Chapter One The History of Translation in China
坎特伯雷故事集及作者介绍英文作文
坎特伯雷故事集及作者介绍英文作文【中英文实用版】The Canterbury Tales, a seminal work in English literature, is a collection of stories written by Geoffrey Chaucer in the 14th century. It portrays a vibrant tapestry of medieval society through the diverse narratives of various characters on a pilgrimage to Canterbury. Chaucer, often hailed as the father of English poetry, masterfully employs a variety of literary forms and languages, making the Tales an enduring and influential piece in the literary canon.《坎特伯雷故事集》是英国文学史上的里程碑之作，由杰弗里·乔叟于14世纪创作。
这部作品通过描绘朝圣者们前往坎特伯雷的旅程中，各色人物讲述的丰富多彩的故事，展现了一个生机勃勃的中世纪社会。
乔叟被誉为英国诗歌之父，他巧妙地运用了多种文学形式和语言，使得《故事集》成为文学宝库中一部经久不衰且具有深远影响的作品。
In the Tales, Chaucer introduces a diverse cast of characters, including knights, prioresses, millers, and many more, each embodying different social classes and occupations of the time. Through their stories, he satirizes the corrupt clergy, comments on societal issues, and explores the complexities of human nature. The vividness and realism of these characters have made the Canterbury Tales a profound reflection of the medieval era.在《故事集》中，乔叟塑造了一个多样化的角色群，包括骑士、修女、磨坊主等，他们代表了当时社会各阶层和各行各业。
吕著中国通史 英文版
吕著中国通史英文版The world of historical research is vast and diverse, encompassing the tales and chronicles of civilizations old and new. Amidst this expanse, "History of China" by Lu Siqing stands as a monumental work, offering a comprehensive and nuanced understanding of the rich tapestry of Chinese history. The English edition of this tome not only bridges the linguistic divide but also presents a global audience with a window into the profound cultural heritage of China.The book's structure is both comprehensive and meticulously planned, covering all significant epochs in Chinese history from prehistoric times to the modern era. Lu Siqing's writing style is both engaging and accessible, making complex historical events and concepts comprehensible to a wide readership. The author's attention to detail and meticulous research is evident in every chapter, bringing alive the vibrant historical figures and events that have shaped China's trajectory.The English translation of "History of China" is particularly noteworthy. It not only preserves theoriginal's essence but also adapts it to suit aninternational audience, ensuring that the nuances and complexities of Chinese history are not lost in translation. The translator has done an admirable job of maintaining the flow and rhythm of the original text, while also ensuring that the terminology and historical context are accurately represented.One of the most remarkable aspects of this book is its ability to connect the dots between historical events and their impact on contemporary China. By tracing theevolution of Chinese society, politics, and culture throughout the ages, Lu Siqing provides readers with a deeper understanding of the factors that have shapedChina's modern identity. This is particularly relevant in today's globalized world, where understanding thehistorical context of different cultures is crucial for fostering mutual understanding and respect.The English edition of "History of China" also servesas a valuable resource for scholars and students alike. It offers a wealth of information on various aspects of Chinese history, including political systems, culturalmovements, economic developments, and military conflicts. The book's extensive bibliography and footnotes further enrich the reading experience by providing additional resources for further exploration.In conclusion, the English edition of "History of China" by Lu Siqing is a remarkable achievement inhistorical scholarship. It not only preserves and传播了中国的历史文化，but also bridges the linguistic and cultural divides, making Chinese history accessible to a global audience. The book's comprehensive coverage, engaging writing style, and accurate translation ensure that readers gain a deep and nuanced understanding of China's rich historical legacy. It is a must-read for anyone interested in Chinese history and culture, offering insights that are both profound and thought-provoking.**吕著《中国通史》英文版：穿越历史长河的文化桥梁** 历史研究领域浩瀚无垠，涵盖了古今中外文明的种种故事和编年史。
The history of translation in China,中国翻译史介绍
我国的翻译有着数千年的历史。打开 这一翻译史册，我们可以看到翻译高潮迭 起，翻译家难以计数，翻译理论博大精深。 了解这一历史不仅有助于我们继承我们的 先人的优秀文化遗产，而且也有助于我们 今天更加深入认识和发展我们的翻译事业。 简单说来，中国的翻译史大致可以分为以 下几个阶段：一、汉代-秦符时期； 二、隋 -唐-宋时期； 三、明清时期； 四、五四时 期； 五、新中过成立至今。
二、隋-唐-宋时代
从隋代（公元五九0年）到唐代，这段时间是我国翻译事业高度 发达时期。隋代历史较短，译者和译作都很少。比较有名的翻译家 有释彦琮（俗姓李，赵郡柏人）。他是译经史上第一位中国僧人。 一生翻译了佛经23部100余卷。彦琮在他撰写的《辨证论》中总结翻 译经验，提出了作好佛经翻译的八项条件：1）诚心受法，志愿益人， 不惮久时（诚心热爱佛法，立志帮助别人，不怕费时长久）；2）将 践觉场，先牢戒足，不染讥恶（品行端正，忠实可信，不惹旁人讥 疑）；3）荃晓三藏，义贯两乘，不苦闇滞（博览经典，通达义旨。 不存在暗昧疑难的问题）；4）旁涉坟史，工缀典词，不过鲁拙（涉 猎中国经史，兼擅文学，不要过于疏拙）；5）襟抱平恕。器量虚融， 不好专执（度量宽和，虚心求益，不可武断固执）；6）耽于道术， 淡于名利，不欲高炫（深爱道术，淡于名利，不想出风头）；7）要 识梵言，乃闲正译，不坠彼学（精通梵文，熟悉正确的翻译方法， 不失梵文所载的义理）；8）薄阅苍雅，粗谙篆隶。不昧此文（兼通 中训诂之学，不使译本文字欠准确）。
彦琮还说，"八者备矣，方是得人".这八条说的是译者的修养问题，至今 仍有参考价值。在彦琮以后，出现了我国古代翻译界的巨星玄奘（俗称三藏 法师）。他和上述鸠摩罗什、真谛一起号称华夏三大翻译家。玄奘在唐太宗 贞观二年（公元六二八年）从长安出发去印度取经，十七年后才回国。他带 回佛经六百五十七部，主持了中国古代史上规模最大、组织最为健全的译场， 在十九年间译出了七十五部佛经，共一三三五卷。玄奘不仅将梵文译成汉语， 而且还将老子著作的一部分译成梵文，是第一个将汉语著作向外国人介绍的 中国人。玄奘所主持的译场在组织方面更为健全。据《宋高僧传》记载，唐 代的翻译职司多至11种：1）译主，为全场主脑，精通梵文，深广佛理。遇有 疑难，能判断解决；2）证义，为译主的助手，凡已译的意义与梵文有和差殊， 均由他和译主商讨；3）证文，或称证梵本，译主诵梵文时，由他注意原文有 无讹误；4）度语，根据梵文文字音改记成汉字，又称书字；5）笔受，把录 下来的梵文字音译成汉文；6）缀文，整理译文，使之符合汉语习惯；7）参 译，既校勘原文是否有误，又用译文回证原文有无歧异；8）刊定，因中外文 体不同，故每行每节须去其芜冗重复；9）润文，从修辞上对译文加以润饰； 10）梵呗，译文完成后，用梵文读音的法子来念唱，看音调是否协调，便于 僧侣诵读；11）监护大使，钦命大臣监阅译经。
《欧洲文化入门》知识点笔记
00230Both Latin and Greek belong to Indo-European language.
00240The Roman writer Horace(:e0lQCQMR65-8t^ WlN0) said captive Greece took her rude conqueror captive 0
00The world s first vast interior space.NLu
N,{ Colosseum('Yt珐) is an enormous.2)Yvsb_q_gRb
00410Sculpture(QX) She-wolf(
00; Father of History ! Herodotus ! war(between Greeks and Persians)
00This war is called Peleponicion wars. ZSWTY嬒d 3
00fH[ v^l g_洺0
00; The greatest historian that ever lived. ( geggO'YvS[) ! Thucydides ! war (Sparta Athens and Syracuse)
00200The burning of Corinth in 146 B.C. Marked Roman conquest of Greece.
00210The melting between Roman Culture and Greek Culture. (Wl_ g ^Jvh)
00220From 146 B.C. Latin was the language of the western half of the Roman Empire.
