.The man went to prison, but the two boys ______ with a warning.A. took offB. got offC. kept offD. set off（分数：1.00）A.B.C.6.With its anti-terrorism campaign taking ______ over anything else, the government is extending its job and running in more affairs.A. superiorityB. priorityC. majorityD. polarity（分数：1.00）A.B.C.D.7.He used to play badminton with you, ______ ?A. didn't heB. used heC. did heD. hadn't he（分数：1.00）A.B.C.D.8.Some people think it's ______ to smoke with a cigarette holder,A. flexibleB. sophisticatedC. versatileD. productive（分数：1.00）A.B.C.D.9.Signs of aging are unavoidable, ______ of particular interest to cosmetic companies.A. but those that can be disguised areB. but those can be disgused areC. but that can be disguised isD. but all one that can be disguised is（分数：1.00）A.B.C.D.10.As the ______ to the general strike the management promised to increase the workers' payment.A. successionB. concessionC. permissionD. pledge（分数：0.50）A.B.C.D.11.The Trojan War proved to the Greeks that cunning and ______ were often more effective than military might.A. artificeB. strengthC. wisdomD. beauty（分数：0.50）A.C.D.12.A full ______ of all the reasons for and against closing the railway has begunA. explosionB. explorationC. exploitationD. explanation（分数：1.00）A.B.C.D.Advertisers tend to think big and perhaps this is why they're always coming in for criticism. Their critics seem to resent them because they have a flair for self-promotion and because they have so much money to threw around. "It's iniquitous," they say, "that this entirely unproductive industry (if we can call it that) should absorb millions of pounds each year. It only goes to show how much profit the big companies arc making. Why don't they stop advertising and reduce the price of their goods? After all, it's the consumer who pays."The poor old consumer. He would have to pay a great deal more if advertising didn't create mass markets for products. It is just because of the heavy advertising that consumer goods are so cheap. But we get the wrong idea if we think the only purpose of advertising is to sell goods. Another equally important function is to inform. A great deal of the knowledge we have about household goods derives large from the advertisements we read. Advertisements introduce us to new products or remind us of the existence of ones we already know about. Supposing you wanted to buy a washing-machine, it is more than likely you would obtain details regarding performance, price, etc. from an advertisement.Lots of people pretend that they never read advertisements, but this claim may be seriously doubted. It is hardly possible not to read advertisements these days. And what fun they often are, too] Just think what a railway station or a newspaper would be like without advertisements. Would you enjoy gazing at a blank wall or reading railway by-laws while waiting for a train? Would you like to read only closely-printed columns of news in your daily paper? A cheerful, witty advertisement makes such a difference to a drab wall or a newspaper full of the daily ration of calamities. We must not forget, either, that advertising makes a positive contribution to our pockets. Newspapers, commercial radio and television companies could not subsist without this source of revenue. The fact that we pay so little for our daily paper, or can enjoy so many broadcast programs is due entirely to the money spent by advertisers. Just think what a newspaper would cost if we had to pay its full price !Another thing we shouldn't forget is the "little ads", which are in virtually every newspaper and magazine. What a tremendously useful service they perform for the community ! Just about anything can be accomplished through these columns. For example, you can find a job, buy or sell a house, announce a birth, marriage or death in what used to be called the "hatch, match and dispatch" columns; but by far the most fascinating section is the personal or "agony" column. No other item in a newspaper provides such entertaining reading or offers such a deep insight into human nature. It's the best advertisement for advertising there is!（分数：8.00）(1).An argument made by critics of advertisers is that______A. advertising makes contribution to the pockets.B. readers claim they never read advertisements.C. advertising may entail a price rise for goods.D. little ads invariably appeal to baser instincts.（分数：2.00）B.C.D.(2).The author mentions the example of a washing-machine to justify______A. informativeness of ads.B. credulity of consumers.C. deception of companies.D. techniques of advertisers.（分数：2.00）A.B.C.D.(3).The writer seems to think that critics' judgment on the role of advertising is______A. reasonable.B. unfair.C. superficial.D. foolish.（分数：2.00）A.B.C.D.(4).The word "drab" (Paragraph 3) might mean______A. impressive.B. nonconformist.C. insightful.D. unappealing.（分数：2.00）A.B.C.D.13.Because of a recent obstacle in production, sales have dropped and accordingly profits have ______.A. declinedB. increasedC. brokenD. maintained（分数：1.00）A.B.C.D.14.A corps of so-called barefoot doctors are trained in hygiene, preventive medicine, acupuncture, and routine treatment of common diseases.A. nutritionB. sanitationC. nurseryD. welfare（分数：1.00）A.B.C.D.15.Jack was about to announce our plan but I ______.[A] put him through [B] turned him out [C] gave him up [D] cut him short（分数：0.50）A.B.C.D.16.Thousands of people ______ from Greece every year to work in West Germany.A. emigrateB. leaveC. abandonD. immigrate（分数：0.50）A.B.C.D.三、Part Ⅲ Reading Compr(总题数：7，分数：42.50)War has escaped the battlefield and now can, with modern guidance systems on missiles, touch virtually every square yard of the earth's surface. War has also lost most of its utility in achieving the traditional goals of conflict. Control of territory carries with it the obligation to provide subject peoples certain administrative, health, education, and other social services. Such obligations far outweigh the benefits of control. If the ruled population is ethnically or racially different from the rulers, tensions and chronic unrest often exist which further reduce the benefits and increase the costs of domination. Large populations no longer necessarily enhance state power and, in the absence of high levels of economic development, can impose severe burdens on food supply, jobs, and the broad range of services expected of modern governments. The noneconomic security reasons for the control of territory have been progressively undermined by the advances of modern technology. The benefits of forcing another nation to surrender its wealth are vastly outweighed by the benefits of persuading that nation to produce and exchange goods and services. In brief, imperialism no longer pays.Making war has been one of the most persistent of human activities in the 80 centuries since men and women settled in cities and thereby became "civilized", but the modernization of the past 80 years has fundamentally changed the role and function of war. In premodernized societies, successful warfare brought significant material rewards, the most obvious of which were the stored wealth of the defeated. Equally important was human labor--control over people as slaves or levies for the victor's army, and there was the productive capacity--agricultural lands and mines. Successful warfare also produced psychic benefits. The removal or destruction of a threat brought a sense of security, and power gained over others created pride and national self-esteem. War was accepted in the premodernized society as a part of the human condition, a mechanism of change, and an unavoidable, even noble, aspect of life. The excitement and drama of war made it a vital part of literature and legends.