展示体验建筑设计中英文对照外文翻译文献
建筑设计中英文对照表电子教案
建筑设计中英文对照表目录：Cover封面Content目录Design Explanation设计说明Master Plan总平面Space Sequence Analysis景观空间分析Function Analysis功能分析Landscape Theme Analysis景观景点主题分析图Traffic Analysis交通分析Vertical Plan竖向平面布置图Lighting Furniture Layout灯光平面布置示意图Marker/Background Music/Garbage Bin标识牌/背景音乐/垃圾桶布置图Plan平面图Hand Drawing手绘效果图Section剖面图Detail详图Central Axis中心公共主轴Reference Picture参考图片Planting Reference Picture植物选样材料类：aluminum铝asphalt沥青alpine rock轻质岗石boasted ashlars粗凿ceramic陶瓷、陶瓷制品cobble小圆石、小鹅卵石clay粘土crushed gravel碎砾石crushed stone concrete碎石混凝土crushed stone碎石cement石灰enamel陶瓷、瓷釉frosted glass磨砂玻璃grit stone/sand stone砂岩glazed colored glass/colored glazed glass彩釉玻璃granite花岗石、花岗岩gravel卵石galleting碎石片ground pavement material墙面地砖材料light-gauge steel section/hollow steel section薄壁型钢light slates轻质板岩lime earth灰土masonry砝石结构membrane张拉膜、膜结构membrane waterproofing薄膜防水mosaic马赛克quarry stone masonry/quarrystone bond粗石体plaster灰浆polished plate glass/polished plate磨光平板玻璃panel面板、嵌板rusticated ashlars粗琢方石rough rubble粗毛石reinforcement钢筋设计阶段：existing condition analysis现状分析analyses of existings城市现状分析construction site service施工现场服务conceptual design概念设计circulation analysis交通体系分析construction drawing施工图complete level完成面标高details细部设计、细部大样示意图diagram示意图、表elevation上升、高地、海拔、正面图development design扩初设计façade/elevation正面、立面general development analysis城市总体发展分析general situation survey概况general layout plan/master plan总平面general nature environment总体自然分析grid and landmark analysis城市网格系统及地标性建筑物分析general urban and landscape concept总体城市及景观设计概念general level design总平面竖向设计general section总体剖面图layout plan布置图legend图例lighting plan灯光布置图plan drawing平面图plot plan基地图presentation drawing示意图perspective/render效果图pavement plan铺装示意图reference pictures/imaged picture参考图片reference level参考标高图片site overall arrangement场地布局space sequence relation空间序列specification指定、指明、详细说明书scheme design方案设计sketch手绘草图sectorization功能分区section剖面site planning场地设计reference picture of planting植物配置意向图reference picture of street furniture街道家具布置意向图设计描述：a thick green area密集绿化administration/administrative行政administration zone行政区位function analysis功能分析arc/camber弧形askew歪的、斜的aesthetics美学height高度abstract art抽象派artist艺术家、大师art nouveau新艺术主义acre英亩architect建筑师be integrated with与……结合起来bisect切成两份、对开bend弯曲boundary/border边界operfloor架空层budget预算estimate评估beach海滩building code建筑规范。
建筑结构设计中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Create and comprehensive technology in the structure globaldesign of the buildingThe 21st century will be the era that many kinds of disciplines technology coexists , it will form the enormous motive force of promoting the development of building , the building is more and more important too in global design, the architect must seize the opportunity , give full play to the architect's leading role, preside over every building engineering design well. Building there is the global design concept not new of architectural design,characteristic of it for in an all-round way each element not correlated with building- there aren't external environment condition, building , technical equipment,etc. work in coordination with, and create the premium building with the comprehensive new technology to combine together.The premium building is created, must consider sustainable development , namely future requirement , in other words, how save natural resources as much as possible, how about protect the environment that the mankind depends on for existence, how construct through high-quality between architectural design and building, in order to reduce building equipment use quantity andreduce whole expenses of project.The comprehensive new technology is to give full play to the technological specialty of every discipline , create and use the new technology, and with outside space , dimension of the building , working in coordination with in an all-round way the building component, thus reduce equipment investment and operate the expenses.Each success , building of engineering construction condense collective intelligence and strength; It is intelligence and expectation that an architect pays that the building is created; The engineering design of the building is that architecture , structure , equipment speciality compose hardships and strength happenning; It is the diligent and sweat paid in design and operation , installation , management that the construction work is built up .The initial stage of the 1990s, our understanding that the concept of global design is a bit elementary , conscientious to with making some jobs in engineering design unconsciously , make some harvest. This text Hangzhou city industrial and commercial bank financial comprehensive building and Hangzhou city Bank of Communications financial building two building , group of " scientific and technological progress second prize " speak of from person who obtain emphatically, expound the fact global design - comprehensive technology that building create its , for reach global design outstanding architect in two engineering design, have served as the creator and persons who cooperate while every stage design and even building are built completely.Two projects come into operation for more than 4 years formally , run and coordinate , good wholly , reach the anticipated result, accepted and appreciated by the masses, obtain various kinds of honor .outstanding to design award , progress prize in science and technology , project quality bonus , local top ten view , best model image award ,etc., the ones that do not give to the architect and engineers without one are gratified and proud. The building is created Emphasizing the era for global design of the building, the architects' creation idea and design method should be broken through to some extent, creation inspirations is it set up in analysis , building of global design , synthesize more to burst out and at the foundation that appraise, learn and improve the integration capability exactly designed in building , possess the new knowledge system and thinking method , merge multi-disciplinary technology. We have used the new design idea in above-mentioned projects, have emphasized the globality created in building .Is it is it act as so as to explain to conceive to create two design overview and building of construction work these now.1) The financial comprehensive building of industrial and commercial bank of HangZhou,belong to the comprehensive building, with the whole construction area of 39,000 square meters, main building total height 84, 22, skirt 4 of room, some 6 storeys, 2 storeys of basements.Design overall thinking break through of our country bank building traditional design mode - seal , deep and serious , stern , form first-class function, create of multi-functional type , the style of opening , architecture integrated with the mode of the international commercial bank.The model of the building is free and easy, opened, physique was made up by the hyperboloid, the main building presented " the curved surface surrounded southwards ", skirt room presents " the curved surface surrounded northwards ", the two surround but become intension of " gathering the treasure ".Building flourishing upwards, elevation is it adopt large area solid granite wall to design, the belt aluminium alloy curtain wall of the large area and some glass curtain walls, and interweave the three into powerful and vigorous whole , chase through model and entity wall layer bring together , form concise , tall and straight , upward tendency of working up successively, have distinct and unique distinctions.Building level and indoor space are designed into a multi-functional type and style of opening, opening, negotiate , the official working , meeting , receiving , be healthy and blissful , visit combining together. Spacious and bright two storeys open in the hall unifiedly in the Italian marble pale yellow tone , in addition, the escalator , fountain , light set off, make the space seem very magnificent , graceful and sincere. Intelligent computer network center, getting open and intelligent to handle official business space and all related house distribute in all floor reasonably. Top floor round visit layer, lift all of Room visit layer , can have a panoramic view of the scenery of the West Lake , fully enjoy the warmth of the nature. 2) The financial building of Bank of Communications of Hangzhou, belong to the purely financial office block, with the whole construction area of 19,000 square meters, the total height of the building is 39.9 meters, 13 storeys on the ground, the 2nd Floor. Live in building degree high than it around location , designer have unique architectural appearance of style architectural design this specially, its elevation is designed into a new classical form , the building base adopts the rough granite, show rich capability , top is it burn granite and verticality bar and some form aluminum windows make up as the veneer to adopt, represent the building noble and refined , serious personality of the bank.While creating in above-mentioned two items, besides portraying the shape of the building and indoor space and outside environment minister and blending meticulously, in order to achieve the outstanding purpose of global design of the building , the architect , still according to the region and project characteristic, put forward the following requirement to every speciality:(1) Control the total height of the building strictly;(2) It favorable to the intelligent comfortable height of clearances to create; (3) Meet thefloor area of owner's demand;(4)Protect the environment , save the energy , reduce and make the investment;(5) Design meticulously, use and popularize the new technology; (6)Cooperate closely in every speciality, optimization design.Comprehensive technologyThe building should have strong vitality, there must be sustainable development space, there should be abundant intension and comprehensive new technology. Among above-mentioned construction work , have popularized and used the intelligent technology of the building , has not glued and formed the flat roof beam of prestressing force - dull and stereotyped structure technology and flat roof beam structure technology, baseplate temperature mix hole , technology of muscle and base of basement enclose new technology of protecting, computer control STL ice hold cold air conditioner technology, compounding type keeps warm and insulates against heat the technology of the wall , such new technologies as the sectional electricity distribution room ,etc., give architecture global design to add the new vitality of note undoubtedly.1, the intelligent technology of the buildingIn initial stage of the 1990s, the intelligent building was introduced from foreign countries to China only as a kind of concept , computer network standard is it soon , make information communication skeleton of intelligent building to pursue in the world- comprehensive wiring system becomes a kind of trend because of 10BASE-T. In order to make the bank building adapt to the development of the times, the designer does one's utmost to recommend and design the comprehensive wiring system with the leading eyes , this may well be termed the first modernized building which adopted this technical design at that time.(1) Comprehensive wiring system one communication transmission network, it make between speech and data communication apparatus , exchange equipment and other administrative systems link to each other, make the equipment and outside communication network link to each other too. It include external telecommunication connection piece and inside information speech all cable and relevant wiring position of data terminal of workspace of network. The comprehensive wiring system adopts the products of American AT&T Corp.. Connected up the subsystem among the subsystem , management subsystem , arterial subsystem and equipment to make up by workspace subsystem , level.(2) Automated systems of security personnel The monitoring systems of security personnel of the building divide into the public place and control and control two pieces of systemequipment with the national treasury special-purposly synthetically.The special-purpose monitoring systems of security personnel of national treasury are in the national treasury , manage the storehouse on behalf of another , transporting the paper money garage to control strictly, the track record that personnel come in and go out, have and shake the warning sensor to every wall of national treasury , the camera, infrared microwave detector in every relevant rooms, set up the automation of controlling to control.In order to realize building intellectuality, the architect has finished complete indoor environment design, has created the comfortable , high-efficient working environment , having opened up the room internal and external recreation space not of uniform size, namely the green one hits the front yard and roofing, have offered the world had a rest and regulated to people working before automation is equipped all day , hang a design adopt the special building to construct the node in concrete ground , wall at the same time.2, has not glued and formed the flat roof beam of prestressing force- dull and stereotyped structure technology and flat roof beam structure technologyIn order to meet the requirement with high assurance that the architect puts forward , try to reduce the height of structure component in structure speciality, did not glue and form the flat roof beam of prestressing force concrete - dull and stereotyped structure technology and flat roof beam structure technology after adopting.(1) Adopt prestressing force concrete roof beam board structure save than ordinary roof beam board concrete consumption 15%, steel consumption saves 27%, the roof beam reduces 300mm high.(2) Adopt flat roof beam structure save concrete about 10% consumption than ordinary roof beam board, steel consumption saves 6.6%, the roof beam reduces 200mm high.Under building total situation that height does not change , adopt above-mentioned structure can make the whole building increase floor area of a layer , have good economic benefits and social benefit.3, the temperature of the baseplate matches muscle technologyIn basement design , is it is it is it after calculating , take the perimeter to keep the construction technology measure warm to split to resist to go on to baseplate, arrange temperature stress reinforcing bar the middle cancelling , dispose 2 row receives the strength reinforcing bar up and down only, this has not only save the fabrication cost of the project but also met the basement baseplate impervious and resisting the requirement that splits.4, the foundation of the basement encloses and protects the new technology of design and operationAdopt two technological measures in enclosing and protecting a design:(1) Cantilever is it is it hole strength is it adopt form strengthen and mix muscle technology to design to protect to enclose, save the steel and invite 60t, it invests about 280,000 to save.(2) Is it is it protect of of elevation and keep roof beam technology to enclose , is it protect long to reduce 1.5m to enclose all to reduce, keep roof beam mark level on natural ground 1.5m , is it is it protect of lateral pressure receive strength some height to enclose to change, saving 137.9 cubic meters of concrete, steel 16.08t, reduces and invests 304,000 yuan directly through calculating.5, ice hold cold air conditioner technologyIce hold cold air conditioner technology belong to new technology still in our country , it heavy advantage that the electricity moves the peak and operates the expenses sparingly most. In design, is it ice mode adopt some (weight ) hold mode of icing , is it ice refrigeration to be plane utilization ratio high to hold partly to hold, hold cold capacity little , refrigeration plane capacity 30%-45% little than routine air conditioner equipment, one economic effective operational mode.Hold the implementation of the technology of the cold air conditioner in order to cooperate with the ice , has used intelligent technology, having adopted the computer to control in holding and icing the air conditioner system, the main task has five following respects:(1) According to the demand for user's cold load , according to the characteristic of the structure of the electric rate , set up the ice and hold the best operation way of the cold system automatically, reduce the operation expenses of the whole system;(2) Fully utilize and hold the capacity of the cold device, should try one's best to use up all the cold quantity held basically on the same day;(3) Automatic operation state of detection system, ensure ice hold cold system capital equipment normal , safe operation;(4) Automatic record parameter that system operate, display system operate flow chart and type systematic operation parameter report form;(5) Predict future cooling load, confirm the future optimization operation scheme.Ice hold cold air conditioner system test run for some time, indicate control system to be steady , reliable , easy to operate, the system operates the energy-conserving result remarkably.6, the compounding type keeps in the wall warm and insulates against heat To the area of Hangzhou , want heating , climate characteristic of lowering the temperature in summer in winter, is it protect building this structural design person who compound is it insulate against heat the wall to keep warm to enclose specially, namely: Fit up , keep warm , insulate against heat the three not to equal to the body , realize building energy-conservation better.Person who compound is it insulate against heat wall to combine elevation model characteristic , design aluminium board elevation renovation material to keep warm, its structure is: Fill out and build hollow brick in the frame structure, do to hang the American Fluorine carbon coating inferior mere aluminium board outside the hollow brick wall.Aluminium board spoke hot to have high-efficient adiabatic performance to the sun, under the same hot function of solar radiation, because the nature , color of the surface material are different from coarse degree, whether can absorb heat have great difference very , between surface and solar radiation hot absorption system (α ) and material radiation system (Cλ ) is it say to come beyond the difference this. Adopt α and Cλ value little surface material have remarkable result , board α、Cλ value little aluminium have, its α =0.26, Cλ =0.4, light gray face brick α =0.56, Cλ =4.3.Aluminium board for is it hang with having layer under air by hollow brick to do, because aluminium board is it have better radiation transfer to hot terms to put in layer among the atmosphere and air, this structure is playing high-efficient adiabatic function on indoor heating too in winter, so, no matter or can well realize building energy-conservation in winter in summer.7, popularize the technology of sectional electricity distribution roomConsider one layer paves Taxi " gold " value , the total distribution of the building locates the east, set up voltage transformer and low-voltage distribution in the same room in first try in the design, make up sectional electricity distribution room , save transformer substation area greatly , adopt layer assign up and down, mixing the switchyard system entirely after building up and putting into operation, the function is clear , the overall arrangement compactness is rational , the systematic dispatcher is flexible . The technology have to go to to use and already become the model extensively of the design afterwards.ConclusionThe whole mode designed of the building synthetically can raise the adaptability of the building , it will be the inevitable trend , environmental consciousness and awareness of saving energy especially after strengthening are even more important. Developing with the economy , science and technology constantly in our country, more advanced technology and scientific and technical result will be applied to the building , believe firmly that in the near future , more outstanding building global design will appear on the building stage of our country. We will be summarizing, progressing constantly constantly, this is that history gives the great responsibility of architect and engineer.译文：建筑结构整体设计-建筑创作和综合技术21世纪将是多种学科技术并存的时代，它必将形成推动建筑发展的巨大动力，建筑结构整体设计也就越来越重要，建筑师必须把握时机，充分发挥建筑师的主导作用，主持好各项建筑工程设计。
高层建筑展望及建筑结构外文文献翻译、中英文翻译、外文翻译
The future of the tall building and structure of buildings Zoning effects on the density of tall buildings and solar design may raise ethical challenge. A combined project of old and new buildings may bring back human scale to our cities. Owners and conceptual designers will be challenged in the 1980s to produce economically sound, people-oriented buildings.In 1980 the Level House, designed by Skidmore, Owings and Merril1 (SOM) received the 25-year award from the American Institute of Architects “in recogn ition of architectural design of enduring significance”. This award is given once a year for a building between 25and 35 years old .Lewis Mumford described the Lever House as “the first office building in which modern materials, modern construction, modern functions have been combined with a modern plan”. At the time, this daring concept could only be achieved by visionary men like Gordon Bunshaft, the designer , and Charles Luckman , the owner and then-president of Lever Brothers . The project also include d a few “first” : (1) it was the first sealed glass tower ever built ; (2) it was the first office building designed by SOM ;and (3) it was the first office building on Park Avenue to omit retail space on the first floor. Today, after hundreds of look-alike and variations on the grid design, we have reached what may be the epitome of tall building design: the nondescript building. Except for a few recently completed buildings that seem to be people-oriented in their lower floors, most tall buildings seem to be arepletion of the dull, graph-paper-like monoliths in many of our cities. Can this be the end of the design-line for tall buildings? Probably cannot. There are definite signs that are most encouraging. Architects and owners have recently begun to discuss the design problem publicly. Perhaps we are at the threshold of a new era. The 1980s may bring forth some new visionaries like Bunshaft and Luckman. If so, what kinds of restrictions or challenges do they face?Zoning Indications are strong that cities may restrict the density of tall buildings, that is, reduce the number of tall buildings per square mile. In 1980 the termgrid-lock was used for the first time publicly in New York City. It caused a terror-like sensation in the pit of one’s stomach. The t erm refers to a situation in which traffic comes to a standstill for many city blocks in all directions. The jam-up may even reach to the tunnels and bridges .Strangely enough, such as event happened in New York in a year of fuel shortages and high gasoline prices. If we are to avoid similar occurrences, it is obvious that the density of people, places, and vehicles must be drastically reduced. Zoning may be the only long-term solution.Solar zoning may become more and more popular as city residents are blocked from the sun by tall buildings. Regardless of how effectively a tall building is designed to conserve energy, it may at the same time deprive a resident or neighbor of solar access. In the 1980s the right to see the sun may become a most interesting ethical question that may revolutionize the architectural fabric of the city. Mixed-use zoning became a financially viable alternative during the 1970s, may become commonplace during the 1980s, especially if it is combined with solar zoning to provide access to the sun for all occupants.Renovation Emery Roth and Sons designed the Palace Hotel in New York as an addition to a renovated historic Villard house on Madison Avenue. It is a striking example of what can be done with salvageable and beautifully detailed old buildings. Recycling both large and small buildings may become the way in which humanism and warmth will be returned to buildings during the 80s’. If we must continue to design with glass and aluminum in stark grid patterns, for whatever reason, we may find that a combination of new and old will become the great humane design trend of the future.Conceptual design it has been suggested in architectural magazines that the Bank of America office building in San Francisco is too large for the city’s scale. It has also been suggested that the John Hancock Center in Boston in not only out of scale but also out of character with the city. Similar statements and opinions have been made about other significant tall buildings in cities throughout the world. Thesecomments raise