塞万提斯传记(英文版)
Cervantes Saavedra, Miguel de:The grandmaster of Spanish literature and the father of the modern novel. Cervantes is believed to have been born in 1547 in the town of Alcaláde Hénares. His life itself reads like an adventure novel. Cervantes became a soldier in Italy in 1570 and fought in the Battle of Lepanto (1571). He was injured in this battle and lost the use of his left hand. While attempting to sail back to Spain in 1575, Cervantes was taken prisoner by Greek pirates and taken to Algiers. Miguel attempted to escape unsuccessfully three times, before he was finally ransomed. After returning to Spain, he struggled to make a living writing and was unhappily married to Catalina de Salazar y Palacios. Cervantes was jailed at least two times for debt and falsifying bookkeeping records. He did not achieve success until later in life. In fact his most productive and successful period was from around 1606 until his death in 1616.Don Quixote was released in two "installments" beginning in 1605. It met with immediate success and secured his position as the writer of one of the greatest novels in history. Don Quixote is a voluminous work which satirized the romantic notions of this period, chivalric novels, as well as Spanish society. It effectively blends humor, adventure and romance with an exploration of idealism versus realism. Its primary characters (Don Quixote and Sancho Panza) have achieved immortality and the novel has served as inspiration for many subsequent works of art, including musicals, plays and painting.Cervantes wrote his Novelas Ejemplares (Exemplary Stories,1613) concurrently with Don Quixote and this is the only other work which I have been able to find translated into English. They are a delightful collection of novellas primarily in the style of the picaresque novel. His first novel was entitled La Galatea (1585), but it was not well received. Although Cervantes is primarily associated with the novel, he also produced several collections of poetry and several plays. Several of these can be found in various collections of Spanish prose and drama.Miguel de Cervantes, born in Alcalá de Henares in 1547, was the son of a surgeon who presented himself as a nobleman, although Cervantes's mother seems to have been a descendant of Jewish converts to Christianity. Little is known of his early years. Four poems published in Madrid by his teacher, the humanist López de Hoyos, mark his literary début, punctuated by his sudden departure for Rome, where he resided for several months. In 1571 he fought valiantly at Lepanto, where he was wounded in his left hand by a harquebus shot. The following year he took part in Juan of Austria's campaigns in Navarino, Corfu, and Tunis. Returning to Spain by sea, he fell into the hands of Algerian corsairs. After five years spent as a slave in Algiers, and four unsuccessful escape attempts, he was ransomed by the Trinitarians and returned to his family in Madrid. In 1585, a few months after his marriage to Catalina de Salazar, twenty-two years younger than he, Cervantes published a pastoral novel, La Galatea, at the same time that some of his plays, now lost except for El trato de argel and El cerco de Numancia, were playing on the stages of Madrid. Two years later he left for Andalusia, which he traversed for ten years, first as a purveyor for the Invencible Armada and later as a tax collector. As a result of money problems with the government, Cervantes was thrown into jail in Seville in 1597; but in 1605 he was in Valladolid, then seat of the government, just when the immediate success of the first part of his Don Quixote, published in Madrid, signaled his return to the literary world. In 1607, he settled in Madrd justafter the return there of the monarch Philip III. During the last nine years of his life, in spite of deaths in the family and personal setbacks, Cervantes solidified his reputation as a writer. He published the Novelas ejemplares in 1613, the Viaje del Parnaso in 1614, and in 1615, the Ocho comedias y ocho entremeses and the second part of Don Quixote, a year after the mysterious Avellaneda had published his apocryphal sequel to the novel. At the same time, Cervantes continued working on Los trabajos de Persiles y Sigismunda, which he completed three days before his death on April 22, 1616, and which appeared posthumously in January 1617.What we know of Cervantes's life is the result of a long series of inquiries begun during the first three decades of the seventeenth century. But the most significant contributions have been those of scholars in the early part of this century, especially Cristóbal Pérez Pastor. The documents that have been published through their efforts come from public, parochial, and notarial archives, and they generally refer to Cervantes's captivity, the posts that he occupied in Andalusia, and certain other important events in his life. Few of these documents, however, cast any light on his life as a writer, much less on his personality. We need a methodical commentary on these documents to bring up to date the sketch which James Fitzmaurice Kelly published in Oxford in 1917: Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra; reseña documentada de su vida. We also need a critical biography worthy of the name. Luis Astrana Marín's big book Vida ejemplar y heroica de Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra (Madrid, 1948-1958, 7 vols.) suffers from a less-than-solid methodology as well as a number of personal biases. Still it contains a considerable amount of information and so remains an essential work of reference. Rosa Rossi's essay Escuchar a Cervantes (Valladolid, 1988) attempts to do away with the idealized portrait of Cervantes by interpreting his life as the confluence of his supposed Jewish origins and his latent homosexual tendencies. Certain recent biographers--such as Andrés Trapiello (Las vidas de Cervantes, Barcelona, 1993) and, not without a hint of scandal, Fernando Arrabal (Un esclavo llamado Cervantes, Paris and Madrid, 1996)--have revived the tradition of romanticized biographies in which the biographer's personality obliterates that of the writer whose life is the supposed subject.The biography written by the author of this note (Jean Canavaggio, Cervantès, revised and amplified edition, Paris: Fayard, 1997) differs from its predecessors in its pretentions. Unlike other works, it does not attempt to plumb the depths of the irrational in order to decipher the symbolism that Cervantes's fiction presumably contains. Rather than "explain" Cervantes, a man who disappeared almost four centuries ago and whose creation has taken on a life of its own, this biography aspires to "tell his story" better. We must first establish with all the necessary rigor what is actually known of Cervantes's actions and experiences, and we must exclude the legends, such as his having studied at the Jesuit school in Seville or his having composed the Quixote while in prison. Then Cervantes, who was an obscure participant in a heroic adventure, a lucid observer of a time of doubt and crisis, and a very personal interpreter of Spain at a crucial moment in its history, must be placed in his own milieu and his own time, better known now because of the work of recent historians. We must do our best to find that man. As we trace this life which has become a destiny that we attempt to render comprehensible, the book offers us a likely profile of a figure who is not the same individual that his friends and family knew, nor the "rare genius" whose profile Cervantes himself created, nor the figure which, since his death, has arisen from a series of myths which some day ought to be looked into. In other words, we are looking for the missingprofile which we assign to the secret narrator hidden behind his masks, this absent one who is always present, whose voice is his alone and, through the magic of his writing, is always recognizable even among a thousand othersStudents will understand the following:. Discuss how Miguel de Cervantes’ life is mirrored in Don Quixote’s.2. Explain how the eight people shown in the introduction refused to abandon their dreams despite popular sentiment that those dreams were unattainable. (Amelia Earhart, Nelson Mandela, women suffragettes, Mahatma Gandhi, John F. Kennedy, Jackie Robinson, Martin Luther King, Jr., Mother Theresa)3. At the end of Cervantes’ sequel, the Knight of the White Mo on, Sampson Curasco, forces Don Quixote to give up his fantasies “for his own good.” Discuss why people like Curasco feel the need to destroy the illusions and dreams of those who do not subscribe to a practical approach to life.To Dream the Impossible DreamDon Quixote might be seen as not simply crazy in his refusal to see things as they really are but more like a person who wants to accomplish a greater good and so refuses to compromise his ideals. Examples of such people include Nelson Mandela, Mahatma Gandhi, and Martin Luther King Jr. Ask students to discuss (with examples and other evidence) whether or not they think Quixote deserves to be put in the company of real-world idealists or is merely delusional.Tackling the IssuesAsk the class to discuss solutions to an issue that plagues contemporary society at large or just your community—for example, homelessness, violence, environmental degradation, hunger. Half the class should mention idealistic solutions to the chosen issue; the other half should mention only realistic approaches to solving the problem. See if, in listening to both sides, someone can come up with a proposal that is both realistic and unconventional—an idea that hasn’t been tried yet.Man of La Mancha is not the easiest of constructs: it features a play within a play, with a third layer thown in for good measure. Cervantes and an associate are brought to prison to await a hearing with the Inquisition. He is set upon by the prisoners, who decide to hold a mock trial in order to find him guilty and steal all his possessions (including a package he seems to value greatly). Cervantes presents a play as his defense, to give the "jury" insight into the "crimes" of which they acuse him. They agree and become actors in his play. Cervantes plays Alhonso Quiana, a man who has set his own reality aside and become Don Quixote De La Mancha. Man of La Mancha simultaneously tracks the experiences of the three men (Cervantes, Quiana, and Quixote), focusing mostly upon Quixote. It can be confusing at first exposure, but with this framework in mind to lend additional clarity -- it can be transformational. Please seek it out.。
剑桥拉丁美洲史英文版
剑桥拉丁美洲史英文版The intertwined histories of Cambridge and Latin America have long been a topic of fascination for scholars and enthusiasts alike. From the colonial era to the present day, the connections between these disparate regions have shaped the cultural, political, and intellectual landscape of both. This essay will delve into the multifaceted relationship between Cambridge and Latin America, exploring the ways in which this partnership has evolved over time.One of the earliest and most significant links between Cambridge and Latin America can be traced back to the colonial period. As European powers sought to expand their spheres of influence across the globe, Cambridge-educated scholars and administrators played a crucial role in shaping the colonial enterprises that took root in Latin America. From the establishment of universities and research institutions to the development of policies and strategies for governing these distant territories, the imprint of Cambridge's intellectual tradition was evident throughout the region.The rise of independence movements in Latin America during the19th century further strengthened the ties between Cambridge and the emerging nation-states. Many of the leaders and thinkers who spearheaded these revolutionary efforts were educated at Cambridge, where they imbibed the ideals of Enlightenment philosophy and political liberalism. The influence of these Cambridge-trained intellectuals can be seen in the constitutions, legal systems, and educational frameworks that were established in the newly independent countries of Latin America.As the 20th century dawned, the relationship between Cambridge and Latin America evolved in response to the changing geopolitical landscape. The two world wars and the subsequent Cold War era saw an increased emphasis on academic collaboration and knowledge exchange between the two regions. Cambridge scholars and researchers became deeply engaged in the study of Latin American history, culture, and socioeconomic development, while their Latin American counterparts sought to leverage the resources and expertise of the Cambridge academic community.One particularly notable example of this collaboration was the establishment of the Institute of Latin American Studies at the University of Cambridge in 1965. This interdisciplinary research center has played a pivotal role in fostering a deeper understanding of Latin America's past and present, drawing on the expertise of scholars from a wide range of disciplines. Through its publications,conferences, and collaborative projects, the Institute has helped to bridge the gap between Cambridge and the diverse nations of Latin America.Beyond the realm of academia, the relationship between Cambridge and Latin America has also manifested in the realm of politics and diplomacy. Cambridge-educated diplomats and policymakers have played a crucial role in shaping the interactions between their respective nations, navigating the complexities of international relations and working to forge new partnerships and alliances. The influence of Cambridge's international outlook and commitment to multilateralism can be seen in the foreign policies and diplomatic initiatives of many Latin American countries.In recent years, the relationship between Cambridge and Latin America has continued to evolve, with a growing emphasis on collaborative research, student exchange programs, and the sharing of best practices in areas such as sustainable development, public health, and social justice. As the world becomes increasingly interconnected, the need for cross-cultural understanding and cooperation has become more pressing than ever before, and the enduring partnership between Cambridge and Latin America remains a vital component of this global dialogue.In conclusion, the history of the relationship between Cambridge andLatin America is a rich and multifaceted tapestry, woven together by centuries of intellectual exchange, political collaboration, and cultural intermingling. From the colonial era to the present day, the influence of Cambridge's academic and intellectual traditions has been felt throughout the region, shaping the course of history and contributing to the ongoing evolution of Latin American societies. As the world continues to grapple with the challenges of the 21st century, the continued strengthening of this partnership will undoubtedly play a crucial role in shaping the future of both regions.。