（分数：8.00）(1).According to the passage, leaders of premodernized society considered war to be ______.A. a valid tool of national policyB. an immoral act of aggressionC. economically wasteful and socially unfeasibleD. restricted in scope to military participants（分数：2.00）A.B.C.D.(2).The author most likely places the word "civilized” in quotation marks (in paragraph 2) in order to ______.A. show dissatisfaction at not having found a better wordB. acknowledge that the word was borrowed from another sourceC. express irony that war should be a part of civilizationD. raise a question about the value of war in modernized society（分数：2.00）A.B.C.D.(3).The author mentions all of the following as possible reasons for going to war in a premodernized society EXCEPT ______.A. possibility of material gainB. total annihilation of the enemy and destruction of enemy territoryC. potential for increasing the security of the nationD. desire to capture productive farming lands（分数：2.00）A.B.C.D.(4).The tone of the passage could best be described as ______.A. outraged and indignantB. scientific and detachedC. humorous and wryD. concerned and optimistic（分数：2.00）A.B.C.D.Battles are like marriages. They have a certain fundamental experience they share in common; they differ infinitely, but still they are all alike. A battle seems to me a conflict of will with death in the same way that a marriage of love is the identification of two human beings to the end of creation of life--as death is the reverse of life, and love of hate. Battles are commitments to cause death as marriages are commitments to create life. Whether, for any individual, either union results in death or in the creation of life, each risks it--and in the risk commits himself. As the servants of death, battles will always remain horrible. Those who are fascinated by them are being fascinated by death. There is no battle aim worthy of the name except that of ending all battles. Any other conception is, literally, suicidal. The fascist worship of battle is a suicidal drive; it is love of death instead of life.In the same idiom, to triumph in battle over the forces which are fighting for death is-- again literally--to triumph over death. It is a surgeon's triumph as he cuts a body and bloodies his hands in removing a cancer in order to triumph over death that is in the body.In these thoughts I have found my own peace, and I return to an army that fights death and cynicism in the name of life and hope. It is a good army. Believe in it.（分数：4.00）(1).Although the author says that battles are horrible, he also says that ______.A. most people find fascination in themB. there is no battle aim worthy of the nameC. one should love life and not deathD. fighting to end battles is justifiable（分数：1.00）A.B.C.D.(2).The author states that one who fights a battle toward any end other than peace is ______.A. tainted by fascismB. misguided and unworthyC. victimized by unconscious drives to killD. bent on his own destruction（分数：1.00）A.B.C.D.(3).The article says that the individual, in battle and in marriage, must ______.A. make a unionB. compromise his beliefsC. take the risks he has committed himself toD. recognize that death is the reverse of life（分数：1.00）A.B.C.D.(4).The article says that a surgeon can triumph when he ______.A. performs a successful operationB. triumphs over the bodyC. removes a cancerD. cuts out that which is life-destroying（分数：1.00）A.B.C.D.A hundred years ago it was assumed and scientifically "proved" by economists that the laws of society make it necessary to have a vast army of poor and jobless people in order to keep the economy going. today, hardly anybody would dare to voice the principle. It is generally accepted that nobody should be excluded from the wealth of the nation, either by the law of nature or by those of society. The opinions are outdated, which were current a hundred years ago, that the poor owed their conditions to their ignorance, lack of responsibility. In all western industrialized countries, a system of insurance has been introduced which guarantees everyone a minimum of subsistence in case of unemployment, sickness and old age. I would go one step further and argue that, even if these conditions are not present, in other words, one can claim this substance minimum without having to have any "reason". I would suggest, however, that it should be limited to a definite period of time, let's say two years, so as to avoid the encouragement of an abnormal attitude which refuses any kind of social obligation.This may sound like a fantastic proposal, but so, I think, our insurance system would have sounded to people a hundred years ago. The main objection to such a scheme would be that if each person were entitled to receive minimum support, people would not work. This assumption rests on the fallacy of the inherent laziness. In human nature, actually, aside from abnormally lazy people, there would be very few who would not want to earn more than the minimum, and who would prefer to do nothing rather than work.However, the suspicions against a system of guaranteed subsistence minimum are not groundless from the standpoint of those who want to use ownership capital for the purpose of forcing others to accept the work conditions they offer. If nobody were forced to accept work in order not to starve, work would be sufficiently interesting and attractive in order to induce one to accept it. Freedom of contract is possible only if both parties are free to accept and reject if; in the present capitalist system this is not the case.But such a system would not only be the beginning of real freedom of contract between employers and employees, its principal advantage would be the improvement of freedom in interpersonalrelationships in every sphere of daily life.（分数：6.00）(1).People used to think that poverty and unemployment were due to ______ .A. the slow development of the economyB. the poor and jobless people's own faultsC. the lack of responsibility on the part of the societyD. the large number of people who were not well-educated（分数：1.00）A.B.C.D.(2).Now it is widely accepted that ______ .A. the present system of social insurance should be improvedB. everybody should be granted a minimum of subsistence without any "reason"C. everybody has the right to share the wealth of countryD. people have to change their attitude towards the poor（分数：1.00）A.B.C.D.(3).The author argues that the social insurance system should ______ .A. provide benefits for the old, sick and unemployedB. encourage people to take on more social obligationsC. guarantee everybody the right to be employedD. provide everyone/he right to a minimum subsistence for a certain period（分数：1.00）A.B.C.D.