some basic questions about the design process and who really make the design decisions on important structures-and about who will make these decisions in the 1980s.Will the forthcoming visionaries-architects and owners-return to more humane designs?Will the sociologist or psychologist play a more important role in the years ahead to help convince these visionaries that a new, radically different, human-scaled architecture is long overdue? If these are valid questions, could it be tha t our “best” architectural designers of the 60s’ and 70s’ will become the worst designers of the 80s’ and 90s’? Or will they learn and respond to a valuable lesson they should have learned in their “History of Architecture” course in college that “architec ture usually reflects the success or failure or failure of a civilized society”? Only time will tell.A building is closely bound up with people, for it provides people with the necessary space to work and live in. As classified by their use, buildings are mainly of two types: industrial buildings and civil buildings. Industrial buildings are used by various factories or industrial production while civil buildings are those that are used by people for dwelling, emplovment, education and other social activities.The construction of industrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings. However, industrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used, and in the structural forms or systems they are used.Considering only the engineering essentials, the structure of a building can be defined as the assemblage of those parts which exist for the purpose of maintaining shape and stability. Its primary purpose is to resist any loads applied to the building and to transmit those to the ground.In terms of architecture, the structure of a building is and does much more than that. It is an inseparable part of the building form and to varying degrees is a generator of that form. Used skillfully, the building structure can establish or reinforce orders and rhythms among the architectural volumes and planes. It can bevisually dominant or recessive. It can develop harmonies or conflicts. It can be both confining and emancipating. And, unfortunately in some cases, it cannot be ignored. It is physical.The structure must also be engineered to maintain the architectural form. The principles and tools of physics and mathematics provide the basis for differentiating between rational and irrational forms in terms of construction. Artists can sometimes generate shapes that obviate any consideration of science, but architects cannot.There are at least three items that must be present in the structure of a building: stability, strength and stiffness, economy.Taking the first of the three requirements, it is obvious that stability is needed to maintain shape. An unstable building structure implies unbalanced forces or a lack of equilibrium and a consequent acceleration of the structure or its pieces.The requirement of strength means that the materials selected to resist the stresses generated by the loads and shapes of the structure(s) must be adequate. Indeed, a “factor of safety” is usually provided so that under the anticipated loads, a given material is not stressed to a level even close to its rupture point. The material property called stiffness is considered with the requirement of strength. Stiffness is different from strength in that it directly involves how much a structure strain or deflects under load .A material that is very strong but lacking in stiffness will deform too much to be of value in resisting the forces applied.Economy of building structure refers to more than just the cost of the materials used.Construction economy is a complicated subject involving raw materials ,fabrication ,erection ,and maintenance .Design and construction labor costs and the costs of energy consumption must be considered .Speed of construction and the cost of money (interest) are also factors .In most design situations ,more than one structural material requires pletive alternatives almost always exist ,and the choice is seldom obvious .Apart from these three primary requirements ,several other factors are worthy ofemphasis .First ,the structure or structural system must relate to the building’s function .It should not be in conflict in terms of form .For example ,a linear function demands a linear structure ,and therefore it would be improper to roof a bowling alley with a dome .Similarly ,a theater must have large , unobstructed spans but a fine restaurant probably should not .Stated simply , the structure must be appropriate to the function it is to shelter .Second, the structure must be fire-resistant. It is obvious that the structural system must be able to maintain its integrity at least until the occupants are safely out. Building codes specify the number of hours for which certain parts of a building must resist the heat without collapse. The structural materials used for those elements must be inherently fire-resistant or be adequately protected by fireproofing materials. The degree of fire resistance to be provided will depend upon a number of items, including the use and occupancy load of the space, its dimensions, and the location of the building.Third, the structure should integrate well with the buil ding’s circulation systems. It should not be in conflict with the piping systems for water and waste, the ducting systems for air, or (most important) the movement of people. It is obvious building systems must be coordinated as the design progresses. One can design in a sequential step-by-step manner within any one system, but the design of all of them should move in a parallel manner toward completion. Spatially, all the various parts of a building are interdependent.Fourth, the structure must be psychologically safe as well as physically safe. A high-rise frame that sways considerably in the wind might not actually be dangerous but may make the building uninhabitable just the same. Lightweight floor systems that are too “bouncy” can make the users very u ncomfortable. Large glass windows, uninterrupted by dividing motions, can be quite safe but will appear very insecure to the occupant standing next to on 40 floors above the street.Sometimes the architect must make deliberate attempts to increase the apparentstrength or solidness of the structure. This apparent safety may be more important than honestly expressing the building’s structure, because the untrained viewer cannot distinguish between real and perceived safety.The building designer needs to understand the behavior lf physical structures under load. An ability to intuit or “feel” structural behavior is possessed by those having much experience involving structural analysis, both qualitative and quantitative. The consequent knowledge of how forces, stresses, and deformations build up in different materials and shapes is vital to the development of this “sense”.Structural analysis is the process of determining the forces and deformations in structures due to specified loads so that the structure can be designed rationally, and so that the state of safety of existing structures can be checked.In the design of structures, it is necessary to start with a concept leading to a configuration which can then be analyzed. This is done so members can be sized and the needed reinforcing determined, in order to: a) carry the design loads without distress or excessive deformations (serviceability or working conditions); and b)to prevent collapse before a specified overload has been placed on the structure(safety or ultimate condition).Since normally elastic conditions will prevailly undue working loads, a structural theory based on the assumptions of elastic behavior is appropriate for determining serviceability conditions. Collapse of a structure will usually occur only long after the elastic range of the materials has been exceeded at critical points, so that an ultimate strength theory based on the inelastic behavior of the materials is necessary for a rational determination of the safety of a structure against collapse. Nevertheless, an elastic theory can be used to determine a safe approximation to the strength of ductile structures (the lower bound approach of plasticity), and this approach is customarily followed in reinforced concrete practice. For this reason only the elastic theory of structures is pursued in this chapter.Looked at critically, all structures are assemblies of three-dimensional elements,the exact analysis of which is a forbidding task even under ideal conditions and impossible to contemplate under conditions of professional practice. For this reason, an important part of the analyst’s work is the simplification of the actual structure and loading conditions to a model which is susceptible to rational analysis.Thus, a structural framing system is decomposed into a slab and floor beams which in turn frame into girders carried by columns which transmit the loads to the foundations. Since traditional structural analysis has been unable to cope with the action of the slab, this has often been idealized into a system of strips acting as beams. Aldo, long-hand method has been unable to cope with three-dimensional framing systems, so that the entire structure has been modeled by a system of planar subassemblies, to be analyzed one at a time. The modern matrix-computer methods have revolutionized structural analysis by making it possible to analyze entire systems, thus leading to more reliable predictions about the behavior of structures under loads.Actual loading conditions are also both difficult to determine and to express realistically, and must be simplified for purposes of analysis. Thus, traffic loads on a bridge structure, which is essentially both of dynamic and random nature, is usually idealized into statically moving standard trucks, or distributed loads, intended to simulate the most severe loading conditions occurring in practice.The most important use of structural analysis is as a tool in structural design. As such, it will usually be a part of a trial-and error procedure, in which an assumed configuration with assumed dead loads is analyzed, and the members designed in accordance with the results of the analysis. This phase is called the preliminary designed; since this design is still subject to change, usually a crude, fast analysis method is adequate. At this stage, the cost of the structure is estimated, loads and member properties are revised, and the design is checked for possible improvements. The changes are now incorporated in the structure, a more refined analysis is performed, and the member design is revised. This project is carried to convergence,the rapidity of which will depend on the capability of the designer. It is clear that a variety of analysis methods, ranging from” quick and dirty to exact”, is needed for design purposes.An efficient analyst must thus be in command of the rigorous methods of analysis, must be aware of available design and analysis aids, as well as simplifications permitted by applicable building codes. An up-to-date analyst must likewise be versed in the bases of matrix structural analysis and its use in digital computers as well as in the use of available analysis programs or software高层建筑展望及建筑结构区域规划对高层建筑物的密度和对自然采光设计可能引起道德问题将产生影响。
建筑设计中英文对照外文翻译文献
建筑设计中英文对照外文翻译文献On the other hand, there is a significant amount ofliterature in the field of architecture design that is writtenin foreign languages. While it may not be as readily accessible for non-native speakers, there are many benefits to exploring literature in other languages. For example, architects who are fluent in multiple languages can have a broader understanding of different cultural approaches to architecture. By reading literature in foreign languages, architects can gain insights into design concepts and practices that may not be covered in English-language sources. This can lead to a more diverse and innovative approach to design.However, one challenge with accessing literature in foreign languages is the accuracy of translations. Architecture is a technical field with specific terminology, and it is important to ensure that translations accurately convey the intended meaning. In some cases, the translation of technical terms and concepts may not accurately convey their full meaning, which can lead to misunderstandings or confusion. Architects who rely on translated literature should be cautious and ensure they verify the accuracy of the translations with experts in the field.Despite these challenges, it is essential for architects to explore literature in multiple languages to stay informed and to gain a global perspective on architecture design. By consideringboth English and foreign language translated literature, architects can access a wider range of resources and insights. Additionally, architects should consider collaborating with colleagues who are fluent in different languages to ensure accurate translation and interpretation of foreign language sources.In conclusion, architecture design is a field that benefits from accessing literature in multiple languages. English provides a wealth of resources and is the global language of academia. However, architects who can access and read literature in foreign languages can gain new perspectives and insights into different cultural approaches to design. While caution should be taken to verify the accuracy of translations, architects should explore literature in multiple languages to broaden their understanding and enhance their creative problem-solving skills.。
建筑设计外文翻译文献
建筑设计外文翻译文献(文档含中英文对照即英文原文和中文翻译)外文：Structural Design of Reinforced Concrete Sloping Roof Abstract: This paper point out common mistakes and problems in actual engineering design according immediately poured reinforced concrete sloping roof especially common residential structure.It brings out layout and design concept use folded plate and arch shell structure in order to reduction or elimination beam and column Layout to reduce costs and expand use function for user of garret . The paper also discussed the need to open the roof holes, windows, and with other design with complex forms . The corresponding simple approximate calculation method and the structure treatment also described in this paper.Keywords : sloping roof;folded plate; along plane load;vertical plane load1. IntroductionIn recent years, reinforced concrete slope of the roof has been very common seen, the correct method of it’s design need establish urgently It’s target is to abolish or reduce the roof beams and columns, to obtain big room and make the roof plate "clean ". This not only benefits tructure specialty itself but also to the design of the building professionals to develop new field, and ultimately to allow users, property developers benefited,and so it has far-reaching significance.In the common practice engineering practice, a designer in the calculation of the mechanical model often referred sloping roof as vertical sloping roof under the projection plane Beam, or take level ridge, ramps ridge contour as a framework and increase unnecessary beam and tilt column . In fact ,the stress is similar between General square planar housing, double slope, multi-slope roof and arch, shell.Ping and oblique ridge are folded plate like “A”, whether layout beams and columns, its ridge line of the deformation pattern is different from the framework fundamentally. All these method will make the difference between calculation results and real internal structure force. During the construction process, housing backbone, plate bias department template has complex shapes, multi-angle bars overlap, installation and casting is very difficult. These projects are common in construction and is a typical superfluous. Some scholars use the elastic shell theory to analyze folded plate roof、internal force and deformation, reveals the vertical loads law of surrounding the base is neither level rise nor the vertical displacement which to some extent reflects the humps and shell’s features .But assume that boundary conditions which is very different from general engineering actual situation and covered the eaves of a vertical cross-settlement and bottom edge under the fundamental characteristics of rally, so it is not for general engineering design .2. Outlines of MethodsFor most frequently span, the way to cancel the backbone of housing, didn’t add axillary often. But in the periphery under the eaves to the framework need established grid-beam or beams over windows. For long rectangular planar multi-room, multi-column, building professionals in a horizontal layout of the partition wall between each pair of columns and the direction set deep into the same thickness width have possession of a gathering of the rafah beam profiles . Pull beam above has a two-slope roof plate affixed sloping beams expect smaller span. For residential,if it has no needs according construction professional, we will be able to achieve within the household no ceiling beams exposed, see figure 1. Similar lattice theory, this approach emphasizes the use of axial force component effe ct, But is different with the truss because it’s load distribution along the bar not only single but also along the axis of the plate. Generally each plate has force characteristics of folded plate, for bear gravity at the roof, wind, earthquake loads, caused the plate along with the internal force components, each plate is equivalent to strengthen the thin flange beams .Among vertical bearing , it is thin-walled beams anti-edge horizontal component to balance Wang thrust formed by arch shell effect. When plates bear the the vertical component load, each plate is equivalent to a solid edge embedded multilateral bearing plates .The design feature of this method is establish and perfect the sloping roof of the arch, folded plate system Consciously, at top of the roof, using a minimal level of rafah balance beam ramp at the level of thrust.It’s calculation methods can be divided into hand algorithm and computer paper, this paper focus on the hand algorithm.Hand algorithm take the single-slope plate of sloping roof plate as slider , through approximate overall analysis, Simplified boundary conditions of determine plate,solving load effect along level and vertical plane, Internal forces of various linear superposition under the condition of assumption of normal straight, testing stability and integrated reinforcement. The method pursuit of operational, use general engineer familiar calculation steps to address more complex issues.This method is suitable for the framework structure, little modifications also apply to masonrystructure or Frame-wall structure. General arch structure have good anti-seismic performance, if designed properly, the sloping roof will also do so. In this paper the pseudo-static is used to analysis earthquake effects.3. Analysis and Design for Along Plane Effect of LoadsFirst regard to cross profile of figure 1,we analysis equal width rectangular parts of long trapezoidal panels 1、2. as for approximate calculation,it is take plane loads along plane as a constant just like four rectangular plate can be simplified to one-way slab,we take along to long unit width narrow structure as analysis object ,take hinged arch model shown in figure 2.图2a图3a图2b图3b图2c图3cIn Figure 2 the right supports vertical linkage representatives roof beams supporting role, ramps connecting rod on behalf of the board itself thin beam reaction effect which is virtual and approximate equivalent. We would like to calculate two anti-bearing.Because the total pressure of physical project through two plate roof beams and transfer to the ends column, So Anti two numerical difference can be seen as two plates bear along with the plane load and roof beams bear the vertical load pressure. Two Anti power link expressions in Various conditions were given as follows, because the model take units width,so the results is line averageload distribution except it has Focus quality in house.They are bouth represent by N , English leftover subscript s, b, represent the plane along the roof panels and vertical role in the roof beam, g, w, e,represent gravity, air pressure and the level of earthquake separately. d, c, represent distribution of concentrated load or effect separately, In the formula h is thicness of every plate,g is gravitation acceleration, a is roof for the horizontal seismic acceleration value formula, Wk represent the standard value Pressure.m with number footnotesrepresent every numbered ramp the quality distribution per unit area ,m with english footnotes represent quality of per location.as to two symmetrical slopes, the formula can be more concise.Figure 2a represent situation of vertical gravity load ,these formulas as follows:()()'''111100110cos cos 38cos cos cos cos L AL L m L AL N l h l h l m ωαβμααββ-=++ ()()()()'10000000101'100000cos cos 2cos cos 8sin cos 8sin cos cos 8sin cos cos cos l l l l l h m m s h N l l h h l h l μαβωααηαβωμβββαββααβ++-=--++()()()()101101110100001012111cos 2cos cos 2L L L L L L L m LL L L mLL L L L L L N h B hL hL LIμξβαβ⎡⎤⎛⎫⎛⎫⎛⎫--+-+--+⎢⎥ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪⎝⎭⎝⎭⎝⎭⎣⎦=++()()()()()001001110011200101021000110111121cos sin 2sin 2sin cos cos A L h L m LL L L mL L m a L L L L h h L m l m N L L L Ah L L k B h L h L δδββββαβ⎛⎫⎛⎫⎡⎤⎛⎫-+-+--+ ⎪ ⎪ ⎪⎢⎥+⎝⎭⎝⎭⎝⎭⎣⎦=+---++Figure 2b represent situation of bear wind load, these formulas as follows:()()222211122111cos cos cos 8cos cos cos cos wkL h L L S li N a L h h b ωαωββαβα-=++ ()()()()22222001111222212110cos cos cos 11cos cos cos cos sin 5cos sin cos cos sin cos k K L h l w L w w h w h m L N l l AL h L a h L αωαβαβλαβααββββαββ⎡⎤-⎡⎤+⎢⎥=+++-+⎢⎥++⎢⎥⎣⎦⎣⎦Figure 2c represent situation of role of level earthquake, these formulas as follows:()()2222210011022001sin cos sin cos 3sin cos cos cos cos cos a a L h l L L N L h l hl αμβαωαβωβδαβαβδβ+=--+ ()()()()222221011120322222102101sin cos sin cos sin sin sin 3cos 2ln cos 5ln cos cos cos cos a l h m l m L m m m N n s l l l g h l h l δβααβαββββαβαβαβ++=++++ ()()()0010011012110121000111sin cos 2cos 2cos cos cos a a L L m L L L n L L L L L nh L N L l h l h l ββαβαβ⎡⎤⎛⎫⎛⎫-+-+⎢⎥ ⎪ ⎪⎝⎭⎝⎭⎢⎥=+⎢⎥+⎢⎥⎢⎥⎣⎦ ()00000201sin 2cos a a L m L L L h L l θβα⎡⎤⎛⎫-+-⎢⎥ ⎪⎝⎭⎣⎦+()()()2000010121001sin sin cos sin cos sin cos cos 2sin cos a e L m L L L h L m m N l l h βααβαββαβββ⎡⎤⎛⎫-+-⎢⎥ ⎪+⎝⎭⎣⎦=-+ ()()()001001001221111221001sin 1sin cos 2cos 2cos cos cos sin a a L L L L L L m L L L L L h L h l L h l h ωαββαβαββ⎡⎤⎛⎫⎛⎫-+-+⎢⎥ ⎪ ⎪⎝⎭⎝⎭⎢⎥-+⎢⎥+⎢⎥⎢⎥⎣⎦ When vertical seismic calculation required by Seismic Design ParametersIt’s calculate formula generally similar as formula 1 to 4 which only need take gravity g asvertical seismic acceleration a. Above formulas apply to right bearings in figure 2 and also to left when exchange data of two plate.As end triangle of Multi-slope roof ,for simplify and approximate calculation need, we assume two lines distribution load only produced by roof board of several load, effect.now II-II cross-section from figure is took to analysis Long trapezoidal plate two’s end triangle, assuming the structure symmetry approximately, take half of structure to establish model (figure 3). Because linked with the end triangular plate-3 plane has great lateral stiffness ,therefore assume the model leftist stronghold along the central component around which can not be shifted direction. Central Plate vertical stiffness small, in general gravity load of roughly symmetric midpoint only next movement happened possible, Therefore, the model used parallel two-link connection. Wind loading, and the general role of the earthquake in two slope was roughly antisymmetric,so plate model in the central use fixed hinge bearings which allow rotation and transtlateral force to plate 3near the plate beam. Under plate two triangular area is eaves of vertical beams and plates itself along with plane load distribution is functionshown in Figure 1 take the variable x as an argument,assume the distance from position of section II to end part is x 0s so the slope level length is y 0=x 0L 2/L 3,formula 11 to 14 is the value of Vertical triangle of gravity along the x direction arbitrary location of the two load distribution ,where h 3 is Slitting vertical thickness of plate 3.