英美文学史 第一部分 盎格鲁
第一部分盎格鲁——撒克逊时期III. 名词解释1. Epic (or Heroic Poetry)It is, originally, an oral narrative poem, majestic both in theme and style. Epics deal with legendary or historical of events of national or universal significance, involving action of broad sweep and grandeur. Most epics deal with the exploits of a single individual, thereby giving unity to the composition. Typically, an epic includes several features: the introduction of supernatural forces that shape the action; conflict in the form of battles or other physical combat; and stylistic conventions such as an invocation to the Muse, a formal statement of the theme, long lists of the protagonists involved, and set speeches couched in elevated language. Commonplace details of everyday life may appear, but they serve as background for the story and are described in the same lofty style as the rest of the poem. Epic poems are not merely entertaining stories of legendary or historical heroes; they summarize and express the nature or ideals of an entire nation at a significant or crucial period of its history. Examples include the ancient Greek epics by the poet Homer, the Iliad and the Odyssey. The characteristics of the hero of an epic are national rather than individual, and the exercise of those traits in heroic deeds serves to gratify a sense of national pride. At other times epics may synthesize the ideals of a great religious or cultural movement. The Divine Comedy by the Italian poet Dante expresses the faith of medieval Christianity. The Faerie Queene by the English poet Edmund Spenser represents the spirit of the Renaissance in English and like Paradise Lost by the English poet John Milton, represents the ideals of Christian humanism.2. AlliterationA repeated initial consonant to successive words. In Old English verse, any vowel alliterates with any others, and alliteration is not an unusual or expressive phenomenon but a regularly recurring structural feature of the verse, occurring on the first and third, and often on the first, second, and third, primary-stressed syllables of the four-stressed line. Thus, from The Seafarer:hreran mid hondum hrincaelde sae(“to stir with his hand the rime-cold sea”)In later English verse tradition, alliteration becomes expressive in a variety of ways. Spenser uses it decoratively, or to link adjective and noun, verb and object, as in the line: “much daunted with that dint, her sense was dased.” In the 18th and 19th centuries it becomes even less systematic and more "musical".IV .1.What is the theme of Beowulf?Beowulf, which centers on the narration of the exploits of the heroic figure Beowulf, is mainly about his three major adventures. It reflects a life of fights and feasting, of ceremony, of brilliant gold and sudden darkness. Here is a world of sacred obligations, feud and vengeance with heroic figures who are proud of their birth and their physical strength. But beyond this, the forces of wyrd (fate) seem to control man's destiny with mysterious omnipotence, while evil itself is both primordial and powerful. However, thematically the poem presents a vivid picture of how the primitive people wage heroic struggles against the hostile forces of the natural world under a wise and mighty leader. The poem is an example of the mingling of nature myths and heroic legends. For those interested in symbols, thesimplest interpretation of the myths in the poem is to regard Beowulf’s successive fights against the three monsters as the overcoming of the hostile forces of nature by man’s indomitable will and perseverance. For instance, the battle between Beowulf and the Dragon symbolically represents that phase of Winter and Summer myth in which the Summer God, here embodied by Beowulf, fights his last battle against the Winter Dragon in order to rescue the treasures of earth, that is, the golden corn and ruddy fruits. Having given them back to men, Beowulf himself dies of the Winter’s breath.2.What is the heroic ideal of Beowulf?Beowulf is essentially an aristocratic poem concerned with the heroic ideal of kings and kingship in North Europe. The social patterns ascribed in the poem are rigidly feudal, highly violent. Battle is a way of life. Strength and courage are basic virtues for both kings and his warriors. The hero-king strove to do better than any one else the things that are vitally important to the happy life of his people. The king should protect his people and show gentleness and generosity to his warriors. And in return, his warriors should show absolute obedience and loyalty to the king. By praising Beowulf's wisdom, strength and courage, and by glorifying his death for his people, the poem presents the heroic ideal of a king and his good relations to his warriors and people.3.What is the structure of Beowulf?According to the contents of the story, the poem can be divided into three parts:Part I: the fight against GrendelPart II: the fight against Grendel’s motherPart III: the fight against DragonBeowulf is an oral poem and for centuries the bards sing it to the people. As it is quite long, the bard could only sing a part of the story each night. Usually he would sing one adventure on the first night about the battle with Grendel. Then on the second night, he would continue and sing about Beowulf's fight against Grendel’s mother. However, there might be some new listeners. So before he came to the second adventure, he would give a short summary about what he sang the night before. And on the third night, he would give a longer summary about what happened on the first two night. There is also a prelude to invent an allusion to the real story. The poem begins with the funeral of a king and rounds up with that of another.4.Give a description of style in Beowulf.“Beowulf”towers above all other literary works written in Anglo-Saxon, chiefly because it is a powerful poem about a people’s hero written in true epic style, and not so much because the other extent writings of the period are mediocre or fragmentary. Beowulf is not simply a man of great military prowess but he is forever eager to help others in distress and in his last adventure with the dragon he shows himself a worthy leader ready to sacrifice his own life for the welfare of his people. Setting aside the supernatural elements pervading the poem as an inevitable limitation of the tribal-feudal age, “Beowulf” deserves to be ranked among the great heroic poems of northern Europe through it has not been as well known as the “Nibelungenlied”. In artistic form the epic tells the tale in a leisurely way, full of elaborations in legendary details, and the verse rises at places to heights of poetic grandeur, particularly in the descriptions of the hero’s nobility ofcharacter and in the narrations of his courageous battlings with malevolent foes.尼伯龙根之歌（Nibelungenlied）是著名的中世纪中古高地德语叙事诗。
英美文学简史 Chapters 1—2
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Beowulf
significance Outline of the Story
• • • • •
Medieval Literature: A Brief Introduction
1066—Norman Conquest—Middle English—Feudal Society The Arthurian Legends Sir Gawain and the Green Knight Robin Hood John Wycliffe
Medieval Literature: A Brief Introduction
Robin Hood Collection of 15th century medieval ballads about Robin Hood Robin Hood, the hero of the poor, the enemy of the rich and the powerful The ballads are many in number, “Robin hood and the Monk,” “Robin Hood and the Guy of Gisborne,” “Robin Hood and the Porter,” Lytell Geste of Robin Hood
中古英语帕斯顿书简
中古英语帕斯顿书简The Paston Letters, a collection of correspondence fromthe 15th century, offer a unique glimpse into the lives ofthe Paston family, revealing their concerns and daily affairs in a time when English was in the midst of significantlinguistic change.Written in Middle English, these letters are a testamentto the evolution of the language. The vocabulary and syntax, while rooted in Old English, show the influence of French and Latin, reflecting the cultural shifts of the period.The letters cover a range of topics, from propertydisputes to family gossip, providing a rich tapestry ofsocial history. They are not just documents but also a window into the personal lives of individuals who lived during the transition from the medieval to the early modern era.The style of the writing is intimate and direct, often revealing the writer's emotions and intentions. The lettersare peppered with legal terms and expressions of affection, giving us insight into the formalities and relationships ofthe time.Reading the Paston Letters is like eavesdropping on conversations from a distant past. The language, while challenging at times, is a bridge to understanding the complexities of medieval life and the people who navigated it.Despite the centuries that separate us, the human experiences captured in these letters resonate with us today. Love, conflict, and the pursuit of justice are themes that transcend time, connecting us to the Pastons and their world.The preservation of these letters is a remarkable feat, allowing us to delve into the vernacular of an era that shaped the English language as we know it today. They are not just historical artifacts but also a linguistic treasure trove.In studying the Paston Letters, we not only learn about the language of the past but also gain a deeper appreciation for the continuity of human expression and the enduring power of written communication.。
小王子前六章读英文读书笔记
小王子前六章读英文读书笔记The Little Prince is a timeless novella that has captured the hearts of readers across generations. As I delved into the first six chapters of this enchanting tale, I was transported to a world of innocence and wisdom, where the story unfolds through the eyes of a young boy from another planet.Chapter One introduces us to the narrator, a pilot, who recounts his childhood fascination with drawing and his first encounter with a snake digesting an elephant. This whimsical illustration sets the tone for the rest of the book, hinting at the surreal and philosophical nature of the narrative.In Chapter Two, we learn about the narrator's adult life and his pursuit of a career in aviation. The pilot's disconnection with the adult world is evident as he struggles to find someone who understands his childhood drawings, which foreshadow the arrival of the Little Prince.Chapter Three marks the beginning of the pilot's journey with the Little Prince. The mysterious boy appears in the Sahara Desert, and the pilot is immediately drawn to his otherworldly presence. The Little Prince's curiosity about life and his poignant questions about the snake and the stars set the stage for the deeper exploration of themes such as loneliness and the search for meaning.Chapter Four delves into the Little Prince's origins, as he describes his small home planet, Asteroid B-612. Thereader is introduced to the prince's rose, a symbol of love and attachment, which becomes a central motif in the story. The rose's vanity and the Little Prince's struggle to understand her reflect the complexities of humanrelationships.Chapter Five reveals the Little Prince's travels to other planets, each inhabited by an adult with a unique obsession, such as the king who wants to control everyone and everything, or the businessman who is fixated on counting stars. These encounters serve as a critique of adult society and its often misguided priorities.The sixth chapter continues the Little Prince'sinterstellar journey, where he meets a lamplighter who is bound by a rigid schedule. The lamplighter's dedication tohis task, despite its apparent futility, underscores thetheme of duty and the human tendency to adhere to routines without questioning their purpose.Through these initial chapters, the Little Prince's narrative is rich with symbolism and allegory, inviting readers to reflect on the nature of adulthood, the importance of relationships, and the quest for understanding in auniverse that is both vast and intimately connected. TheLittle Prince's adventures are a poignant reminder of the beauty and the tragedy of human existence, and the importance of maintaining a childlike sense of wonder in a world that often seems too complex for simple answers.。
英国文学史及选读Chapter1