(4).The word "fallacy" means ______ .A. doubtB. factC. strong argumentD. wrong belief（分数：1.00）A.B.C.D.(5).According to the author, a system of guaranteed subsistence minimum ______ .A. demands too much from societyB. makes freedom of contract impossibleC. helps people take interest in their workD. helps bring about changes in the relationship among people（分数：1.00）A.B.C.D.(6).In the fourth sentence of first passage, the word "outdated" can be best replaced by ______ .A. UnacceptableB. BannedC. Old-fashionedD. Rejected（分数：1.00）A.B.C.D.The Supreme Court's decisions on physician-assisted suicide carry important implications for how medicine seeks to relieve dying patients of pain and suffering.Although it ruled that there is no constitutional right to physician-assisted suicide, the Court in effect supported the medical principle of "double effect, "a centuries-old moral principle holding that an action having two effects—a good one that is intended and a harmful one that is foreseen—is permissible if the actor intends only the good effect.Doctors have used that principle in recent years to justify using high doses of morphine to control terminally iii patients' pain, even though increasing dosages will eventually kill the patient. Nancy Dubler, director of Montefiore Medical Center, contends that the principle will shield doctors who "until now have very, very strongly insisted that they could not give patients sufficient mediation to control their pain if that might hasten death."George Annas, chair of the health law department at Boston University, maintains that, as long as a doctor prescribes a drug for a legitimate medical purpose, the doctor has done nothing illegal even if the patient uses the drug to hasten death. "It's like surgery," he says. "We don't call those deaths homicides because the doctors didn't intend to kill their patients, although they risked their death. If you're a physician, you can risk your patient's suicide as long as you don't intend their suicide."On another level, many in the medical community acknowledge that the assisted-suicide debate has been fueled in part by the despair of patients for whom modern medicine has prolonged the physical agony of dying.Just three weeks before the Court's ruling on physician-assisted suicide, the National Academy of Science (NAS) released a two-volume report, Approaching Death: Improving Care atthe End of Life. It identifies the under treatment of pain and the aggressive use of "ineffectual an forced medical procedures that may prolong and even dishonor the period of dying" as the twi problems of end-of-life care.The profession is taking steps to require young doctors to train in hospices, to test knowledge of aggressive pain management therapies, to develop a medicare billing code for hospital-base care, and to develop new standards for assessing and treating pain at the end of life. Annas says lawyers can play a key role in insisting that these well-meaning medical initiative translate into better care. "Large numbers of physicians seem unconcerned with the pain their patients are needlessly and predictably suffering", to the extent that it constitutes "systematic patient abuse". He says medical licensing boards "must make it clear.., that painful deaths are presumptively ones that are incompetently managed and should result in license suspension".（分数：7.50）(1).From the first three paragraphs, we learn that ______.A. doctors used to increase drug dosages to control their patients' painB. it is still illegal for doctors to help the dying end their livesC. the Supreme Court strongly opposes physician-assisted suicideD. patients have no constitutional right to commit suicide（分数：1.50）A.B.C.D.(2).Which of the following is true according to the passage?A. Doctors will be held guilty if they risk their patients' death.B. Modern medicine has assisted terminally iii patients in painless recovery.C. The Court ruled that high-dosage pain-relieving medication can be prescribed.D. A doctor's medication is no longer justified by his intentions.（分数：1.50）A.B.C.D.(3).According to the NAS's report, one of the problems in end-of-life care is______.A. prolonged medical proceduresB. inadequate treatment of painC. systematic drug abuseD. insufficient hospital care（分数：1.50）A.B.C.D.(4).Which of the following best defines the word "aggressive"?A. Bold.B. Harmful.C. Careless.D. Desperate.（分数：1.50）A.B.C.D.(5).George Annas would probably agree that doctors should be punished if they ______.A. manage their patients incompetentlyB. give patients more medicine than neededC. reduce drug dosages for their patientsD. prolong the needless suffering of the patients（分数：1.50）A.B.C.D.17.______ any advice which you can get from the interviewer and follow up suggestions for improving your presentation and qualifications.A. Take the most ofB. Keep the most ofC. Have the most ofD. Make the most of（分数：1.00）A.B.C.D.People in the United States in the nineteenth century were haunted by the prospect that unprecedented change in the nation's economy would bring social chaos. In the years following 1820, after several decades of relative stability, the economy entered a period of sustained and extremely rapid growth that continued to the end of the nineteenth century. Accompanying that growth was a structural change that featured increasing economic diversification and a gradual shift in the nation's labor force from agriculture to manufacturing and other nonagricultural pursuits.Although the birth rate continued to decline from its high level of the eighteenth and early nineteenth century, the population roughly doubled every generation during the rest of thenineteenth century. As the population grew, its makeup also changed. Massive waves of immigration brought new ethnic groups into the country. Geographic and social mobility-- downward as well as upward--touched almost everyone. Local studies indicate that nearly three-quitters of the population--in the North and South, in the emerging cities of the Northeast, and in the restless rural counties of the West--changed their residence of the Northeast, and in the restless rural counties of the West--changed their residence each decade. As a consequence, historian David Donald has written, "Social atomization affected every segment of society," and it seemed to many people that "all the recognized values of orderly civilization were gradually being eroded." Rapid industrialization and increased geographic mobility in the nineteenth century had special implications for women because these changes tended to magnify social distinctions. As the roles men and women played in society became more rigidly defined, so did the roles they played in the home. In the context of extreme competitiveness and dizzying social change, the household lost many of its earlier functions and the home came to serve as a haven of tranquility and order. As the size of families decreased, the roles of husband and wife became more clearly differentiated than ever before. In the middle class especially, men participated in the productive economy while women ruled the home and served as the custodians of civility and culture. The intimacy of marriage that was common in earlier periods was rent, and a gulf that at times seemed unbridgeable was created between husbands and wives.