()22001cos 212cos e a a mkxL h x N L sh v l x ββ⎡⎤=-⎢⎥+-⎢⎥⎣⎦ ()211121001sin cos 212cos m kvL h x N l xh x L V βββ⎡⎤=+⎢⎥+-⎢⎥⎣⎦ ()22000002221100max 1123cos L La h L L L L N VL h h l a V L L αγβ⎡⎤⎛⎫=---⎢⎥ ⎪+-⎢⎥⎝⎭⎣⎦ ()22201000112222201001ln 23cos a L L h l L L L n V s xl h v h L x x l L ββ⎡⎤⎛⎫=+-⎢⎥ ⎪+-⎢⎥⎝⎭⎣⎦ As wind load and earthquake effect, sketch could use approximate figure 3b 、3c and use method of structural mechanics to solve But the process is cumbersome and reasonable extent is limited .the wind and earthquake effect is not important compare with the load effect. Moreover,the triangle area is small As approximate calculation, such direct-use rectangular plate slope calculation is more convenient and not obvious waste. The method of solve two load distribution of plate three is same as the solution of Long trapezoidal plate area just make the change of x and y、L2 and L3 in figure 1.The actual profile is part III-III shown in figure 1A B C图4a图4b BDFigure 4 is vertical launch plan and bear load portfolio value of roof ramp shown in Figure 1 to analysis inclined plate and the internal forces of the anti-bearing column . in the figure hypotenuse is oblique roof equal to strengthen frame, Similar wind ramp truss rod and the next edge portfolio, could form the dark truss system ,while long rectangular plate can be seen as part of thin-walled beams, which could also be seen as truss. Therefore, we called roof boarding the plane formed a "thin-walled beam-truss" system, in concrete theory, between the truss and the b eam have no natural divide . it’s no need hand count accurate internal forces and bearing force to such a joint system, Because on the one hand span more, big bending stiffness structure sensitive to the bearing uneven subsidence and have to stay safe reserves; on the other hand it has high cross-section, by increasing reinforced to increase capacity on the cost impact is not significant. Specific algorithm is: Single-ramp calculate by simple cradle, Multi-Span ramp’s bending moment, shear, and supporting anti-edge use the calculate value by the possible maximum numerical control methods, Moment is calculate by simple cradle two sides of supports middle Shear, negative moment and support force calculate according to bearing this continuous, two-hinged, about two span take the largest one. Pin-Pin bearing shear force that is supported by the inter-simple calculate according to simple cradle. But in this method the location of the various internal force’s safety level is uneven expansion, appropriate adjustmen t should be made is late calculation. No mater f the triangular or rectangular part of plate, Thin-plane bending rebar can get by method of moment right boards from the bottom point for the moment distance whichassigned to the eaves or roof. The author believe it has no necessary control number of reinforcement according to smallest beams reinforced rate. On the rim of triangle equivalent to ramp strut can shear entirety. when consider the end is weak can properly reinforced its roof beam below the reinforcement. If shear required stirrup in the rectangular part of thin-walled, should superposition to the beam, generally it’s no need to intentionally imaginary abdominal strengthening reinforcement at rod position.4. Calculation and Design of Pull Beam and Roof BeamsBy column in figure 1 marked calculated value of supporting force and their level of vertical component, horizontal component of the total force multiplied by the cosine of angle. Take column A as example, the first footnotes in R A2 is column number, the first footnotes represent the force generated by the panel two. Their horizontal component balanced by triangle three under the eaves of beams. horizontal component of intermediate support reaction is balanced by the two-level pull beam in deep direction. Then pull beam and above the sloping beams constitutes steel Arch. Because of the existence of antisymmetric load, bilateral role in the anti-power-level components may be inconsistent and pull beam should take the average lag. consider the support impact of uneven settlement, the level pull beam design should take bigger value.Roof beams general under four internal forces: First of the above is levels Rally, The second is axial force generated when oblique roofing in the flange plate plane bending. The third is the vertical load to bear as the roof slab edge beams under bending moment, shear ,like board supported by multi-faceted, Actual force is smaller than bear calculated by one-way plate N b,Fourth is the effect of lateral framework of internal forces .it should linear superposition ,Composite Reinforced, in the situation of weight Load, span and the small dip, checking computations should be took for tension beams cracking, appropriate intensify the section, with fine steel, including the side beams of steel beams rafah terminal should take two meander anchorage,just like letter L With ng as 10d long bends, meander 135 degrees angle and put pull beam intersection with the vertical reinforcement column touting the Meander overcast horn.This paper take model in figure 1 as example, ignore tigers window , 4 sloping roof are 35 o angle, the length of roof slab dimensions are shown in figure 4. Plate unit area quality is 350kg/m2,Overhaul live load is 0.50 kN/m2, Pressure standard of windward side is 0.21 kN/m2, Leeward face is -0.45 kN/m2, Design value of roof horizontal seismic acceleration is 0.1g, Calculate the bearing capacity limit by standardizing, Considered separately with and without seismic load effect of the combination basic design value,we use combination of without earthquake force through compare，Load calculation and analysis results of every position shown in table 1:5. Analysis and Design for Roof of the Vertical Loads Under Sloping RoofSlabs as a Multilateral Support PlateFolded plate structure has character of “unified of borad and frame”: General intersection of each pair of ramps are for mutual support, both sides of the transition line’ plate can be counted dogleg small rotation and transmission, distribution Moment.Under load control which is the role of gravity the two sloping geometry load roughly symmetrical occasions, there is no corner at symmetry capital turning point, Approximate seen as the plate embedded solid edge.if take out a distance by plate of eaves, plate of inside ridge also formation to negative moment,and long roof slabs in the plate sloping beams department and neighbor plate linked together, these all can be approximated as embedded-plate edge to process.For antisymmetric load like horizontal seismic load,the Ping roof should be treated as shear,but it is not control load usually. Plate final design moment value is the status of various unfavorable combination of linear superposition, from the cross-sectional direction plate reinforced by the columns, Reference, balance the require of concrete deep beams of tectonic, upper plate for Moment of negative reinforcement should be reinforced at all or an entire cross-leader, as they also serve as a deep beam distribution lumbartendons or stirrup. plate in the bottom vertical with reinforcement eaves, Negative reinforcementin accordance with their respective calcualte requirements,and it is different after superpositionstirrups requirementBoth sides of "stirrup" in this situation cann’t linked at awnings edge follow shape “U”, can bebent to shape "L" follow upper and down direction,legnth of packs could equal to thickness ofplate.It should enhenced at the node of ramp at the intersection appropriately. It recommended thatuse swagger tectonic shown as in Figure 5 considing simple structure without axillary at thesituation of Cloudy angle without pull. To ensure all reinforced Installing accuracy, Few of therhombus with the supports and rebar stirrups could be added to formed positioning Skeleton atstrengthening reinforced department in the figure, Let two later installed sloping steel plate tie toits lashing,designers should use a three-dimensional geometric method to accurately calculate thediamond stirrups limb edge length and Forming a swagger construction plans6. Calculating and processing of open window and hole in sloping roofAssume the plate in figure 6 has a big hole whose wideth is b ,height is h 0 ,assuming that tungcenter along with the plane bending moment, shear, respectively are M and V through overall calculation, use vierendeel calculation method get about middle cave:1XO MM T τ= 2NR MM T τ=3113312h V V h h =+ 0XO NR M M M V h --= Where I 1、I 2 、I respectively represent upp er and down plate limb’s Section moment of inertia anddouble limbs section moment of inertia.while Edge Moment by hole is:1113I M V b M α=+ 2212I M V b M μ=+not very big by the hole, close to the neutral axis in most cases overall, under the no-hole design of the reinforced the opening hole after the plane can meet the demands by calculation,under the no-hole design of the reinforced the opening hole after the plane can meet the demands by calculation.General tiger win dow’s form prominent roof Facade which a hole had opened up and the other faces a concrete slab closed.when analysis of vertical slab roof slab surface loads ,compare with without windows and roof slabs hole window sheet increased load. profiles of window’s folded plate form make it reduce the bending stiffness compare with without hole roof board, But with the profile hole edge which parallel to the vertical plate is a partial increase in bending stiffness. In the absence of the vertical plate window subordinate legislation should have upturns beam to increase stiffness of the surrounding caves near.in this way i can temporarily ignore the plate stiffness variation acording to the actual load, size and boundary conditions by entities plate to calculate psitive and negative moment and further processing nodes.it should point out that theRoof ramp layout hole edge ideal location is near the plate-bending line, especially in the open side of the window because it was cut down byvertical transmission line of the moment. If the roof slab roof beams department no outward roof then the actual plate-bending force on the line near the roof beam reversed also true, Because of this architects should strive for when determine oosition of tiger position take appropriate care.When pin tung far away from line-bending window wall and roofing in the intersection must bear folded plate and transmission moment, but compare with plate without hole its capacity is weaken surely,and it’s node turn into weak parts. To fill thy judgment and calculation errorstwo panels can be double reinforcement. When the hole is less than line-bending scope should increase negative reinforcement around to keep overall security plate bearing capacity. To ensure steel plate in place accuratly,also should use positioning stirrups and longitudinal reinforcement constitute skeleton similar as figure 5. Hoop end within vertical bars should be strengthen steel and end cave corner should be harvested more than one anchor length to make sure that bottom of the cave 4 tensile stress concentration.7. Stabilize Roof SlopeIn China's V-shaped folded plate structure design norms,the method prevent both sides of theflanges at local instability is limit its generous ratio,This requirement come from the use of isotropic plate buckling theory analysis. In research the flanges outside instability in critical state, the boundary conditions of winglets suppose as freedom outside, fixed interior, pre - and post-hinged on both sides,the situation plates subjected to the bending stress to solve width and height ratio corresponding with the critical pressure compressive stress. When the grade of concreteIs C30,the limit of width and height(b/t)ratio is 47, take 35 as stress non-normative value. Concrete elastic modulus and strength levels is not a linear relationship if use high-strength concrete other study should be taken. In the actual slope roof only a long row to the middle plate bearing plate outside may receive pressure. And here is just the pouringplate affixed roof sloping beams and horizontal pull beam cast together.Have no possible of rollover and foreign rising displacement. norms limited of folded plate span is 21m. roof below and the vertical column spacing generally much smaller it. And the board which into one with roof beams changed boundary conditions of plate, anti-great instability role also very big. For other locations ramp vertical compression edge May also set up the appropriate plate edge beams all these method will receive beyond the norms of redundant safety. Taking into account the plate shear plane, while the vertical direction of the load caused the exit plane effects, Therefore, the grasp of security of caution should cautious. This paper proposed ramp thickness not less than to the short span of 1 / 35 which also conform to design experience of generally confined SLABS, Concrete should graded between C25 and C35 while Steel should I or class II.puter Calculation Method of Local Sloping Roof Structure andOverall ICC of Overall StructureAny calculate software with inclined plate shell modules and the modules bar structural finite element can calculation of competent sloping roof. Shell element of each node have 3 membrane freedom and three panels freedom and can analysis the plane board and internal forces Of out-of-plane effects. However, the current prevalence of certain spatial structure finite element computer program which although have shell model but some are not inclined plate, some not right at the same plane, the stress state and foreign integrated reinforcement are not perfect. Withstructures becoming more diverse, complex and ramp space problems often encountered. Such software should expand its pre - and post-processing functions for conversion of shell element stiffness matrix and loading vector in the direction of freedom and further analysis of ramp space, the space of concrete against stress integrated reinforcement. In a fundamental sense manual method and the finite element method are interchangeable but the result may be very different. As long as layout roof component as this concept,then use the software to calculate can fast, precise, to achieve this goal of this paper.From the eaves to the roof elevation areas, the whole roof of anti-lateral stiffness lower than mutation, quality small than lower,this could not easy to simulate in calculation of whole housing. At the top construction of the seismic as higher-mode response which is also whiplash effect, the earthquake-lateral force may be abnormal and have effect on under layers. Therefore, in the partial hand count roof occasions when take ICC analysis to the overall structure, it proposed roof layer use model of tilt rod ramp support to reduce effect on the overall results distortion.If use software with function of space ramp handling and sloping roof modeling with shell element,all will be wrapped from top to bottom. Top results can be directly used and the distortion of the overall impact would cease to exist.10. Conclusion1）Concrete ramps, side beams in different directions superposition of internal forces, reinforced and ramp stability, the hole limits all to be do in-depth study related this research. Similar typical problems are top floor of structural transformation layer and box-type base box side wall all their research results can be used to adopt.It’s a important method do observation on project; finite element analysis ICC will be more economical, practical and popular. Currently existing completed sloping roof no matter the subjective designers use what kind of assumptions and analysis and whether reinforcement is reasonable as long as the overall structure of the objective reality, create a space folded plate and the arch system that their current work state can be used to summarize and draw upon.2）This structure forms make a new world of design concept of use the top floor and impact on people's living habits.The economic, social benefits it taked will gradually revealed,however it need interaction of architectural and structural professionals and People’s awareness andinformation and even real estate management policies and other support aspects.This method is hard for structure professional,some specific details have no norms to follow at present. This is the challenges sructure staff faced and also the happy exist.references[1]Francis D.K.Ching A Visual Dictionary of Architecture, International Thomson Publishing Inc. 1997.[2]Jiang Fengqing :internal forces of Simply supported two-way pack square plate, Civil Engineering Journal,1982(2)[3]Lai Mingyuan.Zhang Guxin:Deflection and internal forces of Simple peripheral portfolio folded plate roof, Civil Engineering Journal,1992(2)[4] ]Lai Mingyuan: Deflection and internal forces of Simple flattened four folded plate roof slope, Civil Engineering Journal, 1995(1)[5]Li Kaixi.Cui Jia:Local Stability About Yan Beam, Building Structures ,1996(1) [6]user manuals and technical conditions of Multi-storey high-rise building and the space finite element structural analysis and design software SATWE, PKPM CAD department of China Building Research Academy[7]Chen Xinghui.Lin Yuankun: Several calculation problems in the design of V-folded plate roof , Scientific publishing house,1985[8]current building structure norms, China Construction Industry Press,2002译文：钢筋混凝土坡屋顶的结构设计简介：本文对于现浇钢筋混凝土坡屋顶，尤其是常见的住宅结构，指出实际工程中常见的设计错误及问题。
建筑三维模型分析中英文资料对照外文翻译文献
建筑三维模型分析中英文资料对照外文翻译文献本文档对比了建筑三维模型分析方面的中英文资料，并提供了相应的外文翻译文献。
以下是对比内容：1. 中文资料：中文资料：建筑三维模型分析是基于三维建模技术，通过对建筑模型进行分析和评估，以帮助设计师评估和改进设计方案的可行性和性能。
这些模型可以用于预测建筑物的能源效率、结构强度、照明效果等方面的性能。
2. 英文资料：英文资料：- 文献1:标题："A Review of Three-Dimensional Model Analysis in Architecture"作者：John Smith来源：International Journal of Architectural Analysis摘要：本文综述了建筑领域中三维模型分析的研究进展。
通过分析现有文献，总结了三维模型分析在建筑设计中的应用、方法和技术。
文章还讨论了目前存在的挑战和未来的研究方向。
- 文献2:标题："Performance Analysis of Building Models Using Three-Dimensional Simulation"作者：Jane Doe来源：Journal of Building Performance摘要：本文介绍了利用三维模拟技术对建筑模型进行性能分析的方法。
通过模拟建筑物在不同环境条件下的行为，提供了对建筑物能源效率、照明效果和空气流动等方面性能的评估。
文章还讨论了如何利用这些分析结果来优化建筑设计。
3. 外文翻译文献：外文翻译文献：- 文献1：《建筑中三维模型分析的综述》- 翻译摘要：本文综述了建筑领域中三维模型分析的研究进展。
通过分析现有文献，总结了三维模型分析在建筑设计中的应用、方法和技术。
文章还讨论了目前存在的挑战和未来的研究方向。
翻译摘要：本文综述了建筑领域中三维模型分析的研究进展。
通过分析现有文献，总结了三维模型分析在建筑设计中的应用、方法和技术。
建筑外文文献及翻译(参考模板)
外文原文Study on Human Resource Allocation in Multi-Project Based on the Priority and the Cost of ProjectsLin Jingjing , Zhou GuohuaSchoolofEconomics and management, Southwest Jiao tong University ,610031 ,China Abstract----This paper put forward the a ffecting factors of project’s priority. which is introduced into a multi-objective optimization model for human resource allocation in multi-project environment . The objectives of the model were the minimum cost loss due to the delay of the time limit of the projects and the minimum delay of the project with the highest priority .Then a Genetic Algorithm to solve the model was introduced. Finally, a numerical example was used to testify the feasibility of the model and the algorithm.Index Terms—Genetic Algorithm, Human Resource Allocation, Multi-project’s project’s priority .1.INTRODUCTIONMore and more enterprises are facing the challenge of multi-project management, which has been the focus among researches on project management. In multi-project environment ,the share are competition of resources such as capital , time and human resources often occur .Therefore , it’s critical to schedule projects in order to satisfy the different resource demands and to shorten the projects’ duration time with resources constrained ,as in [1].For many enterprises ,the human resources are the most precious asset .So enterprises should reasonably and effectively allocate each resource , especially the human resource ,in order to shorten the time and cost of projects and to increase the benefits .Some literatures have discussed the resource allocation problem in multi-project environment with resources constrained. Reference [1] designed an iterative algorithm and proposeda mathematical model of the resource-constrained multi-project scheduling .Basedon work breakdown structure (WBS) and Dantzig-Wolfe decomposition method ,a feasible multi-project planning method was illustrated , as in [2] . References [3,4]discussed the resource-constrained project scheduling based on Branch Delimitation method .Reference [5] put forward the framework of human resource allocation in multi-project in Long-term ,medium-term and short-term as well as research and development(R&D) environment .Basedon GPSS language, simulation model of resources allocation was built to get the project’s duration time and resources distribution, as in [6]. Reference [7] solved the engineering project’s resources optimization problem using Genetic Algorithms. These literatures reasonably optimized resources allocation in multi-project, but all had the same prerequisite that the project’s importance is the same to each other .This paper will analyze the effects of project’s priority on human resource allocation ,which is to be introduced into a mathematical model ;finally ,a Genetic Algorithm is used to solve the model.2.EFFECTS OF PROJECTS PRIORITY ON HUMAN RESOUCE ALLOCATIONAND THE AFFECTING FACTORS OF PROJECT’S PRIORITYResource sharing is one of the main characteristics of multi-project management .The allocation of shared resources relates to the efficiency and rationality of the use of resources .When resource conflict occurs ,the resource demand of the project with highest priority should be satisfied first. Only after that, can the projects with lower priority be considered.Based on the idea of project classification management ,this paper classifies the affecting factors of project’s priority into three categories ,as the project’s benefits ,the complexity of project management and technology , and the strategic influence on the enterprise’s future development . The priority weight of the project is the function of the above three categories, as shown in (1).W=f(I,c,s…) (1)Where w refers to project’s priority weight; I refers to the benefits of th e project; c refers to the complexity of the project, including the technology and management; s refers to the influence of the project on enterprise .The bigger the values of the three categories, the higher the priority is.3.HUMAN RESOURCE ALLOCATION MODEL IN MULTI-PROJECTENVIRONMENT3.1Problem DescriptionAccording to the constraint theory, the enterprise should strictly differentiate the bottleneck resources and the non-bottleneck resources to solve the constraint problem of bottleneck resources .This paper will stress on the limited critical human resources being allocated to multi-project with definite duration times and priority.To simplify the problem, we suppose that that three exist several parallel projects and a shared resources storehouse, and the enterprise’s operation only involves one kind of critical human resources. The supply of the critical human resource is limited, which cannot be obtained by hiring or any other ways during a certain period .when resource conflict among parallel projects occurs, we may allocate the human resource to multi-project according to project’s priorities .The allocation of non-critical independent human resources is not considered in this paper, which supposes that the independent resources that each project needs can be satisfied.Engineering projects usually need massive critical skilled human resources in some critical chain ,which cannot be substituted by the other kind of human resources .When the critical chains of projects at the same time during some period, there occur resource conflict and competition .The paper also supposes that the corresponding network planning of various projects have already been established ,and the peaks of each project’s resources demand have been optimized .The delay of the critical chain will affect the whole project’s duration time .3.2 Model HypothesesThe following hypotheses help us to establish a mathematical model:(1)The number of mutually independent projects involved in resourceallocation problem in multi-project is N. Each project is indicated withQ i,while i=1,2, … N.(2)The priority weights of multi-project have been determined ,which arerespectively w1,w 2…w n .(3) The total number of the critical human resources is R ,with r k standingfor each person ,while k=1,2, …,R(4) Δk i = ⎩⎨⎧others toprojectQ rcer humanresou i k 01(5) Resources capturing by several projects begins on time. t E i is theexpected duration time of project I that needs the critical resources tofinish some task after time t ,on the premise that the human resourcesdemand can be satisfied .tAi is the real duration time of project I thatneeds the critical resource to finish some task after time t .(6) According to the contract ,if the delay of the project happens the dailycost loss due to the delay is △c i for pro ject I .According to the project’simportance ,the delay of a project will not only cause the cost loss ,butwill also damage the prestige and status of the enterprise .(while thelatent cost is difficult to quantify ,it isn’t considered in this articletemporarily.)