语言学第三章笔记和习题

Chapter 3 MorphologyLexicon is the collection of all the words of a language. It is synonymous with “vocabulary”.Words are the focus of the study of lexicon, so the emphasis of this chapter falls upon words, i.e., the analysisand creation of words.Linguists define the word as the smallest free form found in language. The features of wordWord is meaningful; word is a grammatical unit; word can be used independently; word is relatively stable and uninterruptible.Morphology refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.The total number of words stored in the brain is called the lexicon.Words are the smallest free units of language that unite sounds with meaning.Morphology is a branch of linguistics, whereas lexicon is a component of language instead of a branch of linguistics.Open class word and closed class wordOpen class words----content words of a language to which we can regularly add new words, such as nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs, e.g. beatnik(a member of the Beat Generation), hacker, email, internet, 做秀，时装秀…” in Chinese.Closed class words----grammatical or functional words, such as conjunction, articles, preposition and pronouns.Morpheme--the minimal unit of meaning. The smallest meaningful unit of language is called a morpheme.---Words are composed of morphemes. Words may consist of one morpheme or more morphemes, e.g.1-morpheme boy, desire2-morpheme boy+ish, desir(e)+ble3-morpheme boy+ish+ness, desir(e)+bl(e)+ity4-morpheme gentle+man+li+ness, un+desir(e)+abl(e)+ity5-morpheme un+gentle+man+li+ness7-morpheme anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ismMorph: when people wish to distinguish the sound of a morpheme from the entire morpheme, they may sued the term.It is the phonetic realization of a morphemeAllomorph: A morpheme may be represented by different forms, called allomorphs. It is the phonetic variant of a morpheme.Some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as “dog, bark, cat”,etc. In other instan some variation, that is, a morpheme may have alternate shapes or phonetic forms. They are said to be the allomorphs of the morpheme, the plural morpheme may be represented by:map----maps [s]dog----dogs [z]watch----watches [iz]mouse----mice [ai]ox----oxen [n]tooth----teethsheep----sheepEach of the underlined part is called an allomorph of plural morpheme.AffixPrefix ---- morphemes that occur only before others, e.g.un-, dis, anti-, ir-, etc.Suffix ---- morphemes that occur only after others, e.g.form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. A root may be free or bound (such as mit, tain, cur,ceive). An affix is naturally bound.Free morpheme & bound morphemeFree morpheme----is one that may constitute a word (free form) by itself, such as bed, tree, sing, dance, etc.Bound morpheme----is one that may appear with at least one other morpheme. They can not stand by themselves,-” in “disclose”, “ed” in “recorded”, etc.-s” in “dogs”, “al” in “national”, “dissuch as “Some morphemes constitute words by themselves. These morphemes are called free morphemes.Other morphemes are never used independently in speech and writing. They are always attached to free morphemes to form new words. These morphemes are called bound morphemes.The distinction between a free morphemes and a bound morpheme is whether it can be used independently in speech or writing.Free morphemes are the roots of words, while bound morphemes are the affixes (prefixes and suffixes).Derivational morpheme & inflectional morphem eDerivational morphemes---- the morphemes which change the category, or grammatical class of words, e.g. modern---modernize, length---lengthen, fool---foolish, etc.Inflectional morphemes---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaning, e.g.a) number: tables apples carsb) person, finiteness and aspect: talk/talks/talking/talkedc) case: John/John’ｓInflectional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect o f verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms to construct new words.English affixes are divided into prefixes and suffixes.Some languages have infixes, bound morphemes which are inserted into other morphemes.Derivational morphemes----affix (suffix, infix, prefix) + rootInflectional morphemes 1111 types of inflectional morphemes in EnglishNoun+ -’s, -s/es [possessive; plural] Verb+ -s/es, -ing, -ed, -ed/-en [3rd person singular; present participle; past tense, past participle] Adj+ -er, -est [comparative; superlative]Inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a wordInflectional morphemes influence the whole category;Derivational morphemes are oppositeOrder: root (stem) + derivational + inflectionalConclusion: classification of morphemesMorphemesFree morphemesBound morphemesInflexionalDerivational: affixesPrefixesSuffixesMorphological rules- + ----” rule.The rules that govern the formation of words, e.g. the “ununfair unthinkable unacceptable…Compounding is another way to form new words, e.g.landlady rainbow undertake…The process of putting affixes to existing forms to create new words is called derivation. Words thus formed are called derivatives.CompoundsNoun compoundsdaybreak (N+V) playboy (V+N) haircut (N+V)callgirl (V+N) windmill (N+N)Verb compoundsbrainwash (N+V) lipread (N+V) babysit(N+V)Adjective compoundsmaneating (N+Ving) heartfelt (N+Ved)dutyfree (N+adj.)Preposition compoundsinto (P+P)throughout (P+P)Some points about compoundsWhen the two words are in the same grammatical category, the compound will be in this category, e.g. postbox, landlady, icy-cold, blue-black…When the two words fall into different categories, the class of the second or final word will be the grammatical category of the compound, e.g. head-strong, pickpocket…Compounds have different stress patterns from the non-compounded word sequence, e.g. red coat, green house The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts.Formation of new words1. Inflection: it is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectionalaffixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case.2. DerivationDerivation forms a word by adding an affix to a free morpheme.Since derivation can apply more than once, it is possible to create a derived word with a number of affixes. For example, if we add affixes to the word friend, we can form befriend, friendly,unfriendly, friendliness, unfriendliness,etc. This process of adding more than one affix to a freemorpheme is termed complex derivation.Derivation is also constrained by phonological factors.Some English suffixes also change the word stress.poundingCompounding is another common way to form words. It is the combination of free morphemes.The majority of English compounds are the combination of words from the three classes – nouns, verbs and adjectives – and fall into the three classes.In compounds, the rightmost morpheme determines the part of speech of the word.The meaning of compounds is not always the sum of meaning of the components.4. Conversion (invention)Conversion is the process putting an existing word of one class into another class.Conversion is usually found in words containing one morpheme.5. Clipping (abbreviations) front, back, front and backClipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.Clipped words are initially used in spoken English on informal occasions.Some clipped words have become widely accepted, and are used even in formal styles. For example, the words bus (omnibus), vet (veterinarian), gym (gymnasium), fridge (refrigerator)and fax(facsimile)are rarely used in their complete form.6.BlendingBlending is a process that creates new words by putting together non-morphemic parts of existing words. For example, smog (smoke + frog), brunch (a meal in the middle of morning, replacing bothbreakfast and lunch), motel(motor + hotel). There is also an interesting word in the textbook forjunior middle school students –“plike” (a kind of machine that is like both a plane and a bike).7. Back-formationBack-formation is the process that creates a new word by dropping a real or supposed suffix. For example, the word televise is back-formed from television. Originally, the word television is formedby putting the prefix tele- (far) to the root vision (viewing). At the same time, there is a suffix –sion inEnglish indicating nouns. Then people consider the –sion in the word television as that suffix and dropit to form the verb televise.8.AcronymsAcronyms are formed by putting together the initial letters of all words in a phrase or title.Acronyms can be read as a word and are usually longer than abbreviations, which are read letter by letter.This type of word formation is common in names of organizations and scientific terminology.9.EponymsEponyms are words that originate from proper names of individuals or places. For example, the word sandwich is a common noun originating from the fourth Earl of Sandwich, who put his foodbetween two slices of bread so that he could eat while gambling.10.CoinageCoinage is a process of inventing words not based on existing morphemes.This way of word formation is especially common in cases where industry requires a word for a new product. For example, K odak and Coca-cola.11.Borrowing: English in its development has managed to widen its vocabulary by Borrowing wordsfrom other languages . Greek, Latin, French, Arabic and other languages have all played an active rolein this process, such as “atom, electricity” from Greek, “cancer, tumour” from Latin, “violin, pizza”from Italian.12. Onomatopoeia: it is a way of creating words by imitating the sounds of the outside world. Supplementary Exercises Chapter 3：MorphologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False:1. Morphology studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.2.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.3. Just as a phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology, so is a morpheme the basic unit in the study ofmorphology.4. The smallest meaningful units that can be used freely all by themselves are free morphemes.5. Bound morphemes include two types: roots and affixes.6. Inflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as number, tense, degree, and case.7. The existing form to which a derivational affix can be added is called a stem, which can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.8. Prefixes usually modify the part of speech of the original word, not the meaning of it.9. There are rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word. Therefore, words formed according to the morphological rules are acceptable words.10. Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element, while the second element receives secondary stress.II. Fill in each blank below with one word which begins with the letter given:11. M ____ is the smallest meaningful unit of language.