英国文学史及选读Chapter1英国文学史及选读Chapter1发布人：圣才学习网发布日期：2010-08-16 17:32 共270人浏览[大] [中] [小]The Anglo-Saxon PeriodI. Fill in the blanks.1.After the fall of the Roman Empire and athe withdrawl of Roman troops from Albion，the aboriginal __ population of the larger part of the island was soon conquerered and almost totally exterminated by the Teutonic tribes of ____，_____ ，and _____ who came from the continent and settled in the island，naming its central part a，or England.2.For nearly ______ years prior to the coming of the English，British had been a Roman province. In _____，the Rome withdrew their legions from Britain to protect herself against swarms of Teutonic invaders.3.The literature of early period falls naturally into teo divisions，and ____.The former represents the poetry which ____the Anglso-Saxons probably brought with them in the form of _____ ，the crude material out of which literature was slowly developed on English soil；the later represents the writings developed under the teaching of ______ .4._____can be justly termed England’s national epic and its hero _____---one of the national heros of the English people.5.The Song of Beowulf reflects events which took place on the ______ approximately at the beginning of the_____century，when the forefathers of the Jutes lived in the southern part of the _____ and maintained close relations with kindred tribes，e.g.with the ______ who lived on the other side of the straits.6.Among the early Anglo-Saxon poets we may mention______ who lived in the latter half of the ______ century and who wrote a poetic Paraphase of the Blible.7.____ is the first known religious poets of England. He is known as the father of English song.8.The didac tic poem “The Christ” was produced by ________.II. Choose the best answer for each blank.9.The most important work of _______ is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles，which is regarded as the best monument of the old English prose.a. Alfred the Greatb. Caedmonc. Cynewulfd. Venerable Bede2. Who is the monster half-huamn who had mingled thirty warriors in The Song of Beowulf？a. Hrothgat.b. Heorot.c. Grendel.d. Beowulf.3. _____ is the first important religious poet in English Literature.a. Cynewulfb.Caedmonc. Shakepeare.d. Adam Bede4. The epic，The Song of Beowulf，represents the spirit of ______.a. monksb. romanticistsc. sentimentalistd. paganIII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false and write your answers in the brackets.1. （）The author of The Song of Beowulf is Cynewulf.2. （）The setting of The Song of Beowulf is in Scotland.3. （）Alfred the Great compiles The Anglo-Saxon Chronicles.4. （）Venerable Bede wrote The Ecclesiastical History of the English People.5. （）The author of Paraphase is Caedmon.IV. Define the liretary terms listed below.Alliteration Epic.V. Answer the following questions.1.What do you know about the Teutors.2.Please give a brief description of The Song of Boewulf.英国文学史及选读Chapter2发布人：圣才学习网发布日期：2010-08-16 17:31 共93人浏览[大] [中] [小]The Anglo-Norman PeriodI. Fill in the following blanks.1.In the year___，at the battle of ___，the ____ headed by William，Duke of Normandy，defeated the Anglo-Saxons.2.The literature which Normans brought to England is remarkable for its bright，____ tales of _______ and _______，in marked contrast with the ___ and ______ of Anglo-Saxon poetry.3.English literature is also a combination of ____and _____ elements.4.In the 14th century，the two most important writers are ___ and Chaucer.5.In the 15th century，there is only one important prose writer whose name is _____. He wrote an important work called Morte d’ Arthur.II. Define the leterature terms listed below.1.Canto2.legend3.Arthurian Legend.III. Read the excerpt of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight carefully，and then make a brief comment on it.IV. Answer the following questions.1.What is the consequence of the Norman Conquest？2.Make a brief survey of the middle English literature.英国文学史及选读Chapter3发布人：圣才学习网发布日期：2010-08-16 17:31 共68人浏览[大] [中] [小]Geoffrey ChaucerI. Fill in the following blanks.1.Chaucer’s masterpiece is _____，one of the most famous works in all literature.2.Chaucer created in The Canterbury Tales a strikingly brilliant and picturesque panorama of _______.3.There are various kinds of ballads _______，______，______，_____，and ______.4.Bishop ____ was among the first to take a literary interest in ballads.5.The name of the “jolly innkeeper” in The CanterburyTales is ______，who proposes that each pilgrim of the ____ should tell two tales on the way to Canterbury and two more on the way back.6.In contradistinction to the ______ verse of Anglo-Saxon poetry，Chaucer chose the metrical form which laid the foundation of the English _____ verse.II. Choose the best answer.1.Who is the “father of English poetry” and one of the greatest narrative poets of England？a. Christopher Marlowb. Geoffrey Chaucerc. W. Shakespeared. Alfred the Great2. Chaucer’s earlist work of any length is his “______” a transl ation of the French “Roman de la Rose” by Gaillaume de Lorris and Jean de Meung，which was a love allegory enjoying widespread popularity in the 13th and 14th centuries not only in France but throught Europe.a. Troilus and Criseydeb. A Red，Red Rosec. Romance of the Rosed. Piers the Plowman3. In his literary development，Chaucer was influenced by three literatures，which one is not true？a. French literature.b. Italian literaturec. English literatured. American literatureIII. Decide whether the following statements are true or false and write your answers in the brackets.1. （）The 32 pilgrims，according to Chaucer’s plan，was to exceed that of Baccoccio’s Decameron.2. （）The Prologue is a splendid masterpiece of Romantic portray，the first of its kind in the history of English literature.3. （）The Canterbury Tales is a vivid and brilliant reflection of 15th century in England.4. （）Chaucer’s poetry traces out a path to the literature of English Renaissance.IV. Define the leterary terms listed below.1.Romance.2.Fable.3.BalladV. Anwer the following question.1.What is the social significance of The Canterbury Tales ？英国文学史及选读Chapter4发布人：圣才学习网发布日期：2010-08-16 17:30 共66人浏览[大] [中] [小]The RenaissanceI. Complete each of the following statements with a proper word or phrase according to the textbook.1.Shakespeare’s first priginal play written in about 1590 was _________.2.Hamlet，Othello，King Lear，and _______ are generally regarded as Shakespeare’s four great tragedies.3.The Tragical History of Doct or Faustus is one of _______’s best known sonnets.4.Absolute monarchy in England reached its summit during the reign of ______.5.Bacon’s works may be divided into three classes，the ______，the _______，the _______ works.6.Together with the development of bourgeois relationships and formation of the English national state this period is marked by a flourishing of national culture known as the_________.7.Edmund Spenser was the author of the greatest epic poem of _______.II. Find out the author and his works.⑴The author and their works1. （）Thomas More a. Gorge Green2. （）Enmund Spenser b. Eupheus3. （）John Lyly c.The Fairy Queen4. （）Marlowe d. Utopia5. （）Robert Greene e. The Jew of Malta⑵The characters in the play1. （）Desdemona a. The Merchant of Venice2. （）Cordelia b. As you like it3. （）Juliet c.Hamlet4. （）Ophelia d. King Lear5. （）Portia e. Othello6. （）Rosalind f. Romeo and JulietIII. Define the leterary terms listed below.1.Renaissance2.sonnet3.Spenserian Stanza4.Humanism5.dramatic irony6.tragedy7.allusionIV. Answer the following questions.1.Give a summary about the English literature during the Renaissance period.2.What is the main idea of Hamlet？3.Give a brief introduction to Thomas More’s Utopia.4.Wh en were Shakespeare’s main tragedies written？what did he write about in his tragedies？英国文学史及选读Chapter5发布人：圣才学习网发布日期：2010-08-16 17:29 共40人浏览[大] [中] [小]Chapter Five The Period of Revolution and RestorationI. Complete each of the following statements with a proper word or phrase according to th etextbook.1.The 17th century was a period when ______ impeded the further development of capitalism in England and the ______ could no longer bear the sway of _______.2.England became a commomwealth under the leadership of _______.3.The Glorious Revolution in _____ meant three things the supremacy of ________，the beginning of _______，and the final truiumph of the principle of _______.4.Restoration created a literature of its own，that was often ______ and _______，but on the whole _______ and _______.5.The first thing to strik e the reader is Donne’s extraordinary _____ and penetrating_______. The next is the ______ which marks certain of the lighter poems and which represents a conscious reation from the extreme _______ of woman encouraged by the Petrachan tradition.6.Parad ise Lost presents the author’s view in an ______，_______ form. It is based on the _______legend of the imaginary progenitors of the human race-______，and _______，and involves God and his eternal adversary _____in its plot.7.Bunyan’s most important wo rk is _________，written in the old-fashioned，medieval form of ________ and _________.8.Christia has two objects，---to get rid of his ______，which holds the sins and fears of his life，and to make his way.II. Find out the work from column A and its content from column B.1. （）II Penseroso a. defense of the Revolution2. （）Lycidas b. Satan against God3. （）Comas c. about dear friend4. （）Areopagitica d. happiness5. （）Eikonolastes e. meditation6. （）Defense for the English People f. masque7. （）Paradise Lost g. attack on the censorship8. （）L’Allegro h. justifying the excutionIII.Define the leterature terms listed below.1 .Blank Verse2. Three Unities3. Conceit4. Stanza5. Elegy6 .Allegory7. GenreLiterary CriticismIV. Answer the following questions.1.What are the different aspects between the literature of Elizabeth period and that of the Revolution period？2.Give a brief analysis of Satan，the central figure in ParadiseLost.3.Why do people say Samson is Milton？4.In your opinion，why is “The Pilgrim’s P rogress” successful？英国文学史及选读Chapter6发布人：圣才学习网发布日期：2010-08-16 17:29 共34人浏览[大] [中] [小]The Age of Enlightenment EnglandI. Complete each of the following statements with a proper word or phrase according to th etextbook.1.The Revolution of 1688，which banished the last of the _____ kings，marks the end of the long struggle for political freedom in England.2.Another feature of the age was the rapid development of _________.3.It is simply for convenience that we study 18th century writings in three main divisions：the reign of so-called _____，the revival of _______ poetry，and the beginnings of the _______.4.The philosophy of the nlighteners，though ________ ________ and _________ in its essence，did not exclude senses，or sentiments，as a means of perception and learning.5.The most outstanding figure of English sentimentalism was ________.6.The Tarler and _______ _________ were Steele and Addison’s chief contribution to English literature.7.Robinson Crusoe is largely an ______ ________ ________ story，rather than the study of ______ _______ which Defoe probably intended it to be.8.Gulliver’s adventures begins with ______________，who are so small that Gulliver isa giant among them.9.The poem，which Addison named ______ _______，was hailed throughout England as a great work.10.In the essays of the 16th century，French writer ____ set the model for more familiar，personal and discursive discussion.11.Fielding’s laternovels are _______________，was inspired by the success of Ri chardson’s novel Pamela.12.As________，Goldsmith is among the best of the century.13. The greatest of _______ poets is Robert Burns.II. Match the theirs works in column A writers/genres with in column B.⑴1. （）The Deserted Village a. Thomas Gary2. （）The Village b. George Crabble3. （）Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard c. Oliver Goldsmith4. （）The Seasons d. James Thomson5. （）The Rape of the Lock e. William Blake6. （）The Chimney Sweeper f. Alexander Pope7. （） A Red，Red Rose g. Robert Burns⑵1. （）A Sentimental Journey a. Daniel Defoe2. （）The Vicar of Wakefield b. Jonathan Swift3. （）The School for Scandal c.John Bunyan4. （）The History of a Young Lady d. Horace Walpole5. （）Tom Jones e. Laurence Sterne6. （）The Adventures of Peregrine Pickle f. Oliver Goldsmith7. （）Robinson Crusoe g. Richard B. Sheridam8. （）Gulliver’s Tra vels h. Samuel Richardson9. （）The Castle of Otranto i. T. G. Smollet10.（）The Pilgrim’s Progress j. Fielding.⑶1. （）The Vicar of Wakefield a. essay2. （）She Stoops to Conquerb. poem3. （）The Citizen of the world c. novel4. （）The Deserted Village d. comedyIII.Define the leterature terms listed below.1.Enlightenment Movement2.Realistic Novel3.Gothic novel4.Heroic Couplet5.Mock Epic6.Bildungsroman7.Epitaph8.Farce9.Imagism10.RhymeIV. Answer the following questions.1.What is Pope’s position in English literature？2.What are the features of Sterne’s novels？3.What are the narrative festures of Gulliver’s Travel？4.What is Dr. Johnson’s comment on Addison’s prose？5.What is Fielding’s style？6.Why is Burn’s poetry important？英国文学史及选读Chapter7发布人：圣才学习网发布日期：2010-08-16 17:28 共27人浏览[大] [中] [小]The Romantic PeriodI. Fill in the following blanks.1.With the publication of William Wordworth’s _____ in Collaboration with S. T. Coleridge，________ began to bloom and found a firm place in the history of English literature.2.The most important and decisive factor in the develoment of literature is _____，English Romanticism was greatly influenced by the _______ and _______.3.The greatest historical novelist _____ was produced in the Romantic Age.4.Byron is chiefly known for his two long poems，one is Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage，the other is ________.5.Shelley’s poem _______ （1816），is vaguely autobiographical acount of a youn g poet’s unsuccessful attempt to recapture his envisional ideal.6.Ode to a Nightingale was written by _______.II. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.1. The Romantics emphasized the special qualities of each individual’s mind.2.The brilliant literary criticiam Biographis literaria is written by Samuel Johnson.III. Write the author of the following literary works.1. Song of Innocence2. The Prelude3. Kubla Khan4. Don Juan5. Prometheus Unbound6. Ode to the West Wind7. Ode on a Greciam Urn8. Pride and Prejudice9. Poor RelationsIV. Match the authors in column A with the works in columnB.1. Dante a. I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud2.Byron b. Ode to a Nightingale3. Wordsworth c. Gain4. Keats d. Prometheus Unbound5. Shelley e. Divine ComedyV. Define the following terms.1.Romanticism/doc/a410999246.htmlke poetsVI. Answer the following questions.1.How does Wordsworth define the poet？2.What kinds of stylistic devices are used in Ode to the West Wind？3.Co mment on Austen’s writing festures.英国文学史及选读Chapter7发布人：圣才学习网发布日期：2010-08-16 17:28 共27人浏览[大] [中] [小]The Romantic PeriodI. Fill in the following blanks.1.With the publication of William Wordworth’s _____ in Collaboration with S. T. Coleridge，________ began to bloom and found a firm place in the history of English literature.2.The most important and decisive factor in the develomentof literature is _____，English Romanticism was greatly influenced by the _______ and _______.3.The greatest historical novelist _____ was produced in the Romantic Age.4.Byron is chiefly known for his two long poems，one is Childe Harold’s Pilgrimage，the other is ________.5.Shelley’s poem _______ （1816），is vaguely autobiographical acount of a young poet’s unsuccessful attempt to recapture his envisional ideal.6.Ode to a Nightingale was written by _______.II. Decide whether the following statements are true or false.1. The Romantics emphasized the special qualities of each individual’s mind.2.The brilliant literary criticiam Biographis literaria is written by Samuel Johnson.III. Write the author of the following literary works.1. Song of Innocence2. The Prelude3. Kubla Khan4. Don Juan5. Prometheus Unbound6. Ode to the West Wind7. Ode on a Greciam Urn8. Pride and Prejudice9. Poor RelationsIV. Match the authors in column A with the works in columnB.1. Dante a. I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud2.Byron b. Ode to a Nightingale3. Wordsworth c. Gain4. Keats d. Prometheus Unbound5. Shelley e. Divine ComedyV. Define the following terms.1.Romanticism/doc/a410999246.htmlke poetsVI. Answer the following questions.1.How does Wordsworth define the poet？2.What kinds of stylistic devices are used in Ode to the West Wind？/doc/a410999246.htmlment on Austen’s writing festures.英国文学史及选读Chapter9发布人：圣才学习网发布日期：2010-08-16 17:26 共37人浏览[大] [中] [小]The 20TH Century LiteratureI. Fill in the following blanks.1.Those “novels of character and enviorement” by T homas Hardy are the most representative of him as both a _______ and a critical realist writer.2.The trilogy “The Forsyte Saga” consists of The Man of Propert y，In Chancery and_________./doc/a410999246.htmlwrence first novel，_________________，was received with respect.4.Virginia Woolf’s novel ________________，published in 1925，made her reputation as an important psychological writer.5._________is the m ost outstanding stream of consciousnessnovelist.II. Define the literary terms.1.Imagism2.ModernismIII. Find the relevant match from column B for each item in column A.1. James Joyce a. Neo-classicism2. Ezra Pound b. An active romantic3. William Wordsworth c. Humanism4. Oscar Wilde d. Transcendantalism5. Walter Scott e. A radical enlightenner6. Alezander Pope f. Imagism7. Johanthan Swift g. Aestheticism8. Percy Bysshe Shelley h. A lake Poet9. William Shakespeare i. Stream of consciousness10. Henry，David Thoreau j. A historical novelistIV. Give a brief comment on the c haracteristic of Hardy’s novels.。
中英对照《天演论》察变.doc
Evolution and Ethics, Prolegomena by Adous Huxley I.《天演论》阿道斯·赫胥黎导言一：察变IT may be safely assumed that, two thousand years ago, before Caesar set foot in southern Britain, the whole country-side visible from the windows of the room in which I write, was in what is called "the state of nature." Except, it may be, by raising a few sepulchral mounds, such as those which still, here and there, break the flowing contours of the downs, man's hands had made no mark upon it; and the thin veil of vegetation which overspread the broad-backed heights and the shelving sides of the coombs was unaffected by his industry.赫胥黎独处一室之中，在英伦之南，背山而面野，槛外诸境，历历如在几下。
乃悬想二千年前，当罗马大将恺彻未到时，此间有何景物。
计惟有天造草昧，人功未施，其借征人境者，不过几处荒坟，散见坡陀起伏间，而灌木丛林，蒙茸山麓，未经删治如今日者，则无疑也。
The native grasses and weeds, the scattered patches of gorse, contended with one another for the possession of the scanty surface soil; they fought against the droughts of summer, the frosts of winter, and the furious gales which swept, with unbroken force, now from the [2] Atlantic, and now from the North Sea, at all times of the year; they filled up, as they best might, the gaps made in their ranks by all sorts of underground and overground animal ravagers. One year with another, an average population, the floating balance of the unceasing struggle for existence among the indigenous plants, maintained itself. It is as little to be doubted, that an essentially similar state of nature prevailed, in this region, for many thousand years before the coming of Caesar; and there is no assignable reason for denying that it might continue to exist through an equally prolonged futurity, except for the intervention of man.怒生之草，交加之藤，势如争长相雄。
一个东西的历史英语作文
一个东西的历史英语作文English Answer:History is a vast and complex subject that encompasses various aspects of human civilization. It is the study of past events and their impact on the present. Through the examination of historical records, artifacts, and oral traditions, historians seek to understand the causes and consequences of human actions and decisions.One of the primary purposes of history is to provide a sense of continuity and understanding of our own place in time. By delving into the experiences and challenges of our ancestors, we can gain a deeper appreciation for the complexities of the present and the challenges that lie ahead. History teaches us about the mistakes of the past, enabling us to learn from them and avoid repeating the same errors.Furthermore, history plays a crucial role in shapingour collective memory and identity. It helps us understand the origins of our traditions, customs, and beliefs, fostering a sense of belonging and purpose. Through the study of history, we can trace the evolution of our societies, appreciate the contributions of our forebears, and develop a sense of pride in our shared heritage.History is also an invaluable tool for criticalthinking and analysis. By examining multiple perspectives and sources, historians strive to reconstruct the past as accurately as possible. This process requires the development of skills such as source evaluation, interpretation, and synthesis, which are essential for understanding complex issues and making informed decisions in the present.Moreover, history has a cautionary aspect. It reminds us that human nature is flawed and that even the best-intentioned actions can have unintended consequences. By studying the rise and fall of civilizations, we can learn about the fragility of human progress and the importance of vigilance in preserving our liberties and values.In conclusion, history is an indispensable discipline that offers a wealth of knowledge and wisdom about the human experience. It provides us with a sense of continuity, shapes our identity, fosters critical thinking, and serves as a cautionary tale. By embracing the study of history, we can better understand ourselves, our world, and the challenges that face us in the future.中文回答：历史是一门广博而复杂的学科，它涵盖了人类文明的各个方面。
斯塔夫里阿诺斯 全球通史 英文版
斯塔夫里阿诺斯全球通史英文版Title: Stavrianos" Global History (English Edition)The renowned work of Stavrianos, "Global History," is an extraordinary account that encapsulates the vast and intricate tapestry of human civilization.This English edition serves as a comprehensive narrative, delving into the evolution of societies across different epochs and geographical boundaries.《斯塔夫里阿诺斯的全球通史》是一部卓越的作品，它将人类文明的广阔而复杂的画卷囊括其中。
这本英文版的著作提供了一个全面的历史叙述，深入探讨了不同时代和地理环境下社会的演变。
Divided into several distinct chapters, each one unfolds a unique era, highlighting significant events and their impact on shaping our world today.Stavrianos" analytical approach allows readers to grasp the interconnectedness of historical occurrences, fostering a deeper understanding of the past.本书分为若干个独特的章节，每一章都展现了一个独一无二的时代，突出了重大事件及其对当今世界塑造的影响。
《细米》第一章英语读后感
《细米》第一章英语读后感In the novel "Ximili", the first chapter explores the delicate balance between traditions and societal changes that permeate the lives of the characters. This chapter deeply resonated with me and left a lasting impression.The author vividly describes the setting, a small rural village where simplicity and a close-knit community predominate. Through the eyes of the protagonist, we witness the daily rhythms of life - the lush green fields, the echoes of laughter floating through the air, and the comforting presence of age-old customs. It is a place where time seemsto stand still, preserving a sense of harmony and tranquility.However, beneath the seemingly idyllic surface lies an undercurrent of discontent. The younger generation, including the protagonist herself, is torn between honoring tradition and embracing the allure of progress. This conflict isperfectly encapsulated when the protagonist's best friend, Mei, opts to leave the village in search of better opportunities in the city. Mei's departure symbolizes the breaking of ties with the past, leaving the protagonist to grapple with the weight of her own choices.As I delved deeper into the chapter, I couldn't help but draw parallels to my own life. Like the protagonist, I find myself standing at the crossroads of tradition and modernity, trying to navigate the complexities of our evolving world. The novel encourages readers to contemplate the personal sacrifices and difficult decisions that often accompany such transitions.The author's prose weaves a tapestry of emotions, effortlessly displaying the protagonist's internal struggle. The sense of longing and hesitancy in the face of change is palpable. It made me reflect on the risks and rewards of embracing the unknown and charting a new path, even if itmeans leaving behind the familiar comforts that once defined us.Overall, the first chapter of "Ximili" is an exquisite exploration of the timeless themes of tradition, progress, and the universal nature of human experience. It serves as a poignant reminder that life is a series of choices, and that growth often requires us to embrace uncertainty. The novel has captivated me, and I eagerly await the subsequent chapters that will surely unravel deeper layers of the characters' lives and the dilemmas they face.。
最新-高考英语 可能考的名著《HISTORY OF ROMAN-1》IN
HISTORY OF ROMAN-1History Of The Decline And Fall Of The Roman EmpireEdward Gibbon, Esq.With notes by the Rev. H. H. MilmanVol. 1IntroductionPreface By The Editor.The great work of Gibbon is indispensable to the student of history. The literature of Europe offers no substitute for "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire." It has obtained undisputedpossession, as rightful occupant, of the vast period which it comprehends. However some subjects, which it embraces, may have undergone more complete investigation, on the general view of the whole period, this history is the sole undisputed authority to which all defer, and from which few appeal to the original writers, or to more modern compilers. The inherent interest of the subject, the inexhaustible labor employed upon it; the immense condensation of matter; the luminous arrangement; the general accuracy; the style, which, however monotonous from its uniform stateliness, and sometimes wearisome from its elaborate ar., is throughout vigorous, animated, often picturesque always commands attention, always conveys its meaning with emphatic energy, describes with singular breadth and fidelity, and generalizes with unrivalled felicity of expression; all these high qualifications have secured, and seem likely to secure, its permanent place in historic literature.This vast design of Gibbon, the magnificent whole into which he has cast the decay and ruin of the ancient civilization, the formation and birth of the new order of things, will of itself, independent of the laborious execution of his immense plan, render "The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire" anunapproachable subject to the future historian: ^* in the eloquent language of his recent French editor, M. Guizot: - [Footnote * A considerable portion of this preface has already appeared before us public in the Quarterly Review.]"The gradual decline of the most extraordinary dominion which has ever invaded and oppressed the world; the fall of that immense empire, erected on the ruins of so many kingdoms, republics, and states both barbarous and civilized; and forming in its turn, by its dismemberment, a multitude of states, republics, and kingdoms; the annihilation of the religion of Greece and Rome; the birth and the progress of the two new religions which have shared the most beautiful regions of the earth; the decrepitude of the ancient world, the spectacle of its expiring glory and degenerate manners; the infancy of the modern world, the picture of its first progress, of the new direction given to the mind and character of man - such a subject must necessarily fix the attention and excite the interest of men, who cannot behold with indifference those memorable epochs, during which, in the fine language of Corneille -'Un grand destin commence, un grand destin s'acheve.'"This extent and harmony of design is unquestionably