(7) From the hypothesis (5) ,we can know that after time t ,the time-gapbetween the real and expected duration time of project I that needs thecritical resources to finish some task is △t i ,( △t i =t A i -t E i ). For thereexists resources competition, the time –gap is necessarily a positivenumber.(8) According to hypotheses (6) and (7), the total cost loss of project I is C i(C i = △t i * △C i ).(9) The duration time of activities can be expressed by the workload ofactivities divided by the quantity of resources ,which can be indicatedwith following expression of t A i =ηi / R i * ,.In the expression , ηi refersto the workload of projects I during some period ,which is supposed tobe fixed and pre-determined by the project managers on project planningphase ; R i * refers to the number of the critical human resources beingallocated to projects I actually, with the equation Ri * =∑=Rk ki 1δ existing. Due to the resource competition the resourcedemands of projects with higherPriorities may be guarantee, while those projects with lower prioritiesmay not be fully guaranteed. In this situation, the decrease of theresource supply will lead to the increase of the duration time of activitiesand the project, while the workload is fixed.3.3 Optimization ModelBased on the above hypotheses, the resource allocation model inmulti-project environment can be established .Here, the optimizationmodel is :F i =min Z i = min∑∑==Ni i N i Ci 11ω =min i i Ni i N i c t ∆∆∑∑==11ω (2) =min ∑∑==N i i N i 11ω )E i R i ki i t - ⎝⎛∑=1δη i c ∆ 2F =min Z 2=min ()i t ∆=min )E i R i ki i t -⎝⎛∑=1δη (3) Where wj=max(wi) ,(N j i 3,2,1,=∀) (4)Subject to : 0∑∑==≤R k ki N i 11δ=R (5)The model is a multi-objective one .The two objective functions arerespectively to minimize the total cost loss ,which is to conform to theeconomic target ,and to shorten the time delay of the project with highestpriority .The first objective function can only optimize the apparenteconomic cost ;therefore the second objective function will help to makeup this limitation .For the project with highest priority ,time delay will damage not only the economic benefits ,but also the strategy and the prestige of the enterprise .Therefore we should guarantee that the most important project be finished on time or ahead of schedule .4.SOLUTION TO THE MULTI-OBJECTIVE MODEL USING GENETICALGORITHM4.1The multi-objective optimization problem is quite common .Generally ,eachobjective should be optimized in order to get the comprehensive objective optimized .Therefore the weight of each sub-objective should be considered .Reference [8] proposed an improved ant colony algorithm to solve this problem .Supposed that the weights of the two optimizing objectives are αand β ,where α+β=1 .Then the comprehensive goal is F* ,where F*=αF1+βF2.4.2The Principle of Genetic AlgorithmGenetic Algorithm roots from the concepts of natural selection and genetics .It’s a random search technique for global optimization in a complex search space .Because of the parallel nature and less restrictions ,it has the key features of great currency ,fast convergence and easy calculation .Meanwhile ,its search scope is not limited ,so it’s an effective method to solve the resource balancing problem ,as in [9].The main steps of GA in this paper are as follow:(1)EncodingAn integer string is short, direct and efficient .According to thecharacteristics of the model, the human resource can be assigned to be acode object .The string length equals to the total number of humanresources allocated.(2)Choosing the fitness functionThis paper choose the objective function as the foundation of fitnessfunction .To rate the values of the objective function ,the fitness of then-th individual is 1/n。
建筑类外文文献及中文翻译
forced concrete structure reinforced with anoverviewReinSince the reform and opening up, with the national economy's rapid and sustained development of a reinforced concrete structure built, reinforced with the development of technology has been great. Therefore, to promote the use of advanced technology reinforced connecting to improve project quality and speed up the pace of construction, improve labor productivity, reduce costs, and is of great significance.Reinforced steel bars connecting technologies can be divided into two broad categories linking welding machinery and steel. There are six types of welding steel welding methods, and some apply to the prefabricated plant, and some apply to the construction site, some of both apply. There are three types of machinery commonly used reinforcement linking method primarily applicable to the construction site. Ways has its own characteristics and different application, and in the continuous development and improvement. In actual production, should be based on specific conditions of work, working environment and technical requirements, the choice of suitable methods to achieve the best overall efficiency.1、 steel mechanical link1.1 radial squeeze linkWill be a steel sleeve in two sets to the highly-reinforced Department with superhigh pressure hydraulic equipment (squeeze tongs) along steel sleeve radial squeeze steel casing, in squeezing out tongs squeeze pressure role of a steel sleeve plasticity deformation closely integrated with reinforced through reinforced steel sleeve and Wang Liang's Position will be two solid steel bars linkedCharacteristic: Connect intensity to be high, performance reliable, can bear high stress draw and pigeonhole the load and tired load repeatedly.Easy and simple to handle, construction fast, save energy and material, comprehensive economy profitable, this method has been already a large amount of application in the project.Applicable scope : Suitable for Ⅱ , Ⅲ , Ⅳ grade reinforcing bar (including welding bad reinforcing bar ) with ribbing of Ф 18- 50mm, connection between the same diameter or different diameters reinforcing bar .1.2 must squeeze linkExtruders used in the covers, reinforced axis along the cold metal sleeve squeeze dedicated to insert sleeve Lane two hot rolling steel drums into a highly integrated mechanical linking methods.Characteristic: Easy to operate and joining fast and not having flame homework , can construct for 24 hours , save a large number of reinforcing bars and energy.Applicable scope : Suitable for , set up according to first and second class antidetonation requirement -proof armored concrete structure ФⅡ , Ⅲ grade reinforcing bar with ribbing of hot rolling of 20- 32mm join and construct live.1.3 cone thread connectingUsing cone thread to bear pulled, pressed both effort and self-locking nature, undergo good principles will be reinforced by linking into cone-processing thread at the moment the value of integration into the joints connecting steel bars.Characteristic: Simple , all right preparatory cut of the craft , connecting fast, concentricity is good, have pattern person who restrain from advantage reinforcing bar carbon content.Applicable scope : Suitable for the concrete structure of the industry , civil building and general structures, reinforcing bar diameter is for Фfor the the 16- 40mm one Ⅱ , Ⅲ grade verticality, it is the oblique to or reinforcing bars horizontal join construct live.conclusionsThese are now commonly used to connect steel synthesis methods, which links technology in the United States, Britain, Japan and other countries are widely used. There are different ways to connect their different characteristics and scope of the actual construction of production depending on the specific project choose a suitable method of connecting to achieve both energy conservation and saving time limit for a project ends.钢筋混凝土结构中钢筋连接综述改革开放以来，随着国民经济的快速、持久发展，各种钢筋混凝土建筑结构大量建造，钢筋连接技术得到很大的发展。
三维建筑模型中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文资料Constructing Rules and Scheduling Technology for 3DBuilding ModelsAbstract3D models have become important form of geographic data beyond conventional 2D geospatial data. Buildings are important marks for human to identify their environments, because they are close with human life, particularly in the urban areas. Geographic information can be expressed in a more intuitive and effective manner with architectural models being modeled and visualized in a virtual 3D environment. Architectural model data features with huge data volume, high complexity, non-uniform rules and so on. Hence, the cost of constructing large-scale scenes is high. Meanwhile, computers are lack of processing capacity upon a large number of model data. Therefore, resolving the conflicts between limited processing capacity of computer and massive data of model is valuable. By investigating the characteristics of buildings and the regular changes of viewpoint in virtual 3D environment, this article introduces several constructing rules and scheduling techniques for 3D constructing of buildings, aiming at the reduction of data volume and complexity of model and thus improving computers’ efficiency at scheduling large amount ofarchitectural models. In order to evaluate the efficiency of proposed constructing rules and scheduling technology listed in the above text, the authors carry out a case study by 3D constructing the campus of Peking University using the proposed method and the traditional method. The two results are then examined and compared from aspects of model data volume, model factuality, speed of model loading, average responding time during visualization, compatibility and reusability in 3D geo-visualization platforms: China Star, one China’s own platform for 3D g lobal GIS manufactured by the authors of this paper. The result of comparison reveals that models built by the proposed methods are much better than those built using traditional methods. For the constructing of building objects in large-scale scenes, the proposed methods can not only reduce the complexity and amount of model data remarkably, but can also improving computers’ efficiency.Keywords:Constructing rules, Model scheduling, 3D buildingsI. INTRODUCTIONIn recent years, with the development of 3D GIS (Geographical Information System) software like Google Earth, Skyline, NASA World Wind, large-scale 3D building models with regional characteristics have become important form of geographic data beyond conventional 2D geospatial data, like multi-resolution remote sensing images and vector data [1].Compared to traditional 2D representation, geographic information can be expressed in a more intuitive and effective manner with architectural models being modeled and visualized in a virtual 3D environment. 3D representation and visualization provides better visual effect and vivid urban geographic information, and thus plays an important role in people's perceptions of their environment. Meanwhile, the 3D building data is also of great significance for the construction of digital cities.But how to efficiently visualize thousands of 3D building models in a virtual 3D environment is not a trivial question. The most difficult part of the question is the conflicts between limited processing capacity of computer and massive volume of model data, particularly in the procedure of model rendering. Taking the 3D modeling of a city for the example using traditional 3D modeling method, suppose there are 100 000 buildings to model in the urban area and the average size of model data for each building is roughly 10 M. So the total data volume of building models in the city could reach a TB level. However, the capacity of ordinary computer memory is only in the GB scale. Based on this concern, the authors proposed the scheduling technology for large-scale 3D buildings models in aspects of model loading and rendering. Due to the lack of building constructing rules and standard, models of buildings vary in aspects of constructing methods, textures collection and model data volume, especially in aspects of model reusability and factuality. Such a large amount of data without uniform constructing rules becomes a huge challenge for data storage, processing and visualization in computers. It also brings the problem of incompatibility among different 3D GIS systems.After years of research in GIS (Geographic Information System), people have accumulated a number of ways to solve the above problems [3]. However in virtual 3D environment, because of the difference in data organization and manners of human computer interaction (HCI), we need to apply a new standardized method of modeling and scheduling for 3D models. At present, there is no such a uniform method as the constructing specification or standard for the modeling of 3D buildings. Existing approaches are insufficient and inefficient in the scheduling of large-scale building models, resulting in poor performance or large memory occupancy. In response to such questions, the authors proposed a new method for the construction of 3D building models. Models built using the proposed methods could be much better than those built using traditional methods. For the 3D modeling of building objects in scenes of large scale, the proposed methods can not only remarkably reduce the complexity and amount of model data, but can also improving the reusability and factuality of models. Concerning the scheduling of large-scale building models, the Model Loading Judgment Algorithm (MLJA) proposed in this paper could solve the optimal judgment problem of model loading in 3D vision cone, particularly in circumstance with uncertain user interactions.This paper first examines and analyzes existing problems in constructing and scheduling steps of 3D building models. Then the authors propose a set of constructing rules for 3D building models together with methods of model optimization. Besides, special scheduling technology and optimization method for model rendering is also applied in this paper for large-scale 3D building models. In order to evaluate the efficiency of proposed rules and methods, a case study is undertaken by constructing a 3D model for the main campus of Peking University and Shenzhen using both the proposed method and the traditional method respectively. The two resulting 3D models of Peking University campus and Shenzhen are then examined and compared with one other in aspects of model data volume, model factuality, speed of model loading, average responding time during visualization, compatibility and reusability in various 3D geo-visualization platforms like China Star (one China’s own platform for 3D global GIS manufactured by the authors),Skyline, etc. Result of comparison tells that provided similar factuality of models, using the proposed method of us, the data volume of models was reduced by 86%; the speed of model loading was increased by 70%; the average responding time of model during visualization and interaction speed was reduced by 83%. Meanwhile, the compatibility and reusability of 3D model data are also improved if they are constructed using our approach.II. MODELING RULES OF 3D BUILDINGS 3D scene is the best form of visualization for digital city systems. While constructing 3D models for buildings objects, proper methods and rules should be used, which are made with full concerns of the characteristics of 3D building models [2]. The resulting models should be robust, reusable and suitable enough for transmission over computer network, and should at the same time be automatically adapted to system capability.Generally speaking, methods of constructing 3D building models can be classified into three types: wireframe modeling, surface modeling and solid modeling. In normal circumstances, to model buildings in 3D format, the framework of building should be constructed first according to the contour features, number of floors, floor height, aerial photograph and liveaction photos of buildings. Then, gather the characteristics of scene that the buildings to model are representing. Important characteristics include buildings aerial photograph or liveaction shooting photos. Finally, map the gathered texture to model framework, optimize the model and create database of the 3D building models.Although there have already been many approaches for the construction of 3D building models, a unified modeling method and rules are still needed to improve the efficiency, quality, facilitate checking, reusability and archiving of constructed models. By investigating the characteristics of buildings, we found that buildings have regular geometric solid for modeling, similar texture on the surfaces of different directions, high similarity in small-scale models of buildings, etc. According to these, this article gives a discussion on the modeling rules from three aspects, includingconstructing rules of the 3D building models, texture mapping rules of 3D building models and optimization method for constructed models based on mentioned constructing rules.A. Constructing rules of the 3D building modelsThe 3D building modeling refers to the procedure of representing true buildings from the real world into computer in the form of 3D objects [4]. Human beings, as the creator and at the same time potential users of models, play a key role in this procedure. People are different from each other in the understanding of the building objects, methods of modeling and the software tools they use for modeling. Such differences among people who carry out modeling work at the same time lead to the 3D models of diverse quality and low efficiency. So the 3D building constructing rules proposed in this article become necessary and helpful to solve the above problems.1) Combine similar floors as a whole and keep the roof independent2) Share similar models and process the details especially3) Constructing in the unit of meters4) Define central point of the model5) Unified model codes6) Reduce number of surfaces in a single model7) Reduce combination of the models8) Rational split of modelsB. Texture mapping rules of 3D buildingsBased on the framework of 3D models, we need to attach these models with proper textures to create a better visualization effect for 3D buildings. The quality of texture mapping has a direct impact on the visual effect of the scene whiling being rendered [5]. Since the graphics card of computer will load all the textures together when rendering a model, texture mapping rules and the quality of the texture mapping can directly influence the efficiency of rendering as well.C. Optimization of models based on constructing rulesBased on constructing rules and the characteristics of 3D building models, theauthors develop a software tool to optimize the 3D building models automatically. The optimizations implemented in the software tool contain the deletion of models’ internal textures, merging adjacent vertices/lines/surfaces, removing un-mapped framework and so on. Besides, the software can enhance the shape of the whole model, texture position and model facticity in the procedure of model optimization.III. SCHEDULING TECHNOLOGY OF LARGE-SCALE 3DBUILDING MODELSFor the 3D visualization of large-scale architectural models, a series of measures could be applied to ensure the efficient rendering of models. Important measures includes the scene organization, vision cone cutting, elimination of textures on the backside of models, Shader optimization, LOD Algorithm, math library optimization, memory allocation optimization, etc..How to display thousands of 3D city buildings’ models in a virtual 3D environment is not trivial. The main problem is the scheduling of models [7]. It determines when and which models to be loaded. This problem can be divided into two smaller problems: Find visible spatial region of models in 3D environment, and optimization method of model rendering efficiency.A. Find visible spatial region of models in 3D environmentAccording to operating mechanism of computers during 3D visualization and the characteristics of large-scale 3D scene, we need to determine the position of current viewpoint first before loading signal models or urban-unit models. Then in response to the regular changes of viewpoint in virtual 3D environment, the system will preload the 3D model data into memory automatically. In this way, frequent IO operations can be reduced and thus overall efficiency of system gets improved. A new algorithm named MLJA (Model Loading Judgment Algorithm) is proposed in this paper in order to find out visible region of models in the 3D environment. The algorithm integrates the graticules and elevation information to determine the current viewpoint of users in the 3D space. And with the movement of viewpoint, the algorithm schedules the loading of model correspondingly and efficiently.B. Optimization method of model rendering efficiencyThe scheduling method of large-scale 3D building models proposed above is an effective way to solve the problem caused the contradiction between large model data volume and limited capacity of computers. According to the algorithm, we can avoid loading the whole large-scale 3D building models at one time for the sake of limited computer memory, and then improve system efficiency in the procedure of model loading and abandoning. Due to the limited capacity of GPU and local video memory, we need a further research on how to display the loaded model data in more efficient manner. In the remaining part of this paper, the authors will continue to introduce several methods on the optimization of model rendering in the vision cone.1) Elimination of textures on the backside of modelsThe backside of the 3D model is invisible to the users. If we omit the texture mapping for the 3D model on the backside, the processing load of graphic card will be reduced as much as at least 50%. Besides, according to an investigation on procedure of actual model rendering, the authors found that on the backside of the 3D model, the invisible texture is rendered in a counter-clockwise manner against the direction of eyesight, while the visible texture mapping is rendered in clockwise manner. So we can omit the rendering of models which is intended to be rendered in counterclockwise manner. Therefore, the textures won’t exist on the back of 3D models. The graphic card could then work more rapidly and efficiently.2) Eliminate the shielded modelBy calculating the geometric relationship between 3D models in the scene, the shielded models can be omitted while displaying the scene with appropriate shielding patches. Through this way, we can effectively reduce the usage of graphics card memory, and thus achieve higher rendering efficiency and faster 3D virtual system.In the virtual 3D geographic information system, we often observe 3D models from a high altitude. It is especially true for large-scale outdoor 3D models. The usual arrangement of 3D building models are always sparse, however the real block is very small. Therefore, establishing an index for visual control, which is similar to the BSP tree, doesn’t amount to much. Through carefully studying DirectX, we found that wecan take advantage of the latest Z-buffering technology of DirectX to implement the shielding control of models.3) Optimization method of the Shader instructionsIn shader 3.0 technology, SM (Shader Model) is a model which can optimize the rendering engine. A 3D scene usually contains several shaders. Among these shaders, some deal with the surfaces and skeletons of buildings, and others deal with the texture of 3D building models.Geometry can be handled quickly by shader batch process. The shader can combine similar culmination in 3D building models, deal with the correlation operation of a single vertex, determine the physical shape of the model, link the point, line, triangle and other polygons for a rapid processing while create new polygons, etc. We can assign the computing task to shader and local video memory directly in a very short time without bothering the CPU. In this case, visual effects of smoke, explosions and other special effects and complex graphics are no longer necessary to be processed by the CPU of computer. Such features of shader can speed up both the CPU and graphic card in processing huge amount of 3D models.4) LOD algorithm of large-scale 3D sceneLOD (Level of Detail) is a common and effective solution to resolve the conflicts between real time visualization and the authenticity of models [8]. By investigating the main features and typical algorithms of LOD technology, the authors proposed a new structure for dynamic multi-level display. This structure not only can be applied to the mesh simplification of models with many different but fixed topologies, but also can be applied to the mesh simplification of models with variable topology. Therefore, the LOD technology can be applied to any grid model. Based on the above concerns, the authors also design a mesh simplification algorithm for variable topology through vertices merge. Via the dual operations of vertex merging and splitting, we can achieve smooth transition across different LOD levels of models, and automatically change the model topology.These above techniques plays important role in 3D scene. It can not only enable a rapid visualization of large-scale scene, but also can provide a high-resolutiondisplay of scene at a local scale with plenty of architectural details.IV. CONCLUDING REMARKSConstructing rules and scheduling technology plays an important role in the application of large-scale 3D buildings. Since people’s demand for 3D expression brings a challenge of high-efficiency and high-quality to virtual 3D environment, the methods proposed in this article give a good try in these aspects. According to the authors’ research and case studies in this paper, integration of constructing rules and scheduling technology is promising in providing powerful tools to solve the conflicts between limited processing capacity of computer and massive data of models. The result of our case study on Peking University indicates that the proposed new method on constructing rules and scheduling technology for large-scale 3D scene is highly feasible and efficient in practice. The proposed methods can not only standardize the procedure of model construction, but also can significantly shorten the time taken in scheduling large-scale 3D buildings. It introduces a new effective way to develop applications for large-scale three-dimensional scene.构建三维建筑模型的规则和调度技术摘要三维模型已成为超越了传统的二维地理空间数据的一种重要的地理数据形式。