（分数：8.00）(1).What does the passage mainly discuss?A. The economic development of the United States in the eighteenth century.B. Ways in which economic development led to social changes in the United States.C. Population growth in the western United States.D. The increasing availability of industrial jobs for women in the United States.（分数：2.00）A.B.C.D.(2).According to the passage, the economy of the United States between 1820 and 1900 was ______.A. expandingB. in sharp declineC. stagnateD. disorganized（分数：2.00）A.B.C.D.(3).According to the passage, as the nineteenth century progressed, the people of the United States ______.A. emigrated to other countriesB. often settled in the WestC. tended to change the place in which they livedD. had a higher rate of birth than ever before（分数：2.00）A.B.C.D.(4).Which of the following best describes the society about which David Donald wrote?A. A highly conservative society that was resistant to new ideas.B. A society that was, undergoing fundamental change.C. A society that had been gradually changing since the early 1700'sD. A nomadic society that was starting permanent settlements.（分数：2.00）A.B.C.D.In her 26 years of teaching English, Shannon McGuire has seen countless misplaced commas, misspelled words and sentence fragments.But the instructor at US's Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge said her job is getting harder every day."I kid you not, the number of errors that I've seen in the past few years have multiplied five times," she said.Experts say email and instant messaging are at least partly to blame for an increasing indifference toward the rules of grammar, spelling and sentence structure.They say the problem is most noticeable in college students and recently graduates."They used to at least feel guilty (about mistakes)," said Naomi Baron, professor of linguistics at American University in Washington, D. C. "They didn't necessarily write a little better, but at least they felt guilty."Ironically, Baron's latest book, "Alphabet to Email: How Written English Evolved and Where It's Heading," became a victim of sloppy proofreading. The book's title is capitalized differently on the cover, spine and title page. "People used to lose their jobs over this," she said. "And now they just say 'whatever'.""Whatever" describes Jeanette Henderson's attitude toward writing. The sophomore at the University of Louisiana at Monroe admits that her reliance on spellcheck has hurt her grades in English class. "Computer has spoiled us," she said.But the family and consumer sciences major believes her future bosses won't mind the mistakes as much as her professor does. "They're not going to check semicolons, commas and stuff like that," Henderson said.LSU's McGuire said she teaches her students to use distinct writing styles that fit their purpose. She emphasizes that there's the informal language of an email to a friend, but there's also the well thought out and structured academic or professional style of writing.It's not just email and instant messaging that are contributing to slack writing habits. Society as a whole is becoming more informal. Casual wear at work used to be reserved for Friday, for example, but is now commonplace at most offices. There's also a greater emphasis on youth culture, and youth tend to use instant messaging more than adults do.English language has been neglected at different points in history but always rebounds. During Shakespearen times, for example, spelling wasn't considered important, and early publishers rarely proofread.There will likely be a social force that recognizes the need for clear writing and swings the pendulum back.（分数：8.00）(1).According to Shannon McGuire, what is making her job harder than before?A. More and more students ask her to teach how to write instant messages.B. More and more structural errors are seen in her students' writings.C. Students are becoming increasingly indifferent to learning English.D. Parents are more demanding as to the teaching content of the school.（分数：1.00）A.B.。
劳瑞模型文献综述
劳瑞模型发展综述城市用地与城市交通的关系既密切又复杂，用地通过产生出行量作用于交通运输系统；反过来，交通运输通过增强可达性作用于用地布局。
用地与交通运输之间的相互影响，国内外许多学者对此作了大量的研究，希望通过数学建模技术描述用地与交通的复杂关系。
劳瑞模型作为一种经典的交通与土地利用模型。
从20世纪60年代提出至今，经过不断的改进和扩展，在世界许多城市得以应用，显示出强大的生命力。
对于劳瑞模型及其发展方面的研究，国内外关于这方面的研究主要是在对原有劳瑞模型提出的基础上，引入其他相关学科的基础理论进行了改进，但其以交通区为单元进行分析的指导思想不变。
主要涉及劳瑞模型的基础理论、改进形式以及在实践中的应用等几个方面。
1、劳瑞模型的提出劳瑞模型是美国交通学者Lowry于1964年，在研究匹兹堡交通规划问题时提出。
它研究封闭城市区域（对象城市区域与外界城市区域不存在人员流动）的前提下，定量描述各土地利用之间的相互作用，是决定住户数和就业人数的分布模型，住户数和就业人数确定各交通小区的土地利用结构。
在对象区域内，该模型将具有一定目的地的土地利用者称为土地利用的活动主体，大致分为基础产业部门；非基础产业部门；住户部门三种。
基础产业部门包括工业、大型贸易公司、中央政府直属机关、大学等，它们作为模型的已知条件给出，而非由对象城市区域的社会、经济规模决定。
非基础产业部门包括商业、服务业地方政府机关、中小学等与居民生活密切相关的部分。
这些部门吸引顾客到市内，其规模即就业人数等依赖于城市区域的人口、经济状况，其选址亦应考虑居民的出行方便，由模型内部计算确定。
住户部门是指就业于基础和非基础产业部门的住户和人口[6]。
基于上述土地利用主体的划分，劳瑞模型建立的基本思路⑴是：各活动主体在城市区域内需要获得用地而从事活动，作为其前提。
一个城市区域可视为区域及国家社会经济体系的子系统。
在这样的总系统确定的基础产业部门规模中的就业人数和面积，将根据经验事先分配给城市区域内的几个交通小区。
Apathy
Robe dangerous place to live; not because of the people who are evil, but because of the people who don't do anything about it. —Albert Einstein
Relationship with depression
Marin argues that apathy should be regarded as a syndrome or illness. A review article by Robert van Reekum MD et al. from the University of Toronto in the Journal of Neuropsychiatry (2005) claimed that "depression and apathy were a package deal" in some populations which may help illustrate what people mean when they say that "The opposite of love is not hate, it is apathy."
Quotes about apathy
"Do not fear going forward slowly; fear only to stand still." --Chinese proverb
“The death of democracy is not likely to be an assassination from ambush. It will be a slow extinction from apathy, indifference, and undernourishment”
社会学英语名词解释
社会学英语名词解释Aaccounting 说明过程人们提供说明以理解世界的过程。
（俗民方法论）accounting practices 说明过程的实践某人提出说明而其他人接受或拒绝该说明的方式。
（俗民方法论）accounts 说明行动者解释（描述、批评及理想化）特定情境的方式。
（俗民方法论）act 行动米德理论的基本元素，包含冲动、知觉刺激、对知觉感到的客体采取行动，并利用该客体满足原先的冲动。
action 行动人们所做之事是意识过程创造的结果。
actual social identity 实际的社会认同人们真正是什么样的人。
(戈夫曼)adaptation 适应帕森斯的四种必要功能之一。
系统必须能适应它的环境，并能调整环境以符合系统所需。
更详细地说就是，系统必须能处理外在情境的危险及突发事件。
affectivity-affective neutrality 情感-情感中立此模式变量系指对某种社会现象要投注多少情绪(或情感)。
(帕森斯)affectual action 情感性行动由情绪引起的非理性行动。
(韦伯)agency 能动力(性)系指行动者所做之行动;亦即，如果不是行动者介入并采取所谈论之行动，所发生之事可能不会以那种方式发生。
agents 行(能)动者有能力为社会世界带来影响的行(能)动者;行(能)动者拥有权力。
alienation 异化人们与其生产活动、所生产的物品、一起共事的同僚及其潜能之间的自然联系崩解了或被分离了。
(马克思)anomie 失序伴随有机连带社会而兴起的一种感觉，亦即不知道自己该做什么。
人们在社会游荡，并且缺乏清楚、具安全感的寄托。
(涂尔干)对默顿而言，当社会结构个文化之间发生严重断裂，被结构创造出来的人们依文化规范和目标运作，但当规范和目标发生严重断裂时，就产生失序的情形。
appearance 外表观众眼中的行动者;尤其指那些能暗示出表演者社会地位的项目。
(戈夫曼)ascription-achievement 先赋-成就此模式变量关心的是，当我们判断某一社会现象时，是以它被赋予了什么，还是以它成就了什么来判断的。
亚里士多德对修辞的定义英文