-ish” in the word boyish conveys a g____ meaning.12. The affix “13. B___________ morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.14. Affixes are of two types: inflectional affixes and d__________ affixes.15. D________ affixes are added to an existing form to create words.16. A s______ is added to the end of stems to modify the meaning of the original word and it may case change its part of speech.17. C__________ is the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.18. The rules that govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form a new word are calledm___________ rules.19. In terms of morphemic analysis, d_______________ can be viewed as the addition of affixes to stems to form new words.20. A s______ can be a bound root, a free morpheme, or a derived form itself to which a derivational affix can be added.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement:21. The morpheme “vision” in the common word “television” is a(n) ______.A. bound morphemeB. bound formC. inflectional morphemeD. free morphemeis the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a 22. The compound word “bookstore”　compound __________.A. is the sum total of the meaning of its componentsB. can always be worked out by looking at the meanings of morphemesC. is the same as the meaning of a free phrase.D. None of the above.23. The part of speech of the compounds is generally determined by the part of speech of __________.A. the first elementB. the second elementC. either the first or the second elementD. both the first and the second elements.24. _______ are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. Free morphemesB. Bound morphemesC. Bound wordsD. Words25. _________ is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which wordsare formed.A. SyntaxB.GrammarC. MorphologyD. Morpheme26. The meaning carried by the inflectional morpheme is _______.A. lexicalB. morphemicC. grammaticalD. semantic27. Bound morphemes are those that ___________.A. have to be used independentlyB. can not be combined with other morphemesC. can either be free or boundD. have to be combined with other morphemes.28. ____ modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. RootsD. Affixes29. _________ are often thought to be the smallest meaningful units of language by the linguists.A. WordsB. MorphemesC. PhonemesD. Sentences_______.30. “-s” in the word “books” isA. a derivative affixB. a stemC. an inflectional affixD. a rootIV. Define the following terms:31. morphology 32. inflectional morphology33. derivational morphology 34. morpheme35. free morpheme 36. bound morpheme37. root 38. affix39. prefix 40. suffix41. derivation 42. CompoundingV. Answer the following questions:43. What are the main features of the English compounds?44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Suggested answers to supplementary exercises Chapter 3 MorphologyIV. Define the following terms:31. Morphology: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rulesby which words are formed.32. inflectional morphology: The inflectional morphology studies the inflections33. derivational morphology: Derivational morphology is the study of word- formation.34. Morpheme: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.35. free morpheme: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.36. bound morpheme: Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.37. Root: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.38. Affix: Affixes are of two types: inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.39. Prefix: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word . Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but they usuallydo not change the part of speech of the original word.40. Suffix: Suffixes are added to the end of the stems; they modify the meaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.41. Derivation: Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivative affixes are added to an existingform to create a word.42. Compounding: Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two or sometimes more than two words to create new words.V. Anwser the following questions:43. What are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meanings of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.44. Discuss the types of morphemes with examples.Free morphemes: They are the independent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves, for example, “book-” in the word “bookish”．Bound morphemes: They are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with other-ish” in “bookish”. Bound morphemes can be subdivi morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word such as “into roots and affixes. A root is seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it has a clear andderivational.-” in the word “generate”. Affixes are of two types: inflectional anddefinite meaning, such as “geneInflectional morphemes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories such as -s” in the word “books” to indicate plurality of nouns. Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word such as “mis-” in the word “misinform”. Derivational affixes can also be divided into prefixes and suffixes. Prefixes o at the beginning of a word such as “dis- ” in the word “dislike”, while suffixes occur at the end of a word suc “-less” in the word “friendless。