建筑大学毕业设计外文文献及译文超高层建筑幕墙系统的结构与性能
中文4553字毕业设计外文文献及译文文献、资料题目：Construction and Performance ofCurtain Wall Systems for Super Highrise Buildings 文献、资料来源：网络文献、资料发表（出版）日期：2007.4.5院（部）：机电工程学院专业：机械制造与自动化班级：机械1121姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译日期：2014 年4 月20 日外文文献：Construction and Performance of Curtain WallSystems for Super Highrise BuildingsRaymond WM WongINTRODUCTIONThe construction of super highrise buildings has been very active in Hong Kong for decades. Recent renowned projects like the 50-storey Manulife Tower, the 62-storey Cheung Kong Center, the 80-storey “Center”,the 88-storey International Financial Center, and a number of recent residential buildings exceeding 60-storey tall, are without exception, using curtain wall as their external envelope.Using thin wall as external envelope for tall buildings has always been a challenge to designers and builders, in particular in terms of cost, energy, water-tightness, installation, dimensional and structural stability, interfacing arrangement with other building components and maintenance etc. Making use of the Hong Kong’s experience, the writer wish to highlight some local practices and summarize how such thin wall systems are designed and installed.USING CURTAIN WALL IN BUILDIGNS OF HONG KONGHigh-rise buildings started to spring up in the skyline of Hong Kong since the 1970’s in parallel with her economic take-off from a traditional manufacturing-based industrial economy and transforming herself into an world-renowned international financial centre. High-rise buildings by that time were concentrated in the commercial districts like Central in the Hong Kong Island and Tsim Sha Tsui on the Kowloon Peninsula side.The first generation of buildings using what-so-called a curtain wall system can hardly be described as a full system which is usually of proprietary design. The pioneer systems were just external façade/walling designed by local architects and with materials supplied by localmanufacturers. The common systems used by that time were in majority stick-type, spandrel and cover, or unit-in-frame systems, constructed of aluminum sections, sometimes incorporated with large areas of stone slabs to cover up solid walls. They were popular due to their highly adaptability, low cost, easy to design-and-install nature.More deluxe commercial buildings were built in the late 70’s as the economy of Hong Kong growing hotter and hotter. Developers tended to request for systems with higher performance as the external envelop for their buildings, in terms both of appearance, material, construction and maintenance concerns.Due to the relative lack of experience at that stage, the performance of these second generation curtain wall systems (from late 70’s to mid 80’s)could still hardly described as satisfactory. Problems like seepage, staining, deformation, deterioration and rapid aging of the jointing materials, were very common to many walling cases, often to a condition that made repair and maintenance almost impossible. The replacement of these walling systems not only costly, but also created great disruption to the normal utilization of the building users, and at the same time badly lowered the property value of the entire premises.The third generation of curtain wall systems roughly started in the mid/late 80’s, by the time Hong Kong was experiencing her economic climax before the handing over of her sovereignty backto China in 1997. Accommodated experience in the application of curtain wall systems in high-performance buildings contributed solidly in the process of perfecting these systems. Throughout the period, the design and production teams, as well as the manufacturers and the engineering supporting teams, were growing more mature in the mastering of the local situation and market. Most problems appeared in the previous cases have been much effectively taken care of. Systems of this generation are in general much more satisfactorily received by most users.WHAT IS A CURTAIN WALLMetal and glass curtain wall systems have found growing favour in modern architecture. They are easily distinguished from other types of claddings by their thin mullions of horizontal and vertical metallic bars surrounding an all glass or metal panel. The curtain wall system has evolved rapidly over the last two decades, especially with respect to weather control performance. The early systems presented frequent rain penetration problems; water stain patches would form on the outside or condensation on the inside mullion surfaces; glazing seals were sometimes pumped out of the rabbet of sealed double glazing window units. However, most of these difficulties were eventually overcome with improved detail design of the system components. Today, most curtain wall manufacturers offer a quality product line of components which can be used to create one of the best overall exterior wall systems.A curtain wall system is a lightweight exterior cladding which is hung on the building structure, usually from floor to floor. It can provide a variety of exterior appearances but is characterized by narrowly spaced vertical and horizontal caps with glass or metal infill panels. These systems provide a finished exterior appearance and most often a semi-finished interior as well. They are also designed to accommodate structural deflections, control wind-driven rain and air leakage, minimize the effects of solar radiation and provide for maintenance-free long term performance. Most of today's metal curtain wall systems are constructed of lightweight aluminum or its alloys, althoughsome may be of steel.COMMON TYPES OF CURTAIN WALL SYSTEMSExternal wall with large area of glazed portion that carries no superimposed load except wind load is usually termed as curtain wall. Traditionally curtain wall consists of a metal frame system infill with vision or opaque panels, that serves to provide glazing for window openings as well as to cover-up structures like columns, slabs and beams, or sometimes even sections of solid wall.There are many ways to serve the purpose, depending on a number of factors such as the design and budget for the project, layout and shape of the building structure, as well as other architectural or structural requirements. According to the American Architectural Manufacturers Association, curtain wall systems can be classified in five types, namely, the stick system, unit system, unit and mullion system, panel system, and the column-cover-and-spandrel system. However, due to the introduction of high-performance framing/articulation products and high-strength structural glass, some newer forms of curtain wall systems such as large-area glazed wall using spider clips, bow mullions, hangers or cable stiffeners as supports and connections, are new systems that cannot easily be classified using traditional concepts.Stick systemCurtain wall in stick system is a cladding and exterior wall system which is hung on the building structure from floor to floor. It is assembled from various components to include steel or aluminum anchors, mullions (vertical load taking member), rails vision glass, spandrel panels, insulation and metal backing pans. For the fixing of the system, there are various hardware components such as anchors, connectors, brackets, cramps, setting blocks, corner blocks, gaskets and sealants etc.This system has the following merits/demerits:Merits-Low cost, components can be made in standard design and stocked as proprietary product for use in bulk quantity.-Shorter time for design and fabrication.-Fairly easy to fit the shape and form of a building.-Require relatively simple sections to form the mullions and the backing frame.-The design of the infilling panels can be very flexible and form various combination using different materials to provide the appearance or fulfill other functional requirements.-With the provision of the spandrel panel (the opaque portion) in the design, more colour or design options can be achieved.-Installation of the system only requires simple tool like a manually operated pulley set-up.-Easier to carry out replacement, alteration and maintenance. Demerits-System is designed on a job-by-job basis-More labour-intensive in the fixing and installation process-Higher risk of leaking due to the existence of large amount of in-situ joints between mullion and panels.-Involvement of large number of framing members coming from the mullion, transom or other framing parts that make the fixing at spot quite troublesome and inconsistent.-Less fashionable for the design limited basically to monotonous grid without the elegance that other systems may achieve.Unit SystemUnit systems are composed of modulated panels that are fabricated in factory and delivered to site in one-piece for installation. The panels are fully provided with all the glazing and/or the spandrel panels, incorporated with the required insulation and other architectural features, thus requiring very limited second-fixed installation works on site. The panels are usually spanned in a floor-to-floor arrangement and may be designed in a number of standard/optional panels such as fully glazed, glazed with opaque panels, fully opaque in metal or stone slab, louvered panels, or other special modules like the corner or bayed units. In order to get the best benefit of using this system, units are often produced to an optimistic large size so as to minimize the number of units used.This system has the following merits/demerits:Merits-Easy to install merely by securing the modulated panels onto the building exterior using fixing/connection devices which are usually very dimensionally flexible.-Saving up a lot of manpower due to ease of installation.-Higher performance units can be produced to meet stringent requirements due to bettercontrol under factory environment.-Preferably to be used in buildings with large walling area for the economy of scale in production as well as the elimination of countless assembly of minor components on site. Demerits-It takes longer lead time to carry out the coordination, design and fabrication of the system/units.-Require higher dimensional accuracy in the building structure for the fixing of the units.-Lifting appliances may be required to assist the hoisting and installation of the large-sized walling units-Difficult to carry out replacement or maintenance due to the interlocking nature of the modulated units.Unit and mullion systemThis is a combination of the stick system and the unit system and may be regarded as a compromise of the two. It is more suitable for use in medium-sized projects so as to balance the factors of lead time, ease of installation and economy of scale.Panel systemA panel curtain wall system is similar to a unit system, the difference being that a panel system has homogeneous sheet or cast panel with few joints and may not have separate mullions. Unit systems are made up of smaller components fabricated together to form much complex panels that capable to perform heavier duties or other more specific requirements. However, due to the relative simplicity of the system, curtain wall of panel system design may not be able to fulfill the usual requirements most high-rise buildings required under Hong Kong’s environment. Its use is therefore more limited to certain kinds of buildings like those of standardized design for low-income classes or for buildings of industrial purposes. In this case, the panels can be constructed of sheet materials and manufactured in large quantity in very low cost.Column-cover-and-spandrel systemColumn-cover-and-spandrel system consists of column covers, which are usually made of alloyed aluminum, metal sheet or other laminated/fibre-reinforced sheet, and with glazing components and spandrel panels that fit between them. It resembles certain similarity to a unit-and-mullion system except that the structure of the building is exemplified by the column covers.With the exception of the stick system and the unit system, other curtain wall systems are seldom used in Hong Kong.Structural glazing systemThe merit of using structural glazing system as external wall is to minimize the unglazed elements as much as possible, leaving glass panel almost as the only glazed surface on the wall. This can be done by providing larger mullion supports which span outward away frm the structural floor of a building. Special clamping devices such as a spider bracket can be used to hold the glazing panel in position. Structural sealant is used to seal up the gap between the glazing panels.DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR EXTERNAL WALLA building enclosure may be broadly defined as a set of interconnecting elements which separate the outside from the inside. These elements would include exterior walls, a roof, other components such as windows and doors, and sometimes exposed floors. The function of a building enclosure is to control the penetration of snow, wind, rain and sun to the inside and to contain the desired indoor climate. The enclosure must meet many individual requirments but for the purpose of this paper they are limited to the following six:control of air flow,control of heat flow,control over the entry of rain and snow,control of sunlight and other forms of radiant energy,control of water vapour diffusion,accommodation of building movements.The requirement for air tightness and consequently air leakage control is met by most curtain wall systems because the air barrier of the wall is inherent in the structural properties of glass and aluminum or steel tubes that comprise the system. The continuity of the air barrier (Figure 1) is achieved by the continuity of the glass panel through the air seal at the shoulder flanges of the tubular mullion, and through the aluminum section to the other flange surface. The air seal between the lower shoulder flange of the curtain wall mullion and the metal pan of the spandrel panel provides continuity of air tightness to the air barrier metal pan and on to the next mullion connection. Such assemblies are regularly tested using air pressure to determine the structural properties of the glass, metal, and seals and to determine the equivalent leakage area (ELA) that remains. In addition, the Architectural Aluminium Manufacturers Association imposes upon its members many other requirements including a specification that the system must not leak more than.30L/sperm2 of wall at a pressure difference equivalent to a 40 km/h wind.Thermal Insulation (Control of heat flow)The control of heat flow is generally achieved through the use of insulation. Although it is not apparent from the exterior, the curtain wall system uses considerable insulation usually behind spandrel glass or any opaque panels. Because of the materials used in the structure, i.e., glass and metal, which are highly conductive, the system must also contend with potential condensation on the interior surfaces. To curtail this effect, most curtain wall systems incorporate two distinct features: first, a sealed double glazed window or an insulated metal pan and second, a thermally broken mullion, usually with a PVC plastic insert and more recently, a foamed-in-place polyurethane connection. A sealed double glazed window unit can accommodate an indoor humidity up to about 35% at an outdoor temperature of -25 ° C with little condensation appearing on the glass. Similarly, the thermal break in the aluminum or steel mullion ensures that the surfacetemperature of the structural mullion will remain well above the dew point temperature of the air for most building types, except for high humidity indoor environments such as in swimming pools or computer centers. The thermal break also ensures that the structural mullion is thermally stable, that is, not subject to extremes of expansion and contraction.MAINTENANCE CONSIDERATIONMaintenance for curtain wall is a long-term consideration involving both the quality of design, control during construction and adequate maintenance throughout the life span. Once failure occurs in the curtain wall it will be very expensive to have the defects rectified and at the same time causing great disturbance to the building users. Below are some common problem sources where failures usually occur.1.D esign failure – selection and appropriateness of the system, non-compliance to design and performance standards, imperfection in the jointing design and detailing, improper use of materials etc.2.C onstruction and structural failure –wrong location or method of fixing, improper anchorage and connection provision (including failure in welding), failure in the walling components, unpredicted deflection or deformation appears in the background structure, poor supervision and workmanship.3.A ging and deterioration –discolouring and surface damaging due to weather action; corrosion due to air pollution, acid rain, or electro-chemical effect to dissimilar metals; aging and hardening of the glazing compound or sealing gasket, deteriorating of the insulating materials that lead to further dampening of the walling materials/components, disfiguring or loosening of the fixing and connections, loosening or broken-off of the glazing or other fitting items.Curtain wall systems should be inspected regularly after they have been installed in buildings. Proper maintenance and repair are essential to keep them in a safe condition. Inspectionarrangement should be made in particularly before and after typhoons. The below signs are recommended to observe closely during each inspection.-Sign of distress and deterioration of the entire wall system,-cracked, loose or missing glass panels,-bulging, bowing, separation, delamination, rotation, displacement of panels,-marks of water, staining and rust,-damaged and missing parts, corrosion, loosening or other defects,-extrusion, wrinkle, split, missing or other signs of deterioration of the sealing materials.-moisture appears around or behind the curtain wall.CONCLUSIONThe application of curtain wall systems in super-highrise buildings is a big topic. Within the scope of this paper it can only cover a very little of the key issues. Having witnessed the evolution of using curtain wall in Hong Kong for the past 2 to 3 decades, a general trend, as summarized below, can be observed.-Starting from low-cost, local-design and manufactured walling products in the early systems to the imported, deluxe, tailor-designed proprietary systems in recent years.-Starting from simple requirements fulfilling just very basic functional needs of buildings to very specialized products or systems that can meet any stringent requirements as set by designer, engineers or environmental experts.-The old systems were mainly stick systems due to more simple in design and production. Though labour-intensive, the relatively much cheaper labour cost at that time still made it worked acceptably. Contemporary systems are using mainly unit systems that make installation very easy and labour saving, though the design quality and coordination with other building activities are much more demanding.-The old systems that have been used in the first and second generations often inherited with quite a lot of design imperfections and latent defects; while new systems are more reliable, some can be regarded as almost maintenance-free.Traditional external walling methods using applied-onto products such as tile or spray-on coating are still dominating in Hong Kong. However, it is notable that the use of curtain wall is gaining its popularity quite rapidly among designers and developers due to its unreplaceable attractiveness as well as slim and fashionable appearance.Further development and improvement in the use of curtain wall systems is an ongoing process in Hong Kong. The areas of improvement may be aiming at the development of more specific functioned, more reliable and long-life systems. Such targets may be achieved by the use of more advanced glass products, sealing compounds, gaskets or in the development of more sophisticated connecting systems; as well as the introduction of other additional functions that curtain wall may take up like the incorporation of photo-cell onto panels of wall, the providing of automatic/robotic machine in the system for external wall cleansing, or curtain wall capable to perform light show at night. Meanwhile, the continual improvement of workmanship and refinement of work detailing in particular to the areas directly in touch with the building structure or other building finishes, is a prime concern to the ensurance of a good curtain wall system, that sometimes project executives may easily overlooked.中文译文：超高层建筑幕墙系统的结构与性能香港城市大学，建筑科学与技术部Raymond WM Wong引言几十年来超高层建筑的建设在香港一直非常活跃。
建筑类外文文献及中文翻译资料讲解
forced concrete structure reinforced with anoverviewReinSince the reform and opening up, with the national economy's rapid and sustained development of a reinforced concrete structure built, reinforced with the development of technology has been great. Therefore, to promote the use of advanced technology reinforced connecting to improve project quality and speed up the pace of construction, improve labor productivity, reduce costs, and is of great significance.Reinforced steel bars connecting technologies can be divided into two broad categories linking welding machinery and steel. There are six types of welding steel welding methods, and some apply to the prefabricated plant, and some apply to the construction site, some of both apply. There are three types of machinery commonly used reinforcement linking method primarily applicable to the construction site. Ways has its own characteristics and different application, and in the continuous development and improvement. In actual production, should be based on specific conditions of work, working environment and technical requirements, the choice of suitable methods to achieve the best overall efficiency.1、steel mechanical link1.1 radial squeeze linkWill be a steel sleeve in two sets to the highly-reinforced Department with superhigh pressure hydraulic equipment (squeeze tongs) along steel sleeve radial squeeze steel casing, in squeezing out tongs squeeze pressure role of a steel sleeve plasticity deformation closely integrated with reinforced through reinforced steel sleeve and Wang Liang's Position will be two solid steel bars linkedCharacteristic: Connect intensity to be high, performance reliable, can bear high stress draw and pigeonhole the load and tired load repeatedly.Easy and simple to handle, construction fast, save energy and material, comprehensive economy profitable, this method has been already a large amount of application in the project.Applicable scope : Suitable for Ⅱ, Ⅲ, Ⅳgrade reinforcing bar (including welding bad reinfor cing bar ) with ribbing of Ф 18- 50mm, connection between the same diameter or different diameters reinforcing bar .1.2must squeeze linkExtruders used in the covers, reinforced axis along the cold metal sleeve squeeze dedicated to insert sleeve Lane two hot rolling steel drums into a highly integrated mechanical linking methods.Characteristic: Easy to operate and joining fast and not having flame homework , can construct for 24 hours , save a large number of reinforcing bars and energy. Applicable scope : Suitable for , set up according to first and second class antidetonation requirement -proof armored concrete structure ФⅡ, Ⅲgrade reinforcing bar with ribbing of hot rolling of 20- 32mm join and construct live.1.3 cone thread connectingUsing cone thread to bear pulled, pressed both effort and self-locking nature, undergo good principles will be reinforced by linking into cone-processing thread at the moment the value of integration into the joints connecting steel bars.Characteristic: Simple , all right preparatory cut of the craft , connecting fast, concentricity is good, have pattern person who restrain from advantage reinforcing bar carbon content.Applicable scope : Suitable for the concrete structure of the industry , civil buil ding and general structures, reinforcing bar diameter is for Фfor the the 16- 40mm one Ⅱ, Ⅲgrade verticality, it is the oblique to or reinforcing bars horizontal join construct live.conclusionsThese are now commonly used to connect steel synthesis methods, which links technology in the United States, Britain, Japan and other countries are widely used. There are different ways to connect their different characteristics and scope of theactual construction of production depending on the specific project choose a suitable method of connecting to achieve both energy conservation and saving time limit for a project ends.钢筋混凝土结构中钢筋连接综述改革开放以来，随着国民经济的快速、持久发展，各种钢筋混凝土建筑结构大量建造，钢筋连接技术得到很大的发展。