亚里士多德对修辞的定义英文英文回答：Aristotle defined rhetoric as "the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion." He believed that rhetoric was an essential tool for civic engagement and that it could be used to persuade audiences to adopt a particular point of view or course of action.Aristotle's definition of rhetoric has been influential for centuries, and it remains the foundation for much of the study of rhetoric today. His work on rhetoric, particularly his treatise on the subject, the Rhetoric, is widely regarded as one of the most important works on the subject ever written.In the Rhetoric, Aristotle discusses the three main elements of rhetoric: the speaker, the audience, and the speech itself. He argues that the speaker must be credible and trustworthy, the audience must be receptive to thespeaker's message, and the speech must be well-organized and persuasive.Aristotle also identifies three main types ofrhetorical appeals: logos, pathos, and ethos. Logos appeals to the audience's reason, pathos appeals to their emotions, and ethos appeals to their sense of trust and credibility. Aristotle believed that the most effective speeches use all three types of appeals.Aristotle's definition of rhetoric is still relevant today. In fact, it is more relevant than ever in a world where people are constantly bombarded with information and persuasion. Aristotle's work on rhetoric can help us to understand how persuasion works and how we can use it to make the world a better place.中文回答：亚里士多德将修辞定义为“观察在任何特定情况下可用的说服手段的能力”。
熵的英文定义
熵的英文定义Entropy, in the context of information theory, is a mathematical measure of uncertainty or randomness in a set of data. It was first introduced by Claude Shannon in 1948 and has since become a fundamental concept in various fields, including physics, computer science, and statistics. Entropy is denoted by the letter "H" and is typically measured inbits or nats.At its core, entropy quantifies the average amount of information required to represent an event drawn from a probability distribution. It provides a measure of the number of bits needed to transmit or store data efficiently. The concept of entropy is closely related to the concept of information, as the more uncertain or random a source of information is, the greater the amount of information it possesses.Mathematically, entropy is defined as:H(X) = - ∑(P(x) * log2(P(x)))Where H(X) represents the entropy of a random variable X, P(x) is the probability of occurrence of each possible valuex of X, and the summation is taken over all possible values. The logarithm base 2 ensures that entropy is measured in bits.Entropy reaches its maximum value when all possible outcomes are equally likely, indicating a state of maximum uncertainty. Conversely, when one outcome is certain to occur, entropy reaches its minimum value of zero, implying no uncertainty or randomness.In information theory, entropy helps determine the minimum average number of bits that are sufficient to encodea particular message source. To elaborate, if a messagesource has high entropy, it means that the source produces a wide range of different messages, requiring more bits for efficient encoding. On the other hand, low entropy sourcesproduce a limited range of messages, necessitating fewer bits for encoding.Furthermore, entropy provides insights into the compression and transmission of data. The entropy rate of a source indicates the minimum number of bits required per symbol to represent the source. Efficient data compression algorithms aim to minimize the number of bits required to transmit or store data by exploiting the redundancy or patterns present in the data, as higher redundancy results in lower entropy.Entropy is also closely linked to the second law of thermodynamics in physics. In thermodynamics, entropy is associated with the degree of disorder or randomness in a system. The second law states that the entropy of an isolated system tends to increase over time, reflecting the tendency of systems to evolve towards a state of maximum disorder.In summary, entropy is a fundamental concept in information theory that quantifies the uncertainty or randomness in a set of data. It aids in understanding the average amount of information required to represent an event and provides insights into data compression and transmission. Furthermore, it has connections to the second law of thermodynamics, highlighting its relevance in physics.。
《大问题简明哲学导论》术语表
大问题.简明哲学导论---术语表白板abula rasa：洛克哲学中的术语。
洛克认为心灵就像一块白板，从而与天赋观念存在的学说相对立。
换句话说，心灵在人刚出生的时候是“空白的”，我们所知道的任何东西都必须通过经验“印上去”。
悲观主义pessimism：认为生活是不快乐的，而且也没有最终的目标。
宽泛地说，悲观主义者是料想事情最终会最糟的人。
康德（他根本不是一个悲观主义者）的追随者，19世纪德国哲学家叔本华是历史上的悲观主义者中最重要的人物之一。
悖论paradox：基于表面上看没有问题的论证而得出自相矛盾的或似乎荒谬的结论。
“什么是最实在的？”“一个事物存在的意味着什么？”本体论ontology：对存在的研究：本体论的ontological：与存在的观念相关的。
本体论论证ontological argument：试图从“上帝”这个概念证明上帝的存在的一个（或一套）论证。
例如，“上帝”根据定义就是拥有各种可能的完美性的存在；存在是完美性的一种；因此上帝存在。
本真的自我authentic self：存在主义的一种说法，指的是真正的、个体的自我认同，从而与非本真的自我相区别，非本真的自我只是一个人所扮演的角色和公众的认同而已。
这个词在20世纪经由马丁海德格尔的哲学而变得盛极一时。
参见本质自我。
本质自我essential self：使一个人成为那个特殊的人的特征。
见本真的自我。
必然真理necessary truth：某种既不可能是另外一种样子，也不可能被想象成另外一种样子的事物。
在哲学中，根据物理定律是“必然的”，或者根据风俗习惯是“必然的”，并不足以说明某种事物是必然的。
必然性甚至不允许想象中的反例。
因此，二加二等于四是必然整理，我们不但对此确信不移，而且发现我们没有能力怀疑它，无论我们的想象力有多么丰富，也不可能说出它如果错了会是怎样一种情况。
辩证法dialectic：一种被黑格尔和马克思大加使用的哲学方法，在辩证法中，矛盾之间互相对抗以达到真理。
社会学英语名词解释
社会学英语名词解释Aaccoun ting说明过程人们提供说明以理解世界的过程。
（俗民方法论）accoun tingpracti ces 说明过程的实践某人提出说明而其他人接受或拒绝该说明的方式。
（俗民方法论）accoun ts 说明行动者解释（描述、批评及理想化）特定情境的方式。
（俗民方法论）act 行动米德理论的基本元素，包含冲动、知觉刺激、对知觉感到的客体采取行动，并利用该客体满足原先的冲动。
action行动人们所做之事是意识过程创造的结果。
actual social identi ty 实际的社会认同人们真正是什么样的人。
(戈夫曼)adapta tion适应帕森斯的四种必要功能之一。
系统必须能适应它的环境，并能调整环境以符合系统所需。
更详细地说就是，系统必须能处理外在情境的危险及突发事件。
affect ivity-affect ive neutra lity情感-情感中立此模式变量系指对某种社会现象要投注多少情绪(或情感)。
(帕森斯)affect ual action情感性行动由情绪引起的非理性行动。
(韦伯)agency能动力(性)系指行动者所做之行动;亦即，如果不是行动者介入并采取所谈论之行动，所发生之事可能不会以那种方式发生。
agents行(能)动者有能力为社会世界带来影响的行(能)动者;行(能)动者拥有权力。
aliena tion异化人们与其生产活动、所生产的物品、一起共事的同僚及其潜能之间的自然联系崩解了或被分离了。
(马克思)anomie失序伴随有机连带社会而兴起的一种感觉，亦即不知道自己该做什么。
人们在社会游荡，并且缺乏清楚、具安全感的寄托。
(涂尔干)对默顿而言，当社会结构个文化之间发生严重断裂，被结构创造出来的人们依文化规范和目标运作，但当规范和目标发生严重断裂时，就产生失序的情形。
英语语言学重点名词解释汇总
Semantics is the study of meaning. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the Referential Theory.The naming theory命名说According to it, the linguistic forms or symbols or words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stands for. So words are just names or labels for things.It is also called the referential theory （指称论）.Theory of the context of situation [ J. R. Firth (1890-1960) ]情景语境①The relevant features of the participants, persons, personalities.②The relevant objects.③The effects of the verbal action.The conceptualist view概念理论This view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.It is also called ideational theory（观念论）Contextualism语境J. R. Firth 费斯The linguists hold that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior.Behaviorism行为主义This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest. This view of meaning proposed by Bloomfield is illustrated by his story about Jack and Jill.According to Bloomfield, the meaning of a linguistic form should be viewed as “the situation in which the speaker utters it, and the response which it calls forth in the hearer.”The Definition of senseSense refers to the inherent meaning of the linguistic form; it is concerned only with intra-linguistic relations.The definition of referenceReference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world;it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.What is culture?Broadly speaking, it means the total way of life of people, including the patterns of belief, customs, objects, institutions, techniques, and language.In a narrow sense, it refers to local or specific practice, beliefs or customs.Anthropological study of linguistics: study of language in a sociocultural context.