that which distinguishes the work of Gibbon from all other great historical compositions. He has first bridged the abyss between ancient and modern times, and connected together the two great worlds of history. The great advantage which the classical historians possess over those of modern times is in unity of plan, of course greatly facilitated by the narrower sphere to which their researches were confined. Except Herodotus, the great historians of Greece - we exclude the more modern compilers, like Diodorus Siculus - limited themselves to a single period, or at 'east to the contracted sphere of Grecian affairs. As far as the Barbarians trespassed within the Grecian boundary, or were necessarily mingled up with Grecian politics, they were admitted into the pale of Grecian history; but to Thucydides and to Xenophon, excepting in the Persian inroad of the latter, Greece was the world. Natural unity confined their narrative almost to chronological order, the episodes were of rare occurrence and extremely brief. To the Roman historians the course was equally clear and defined. Rome was their centre of unity; and the uniformity with which the circle of the Roman dominion spread around, the regularity with which their civil polity expanded, forced, as it were, upon the Roman historian that plan whichPolybius announces as the subject of his history, the means and the manner by which the whole world became subject to the Roman sway. How different the complicated politics of the European kingdoms! Every national history, to be complete, must, in a certain sense, be the history of Europe; there is no knowing to how remote a quarter it may be necessary to trace our most domestic events; from a country, how apparently disconnected, may originate the impulse which gives its direction to the whole course of affairs.In imitation of his classical models, Gibbon places Rome as the cardinal point from which his inquiries diverge, and to which they bear constant reference; yet how immeasurable the space over which those inquiries range; how complicated, how confused, how apparently inextricable the causes which tend to the decline of the Roman empire! how countless the nations which swarm forth, in mingling and indistinct hordes, constantly changing the geographical limits - incessantly confounding the natural boundaries! At first sight, the whole period, the whole state of the world, seems to offer no more secure footing to an historical adventurer than the chaos of Milton - to be in a state of irreclaimable disorder, best described in the language of thepoet: -- "A darkIllimitable ocean, without bound,Without dimension, where length, breadth, and height,And time, and place, are lost: where eldest NightAnd Chaos, ancestors of Nature, holdEternal anarchy, amidst the noiseOf endless wars, and by confusion stand."We feel that the unity and harmony of narrative, which shall comprehend this period of social disorganization, must be ascribed entirely to the skill and luminous disposition of the historian. It is in this sublime Gothic architecture of his work, in which the boundless range, the infinite variety, the, at first sight, incongruous gorgeousness of the separate parts, nevertheless are all subordinate to one main and predominant idea, that Gibbon is unrivalled. We cannot but admire the manner in which he masses his materials, and arranges his facts in successive groups, not according to chronological order, but to their moral or political connection; the distinctness with whichhe marks his periods of gradually increasing decay; and the skill with which, though advancing on separate parallels of history, he shows the common tendency of the slower or more rapid religious or civil innovations. However these principles of composition may demand more than ordinary attention on the part of the reader, they can alone impress upon the memory the real course, and the relative importance of the events. Whoever would justly appreciate the superiority of Gibbon's lucid arrangement, should attempt to make his way through the regular but wearisome annals of Tillemont, or even the less ponderous volumes of Le Beau. Both these writers adhere, almost entirely, to chronological order; the consequence is, that we are twenty times called upon to break off, and resume the thread of six or eight wars in different parts of the empire; to suspend the operations of a military expedition for a court intrigue; to hurry away from a siege to a council; and the same page places us in the middle of a campaign against the barbarians, and in the depths of the Monophysite controversy. In Gibbon it is not always easy to bear in mind the exact dates but the course of events is ever clear and distinct; like a skilful general, though his troops advance from the most remote and opposite quarters, they are constantly bearing down and concentrating themselves on one point - thatwhich is still occupied by the name, and by the waning power of Rome. Whether he traces the progress of hostile religions, or leads from the shores of the Baltic, or the verge of the Chinese empire, the successive hosts of barbarians - though one wave has hardly burst and discharged itself, before another swells up and approaches - all is made to flow in the same direction, and the impression which each makes upon the tottering fabric of the Roman greatness, connects their distant movements, and measures the relative importance assigned to them in the panoramic history. The more peaceful and didactic episodes on the development of the Roman law, or even on the details of ecclesiastical history, interpose themselves as resting-places or divisions between the periods of barbaric invasion. In short, though distracted first by the two capitals, and afterwards by the formal partition of the empire, the extraordinary felicity of arrangement maintains an order and a regular progression. As our horizon expands to reveal to us the gathering tempests which are forming far beyond the boundaries of the civilized world - as we follow their successive approach to the trembling frontier - the compressed and receding line is still distinctly visible; though gradually dismembered and the broken fragments assuming the form of regular states and kingdoms, the real relation of thosekingdoms to the empire is maintained and defined; and even when the Roman dominion has shrunk into little more than the province of Thrace - when the name of Rome, confined, in Italy, to the walls of the city - yet it is still the memory, the shade of the Roman greatness, which extends over the wide sphere into which the historian expands his later narrative; the whole blends into the unity, and is manifestly essential to the double catastrophe of his tragic drama.But the amplitude, the magnificence, or the harmony of design, are, though imposing, yet unworthy claims on our admiration, unless the details are filled up with correctness and accuracy. No writer has been more severely tried on this point than Gibbon. He has undergone the triple scrutiny of theological zeal quickened by just resentment, of literary emulation, and of that mean and invidious vanity which delights in detecting errors in writers of established fame. On the result of the trial, we may be permitted to summon competent witnesses before we deliver our own judgment.M. Guizot, in his preface, after stating that in France and Germany, as well as in England, in the most enlightened countriesof Europe, Gibbon is constantly cited as an authority, thus proceeds: -"I have had occasion, during my labors, to consult the writings of philosophers, who have treated on the finances of the Roman empire; of scholars, who have investigated the chronology; of theologians, who have searched the depths of ecclesiastical history; of writers on law, who have studied with care the Roman jurisprudence; of Orientalists, who have occupied themselves with the Arabians and the Koran; of modern historians, who have entered upon extensive researches touching the crusades and their influence; each of these writers has remarked and pointed out, in the 'History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,' some negligences, some false or imperfect views some omissions, which it is impossible not to suppose voluntary; they have rectified some facts combated with advantage some assertions; but in general they have taken the researches and the ideas of Gibbon, as points of departure, or as proofs of the researches or of the new opinions which they have advanced."M. Guizot goes on to state his own impressions on reading Gibbon's history, and no authority will have greater weight withthose to whom the extent and accuracy of his historical researches are known: -"After a first rapid perusal, which allowed me to feel nothing but the interest of a narrative, always animated, and, notwithstanding its extent and the variety of objects which it makes to pass before the view, always perspicuous, I entered upon a minute examination of the details of which it was composed; and the opinion which I then formed was, I confess, singularly severe. I discovered, in certain chapters, errors which appeared to me sufficiently important and numerous to make me believe that they had been written with extreme negligence; in others, I was struck with a certain tinge of partiality and prejudice, which imparted to the exposition of the facts that want of truth and justice, which the English express by their happy term misrepresentation. Some imperfect (tronquees) quotations; some passages, omitted unintentionally or designedly cast a suspicion on the honesty (bonne foi) of the author; and his violation of the first law of history - increased to my eye by the prolonged attention with which I occupied myself with every phrase, every note, every reflection - caused me to form upon the whole work, a judgment far too rigorous. After having finished my labors, Iallowed some time to elapse before I reviewed the whole. A second attentive and regular perusal of the entire work, of the notes of the author, and of those which I had thought it right to subjoin, showed me how much I had exaggerated the importance of the reproaches which Gibbon really deserved; I was struck with the same errors, the same partiality on certain subjects; but I had been far from doing adequate justice to the immensity of his researches, the variety of his knowledge, and above all, to that truly philosophical discrimination (justesse d'esprit) which judges the past as it would judge the present; which does not permit itself to be blinded by the clouds which time gathers around the dead, and which prevent us from seeing that, under the toga, as under the modern dress, in the senate as in our councils, men were what they still are, and that events took place eighteen centuries ago, as they take place in our days. I then felt that his book, in spite of its faults, will always be a noble work - and that we may correct his errors and combat his prejudices, without ceasing to admit that few men have combined, if we are not to say in so high a degree, at least in a manner so complete, and so well regulated, the necessary qualifications for a writer of history."The present editor has followed the track of Gibbon through many parts of his work; he has read his authorities with constant reference to his pages, and must pronounce his deliberate judgment, in terms of the highest admiration as to his general accuracy. Many of his seeming errors are almost inevitable from the close condensation of his matter. From the immense range of his history, it was sometimes necessary to compress into a single sentence, a whole vague and diffuse page of a Byzantine chronicler. Perhaps something of importance may have thus escaped, and his expressions may not quite contain the whole substance of the passage from which they are taken. His limits, at times, compel him to sketch; where that is the case, it is not fair to expect the full details of the finished picture. At times he can only deal with important results; and in his account of a war, it sometimes requires great attention to discover that the events which seem to be comprehended in a single campaign, occupy several years. But this admirable skill in selecting and giving prominence to the points which are of real weight and importance - this distribution of light and shade - though perhaps it may occasionally betray him into vague and imperfect statements, is one of the highest excellencies of Gibbon's historic manner. It is the more striking, when we pass from theworks of his chief authorities, where, after laboring through long, minute, and wearisome descriptions of the accessary and subordinate circumstances, a single unmarked and undistinguished sentence, which we may overlook from the inattention of fatigue, contains the great moral and political result.Gibbon's method of arrangement, though on the whole most favorable to the clear comprehension of the events, leadslikewise to apparent inaccuracy. That which we expect to find in one part is reserved for another. The estimate which we are to form, depends on the accurate balance of statements in remote parts of the work; and we have sometimes to correct and modify opinions, formed from one chapter by those of another. Yet, on the other hand, it is astonishing how rarely we detect contradiction; the mind of the author has already harmonized the whole result to truth and probability; the general impression is almost invariably the same. The quotations of Gibbon have likewise been called in question; - I have, in general, been more inclined to admire their exactitude, than to complain of their indistinctness, or incompleteness. Where they are imperfect, it is commonly from the study of