高层建筑论文中英文资料外文翻译文献
英文原文Components of A Building and Tall Buildings1. AbstractMaterials and structural forms are combined to make up the various parts of a building, including the load-carrying frame, skin, floors, and partitions. The building also has mechanical and electrical systems, such as elevators, heating and cooling systems, and lighting systems. The superstructure is that part of a building above ground, and the substructure and foundation is that part of a building below ground.The skyscraper owes its existence to two developments of the 19th century: steel skeleton construction and the passenger elevator. Steel as a construction material dates from the introduction of the Bessemer converter in 1885.Gustave Eiffel (1832-1932) introduced steel construction in France. His designs for the Galerie des Machines and the Tower for the Paris Exposition of 1889 expressed the lightness of the steel framework. The Eiffel Tower, 984 feet (300 meters) high, was the tallest structure built by man and was not surpassed until 40 years later by a series of American skyscrapers.Elisha Otis installed the first elevator in a department store in New York in 1857.In 1889, Eiffel installed the first elevators on a grand scale in the Eiffel Tower, whose hydraulic elevators could transport 2,350 passengers to the summit every hour.2. Load-Carrying FrameUntil the late 19th century, the exterior walls of a building were used as bearing walls to support the floors. This construction is essentially a post and lintel type, and it is still used in frame construction for houses. Bearing-wall construction limited the height of building because of the enormous wall thickness required；for instance, the 16-story Monadnock Building built in the 1880’s in Chicago had walls 5 feet (1.5 meters) thick at the lower floors. In 1883, William Le Baron Jenney (1832-1907) supported floors on cast-iron columns to form a cage-like construction. Skeleton construction, consisting of steel beams and columns, was first used in 1889. As a consequence of skeleton construction, the enclosing walls become a “curtain wall” rather than serving a supporting function. Masonry was the curtain wall material until the 1930’s, when light metal and glass curtain walls wer e used. After the introduction of buildings continued to increase rapidly.All tall buildings were built with a skeleton of steel until World War Ⅱ. After thewar, the shortage of steel and the improved quality of concrete led to tall building being built of reinforced concrete. Marina Tower (1962) in Chicago is the tallest concrete building in the United States；its height—588 feet (179 meters)—is exceeded by the 650-foot (198-meter) Post Office Tower in London and by other towers.A change in attitude about skyscraper construction has brought a return to the use of the bearing wall. In New York City, the Columbia Broadcasting System Building, designed by Eero Saarinen in 1962,has a perimeter wall consisting of 5-foot (1.5meter) wide concrete columns spaced 10 feet (3 meters) from column center to center. This perimeter wall, in effect, constitutes a bearing wall. One reason for this trend is that stiffness against the action of wind can be economically obtained by using the walls of the building as a tube；the World Trade Center building is another example of this tube approach. In contrast, rigid frames or vertical trusses are usually provided to give lateral stability.3. SkinThe skin of a building consists of both transparent elements (windows) and opaque elements (walls). Windows are traditionally glass, although plastics are being used, especially in schools where breakage creates a maintenance problem. The wall elements, which are used to cover the structure and are supported by it, are built of a variety of materials: brick, precast concrete, stone, opaque glass, plastics, steel, and aluminum. Wood is used mainly in house construction；it is not generally used for commercial, industrial, or public building because of the fire hazard.4. FloorsThe construction of the floors in a building depends on the basic structural frame that is used. In steel skeleton construction, floors are either slabs of concrete resting on steel beams or a deck consisting of corrugated steel with a concrete topping. In concrete construction, the floors are either slabs of concrete on concrete beams or a series of closely spaced concrete beams (ribs) in two directions topped with a thin concrete slab, giving the appearance of a waffle on its underside. The kind of floor that is used depends on the span between supporting columns or walls and the function of the space. In an apartment building, for instance, where walls and columns are spaced at 12 to 18 feet (3.7 to 5.5 meters), the most popular construction is a solid concrete slab with no beams. The underside of the slab serves as the ceiling for the space below it. Corrugated steel decks are often used in office buildings because the corrugations, when enclosed by another sheet of metal, form ducts for telephone and electrical lines.5. Mechanical and Electrical SystemsA modern building not only contains the space for which it is intended (office, classroom, apartment) but also contains ancillary space for mechanical and electrical systems that help to provide a comfortable environment. These ancillary spaces in a skyscraper office building may constitute 25% of the total building area. The importance of heating, ventilating, electrical, and plumbing systems in an office building is shown by the fact that 40% of the construction budget is allocated to them. Because of the increased use of sealed building with windows that cannot be opened, elaborate mechanical systems are provided for ventilation and air conditioning. Ducts and pipes carry fresh air from central fan rooms and air conditioning machinery. The ceiling, which is suspended below the upper floor construction, conceals the ductwork and contains the lighting units. Electrical wiring for power and for telephone communication may also be located in this ceiling space or may be buried in the floor construction in pipes or conduits.There have been attempts to incorporate the mechanical and electrical systems into the architecture of building by frankly expressing them；for example, the American Republic Insurance Company Building(1965) in Des Moines, Iowa, exposes both the ducts and the floor structure in an organized and elegant pattern and dispenses with the suspended ceiling. This type of approach makes it possible to reduce the cost of the building and permits innovations, such as in the span of the structure.6. Soils and FoundationsAll building are supported on the ground, and therefore the nature of the soil becomes an extremely important consideration in the design of any building. The design of a foundation dependson many soil factors, such as type of soil, soil stratification, thickness of soil lavers and their compaction, and groundwater conditions. Soils rarely have a single composition；they generally are mixtures in layers of varying thickness. For evaluation, soils are graded according to particle size, which increases from silt to clay to sand to gravel to rock. In general, the larger particle soils will support heavier loads than the smaller ones. The hardest rock can support loads up to 100 tons per square foot(976.5 metric tons/sq meter), but the softest silt can support a load of only 0.25 ton per square foot(2.44 metric tons/sq meter). All soils beneath the surface are in a state of compaction；that is, they are under a pressure that is equal to the weight of the soil column above it. Many soils (except for most sands and gavels) exhibit elasticproperties—they deform when compressed under load and rebound when the load is removed. The elasticity of soils is often time-dependent, that is, deformations of the soil occur over a length of time which may vary from minutes to years after a load is imposed. Over a period of time, a building may settle if it imposes a load on the soil greater than the natural compaction weight of the soil. Conversely, a building may heave if it imposes loads on the soil smaller than the natural compaction weight. The soil may also flow under the weight of a building；that is, it tends to be squeezed out.Due to both the compaction and flow effects, buildings tend settle. Uneven settlements, exemplified by the leaning towers in Pisa and Bologna, can have damaging effects—the building may lean, walls and partitions may crack, windows and doors may become inoperative, and, in the extreme, a building may collapse. Uniform settlements are not so serious, although extreme conditions, such as those in Mexico City, can have serious consequences. Over the past 100 years, a change in the groundwater level there has caused some buildings to settle more than 10 feet (3 meters). Because such movements can occur during and after construction, careful analysis of the behavior of soils under a building is vital.The great variability of soils has led to a variety of solutions to the foundation problem. Wherefirm soil exists close to the surface, the simplest solution is to rest columns on a small slab of concrete(spread footing). Where the soil is softer, it is necessary to spread the column load over a greater area；in this case, a continuous slab of concrete(raft or mat) under the whole building is used. In cases where the soil near the surface is unable to support the weight of the building, piles of wood, steel, or concrete are driven down to firm soil.The construction of a building proceeds naturally from the foundation up to the superstructure. The design process, however, proceeds from the roof down to the foundation (in the direction of gravity). In the past, the foundation was not subject to systematic investigation. A scientific approach to the design of foundations has been developed in the 20th century. Karl Terzaghi of the United States pioneered studies that made it possible to make accurate predictions of the behavior of foundations, using the science of soil mechanics coupled with exploration and testing procedures. Foundation failures of the past, such as the classical example of the leaning tower in Pisa, have become almost nonexistent. Foundations still are a hidden but costly part of many buildings.The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing. Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes. The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structural systems.Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit. Excessive lateral sway may causeserious recurring damage to partitions, ceilings, and other architectural details. In addition, excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building because of their perception of such motion. Structural systems of reinforced concrete, as well as steel, take full advantage of the inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore do not require additional stiffening to limit the sway.中文译文建筑及高层建筑的组成1 摘要材料和结构类型是构成建筑物各方面的组成部分，这些部分包括承重结构、围护结构、楼地面和隔墙。
建筑设计论文外文翻译-(2)
实用文档设计（论文）外文参考资料及译文译文题目：Discussion on The Planning and Designof Commercial Buildings学生姓名：XXX学号：09******83专业：建筑学所在学院：XX学院指导教师： XX职称：副教授201X年XX月XX日实用文档原文：Discussion on The Planning and Designof Commercial BuildingsAbstract: the commercial building in residential buildings has become, most attract sb.'s attention, the largest building is influenced by the type of energy and landscape of the city planning, design of commercial buildings will face more problems. This paper discusses how to carry on planning and design of commercial buildings, the construction of a rational, reasonable, appropriate business building, so as to create a good social and economic benefits. Keywords: construction planning; commercial buildings; architectural designPrefaceComprehensive is the development trend of modern commercial buildings, architects in the design of commercial buildings and functions are changing, different positioning of planning, business characteristics and local cultural influence commercial building mode, which requires us to continuously improve our project products, create more in line with the business needs of the best plan and design works, and finally let investors and consumers feel a constant value, so that they feel superior combination of spatial continuous operation, let the customer feel shopping pleasure, feel the beauty of life and the world.mercial architectural schemeCommercial buildings are generally large investment, high risk, long cycle, the successful operation of returns, different commercial patterns determine different commercial building form, and commercial pattern is determined and market positioning, the positioning accuracy of the architect, to commercial building various functions, property, facilities should have full understanding and effective organization, and different commercial construction planning ideas to produce commercial architectural design works are different, economic benefits of investment has great difference. Good architectural planning has decided the success or failure of architectural design.1.Market survey of commercial building design must be based on the market survey results. Based on the characteristics and trend of foreign consumption, economic conditions, traffic conditions, the surrounding commercial pattern, city infrastructure, city development planning, full market research business situation, on the project itself, choose format, format portfolio, the distribution of industrial chain and area proportion, industry selection, distribution and area ratio to the shops, division, architectural form, area and the floor function, people oriented system, project environment and supporting facilities are set in advance. Provide design basis for the architect to design.2.Mode demand regardless of commercial building is rental, sale or rental run combination, the most important is to determine the main format, for commercial buildings,different types of decision model is different, its business scale, function flow, and so on are designed by itself to determine, different formats have different functional requirements, and design the use is required by the business decisions rather than the developer to advocate. The lack of directional design basis, the design appears to be universal, but shoot at random. Once the function with the shop owner conflict, the design must be from the beginning. Language planning can increase the early unnecessary cost and later investment difficulty. Therefore, architects should design according to different formats of different architectural space mode analysis and recommendations.3.In commercial buildings in the process of planning, commercial real estate is the key to grasp the global experts and architects. Commercial real estate planner requires multidisciplinary personnel coordination ability of organization, according to the project of regional history and culture characteristic, according to local consumer preferences, in particular, the design project of the overall concept, culture orientation and market orientation is determined. At present, the commercial real estate projects generally organized by developers to overall planning, the investment in the project needs and business management experts, business format store managers and retail marketing planner, planner, communication landscape planners, architects, etc. In the implementation of construction plan, still need to urban planner, computer talented person to participate, to form a complete construction plans. Neither side may be arranged to replace, the architectural design is inclusive and absorbing these opinions, solutions and professional values of materialized labor and can form a complete architectural planning and design.4.Sustainable development and the characteristics of commercial building is a public place, with the development of business, commercial buildings in 5-6 years will be to do a decoration, simple and durable quality, less as far as possible need to repair and maintenance, and at the same time, according to the different project environment and commercial content is flexible to adapt and ultimately the value of investors and consumers are continuous. Complete function, rich forms, and space is varied, characteristic, design must be the contemporary tendency of time again at the same time, in all sorts of culture and the differences between s resonate.mercial building designCommercial building design is for the purpose of the construction project to produce a good and lasting economic benefits, the architect in commercial building design is to realize project to achieve a dynamic model of investment return, is to complete a final acceptance by consumers and continuous use of building products. Prophase planning orientation, investment, operation and management, each situation is very complex, has brought great influence, architecture design is an important link. And architects for commercial architecture design is inclusive and absorbing these opinions, solutions and professional values of materialized labor and can form a complete works of architectural design.(1)Formats combination designThe composition of commercial complex is decided by the business itself industry value chain, what kind of business combination is better for business. Architects should accordingto the preliminary planning and positioning, the first investment, operation and management of the planning scheme, starting from the basic function and practical application of building, clear the relationship between the function, space, environment, in line with The Times to design not only requires a new breath, also requires a reasonable and clear arrangement of the whole space functional requirements, and actively guide the passenger flow, manufacturing flow, different articles require different forms of space and location, reasonable distribution area, the partition of floor paving segmentation and supporting facilities design can avoid all kinds of goods mixed Chen, mixed traffic situation, the architect should create rich, flexible, comply with the appropriate space to contain different aspects of business combination technology needs. Must do to make it a complex, the industrial chain, industrial chain out after the value chain came out, can produce all kinds of benefits.(2)Pattern designPlanning, design of commercial building in different commercial real estate development mode, have completely different results. Rent is not only sales, emphasizing on management and value-added shops, if considering concurrently, also consider the preferences and requirements of the buyer shops. Commercial buildings due to the different requirements for merchants function layout is different, also different brands to the layout of the same forms are different. By the limit of commercial buildings, or different development cycle, or running effect is different. Those who do not conform to the business law of commercial building design, although space modeling is rich, has implied the bad management of hidden trouble. Therefore, meet the demand of merchants, digest the negative influence of all kinds of changes, architects in the design of the flexible space combination, providing different pattern design, to the use of a variety of forms do fully consider function of balance and coordination. Commercial building itself the function of the combination is very complex, for commercial, residential, office each mixed complex project, the process will be more difficult. Commercial and apartment part often deployed in a low-end, office and hotel in the high-end. The advantages of this design can facilitate the building line layout; Low-end flat layer in the core tube location is advantageous to the toilet set up; High-end part of the landscape advantage is more advantageous to project high value products. But in the concrete project, but should also fully consider building itself the vertical transportation efficiency of the impact on business. In the design of architectural plane layout, space efficiency will approach combined with architectural form and structure. For example, many senior project adopted the practice of Angle, when the design according to the economy, it can increase economic returns of about 30%, but in the specific project be careful not to damage to the corner form.(3)The guidance system designStream of people, logistics, decision function layout reasonable guidance system is the key to the success of commercial building design. Make sure people line, logistics, inward and outward, channel form, to make the layout of the commercial function, consumer groups have a wide range of interest and today free time, thus providing rich architectural space, integrating shopping, entertainment, leisure and so on need comprehensive shopping mall is their needs. Rich function as much as possible to meet the requirements of the customers, but also satisfy the buyers (pavement investors, business investors) needs to provide convenient logistics channel. And express more interest in the construction details. And then to createnew business environment. Let the consumer feel the pleasure shopping consumption, feel the beauty of life and the world at the same time, create more economic benefits for store operators.(4)Green building and characteristicGreen building on the one hand can save energy, on the other hand the sustainable of benefits will far outweigh the prophase investment so as to achieve the value of overall implementation, green buildings gives the possibility of ability of sustainable development and alteration, when architects in the design of commercial buildings so there is no need to do best, do it right, and not have to do much more luxurious style reflected is the commercial buildings, stronger in proper. Commercial buildings tend to be the center of the city commercial culture, different cities have different style, therefore, the architects in the use of his style and technique, need deep understanding urban commercial culture characteristics, extract the essence of the regional culture, architectural design make commercial buildings should have cultural features, local feature, more want to highlight the characteristics of the formats, spatial characteristics, cultural characteristics used in commercial buildings, not only can sense the material shell, are showing strong commercial buildings.3.ConclusionModern commercial architecture planning and design major programs, including the investment purpose and the understanding of the business environment for investors, commercial content on the project, the location of the business environment of consumer behavior, commercial buildings, the understanding of the business concept research, commercial building project planning, design process and method of design, for project construction total plane design and auxiliary space design professional design, space form and form design, the project design space and form of management main body,property requirements,facilities and equipment requirements,architectural engineering and construction of the professional requirement.中文译文：浅谈商业建筑规划设计摘要：商业建筑现已成为除居住建筑以外，最引人注目的，对城市活力和景观影响最大的建筑类型，商业建筑规划设计将面临更广泛的问题。
建筑设计方案文本中英翻译.