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis定义Our language helps mould our way of thinking and, consequently, different languages may probably express speakers’ unique ways of understanding the world. Linguistic determinism: L may determine our thinking patterns.Linguistic relativity: different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around.SociolinguisticsThe sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.Variationist perspective: 变异视角Variety 的定义People who claim to be users of the same language do not speak the language in the same manner.Dialect定义Varieties (变体)related to the user are normally known as dialectsRegister定义In linguistics, a register is a variety of a language used for a particular purpose or ina particular social setting.1. Regional dialects are linguistic varieties used by people living in different regions.2. Social-class dialect, or sociolect 社会方言, refers to the linguistic variety characteristic of a particular social class.3.Idiolect个人方言A personal dialect of an individual speaker that combines elements regarding regional, social, gender and age variations.4. Ethnic dialect种族方言A variety of language that is mainly spoken by a less privileged population that has experience some form of social isolation such as racial discrimination or segregation5. Standard dialect:Diglossia: Two distinct varieties of the same language are used, side by side, for two different sets of functionsMonolingual: Speakers of a single language control different varieties of that language. Bilingual: People develop some ability in a second language.High Context Culture:-Cultures that rely heavily on non-verbal and subtle situational cues in communication.Low Context Culture:- Cultures that rely heavily on words to convey meaning in communication. Definition of PragmaticsThe study of language in use.The study of meaning in context.The study of speakers’ meaning, utterance meaning,& contextual meaning.Performatives: utterances which are used to perform acts, do not describe or report anything at all; the uttering of the sentence is the doing of an action; they cannot be said to be true or false. Constatives: utterances which roughly serves to state a fact, report that something is the case, or describe what something is.Conversational Implicaturea type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conversational meaning of words together with the context, under the guidance of the CP and its maxims【Herbert Paul Grice (1913-1988)】The Cooperative Principle (CP)Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field of study that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problemsIn linguistics, the theory of universal grammar holds that there are certain fundamental grammatical ideas which all humans possess, without having to learn them.Krashen’s Input HypothesisLearners acquire language as a result of comprehending input addressed to them.“i+1” principleThe language that learners are exposed to should be just far enough beyond their current competence so that they can understand most of it but still be challenged to make progress.The type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language is often referred to as interlanguage.Communicative competence{Dell Hymes}What a learners knows about how a language is used in particular situations for effective and appropriate communicationTypes of syllabus The structural syllabus，The situational syllabus，The communicative syllabus，The task-based syllabusContrastive AnalysisA way of comparing the first language and the second language to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in a second language learning situation. (Gass and Selinker, 2001:72)Error Analysis Many errors made by the second language learners were caused by factors other than the first language interference.Error: learner’s lack of knowledge/ competenceMistake: learner’s failure to perform their competence填空This is best illustrated by the semantic triangle suggested by Ogden and RichardsThere are generally three kinds of sense relations recognized, namely, sameness relation (相似关系), oppositeness relation (对立关系)inclusiveness relation (内含)Characteristics of implicature1) Calculability 可推导性2) Cancellability可取消性（依赖语境）3) Non-detachability不可分离性（依赖语义）4) Non-conventionality非规约性【Two variables concerning the amenability of language elements to focus on form are the relevance of Universal Grammar (UG) and the complexity of language structures.】Leech七分法 1. 概念意义（conceptual）2. 内涵意义（connotative）3. 社会意义（social）4. 情感意义（affective）5. 反射意义（reflective）6. 搭配意义（collocative）7. 主题意义（thematic）。
采用局部场电位小波包熵分析空间频率特性
采用局部场电位小波包熵分析空间频率特性师黎;朱俊强【摘要】空间频率是视觉刺激的基本特征之一，为了研究视觉皮层神经元对刺激空间频率的响应特性，提出了一种基于局部场电位小波包熵的分析方法。
通过以Long Evans大鼠为模式动物进行电生理实验，分别采用神经元放电统计分析和局部场电位小波包熵分析，发现不同空间频率刺激下，小波包熵调谐曲线与全局神经元放电调谐曲线具有一致性，证明了局部场电位小波包熵可用于表征视皮层神经元对刺激空间频率的选择性。
结果还表明采用基于局部场电位小波包熵分析时，各通道结果具有更好的一致性。
%Spatial frequency is one of the basic properties in visual stimuli, to study the response of neurons in visual cortex to the spatial frequency of stimuli, a method based on wavelet packet entropy of local field potential is proposed. By doing experi-ments on Long Evans rats, both statistical analysis based on spike per second and analysis based on wavelet packet entropy of LFP are used, the result is that under stimulus of different spatial frequencies, tuning curves of wavelet packet entropy is consis-tent with tuning curves of spikes in whole, which indicates that the wavelet packet entropy of LFP can be used to measure the spatial frequency selectivity of neurons in visual cortex. The results also suggest better consistency when using wavelet packet entropy of LFP.【期刊名称】《计算机工程与应用》【年(卷),期】2013(000)017【总页数】5页(P217-220,257)【关键词】局部场电位;空间频率;小波包熵;调谐特性【作者】师黎;朱俊强【作者单位】郑州大学电气工程学院，郑州 450001;郑州大学电气工程学院，郑州 450001【正文语种】中文【中图分类】TP391.4人或动物从外界获取的信息至少有80%来自于视觉系统，视觉皮层是大脑皮层中主要负责处理视觉信息的部分。
给 一点时间半命题作文