brevity, and rather from the desire of compressing the substance of his notes into pointed andemphatic sentences, than from dishonesty, or uncandid suppression of truth.These observations apply more particularly to the accuracy and fidelity of the historian as to his facts; his inferences, of course, are more liable to exception. It is almost impossible to trace the line between unfairness and unfaithfulness; between intentional misrepresentation and undesigned false coloring. The relative magnitude and importance of events must, in some respect, depend upon the mind before which they are presented; the estimate of character, on the habits and feelings of the reader. Christians, like M. Guizot and ourselves, will see some things, and some persons, in a different light from the historian of the Decline and Fall. We may deplore the bias of his mind; we may ourselves be on our guard against the danger of being misled, and be anxious to warn less wary readers against the same perils; but we must not confound this secret and unconscious departure from truth, with the deliberate violation of that veracity which is the only title of an historian to our confidence. Gibbon, it may be fearlessly asserted, is rarely chargeable even with the suppression of any material fact, which bears upon individual character; he may, with apparently invidious hostility, enhancethe errors and crimes, and disparage the virtues of certain persons; yet, in general, he leaves us the materials for forming a fairer judgment; and if he is not exempt from his own prejudices, perhaps we might write passions, yet it must be candidly acknowledged, that his philosophical bigotry is not more unjust than the theological partialities of those ecclesiastical writers who were before in undisputed possession of this province of history.We are thus naturally led to that great misrepresentation which pervades his history - his false estimate of the nature and influence of Christianity.But on this subject some preliminary caution is necessary, lest that should be expected from a new edition, which it is impossible that it should completely accomplish. We must first be prepared with the only sound preservative against the false impression likely to be produced by the perusal of Gibbon; and we must see clearly the real cause of that false impression. The former of these cautions will be briefly suggested in its proper place, but it may be as well to state it, here, somewhat more at length. The art of Gibbon, or at least the unfair impressionproduced by his two memorable chapters, consists in his confounding together, in one indistinguishable mass, the origin and apostolic propagation of the new religion, with its later progress. No argument for the divine authority of Christianity has been urged with greater force, or traced with higher eloquence, than that deduced from its primary development, explicable on no other hypothesis than a heavenly origin, and from its rapid extension through great part of the Roman empire. But this argument - one, when confined within reasonable limits, of unanswerable force - becomes more feeble and disputable in proportion as it recedes from the birthplace, as it were, of the religion. The further Christianity advanced, the more causes purely human were enlisted in its favor; nor can it be doubted that those developed with such artful exclusiveness by Gibbon did concur most essentially to its establishment. It is in the Christian dispensation, as in the material world. In both it is as the great First Cause, that the Deity is most undeniably manifest. When once launched in regular motion upon the bosom of space, and endowed with all their properties and relations of weight and mutual attraction, the heavenly bodies appear to pursue their courses according to secondary laws, which account for all their sublime regularity. So Christianity proclaims itsDivine Author chiefly in its first origin and development. When it had once received its impulse from above - when it had once been infused into the minds of its first teachers - when it had gained full possession of the reason and affections of the favored few - it might be - and to the Protestant, the rationa Christian, it is impossible to define when it really was - left to make its way by its native force, under the ordinary secret agencies of all-ruling Providence. The main question, the divine origin of the religion, was dexterously eluded, or speciously conceded by Gibbon; his plan enabled him to commence his account, in most parts, below the apostolic times; and it was only by the strength of the dark coloring with which he brought out the failings and the follies of the succeeding ages, that a shadow of doubt and suspicion was thrown back upon the primitive period of Christianity."The theologian," says Gibbon, "may indulge the pleasing task of describing religion as she descended from heaven, arrayed in her native purity; a more melancholy duty is imposed upon the historian: - he must discover the inevitable mixture of error and corruption which she contracted in a long residence upon earthamong a weak and degenerate race of beings." Divest this passage of the latent sarcasm betrayed by the subsequent tone of the whole disquisition, and it might commence a Christian history written in the most Christian spirit of candor. But as the historian, by seeming to respect, yet by dexterously confounding the limits of the sacred land, contrived to insinuate that it was an Utopia which had no existence but in the imagination of the theologian - as he suggested rather than affirmed that the days of Christian purity were a kind of poetic golden age; - so the theologian, by venturing too far into the domain of the historian, has been perpetually obliged to contest points on which he had little chance of victory - to deny facts established on unshaken evidence - and thence, to retire, if not with the shame of defeat, yet with but doubtful and imperfect success. Paley, with his intuitive sagacity, saw through thedifficulty of answering Gibbon by the ordinary arts of controversy; his emphatic sentence, "Who can refute a sneer?" contains as much truth as point. But full and pregnant as this phrase is, it is not quite the whole truth; it is the tone in which the progress of Christianity is traced, in comparison with the rest of the splendid and prodigally ornamented work, which is the radical defect in the "Decline and Fall." Christianity alonereceives no embellishment from the magic of Gibbon's language; his imagination is dead to its moral dignity; it is kept down by a general zone of jealous disparagement, or neutralized by a painfully elaborate exposition of its darker and degenerate periods. There are occasions, indeed, when its pure and exalted humanity, when its manifestly beneficial influence, can compel even him, as it were, to fairness, and kindle his unguarded eloquence to its usual fervor; but, in general, he soon relapses into a frigid apathy; affects an ostentatiously severe impartiality; notes all the faults of Christians in every age with bitter and almost malignant sarcasm; reluctantly, and with exception and reservation, admits their claim to admiration. This inextricable bias appears even to influence his manner of composition. While all the other assailants of the Roman empire, whether warlike or religious, the Goth, the Hun, the Arab, the Tartar, Alaric and Attila, Mahomet, and Zengis, and Tamerlane, are each introduced upon the scene almost with dramatic animation - their progress related in a full, complete, and unbroken narrative - the triumph of Christianity alone takes the form of a cold and critical disquisition. The successes of barbarous energy and brute force call forth all the consummate skill ofcomposition; while the moral triumphs of Christian benevolence - the tranquil heroism of endurance, the blameless purity, the contempt of guilty fame and of honors destructive to the human race, which, had they assumed the proud name of philosophy, would have been blazoned in his brightest words, because they own religion as their principle - sink into narrow asceticism. The glories of Christianity, in short, touch on no chord in the heart of the writer; his imagination remains unkindled; his words, though they maintain their stately and measured march, have become cool, argumentative, and inanimate. Who would obscure one hue of that gorgeous coloring in which Gibbon has invested the dying forms of Paganism, or darken one paragraph in his splendid view of the rise and progress of Mahometanism? But who would not have wished that the same equal justice had been done to Christianity; that its real character and deeply penetrating influence had been traced with the same philosophical sagacity, and represented with more sober, as would become its quiet course, and perhaps less picturesque, but still with lively and attractive, descriptiveness? He might have thrown aside, with the same scorn, the mass of ecclesiastical fiction which envelops the early history of the church, stripped off the legendary romance, and brought out the facts in their primitive nakednessand simplicity - if he had but allowed those facts the benefit of the glowing eloquence which he denied to them alone. He might have annihilated the whole fabric of post-apostolic miracles, if he had left uninjured by sarcastic insinuation those of the New Testament; he might have cashiered, with Dodwell, the whole host of martyrs, which owe their existence to the prodigal invention of later days, had he but bestowed fair room, and dwelt with his ordinary energy on the sufferings of the genuine witnesses to the truth of Christianity, the Polycarps, or the martyrs of Vienne. And indeed, if, after all, the view of the early progress of Christianity be melancholy and humiliating we must beware lest we charge the whole of this on the infidelity of the historian. It is idle, it is disingenuous, to deny or to dissemble the early depravations of Christianity, its gradual but rapid departure from its primitive simplicity and purity, still more, from its spirit of universal love. It may be no unsalutary lesson to the Christian world, that this silent, this unavoidable, perhaps, yet fatal change shall have been drawn by an impartial, or even an hostile hand. The Christianity of every age may take warning, lest by its own narrow views, its want of wisdom, and its want of charity, it give the same advantage to the future unfriendly historian, and disparage the cause of true religion.The design of the present edition is partly corrective, partly supplementary: corrective, by notes, which point out (it is hoped, in a perfectly candid and dispassionate spirit with no desire but to establish the truth) such inaccuracies or misstatements as may have been detected, particularly with regard to Christianity; and which thus, with the previous caution, may counteract to a considerable extent the unfair and unfavorable impression created against rational religion: supplementary, by adding such additional information as the editor's reading may have been able to furnish, from original documents or books, not accessible at the time when Gibbon wrote.The work originated in the editor's habit of noting on the margin of his copy of Gibbon references to such authors as had discovered errors, or thrown new light on the subjects treated by Gibbon. These had grown to some extent, and seemed to him likely to be of use to others. The annotations of M. Guizot also appeared to him worthy of being better known to the English public than they were likely to be, as appended to the French translation.。
英国文化资料
英国⽂化资料Chapter One：Early and Medieval English Literature (5th century –1485)1. Beowulf (7th century)What a Man Is Beowulf?Beowulf is a grand hero. He is faithful to his people. He goes alone, in a strange land, to rescue his people. He forgets himself in face of danger, thinking only that it profits others.Features of BeowulfAlliteration(押头韵): There are generally four accents in a line, three of which show alliteration.Metaphor(隐喻): ring-giver= king; whale’s road=sea. Such metaphors occur in great number. Understatement(典型特点): not troublesome=very welcome; need not praise=condemnLiterary Terms（⽂学术语解释）Legend（传说）: A song or narrative handed down from the past, legend differs from myths on the basis of the elements of historical truth they contain.Epic（史诗）: 1)Epic, in poetry, refers to a long work dealing with the actions of gods and heroes. 2) Beowulf is the greatest national epic of the Anglo-Saxons. John Milton wrote three great epics: Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained and Samson Agonistes.Romance罗曼史/骑⼠⽂学: 1)Romance is a popular literary form in the medieval England. 2) It sings knightly adventures or other heroic deeds. 3) Chivalry (such as bravery, honor, generosity, loyalty and kindness to the weak and poor) is the spirit of romance.Ballad（民谣）: 1)Ballad is a story in poetic form to be sung or recited. 2) Ballads were passed down from generation to generation. 3) Robin Hood is a famous ballad singing the goods of Robin Hood. Coleridge’s The Rime of the Ancient Mariner is a 19th century English ballad.2. Geoffrey Chaucer杰佛利·乔叟（约1340-1400）英国代表作家，现实主义⽂学的奠基者。
The History and Theory of Rhetoric
provide a sense of the intense intellectual electricity that crackles around the thinking of so many brilliant minds as they seek to understand for themselves and to educate their own students about the inherent power of artfully managed symbols
The History and Theory of Rhetoric: An Introduction
Instructor: Prof. Yumei Ju
Purpose and srse
General purposes: To provide students with an interesting and
there is a complete glossary of rhetorical terms useful for review.