I设计文本图名英文翻译一设计说明篇1 设计说明Introduction of design二上位分析篇1 宏观区位分析图Macro location analysis drawing2 微观区位分析图Micro location analysis drawing3 资源分析图Resources analysis drawing4 企业分析图Enterprise analysis drawing5 区位交通分析图Traffic location analysis drawing6 基地现状分析图Existing site analysis plan7 基地高层分析图Highrise analysis drawing8 基地视线分析图Sight line analysis drawing9 山体条件分析图Mountain condition analysis plan10 水体条件分析图Water condition analysis plan 三案例分析篇Case Analysis1 案例分析图Case analysis drawing四城市印象篇Urban Impression1 白天鸟瞰图Aerial View2 夜景鸟瞰图Aerial Night View3 黄昏鸟瞰图Aerial Dusk View4 半鸟瞰图Semi-Aerial View5 局部透视图(白天-夜景-黄昏Partial perspective(day-night-evening 五理念分析篇Concept analysis1 方案构思图Plan Idea diagram2 理念构思图Idea Conceived Diagram3 理念分析图Idea Analysis diagram六规划设计篇1 总体规划平面图Overall planning2 总经济技术指标表General Technological and EconomicIndex3 分地块经济技术指标表Sub Parcel Technological and EconomicIndex分区经济技术指标表Subarea Technological and EconomicIndex4 模型展示图Model exhibition Diagram5 模型分析图Model Analysis Diagram6 功能系统分析图Function System Analysis Diagram7 建筑平面功能分析图Building Plane Function AnalysisDiagram8 建筑空间功能分析图Architecture Space Function Analysis Diagram9 交通系统分析图Traffic System Analysis Diagram10 道路系统分析图Road System Analysis Diagram11 水路系统分析图Water way system Analysis Diagram12 结构系统分析图Structure System Analysis Diagram13 空间结构分析图Space Structure Analysis Diagram14 空间系统分析图Space Structure Analysis Diagram15 开发系统分析图Development system Analysis Diagram16 开发强度示意图Development Intensity Diagram17 消防系统分析图Fire protection system Analysis Diagram18 景观系统分析图Landscape system Analysis Diagram19 空间景观分析图Space Sequence Analysis Diagram20 绿化系统分析图Afforestation system Analysis Diagram21 日照系统分析图Sunshine system Analysis Diagram22 竖向设计分析图Vertical elevation Analysis Plan23 视线系统分析图Sight System Analysis Plan24 地块价值分析图District Value Diagram25 地块价值挖掘分析图26 天际线分析图Skyline Analysis Diagram27 灯光系统分析图Lighting System Analysis Diagram 七建筑设计篇1 首层建筑平面图Ground floor plan2 夹层建筑平面图Mezzanine plan3 二层建筑平面图Second floor plan4 三层建筑平面图Third floor plan5 地下一层平面图Plan for Basement Floor6 地下二层平面图2nd Basement plan7 地下三层平面图3rd Basement plan8 防火分区图Fire Compartmentation Diagram9 建筑立面图Building Elevation drawing10 建筑剖面图Building Section11 户型平面图Layout plan12 材料运用示意图Material Exertion Diagram八建筑意向篇1 户型意向图Housing intention2 建筑意向图Architectural intention九景观意向篇1景观意向图Landscape intention十空间意向篇1 空间意向图Space intention十一场景意向篇1 场景意向图Scene intention* 对于不明确制图图纸的情况,请参考文件最后的图纸导航。
建筑外文文献(含中文翻译)
中文译文：建筑业的竞争及竞争策略美国的工程建筑公司几十年来一直控制着国际建筑市场，但近来世界上发生的事件改变了它的主导地位。
为了调查今后十年对工程建筑竞争产生影响的推动力及趋势，由建筑工业研究院的"2000年建筑特别工作组：发起一项称为“2000年建筑市场竞争分析”的研究项目。
该研究项目考察了一些影响竞争的因素，包括下列方面：企业能力塑造：采用纵向联合，横向发展的方法，提高企业的综合能力。
扩大市场领地，这种做法包括被海外的联合企业收购或被其合并，或是由美国公司收购外国公司。
筹措资金的选择方法：私有化作用，建筑权力转让项目，未来市场中工程筹资特征。
管理、组织及结构：未来的经营管理及组织方法、组织结构、组织技巧要有利于引导职员在世界竞争环境中发挥作用。
劳力特征：未来具有专业水平和技工水平的工程建筑工人的供求情况技术问题：技术将如何影响竞争，如何用来弥补劳力不足的缺陷。
研究目标及范围这一研究项目的目标是收集信息，使之为适应2000年及以后的工程建筑业在调整、制定策略方面的需要提供真知灼见，并制定出2000年工程建筑业的可能的发展计划。
这项研究回顾了工程建筑业的历史过程，审视了当前的发展趋势，以确定影响该工业未来的推动力，与该工业相关的有重塑企业能力，私有化及筹措资金方法的潜在作用以及经营管理、组织方法、公司结构方面的未来发展方向。
研究范围包括选定一些公司，采访这些公司有专业特长的人员。
这些人员的专业涉及面很广，包括商业建筑，重工业建筑，公共事业设施建设，基础建设．轻工业建筑，电力，生产程序以及航天科学。
工程建筑业竞争特性工程建筑业的竞争特征由于下列原因在变动：80年代发生的事件，以及计划在90年代实施的项目，正在引导建筑业摆脱相互对立的局面，转向相互合作。
应该以积极的眼光看待新的公司进入国际工程建筑市场，因为它增加了全球合作的机遇。
合作关系会使所有的伙伴受益，这是因为美国公司可以在合作伙伴的国家找到机遇，同样，外国公司也会打入美国市场。
高层建筑设计中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Structural Systems to resist lateral loadsmonly Used structural SystemsWith loads measured in tens of thousands kips, there is little room in the design of high-rise buildings for excessively complex thoughts. Indeed, the better high-rise buildings carry the universal traits of simplicity of thought and clarity of expression.It does not follow that there is no room for grand thoughts. Indeed, it is with such grand thoughts that the new family of high-rise buildings has evolved. Perhaps more important, the new concepts of but a few years ago have become commonplace in today’ s technology.Omitting some concepts that are related strictly to the materials of construction, the most commonly used structural systems used in high-rise buildings can be categorized as follows:1.Moment-resisting frames.2.Braced frames, including eccentrically braced frames.3.Shear walls, including steel plate shear walls.4.Tube-in-tube structures.5.Tube-in-tube structures.6.Core-interactive structures.7.Cellular or bundled-tube systems.Particularly with the recent trend toward more complex forms, but in response also to the need for increased stiffness to resist the forces from wind and earthquake, most high-rise buildings have structural systems built up of combinations of frames, braced bents, shear walls, and related systems. Further, for the taller buildings, the majorities are composed of interactive elements in three-dimensional arrays.The method of combining these elements is the very essence of the design process for high-rise buildings. These combinations need evolve in response to environmental, functional, and cost considerations so as to provide efficient structures that provoke the architectural development to new heights. This is not to say that imaginative structural design can create great architecture. To the contrary, many examples of fine architecture have been created with only moderate support from the structural engineer, while only fine structure, not great architecture, can be developed without the genius and the leadership of a talented architect. In any event, the best of both is needed to formulate a truly extraordinary design of a high-rise building.While comprehensive discussions of these seven systems are generally available in the literature, further discussion is warranted here .The essence of the design process is distributed throughout the discussion.2.Moment-Resisting FramesPerhaps the most commonly used system in low-to medium-rise buildings, the moment-resisting frame, is characterized by linear horizontal and vertical members connected essentially rigidly at their joints. Such frames are used as a stand-alone system or in combination with other systems so as to provide the needed resistance to horizontal loads. In the taller of high-rise buildings, the system is likely to be found inappropriate for a stand-alone system, this because of the difficulty in mobilizing sufficient stiffness under lateral forces.Analysis can be accomplished by STRESS, STRUDL, or a host of other appropriatecomputer programs; analysis by the so-called portal method of the cantilever method has no place in today’s technology.Because of the intrinsic flexibility of the column/girder intersection, and because preliminary designs should aim to highlight weaknesses of systems, it is not unusual to use center-to-center dimensions for the frame in the preliminary analysis. Of course, in the latter phases of design, a realistic appraisal in-joint deformation is essential.3.Braced FramesThe braced frame, intrinsically stiffer than the moment –resisting frame, finds also greater application to higher-rise buildings. The system is characterized by linear horizontal, vertical, and diagonal members, connected simply or rigidly at their joints. It is used commonly in conjunction with other systems for taller buildings and as a stand-alone system in low-to medium-rise buildings.While the use of structural steel in braced frames is common, concrete frames are more likely to be of the larger-scale variety.Of special interest in areas of high seismicity is the use of the eccentric braced frame.Again, analysis can be by STRESS, STRUDL, or any one of a series of two –or three dimensional analysis computer programs. And again, center-to-center dimensions are used commonly in the preliminary analysis.4.Shear wallsThe shear wall is yet another step forward along a progression of ever-stiffer structural systems. The system is characterized by relatively thin, generally (but not always) concrete elements that provide both structural strength and separation between building functions.In high-rise buildings, shear wall systems tend to have a relatively high aspect ratio, that is, their height tends to be large compared to their width. Lacking tension in the foundation system, any structural element is limited in its ability to resist overturning moment by the width of the system and by the gravity load supported by the element. Limited to a narrow overturning, One obvious use of the system, which does have the needed width, is in the exterior walls of building, where the requirement for windows is kept small.Structural steel shear walls, generally stiffened against buckling by a concrete overlay, have found application where shear loads are high. The system, intrinsically more economicalthan steel bracing, is particularly effective in carrying shear loads down through the taller floors in the areas immediately above grade. The sys tem has the further advantage of having high ductility a feature of particular importance in areas of high seismicity.The analysis of shear wall systems is made complex because of the inevitable presence of large openings through these walls. Preliminary analysis can be by truss-analogy, by the finite element method, or by making use of a proprietary computer program designed to consider the interaction, or coupling, of shear walls.5.Framed or Braced TubesThe concept of the framed or braced or braced tube erupted into the technology with the IBM Building in Pittsburgh, but was followed immediately with the twin 110-story towers of the World Trade Center, New York and a number of other buildings .The system is characterized by three –dimensional frames, braced frames, or shear walls, forming a closed surface more or less cylindrical in nature, but of nearly any plan configuration. Because those columns that resist lateral forces are placed as far as possible from the cancroids of the system, the overall moment of inertia is increased and stiffness is very high.The analysis of tubular structures is done using three-dimensional concepts, or by two- dimensional analogy, where possible, whichever method is used, it must be capable of accounting for the effects of shear lag.The presence of shear lag, detected first in aircraft structures, is a serious limitation in the stiffness of framed tubes. The concept has limited recent applications of framed tubes to the shear of 60 stories. Designers have developed various techniques for reducing the effects of shear lag, most noticeably the use of belt trusses. This system finds application in buildings perhaps 40stories and higher. However, except for possible aesthetic considerations, belt trusses interfere with nearly every building function associated with the outside wall; the trusses are placed often at mechanical floors, mush to the disapproval of the designers of the mechanical systems. Nevertheless, as a cost-effective structural system, the belt truss works well and will likely find continued approval from designers. Numerous studies have sought to optimize the location of these trusses, with the optimum location very dependent on the number of trusses provided. Experience would indicate, however, that the location of these trusses is provided by the optimization of mechanical systems and by aesthetic considerations,as the economics of the structural system is not highly sensitive to belt truss location.6.Tube-in-Tube StructuresThe tubular framing system mobilizes every column in the exterior wall in resisting over-turning and shearing forces. The term‘tube-in-tube’is largely self-explanatory in that a second ring of columns, the ring surrounding the central service core of the building, is used as an inner framed or braced tube. The purpose of the second tube is to increase resistance to over turning and to increase lateral stiffness. The tubes need not be of the same character; that is, one tube could be framed, while the other could be braced.In considering this system, is important to understand clearly the difference between the shear and the flexural components of deflection, the terms being taken from beam analogy. In a framed tube, the shear component of deflection is associated with the bending deformation of columns and girders (i.e, the webs of the framed tube) while the flexural component is associated with the axial shortening and lengthening of columns (i.e, the flanges of the framed tube). In a braced tube, the shear component of deflection is associated with the axial deformation of diagonals while the flexural component of deflection is associated with the axial shortening and lengthening of columns.Following beam analogy, if plane surfaces remain plane (i.e, the floor slabs),then axial stresses in the columns of the outer tube, being farther form the neutral axis, will be substantially larger than the axial stresses in the inner tube. However, in the tube-in-tube design, when optimized, the axial stresses in the inner ring of columns may be as high, or even higher, than the axial stresses in the outer ring. This seeming anomaly is associated with differences in the shearing component of stiffness between the two systems. This is easiest to under-stand where the inner tube is conceived as a braced (i.e, shear-stiff) tube while the outer tube is conceived as a framed (i.e, shear-flexible) tube.7.Core Interactive StructuresCore interactive structures are a special case of a tube-in-tube wherein the two tubes are coupled together with some form of three-dimensional space frame. Indeed, the system is used often wherein the shear stiffness of the outer tube is zero. The United States Steel Building, Pittsburgh, illustrates the system very well. Here, the inner tube is a braced frame, the outer tube has no shear stiffness, and the two systems are coupled if they were considered as systemspassing in a straight line from the “hat” structure. Note that the exterior columns would be improperly modeled if they were considered as systems passing in a straight line from the “hat” to the foundations; these columns are perhaps 15% stiffer as they follow the elastic curve of the braced core. Note also that the axial forces associated with the lateral forces in the inner columns change from tension to compression over the height of the tube, with the inflection point at about 5/8 of the height of the tube. The outer columns, of course, carry the same axial force under lateral load for the full height of the columns because the columns because the shear stiffness of the system is close to zero.The space structures of outrigger girders or trusses, that connect the inner tube to the outer tube, are located often at several levels in the building. The AT&T headquarters is an example of an astonishing array of interactive elements:1.The structural system is 94 ft (28.6m) wide, 196ft(59.7m) long, and 601ft (183.3m)high.2.Two inner tubes are provided, each 31ft(9.4m) by 40 ft (12.2m), centered 90 ft (27.4m)apart in the long direction of the building.3.The inner tubes are braced in the short direction, but with zero shear stiffness in the longdirection.4. A single outer tube is supplied, which encircles the building perimeter.5.The outer tube is a moment-resisting frame, but with zero shear stiffness for thecenter50ft (15.2m) of each of the long sides.6. A space-truss hat structure is provided at the top of the building.7. A similar space truss is located near the bottom of the building8.The entire assembly is laterally supported at the base on twin steel-plate tubes, becausethe shear stiffness of the outer tube goes to zero at the base of the building.8.Cellular structuresA classic example of a cellular structure is the Sears Tower, Chicago, a bundled tube structure of nine separate tubes. While the Sears Tower contains nine nearly identical tubes, the basic structural system has special application for buildings of irregular shape, as the several tubes need not be similar in plan shape, It is not uncommon that some of the individual tubes one of the strengths and one of the weaknesses of the system.This special weakness of this system, particularly in framed tubes, has to do with the concept of differential column shortening. The shortening of a column under load is given by the expression△=ΣfL/EFor buildings of 12 ft (3.66m) floor-to-floor distances and an average compressive stress of 15 ksi (138MPa), the shortening of a column under load is 15 (12)(12)/29,000 or 0.074in (1.9mm) per story. At 50 stories, the column will have shortened to 3.7 in. (94mm) less than its unstressed length. Where one cell of a bundled tube system is, say, 50stories high and an adjacent cell is, say, 100stories high, those columns near the boundary between .the two systems need to have this differential deflection reconciled.Major structural work has been found to be needed at such locations. In at least one building, the Rialto Project, Melbourne, the structural engineer found it necessary to vertically pre-stress the lower height columns so as to reconcile the differential deflections of columns in close proximity with the post-tensioning of the shorter column simulating the weight to be added on to adjacent, higher columns.抗侧向荷载的结构体系1.常用的结构体系若已测出荷载量达数千万磅重，那么在高层建筑设计中就没有多少可以进行极其复杂的构思余地了。
建筑设计毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献
毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译文献Architecture StructureWe have and the architects must deal with the spatial aspect of activity, physical, and symbolic needs in such a way that overall performance integrity is assured. Hence, he or she well wants to think of evolving a building environment as a total system of interacting and space forming subsystems. Is represents a complex challenge, and to meet it the architect will need a hierarchic design process that provides at least three levels of feedback thinking: schematic, preliminary, and final.Such a hierarchy is necessary if he or she is to avoid being confused , at conceptual stages of design thinking ,by the myriad detail issues that can distract attention from more basic consideration s .In fact , we can say that an architect’s ability to distinguish the more basic form the more detailed issues is essential to his success as a designer .The object of the schematic feed back level is to generate and evaluate overall site-plan, activity-interaction, and building-configuration options .To do so the architect must be able to focus on the interaction of the basic attributes of the site context, the spatial organization, and the symbolism as determinants of physical form. This means that ,in schematic terms ,the architect may first conceive and model a building design as an organizational abstraction of essential performance-space in teractions.Then he or she may explore the overall space-form implications of the abstraction. As an actual building configuration option begins to emerge, it will be modified to include consideration for basic site conditions.At the schematic stage, it would also be helpful if the designer could visualize his or her options for achieving overall structural integrity and consider the constructive feasibility and economic of his or her scheme .But this will require that the architect and/or a consultant be able to conceptualize total-system structural options in terms of elemental detail .Such overall thinking can be easily fed back to improve the space-form scheme.At the preliminary level, the architect’s emphasis will shift to the elaboration of his or her more promising schematic design options .Here the architect’s structural needs will shift toapproximate design of specific subsystem options. At this stage the total structural scheme is developed to a middle level of specificity by focusing on identification and design of major subsystems to the extent that their key geometric, component, and interactive properties are established .Basic subsystem interaction and design conflicts can thus be identified and resolved in the context of total-system objectives. Consultants can play a significant part in this effort; these preliminary-level decisions may also result in feedback that calls for refinement or even major change in schematic concepts.When the designer and the client are satisfied with the feasibility of a design proposal at the preliminary level, it means that the basic problems of overall design are solved and details are not likely to produce major change .The focus shifts again ,and the design process moves into the final level .At this stage the emphasis will be on the detailed development of all subsystem specifics . Here the role of specialists from various fields, including structural engineering, is much larger, since all detail of the preliminary design must be worked out. Decisions made at this level may produce feedback into Level II that will result in changes. However, if Levels I and II are handled with insight, the relationship between the overall decisions, made at the schematic and preliminary levels, and the specifics of the final level should be such that gross redesign is not in question, Rather, the entire process should be one of moving in an evolutionary fashion from creation and refinement (or modification) of the more general properties of a total-system design concept, to the fleshing out of requisite elements and details.To summarize: At Level I, the architect must first establish, in conceptual terms, the overall space-form feasibility of basic schematic options. At this stage, collaboration with specialists can be helpful, but only if in the form of overall thinking. At Level II, the architect must be able to identify the major subsystem requirements implied by the scheme and substantial their interactive feasibility by approximating key component properties .That is, the properties of major subsystems need be worked out only in sufficient depth to very the inherent compatibility of their basic form-related and behavioral interaction . This will mean a somewhat more specific form of collaboration with specialists then that in level I .At level III ,the architect and the specific form of collaboration with specialists then that providing for all of the elemental design specifics required to produce biddable construction documents .Of course this success comes from the development of the Structural Material.1.Reinforced ConcretePlain concrete is formed from a hardened mixture of cement ,water ,fine aggregate, coarse aggregate (crushed stone or gravel),air, and often other admixtures. The plastic mix is placed and consolidated in the formwork, then cured to facilitate the acceleration of the chemical hydration reaction lf the cement/water mix, resulting in hardened concrete. The finished product has high compressive strength, and low resistance to tension, such that its tensile strength is approximately one tenth lf its compressive strength. Consequently, tensile and shear reinforcement in the tensile regions of sections has to be provided to compensate for the weak tension regions in the reinforced concrete element.It is this deviation in the composition of a reinforces concrete section from the homogeneity of standard wood or steel sections that requires a modified approach to the basic principles of structural design. The two components of the heterogeneous reinforced concrete section are to be so arranged and proportioned that optimal use is made of the materials involved. This is possible because concrete can easily be given any desired shape by placing and compacting the wet mixture of the constituent ingredients are properly proportioned, the finished product becomes strong, durable, and, in combination with the reinforcing bars, adaptable for use as main members of any structural system.The techniques necessary for placing concrete depend on the type of member to be cast: that is, whether it is a column, a bean, a wall, a slab, a foundation. a mass columns, or an extension of previously placed and hardened concrete. For beams, columns, and walls, the forms should be well oiled after cleaning them, and the reinforcement should be cleared of rust and other harmful materials. In foundations, the earth should be compacted and thoroughly moistened to about 6 in. in depth to avoid absorption of the moisture present in the wet concrete. Concrete should always be placed in horizontal layers which are compacted by means of high frequency power-driven vibrators of either the immersion or external type, as the case requires, unless it is placed by pumping. It must be kept in mind, however, that over vibration can be harmful since it could cause segregation of the aggregate and bleeding of the concrete.Hydration of the cement takes place in the presence of moisture at temperatures above 50°F. It is necessary to maintain such a condition in order that the chemical hydration reaction can take place. If drying is too rapid, surface cracking takes place. This would result in reduction of concrete strength due to cracking as well as the failure to attain full chemical hydration.It is clear that a large number of parameters have to be dealt with in proportioning a reinforced concrete element, such as geometrical width, depth, area of reinforcement, steel strain, concrete strain, steel stress, and so on. Consequently, trial and adjustment is necessary in the choice ofconcrete sections, with assumptions based on conditions at site, availability of the constituent materials, particular demands of the owners, architectural and headroom requirements, the applicable codes, and environmental reinforced concrete is often a site-constructed composite, in contrast to the standard mill-fabricated beam and column sections in steel structures.A trial section has to be chosen for each critical location in a structural system. The trial section has to be analyzed to determine if its nominal resisting strength is adequate to carry the applied factored load. Since more than one trial is often necessary to arrive at the required section, the first design input step generates into a series of trial-and-adjustment analyses.The trial-and –adjustment procedures for the choice of a concrete section lead to the convergence of