给一点时间半命题作文英文回答：Time is a relentless force that shapes our lives, influencing our thoughts, actions, and experiences. It can be both a precious gift and a cruel thief, bringing moments of joy and sorrow, and ultimately dictating the span of our existence. Throughout history, philosophers, poets, and artists have pondered the nature of time, seeking to unravel its mysteries and make sense of its enigmatic hold on us.In the realm of science, time is often viewed as a linear progression, an arrow that moves inexorably forward. Physicists describe time as the fourth dimension, intertwined with the three spatial dimensions that we inhabit. Time's arrow, they argue, is due to the laws of thermodynamics, which dictate that entropy, or disorder, always increases over time. This concept of entropy suggests that the universe is constantly moving towards astate of greater chaos and that time itself is irreversible.However, the linear view of time is not universally accepted. Some philosophers and scientists argue that timeis not absolute but rather relative, dependent on the observer. They point to the theory of relativity, which demonstrates that time can be distorted by gravity and motion. In this view, time is not a fixed entity but rather a construct of our own minds, a way of organizing and experiencing the world around us.Beyond the scientific and philosophical realm, time holds a deep personal significance for each of us. It isthe canvas upon which we paint the stories of our lives,the measure by which we mark our milestones, and the constant companion that walks beside us every step of the way. Time can be a source of both anxiety and gratitude, reminding us of our mortality but also of the preciousnessof each moment.In the words of the Roman philosopher Seneca, "Time is the most valuable thing a man can spend." It is a resourcethat we can never truly own or control, but one that we can choose to use wisely. By embracing the present moment, setting meaningful goals, and cultivating relationshipsthat endure the test of time, we can make the most of the fleeting gift that is time.中文回答：时间是一个塑造我们生活的无情力量，影响着我们的思想、行为和经历。
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DEFINITION OF A SPATIAL ENTROPY AND ITS USE FOR TEXTURE DISCRIMINATIONF.Tupin,M.Sigelle,H.MaˆıtreEcole Nationale Suprieure des Tlcommunications,46rue Barrault,75013Paris,FranceABSTRACTThis paper presents a new definition of a spatial entropy mainly based on the Markov Random Field(MRF)prop-erties.Starting with the study of the entropy proposed in[1] for the Potts model,we establish a specific property of the entropy in this special case,and derive the analytical expres-sions for a4-connexity neighborhood.Inspired by the previ-ous property,we propose a new definition mainly based on an heterogeneity measure of the neighborhood.This def-inition is then used to analyze a SAR(Synthetic Aperture Radar)image and it is shown to be able to discriminate dif-ferent types of textures.1.INTRODUCTIONAlthough entropy is widely used in thefield of information theory to express the information content of a message[2], there are relatively few works dealing with entropy in image processing and most of them are related to the use of mu-tual information[3]as a measure of redundancy between sources[3].One of the main limitations of entropy in im-age processing is the entropy definition which,in its general sense,is only related to the image histogram.As it is well known,many like-looking images may have very different histograms and therefore quite different entropies although their whole appearance stay the same[4].Furthermore,the classical entropy definition does not take into account the spatial properties of the image,which is a an aspect of par-ticular importance in image analysis.Our thought processes is the following:in section2,us-ing the previously proposed definition of[1],we study this measure behavior in the particular case of a Markov Ran-dom Field-Potts model in a4-connexity neighborhood-and derive the analytical expression.We also demonstrate an in-teresting property which brings us to propose a new defini-tion of a spatial entropy(section3).In section4,we make a comparison between our approach and other related works, specially[1]and[5].Eventually,we test this definition on SAR images on which it appears to be a good textural dis-criminator(sec.5).2.STUDY OF THE SPATIAL ENTROPY FOR APOTTS MARKOV RANDOM FIELDIn the classical information theory,the information source entropy of a probability law is defined as[2]:where is the set of values.In image processing,is the set of grey-levels(usually)or labels,and is the probability of the grey-level,usually estimated by the normalized histogram computed on the image.In the last15years,Markov Random Fields(MRF)have proven to be powerful tools to introduce contextual knowl-edge in image processing[6][7].Therefore,a classical spa-tial entropy definition introduces the local configuration in-fluence as proposed in[1].Let us denote by a site of the image,by the neighborhood system and by the ran-domfield associated to the image(is the label for the available observation of the random variable associated to pixel).The neighborhood of site is in a configura-tion.Then the spatial entropy is defined for the probability law by:(1) and the total spatial entropy is given by:(2) 2.1.“Independence”propertyLet usfirst study this definition(eq.1)in the case of a sim-ple isotropic Potts model of order2[8].In this case,the potential of a clique constituted by2sites is defined by:and the local potential by. The study of the entropy(eq.1)is then possible,since the lo-cal conditional probability of a MRF is given by:Let usfirst establish an interesting property of this model. Two neighbor configurations and are said to be equiv-alent if there exists a bijection so thatwith.It means that the cardinals of the subsets of pixels with the same label in are equal to the cardinals of the subsets of(cf.sec.3 andfig.2).Their class of equivalence will be noted and the application which associates to a neighborhood con-figuration its equivalence class().The Potts model has the peculiarity thatfor)since it only counts the number of neighbor pixels having the same value than the central one. This implies that for any function and:(3)i.e the sum depends only on the equivalence class.This allows to deduce at once the following properties:a)The local conditional partition functiononly depends on.b)The spatial entropy E(with E the expectation taken conditionally to)depends only on.We will use this“independence”property to propose a new definition for entropy in section3.2.2.Analytical expressionsOf interest is the study of the relationship between the Potts model parameter and the spatial entropy defined by eq.1. In4-connexity,the5following partitions have to be consid-ered(in the case of):where denotes the unique existence.If(respec-tively,binaryfield),(resp.and)does not exist and only to neighborhood types have to be considered(resp.to).Then the following entropies can be derived:This measure is usually expressed in bits using basis.The following comments on the spatial entropy in thecase of a Potts MRF model can be made.Behavior when is high:thefield is made of compacthomogeneous areas.For the neighborhood types,and,there is a numerical superiority of one of the labels in the neighborhood;as increases and the situation becomes deterministic().The samereasoning explains that bit for(2possible labels in the neighborhood)and bits for(4possible labels).Behavior when is0:in this case,there is no model since the clique potentials are equal to0;it corresponds to the most unpredictable situation,and the entropy reaches a max-imum which is.Behavior when is negative:the model corresponds to an anti-ferromagnetism situation;since there are fewer possi-bilities for the site label in the case of with mixed labels:.When the cardinal of is high(many labels),all the entropies are high and close to the maximal entropy.3.DEFINITION OF A NEW SPATIAL ENTROPY Inspired by the“independence”property established in the previous section for the Potts model,we propose to define a new spatial entropy using the equivalence class,i.e based on the conditional law:(4)(5)Instead of