there is a bibliography that will assist students to do additional reading
It is my hope that this course will:
Structure of each chapter:
Begins with a timeline, closes with a list of key terms, questions for review, and questions for discussion.
书的历史演变过程英文作文
书的历史演变过程英文作文英文：The history of books is a fascinating journey that spans thousands of years. From the earliest forms of writing on stone tablets and papyrus scrolls to the modern printed books and e-books, the evolution of books has been driven by the human desire to record and share knowledge.In ancient times, books were rare and precious. They were painstakingly copied by hand, making them expensive and accessible only to the wealthy and educated elite. The invention of the printing press in the 15th century revolutionized the production of books, making them more affordable and widely available. This led to a surge in literacy and the spread of ideas and knowledge.In the 21st century, the digital revolution has transformed the way we read and access books. E-books and audiobooks have become increasingly popular, allowingpeople to carry entire libraries in their pockets. The rise of online platforms and social media has also changed the way books are marketed and shared, creating newopportunities for authors and readers alike.Despite these technological advancements, printed books continue to hold a special place in the hearts of many readers. The tactile experience of holding a physical book, turning its pages, and smelling its unique scent is irreplaceable. This is why bookstores and libraries remain important cultural institutions, providing a space for people to discover and connect with books in a tangible way.In conclusion, the history of books is a testament tothe enduring power of human creativity and ingenuity. From ancient manuscripts to modern e-readers, books have continued to evolve and adapt to the changing needs and preferences of readers. As a book lover myself, I amexcited to see what the future holds for the world of books.中文：书籍的历史是一个迷人的旅程，跨越了数千年。
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Chapter One The History of Translation in China
1.翻译的定义
2.翻译的种类
3.我国翻译的历史
1.翻译定义
翻译是运用一种语言把另一种语言所表达的思维内容准确而完整地重新表达出来的语言活动.
Translating consists in reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning, and secondly in terms of style.
翻译是接受语复制出与原语信息最接近的自然等值体---首先是就意义而言,其次是就其风格而言.
2.翻译的种类
按涉及到的语言来分,有本族语译成外语,外语译成本族语两种;
按其工作方式来分,有口译和笔译两种;
按翻译材料来分,有科技材料的翻译,文学作品的翻译(包括小说戏剧诗歌等),政论作品的翻译(包括社会科学论文报告演说辞等)以及其他应用文的翻译(包括新闻报导电报文件);
按其处理方式分,有全译摘译和编译等。
3.我国翻译的历史
我国翻译事业有约两千年的历史。
（1）西汉哀帝时代开始有个名叫伊存的人到中国口传一些简短的佛经经句。
（2）东汉桓帝建和二年正式开始佛经的翻译。
（安世高、支娄迦谶、支亮和支谦）支娄迦谶译笔生硬，读者不易看懂.
（3）符秦时代开始设置译场，翻译成为有组织的活动。
（释道安、鸠摩罗什）释道安: 主持设置了译场，翻译成为有组织的活动。
他主张严格的直译。
鸠摩罗什: 主张意译，改正了过去音译的弱点，提倡译者署名，译著有《金刚经》《法华经》等300余卷。
他的译著有”天然西域之语趣”。
（4）南北朝时，真谛从印度来到中国译了《摄大乘论》对中国佛教思想有较大影响。
5）隋代起到唐代，是我国翻译事业的高度发达的时期。
其中出现了古代翻译界的巨星玄奘（与上述鸠摩罗什、真谛一起号称我国佛教三大翻译家）。
玄奘带回657部佛经，主持了更加健全的译场。
他还把老子著作的一部分译成梵文，是第一个把汉文著作向国外介绍的中国人。
他提出了“既须求真，又须喻俗”的翻译标准。
（6）从明代万历年间到清代“新学”时期，出现了以徐光启、林纾、严复等为代表的介绍西欧各国科学文学哲学的翻译家。
明徐光启和意大利人利玛窦合作翻译了欧几里得的《几何原本》《测量法义》等。
林纾又叫林琴南，译了160多部文学作品，其中《巴黎茶花女遗事》《黑奴吁天录》（Uncle Tom’s Cabin）《块肉余生述》(David Copperfield)等。
严复：我国清末新兴资产阶级的启蒙思想家，所译作品多系西方政治经济学说。
T. H. Huxley的《天演论》（Evolution and Ethics and Other Essays）, Adam Smith的《原富》（An Inquiry into Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations）等。
严复提出著名的“信、达、雅”翻译标准。
（7）“五四”是我国近代翻译史的分水岭。
我国翻译开始介绍马列主义经典著作和无产阶级
文学作品。
Chapter Two
1.翻译的标准
2.翻译的过程
3.对翻译工作者的要求
1.翻译的标准
忠实：译文中所表达的内容与原作中所表达的内容必须同一。
（内容通常指作品中所叙述的事实、说明的事理、描写的景物以及作者在叙述说明和描写过程中所反映的思想观点、立场和所流露的感情等。
）
通顺：指译文语言必须通顺易懂，符合规范。
（即在忠实的前提下，遵从语言的习惯性）
忠实
⏹Many a friend will tell us our faults without reserve, who will not so much as hint at our
follies.
⏹许多朋友愿意毫无保留地向我们指出错误，可是却不会同样暗示我们的愚蠢。
⏹许多在我们做蠢事时连提醒都不提醒我们一下的朋友，却会毫不客气地指出我们的
过失。
⏹忠实也指保持原作的风格。
（P8）
通顺
A luxuriant tan speaks health and glamour.
⏹丰润的棕色皮肤诉说着健康和魅力。
⏹丰润的棕色皮肤是健康和魅力的标志。
⏹We must claim extraordinary insight for Hegel.
⏹我们必须为黑格尔要求非凡的洞察力。
⏹我们不能不说，黑格尔具有非凡的洞察力
2.翻译的过程
⏹1).理解
⏹2).传达
⏹3).校核
1).理解
a.理解原文的词义
For example: evening, night, small hours, early hours.
evening 指晚饭后到睡觉前
night 指从日落到日出
small hours 指凌晨两三点
early hours 指大清早
The secretary and accountant of the company was present.
公司的秘书和会计在场。
公司的秘书兼会计在场。
Ashurst was seeing Megan.
阿舒尔特那会儿正在看着梅甘的面影。
阿舒尔特那会儿正在回忆着梅甘的面影。
Three cousins of the French President were also to receive diamonds.
法国总统的三位远亲后来也接受了一些钻石。
b. 理解原文的句法结构（语法知识）
Their voices had been to him, lying there on the carpet with his head wrapped in his arms, indistinguishable.
威廉趴在地毯上，两只胳膊抱住了头，听不清他们在说什么？
Y et what it was that she must cover up she never knew.
但是要遮掩什么，她压根儿就不知道。
c.理解文化因素
文化人类学家把文化划分为四大系统：
•技术—经济系统，包括生态环境、生产、交换和分配方式、科学技术、人工制品等。
•社会系统：包括社会阶级、群体、亲属制度、政治、法律、教育、风俗习惯、历史等。
•Turkey Dinner 土耳其午餐火鸡大餐
•观念系统：包括宇宙观宗教巫术民间信仰艺术创作和意象价值观念任知和思维方式等
It looks as if we were thinking along parallel lines.
parallel lines 平行—不相交—不矛盾
平行—不相交—碰不起头—不一致
2).传达（直译法和意译法）
a.直译法即在译文语言条件许可时，在译文中既保持原文的内容，又保持原文的形式—特指保持原文的比喻、形象和民族、地方色彩等。
他（听到这话）心里一跳，脸色也变了。
His heart jumped and the color of his face changed.
At this his heart missed a beat and he became pale.
b.意译法
Do you see any green in my eye?
你以为我是好欺骗的吗？.校对:主要是补上原译中脱漏的内容，改正原译中的失误和不正确之处。
3).校核
a.校对:主要是补上原译中脱漏的内容，改正原译中的失误和不正确之处
b.文字润饰
⑴惯用法
He crashed down on a protesting chair.
他猛然坐到一张吱吱地发出抗议声的椅子上。
他猛然坐到一张椅子上，椅子被压得吱吱作响。
⑵在不降低表现力的情况下，尽量选用简洁的表达法。
阅后请放回原处。
Please put back what you read after reading.
Please replace after reading.
⑶为使译文明白顺畅，有时可加一些“范畴词”。
Such subtle flattery got him almost everything.
这种巧妙的奉承手段使他几乎得到了他想要的每一件东西。