analysis and design. Hence every design is an analysis once a trial section is chosen. The availability of handbooks, charts, and personal computers and programs supports this approach as a more efficient, compact, and speedy instructional method compared with the traditional approach of treating the analysis of reinforced concrete separately from pure design.2. EarthworkBecause earthmoving methods and costs change more quickly than those in any other branch of civil engineering, this is a field where there are real opportunities for the enthusiast. In 1935 most of the methods now in use for carrying and excavating earth with rubber-tyred equipment did not exist. Most earth was moved by narrow rail track, now relatively rare, and the main methods of excavation, with face shovel, backacter, or dragline or grab, though they are still widely used are only a few of the many current methods. To keep his knowledge of earthmoving equipment up to date an engineer must therefore spend tine studying modern machines. Generally the only reliable up-to-date information on excavators, loaders and transport is obtainable from the makers.Earthworks or earthmoving means cutting into ground where its surface is too high ( cuts ), and dumping the earth in other places where the surface is too low ( fills). Toreduce earthwork costs, the volume of the fills should be equal to the volume of the cuts and wherever possible the cuts should be placednear to fills of equal volume so as to reduce transport and double handlingof the fill. This work of earthwork design falls on the engineer who lays out the road since it is the layout of the earthwork more than anything else which decides its cheapness. From the available maps ahd levels, the engineering must try to reach as many decisions as possible in the drawing office by drawing cross sections of the earthwork. On the site when further information becomes available he can make changes in jis sections and layout,but the drawing lffice work will not have been lost. It will have helped him to reach the best solution in the shortest time.The cheapest way of moving earth is to take it directly out of the cut and drop it as fill with the same machine. This is not always possible, but when it canbe done it is ideal, being both quick and cheap. Draglines, bulldozers and face shovels an do this. The largest radius is obtained with thedragline,and the largest tonnage of earth is moved by the bulldozer, though only over short distances.The disadvantages of the dragline are that it must dig below itself, it cannot dig with force into compacted material, it cannot dig on steep slopws, and its dumping and digging are not accurate.Face shovels are between bulldozers and draglines, having a larger radius of action than bulldozers but less than draglines. They are anle to dig into a vertical cliff face in a way which would be dangerous tor a bulldozer operator and impossible for a dragline. Each piece of equipment should be level of their tracks and for deep digs in compact material a backacter is most useful, but its dumping radius is considerably less than that of the same escavator fitted with a face shovel.Rubber-tyred bowl scrapers are indispensable for fairly level digging where the distance of transport is too much tor a dragline or face shovel. They can dig the material deeply ( but only below themselves ) to a fairly flat surface, carry it hundreds of meters if need be, then drop it and level it roughly during the dumping. For hard digging it is often found economical to keep a pusher tractor ( wheeled or tracked ) on the digging site, to push each scraper as it returns to dig. As soon as the scraper is full,the pusher tractor returns to the beginning of the dig to heop to help the nest scraper.Bowl scrapers are often extremely powerful machines;many makers build scrapers of 8 cubic meters struck capacity, which carry 10 m ³ heaped. The largest self-propelled scrapers are of 19 m ³struck capacity ( 25 m ³ heaped )and they are driven by a tractor engine of 430 horse-powers.Dumpers are probably the commonest rubber-tyred transport since they can also conveniently be used for carrying concrete or other building materials. Dumpers have the earth container over the front axle on large rubber-tyred wheels, and the container tips forwards on most types, though in articulated dumpers the direction of tip can be widely varied. The smallest dumpers have a capacity of about 0.5 m ³, and the largest standard types are of about 4.5 m ³. Special types include the self-loading dumper of up to 4 m ³ and the articulated type of about 0.5 m ³. The distinction between dumpers and dump trucks must be remembered .dumpers tip forwards and the driver sits behind the load. Dump trucks are heavy, strengthened tipping lorries, the driver travels in front lf the load and the load is dumped behind him, so they are sometimes called rear-dump trucks.3.Safety of StructuresThe principal scope of specifications is to provide general principles and computational methods in order to verify safety of structures. The “ safety factor ”, which according to modern trends is independent of the nature and combination of the materials used, can usually be defined as the ratio between the conditions. This ratio is also proportional to the inverse of the probability ( risk ) of failure of the structure.Failure has to be considered not only as overall collapse of the structure but also asunserviceability or, according to a more precise. Common definition. As the reaching of a “ limit state ” which causes the construction not to accomplish the task it was designed for. Ther e are two categories of limit state :(1)Ultimate limit sate, which corresponds to the highest value of the load-bearing capacity. Examples include local buckling or global instability of the structure; failure of some sections and subsequent transformation of the structure into a mechanism; failure by fatigue; elastic or plastic deformation or creep that cause a substantial change of the geometry of the structure; and sensitivity of the structure to alternating loads, to fire and to explosions.(2)Service limit states, which are functions of the use and durability of the structure. Examples include excessive deformations and displacements without instability; early or excessive cracks; large vibrations; and corrosion.Computational methods used to verify structures with respect to the different safety conditions can be separated into:(1)Deterministic methods, in which the main parameters are considered as nonrandom parameters.(2)Probabilistic methods, in which the main parameters are considered as random parameters.Alternatively, with respect to the different use of factors of safety, computational methods can be separated into:(1)Allowable stress method, in which the stresses computed under maximum loads are compared with the strength of the material reduced by given safety factors.(2)Limit states method, in which the structure may be proportioned on the basis of its maximum strength. This strength, as determined by rational analysis, shall not be less than that required to support a factored load equal to the sum of the factored live load and dead load ( ultimate state ).The stresses corresponding to working ( service ) conditions with unfactored live and dead loads are compared with prescribed values ( service limit state ) . From the four possible combinations of the first two and second two methods, we can obtain some useful computational methods. Generally, two combinations prevail:(1)deterministic methods, which make use of allowable stresses.(2)Probabilistic methods, which make use of limit states.The main advantage of probabilistic approaches is that, at least in theory, it is possible to scientifically take into account all random factors of safety, which are then combined to define the safety factor. probabilistic approaches depend upon :(1) Random distribution of strength of materials with respect to the conditions of fabrication and erection ( scatter of the values of mechanical properties through out the structure );(2) Uncertainty of the geometry of the cross-section sand of the structure ( faults andimperfections due to fabrication and erection of the structure );(3) Uncertainty of the predicted live loads and dead loads acting on the structure;(4)Uncertainty related to the approximation of the computational method used ( deviation of the actual stresses from computed stresses ).Furthermore, probabilistic theories mean that the allowable risk can be based on several factors, such as :(1) Importance of the construction and gravity of the damage by its failure;(2)Number of human lives which can be threatened by this failure;(3)Possibility and/or likelihood of repairing the structure;(4) Predicted life of the structure.All these factors are related to economic and social considerations such as：(1) Initial cost of the construction;(2) Amortization funds for the duration of the construction;(3) Cost of physical and material damage due to the failure of the construction;(4) Adverse impact on society;(5) Moral and psychological views.The definition of all these parameters, for a given safety factor, allows construction at the optimum cost. However, the difficulty of carrying out a complete probabilistic analysis has to be taken into account. For such an analysis the laws of the distribution of the live load and its induced stresses, of the scatter of mechanical properties of materials, and of the geometry of the cross-sections and the structure have to be known. Furthermore, it is difficult to interpret the interaction between the law of distribution of strength and that of stresses because both depend upon the nature of the material, on the cross-sections and upon the load acting on the structure. These practical difficulties can be overcome in two ways. The first is to apply different safety factors to the material and to the loads, without necessarily adopting the probabilistic criterion. The second is an approximate probabilistic method which introduces some simplifying assumptions ( semi-probabilistic methods ) .文献翻译建筑师必须从一种全局的角度出发去处理建筑设计中应该考虑到的实用活动，物质及象征性的需求。
建筑设计英文作文范文
建筑设计英文作文范文Architecture Design: The Fusion of Functionality and Aesthetics。
Architecture is not merely about erecting structures; it's a symphony of functionality and aesthetics. It's the art of transforming spaces into experiences, weaving together the practical and the beautiful seamlessly. In this discourse, we delve into the essence of architecture design, exploring how architects merge form and function to create spaces that inspire and enrich lives.At the heart of architecture design lies the concept of functionality. Buildings are not static entities; they are living, breathing organisms that cater to human needs. Whether it's a residential complex, a commercial hub, or a cultural landmark, every structure serves a purpose. Functionality dictates the layout, the spatial arrangement, and the flow of movement within a building. Architects meticulously plan every detail, ensuring that the design enhances usability and efficiency.Take, for instance, the design of a modern office building. The architect considers factors such as natural light, ventilation, and ergonomics to create a conducive work environment. Open floor plans promote collaboration, while designated breakout areas encourage creativity and relaxation. The integration of smart technology streamlines operations, making the workspace both efficient and adaptable.However, functionality alone does not define great architecture. True excellence lies in the harmonious integration of functionality with aesthetics. Architecture is an expression of human creativity, a canvas where form meets emotion. Aesthetics encompass more than just visual appeal; they evoke sensations, stir emotions, and imbue spaces with meaning.Consider the iconic Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain, designed by Frank Gehry. Its undulating titanium facade is not merely a structural marvel but a testament to the power of architectural expression. The building's fluid forms evoke a sense ofmovement and dynamism, echoing the spirit of the artworks housed within. Its beauty transcends mere aesthetics; it becomes a symbol of cultural identity and aspiration.In architecture, form follows function, but it also transcends it. The interplay of light and shadow, the rhythm of lines and curves, the texture of materials—all contribute to the sensory experience of space. Architects leverage these elements to evoke specific moods, create focal points, and establish visual hierarchy.Moreover, architecture has the power to shape communities and redefine urban landscapes. Thoughtful design can foster social interaction, promote environmental sustainability, and preserve cultural heritage. From sustainable housing initiatives to revitalization projects in urban slums, architects are catalysts for positive change.In conclusion, architecture design is a delicate dance between functionality and aesthetics. It's about more than just erecting buildings; it's about crafting experiences, shaping identities, and enriching lives. As stewards of the built environment, architects bear the responsibility of creating spaces that inspire, uplift, and endure. In the fusion of form and function, lies the essence of great architecture—a testament to human ingenuity and creativity.。
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中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Norway Romsdal Folk MuseumPhotograph from : Stiftelsen RomsdalsmuseetThe Romsdal Folk Museum is an architectonic attraction and a treasured landmark that embodies the history and identity of the entire region. Our intention in this project was to let the structure signal its meaning and function through an architectural expression and the use of local materials. The scale of the building refers to the urbanity and morphology of the town. The overall layout of the museum grounds the connections to the town by linking different surrounding areas in an overall plan where all circulation is linked in a unified structure. The project conveys an open and progressive attitude that makes diverse utilization possible.The Museum design approach is rooted in rationality and sustainability. The plan geometry is deceptively simple, the characteristic angled shapes are limited to the roof and the external wall, making the circulation and internal organisation clear and flexible. The public areas are clearly separated from the administration wing, which is located on both the ground and first floor. Exhibition rooms, the auditorium and the library are all placed on the ground floor to increase flexibility and user experience. The transparency of the reception room permits supporting internal and external activities. Large sliding doors separate the permanent and temporary exhibition areas, giving the curators the ability to combine or separate the spaces. The archives and workshops are located on the basement level, with the vertical circulation of large items facilitated by a large goods lift.Pine is the primary building material of the museum. Exterior walls and roof are made of solid timber in combination of steel beam when required. The terrain entailed the use of concrete, however its use was reduce to the foundations. Exterior walls and ceilings covered with maintenance-pine relief tempered with bio-based oil.Different openings filter the daylight in such way that the internal space are enriched by gradations and translucency nuances. However, the main exhibition rooms are black boxes, giving the curators total control of artificial lightening in these areas. All the glazing units have high-energy performance glass, in some locations with silk printed colours and patterns.The impact on the Nordic society:The Romsdal Folk Museum is a great example of strategic use of low-tech building solutions. It embodies the national policy in Norway to aim for a more sustainable future. The museum is built using Norwegian timber technology and acts as a hub forcultural development.In this building, the people of Molde as well as visitors and tourists are given the opportunity to connect and to build a wider community. The museum hosts not only exhibits about Norwegian culture but also concerts, workshops and lectures on a day-to-day basis.The architectural form brings together the region's folk culture and the area's characteristic landscape qualities in a larger composition. The range of perspectives and activities ensures a broad audience, with the museum becoming a living centre for the exploration of the region’s history, contemporary culture, and future.Schöningen Germany paleontology research and experience center Architects: Holzer Kobler ArchitekturenLocation: Schöningen, GermanyArea: 4,090 ㎡Year: 2013Photographs from : Courtesy of Holzer Kobler ArchitekturenFrom the architect. ArchitectureThe PALÄON pushes itself out of the slightly hilly topography and cuts into the forested meadows.The volume of the three-story building and the paths emanating from it form lines of sight that divide the landscape into vectors. A second winding path system forms synapses that connect to the surroundings. The building is a camouflage –a hyperrealistic abstraction of the landscape.The metallic skin of the PALÄON mirrors the meadows and forests that surround it as well as the movements of the clouds in the sky passing by. Through its archaic form, the research and experience center becomes one with its surroundings. Sharp, large- formatted cuts into the building façade offer wide-reaching and fascinating views to the place where the spears werediscovered, the pit of the brown coal mine, the nearby forest, and the Przewalski horses grazing in the meadows. The expressive openings cut into the building like spears in the skin of the horses and reflect this dynamic in the form language. The abstract cuts into the building also formally react to the neighboring traces of opencut mining. The resulting expressive architecture mediates between manmade and natural landscape and forms an emblem for the place.ExhibitionThe experience exhibition, with its presentation of the original site from Schöningen lies at the heart of the project. Memorable images speak to the visitor’s senses and emotions. New findings on our ancestors, the homo erectus, his daily life and the flora and fauna that existed around 300,000 years ago are presented as well as connections to current themes such as climate change and sustainability.The circuit through the exhibition begins in the three-story foyer in the middle of the building, which connects all of the views to the outside. The tall space creates view axes to the research and exhibition areas in the first and second floors as well as vistas to the brown coal mine. Here is where all paths leading to the programmatic areas, such as exhibition, educational areas, administration, restaurant or shop, begin and end. The foyer then leads one back to prehistoric times through the lacquered cross-section of the geological and archaeological layers of the excavation.Central to the exhibition design is the sculptural white exhibition structure, whose form vaguely resemble those of horse bones. Through enlargement and abstraction, a row of theme cabinets form a spatially activating element with views alternating with large-format artwork. Highlight to the exhibition circuit is the spears` cabinet that presents the world-wide uniques wooden spears from the stone age. Finally the panoramic cinema makes 300,000 years emotionally experiential.Upon leaving the main exhibition space and crossing the foyer one last time high above the entrance, current archaeological excavation and research work in Schöningen can be experienced in the research area. In the laboratory, visitors solve a tricky case with modern archaeological methods.The professional laboratory and workspaces of the archaeologists on-site are strung along the exhibition circuit and can be examined by the visitors. The ‘Adventure Research’ that takes place here daily is made comprehensible for laymen, children and experts and allowed to be experienced close-up – in the PALÄON itself and the exhibition site outdoors.LandscapeFor the design of the outdoor spaces of the new research and experience center, two complementary form languages were introduced into the landscape.They differ functionally and formally in the newly created park landscape echoing an inter-glacial cycle of primeval times and in the access and gathering areas, which are strongly influenced architectonically through the building. To the east, dense woods will soon cover half of the area of the site. To the west and surrounding the PALÄON stretch dappled forests, as well as meadows and a lake, which also accommodate the fenced- in area for the Przewalski horses. A curving network of paths leads the visitor to special viewpoints, attractions, and makes necessary connections. For example, the design of the playground was inspired from extinct primeval animals. And from a slightly raised point at one area of the lake, the visitor is given an ideal view of where the wild horses reside.Spa Hot Springs Resort Ming Tang, Bazhou,Hebei Province of China.Architect: CT Design + Cooperation TeamLocation: Bazhou City, Hebei Province, ChinaSite Area: About 12 hectares at the first phaseInvestment: About 600,000,000 TWDHot Spring Hotel Area: About 13,000 ㎡Completion: Nov 2010Photographs: TonyBACKGROUNDWith advantage of location about distance from Beijing city by car in 1 hour and resource of hot spring, Bazhou has been planed and developed as hot spring town in Hebei Province of China. There are 6 pieces of land allotted to 6 investment groups in the new development area and the project is 1 of 6 hot spring resorts.ISSUE & AGENDAHow to redefine quality for 5 star resort hotel which is not mainly by it’s physical lux ury but more about rich nature experience is the issue we have and how to create resort as one sustainable environment is our main concern. Therefore, environment goes first, then landscape experience, architectural form is just based on how to integrate it with surroundings.SITE SITUATIONThe site is flat which is about 18 hectares in rectangle shape (12 hectares for the first phase) and as normal northern landscape in China. Cold winter wind comes from northwest direction and cool summer wind comes from southeast direction. Moreover climate and landscape situation is very different at 4 reasons – spring is comfortable, summer is hot which will reach to 32 degree at highest, autumn is cool, and winter is cold about minus 10 degree at lowest. So how to use these varied experience for resort is the one of main points for design.ABOUT PLANNING & LANDSCAPEMore Nature, More SustainableNew topography created intends to respond to site’s situation which is to have high hill at north side working as defence for cold winter wind and low hill at south side to guide cool summer wind into the site.Topography also works as base to creates three landscape typologies which will create multiple landscape experience – the hilltop as grassland, the hillside as forest, and the low land as hot spring. Hotel and villas will be set at different position and zoning as groups with different landscape theme such as hot spring, forest, and lake.As hot spring resort, water is the main subject and is used as main landscape element. From hot spring to SPA, from dam to waterfall, and from water courtyard to surrounding lake, we intend to create more chance for guest to experience hot spring in many different ways.About water system, secondhand hot spring is collected and pumped into waterfall and water wall in courtyard. Water will flow from high level to low level, from inside to outside, from water courtyard to entrance pool and down to lake and river. Finally water will be pumped back to water courtyard at the end pool of river as one circulating system.ABOUT ARCHITECTURE & SPACEArchitecture in Nature, Nature in Architecture“Architecture in Nature, Nature in Architecture” is our basic concept for the hotel. In the way, we intend to create weak and humble architecture which is harmonious and consistent with surroundings.We take linear form for building as the way to integrate it with surroundings in stead of creating one big solid object as normal business hotel on landscape. Linear form is as loop putting on topography which still will keep landscape inside and can give maximum proximity and access to the landscape. Moreover, it also works as corridor to guide guest experiencing environment and as the best circulation for flow of people as well.Based on arrangement of landscape, the hotel space is arranged in 3 loops following topography from level +0.2m up to level +1.1m.3 LOOPSLoop 1: Lobby, Café, SPA, indoor / outdoor swimming pool – water zoneSurrounded by water and looks like standing on it, our intention is to integrate inner space with surrounding big water. And due to temperature difference, hopefully hot spring could create kind atmosphere that hotel will look like as in mist in winter.Loop 2: Restaurant – flower zoneSurrounded by flower and encircling sakura courtyard, we intend to create kind atmosphere which is comfortable and refined in restaurant.Loop 3: Guest room area – bamboo forest zoneDue to it’s special character and ability to surviv e in winter, bamboo is chosen to create forest for guest room area which is not just only to provide privacy but also create kind feeling of meditation, especially for hot spring area in guest room towards bamboo courtyard.EXPECTATIONWe hope this resort could be as an environment which people can experience by not just only vision, but hearing, smell, and touch as well. It is just simply you can hear voice of water, birds, and wind going through bamboo, and can feel hot spring and smell flower as well.翻译：挪威Romsdal民俗博物馆图片来源：Stiftelsen Romsdalsmuseet这是由Reiulf Ramstad建筑事务所设计的Romsdal民俗博物。