considering all the possible configurations of the neighborhood as in[1],our approach distinguishes the configurations by the number of pixels having the same la-bel or grey-level(an example is shownfig.2).Therefore,the entropy definition is mainly based on a characterization of the neighborhood heterogeneity(expressed in terms of sets of pixels with the same grey level or label).This definition has important computational advantages since much less configurations exist compared to ones and there-fore much more realizations are available(statistically speaking)compared to ones in an image.Note that the definition of eq.5and eq.1are not equiva-lent,even in the case of a Potts model for which the“inde-pendence”property isverified.Fig.2.Two neighborhood configurations of the central pixel(8-connexity)belonging to the same equivalence class :there is1subset with cardinal4,1subset with cardinal 2,and2subsets with cardinal1.PARISON WITH OTHER DEFINITIONS In this section we compare our spatial entropy definition with some previous ones:[1]and[5].In[1],E.V olden et al.propose to consider a general definition of a spatial entropy,which is given by eq.1.This definition is very general since the conditioning depends on all the possible configurations of,which means configurations and raises many practical problems for com-putation.In practice,the authors use a MRF-Potts model assumption for the image.In this case,for the label,onlythe number of pixels in the neighborhood having the samelabel have to be considered.Our definition is instead based on the equivalence class of the neighborhood configuration and the2main differ-ences are the following:generality of the definition:since the Potts assumption isused in practice in[1],only the number of pixels havingthe same label as the central pixel influences the spatial en-tropy;in our case,the whole equivalence class configurationis taken into account,which means that the global regularityof the neighborhood is introduced1;central pixel influence:in our definition,the neighbor-hood type does not depend at all from the label of the centralpixel.To conclude about this comparison with[1],the pro-posed definition is more limited but gives tractable compu-tations.In[5],the proposed approach is adapted to segmentationpurposes and the radiometric and spatial entropies of a class are defined.The spatial entropy for a class is defined in the following way:,where is again some neighborhood configuration of the labeled image for the considered neighborhood system.In this case,we see that the definitions go in two“op-posite”directions:our(eq.5)exploits the conditioning ofthe label by the equivalence class of the neighborhood con-figuration,whereas this one is related to the conditioning of the neighborhood configuration by the label.Of course,we may generalize the proposed definition in[5],to define a spatial entropy on the whole image by:and then1For example,consider a central pixel with grey value in8-connexity and suppose we consider two neighborhood configurationsand;the con-tribution of the site will be the same for and in[1]-twice in the neighborhoods-,whereas in our,the irregularity of the neighborhood will be taken into account and both contributions will be very different)the comparison of labeled images and the influence of theneighborhood configuration is much emphasized with their definition than in our.5.APPLICATION TO SAR TEXTURAL ANALYSIS In this section,we present some preliminary experiments using the spatial entropy of eq.5.Since the whole image isnon stationary,we used the total spatial entropy computed on a moving window to establish an“entropy map”.Weconsider a4-connexity neighborhood,which impliesfive equivalence classes(as in sec.2.2).The conditional probabilities,and the neighborhood type probabil-ities are estimated by their normalized frequencies.Since they are many(256)possible labels for a grey level image,this number is preliminary reduced using a linear quantization.We have chosen to consider8classes in our experiments;the pre-processing has been chosen as simple as possible to limit the effect of the labeling on the spatial entropy.A result is shown onfigure3(entropy is stretched be-tween the minimum and maximum value);it gives a tex-tural measure on the SAR image.The most homogeneous areas have a low spatial entropy;this is the case for wa-ter areas(specular scattering implying a very low signal) for instance in the lake or for the river Seine of the image; forest areas have also a low total spatial entropy since they are rather homogeneous on ERS-1images;some parts of urban areas,which are very dense also appear with low en-tropy.The most contrasted regions have a high entropy;for instance,industrial and urban areas which have very high responses due to strong reflectors surrounded by speckle, and relief regions.The total spatial entropy seems to be a good measure for textural discrimination purposes.For instance,compared to the standard deviation of the Mul-tiplicative Autoregressive Model of Chellapa[10](which is often used with SAR images),this textural discriminator seems to be better using a visual comparison.Wider tests should be performed.6.CONCLUSIONIn this article,a new definition of the spatial entropy has been introduced,mainly based on a neighborhood hetero-geneity characterization.Further work will include theo-retical development with other Markov models,or different graphs and neighborhoods(specially for interpretation pur-poses).Concerning the practical interest,SAR images have been used due to our good experience working on them, but the approach should be tested on optical images or im-ages of another kind.Besides,some temporal extension, which we believe should be interesting,are possible.But the speckle effect should be taken into account,as well as the edge and registeringproblem.a)Original image(8levels)b)Total spatial entropy com-puted on a windowsizeFig.3.SAR image and the total spatial entropy locally esti-mated.7.REFERENCES[1]E.V olden,G.Giraudon,and M.Berthod,“Modellingimage redundancy,”IGARSS’95,vol.3,pp.2148–2150,1995.[2]C.E.Shannon,“A mathematical theory of communi-cation,”The Bell System Technical Journal,vol.27, pp.379–423,1948.[3]S.Houzelle and G.Giraudon,“Contribution to mul-tisensor fusion formalization,”Robotics and Au-tonomous Systems,vol.13,pp.69–85,1995.[4]H.Maitre and J.Zinn-Justin,“Entropy informationand image,”Springer-Verlag,pp.81–115,1996.[5]H.Maitre,I.Bloch,and M.Sigelle,“Spatial entropy:A tool for controlling contextual classification conver-gence,”ICIP’94,pp.212–216,1994.[6]S.Geman and D.Geman,“Stochastic Relaxation,Gibbs Distribution,and the Bayesian Restauration of Images,”IEEE PAMI,,no.6,pp.721–741,Nov.1984.[7]C.Chellappa and A.Jain,Markov Random Fields.Theory and Application,Academic Press,1993. [8]F.Y.Wu,“The Potts model,”Review of ModernPhysics,vol.4,no.1,1982.[9]M.Sigelle and A.Maruani,“Critical properties of the2D Ising model:a Markovian approach,”in Maximum Entropy and Bayesian Methods.1993,pp.389–392, Kluwer Academic Publishers.[10]R.T.Frankot and R.Chellappa,“Lognormal randomfield models and their applications to radar image syn-thesis,”IEEE TGARS,vol.25,no.2,pp.195–207, 1987.。