中西文明史复习材料
中考历史总复习专题五 中外文明的交流与互鉴
5.（6分）中华文化在与外来文化的交流中不断发展、升华。中华文化的传 播，促进了世界文明的发展。阅读材料，完成下列问题。
材料一
万历年间，徐光启与利玛窦在北京合作翻译了欧
几里得的《几何原本》。崇祯二年（1629年）朝廷任
命徐光启督修历法，他聘请耶稣会士龙华民、汤若望
等参加，最终以《崇祯历书》为总题目，编译了46
2.[2023甘肃改编]（6分）人类文明的发展，离不开各种文明的交流和碰 撞。阅读材料，完成下列要求。 材料一 汉唐时期是中国文化对外交流的重要时期，尤其是丝绸之路的开 辟和发展更是促进了中西方文化的交流……中国对外文化交流的开放和包 容，使得中国文化不断吸收外来文化的精华，创造出了新的文化形式和艺 术风格，为中国文化的发展注入了新的活力。
——摘编自［荷］乔治·范·德瑞姆著《茶：一片树叶的传说与历史》
（2）根据材料二，分析茶叶贸易对世界的影响。（2分） 【答案】 影响：丰富了人们的消费品；有助于欧洲资本原始积累；密切 了世界联系，推动世界市场逐步形成；欧洲借此扩大在亚洲的殖民扩张。 （2分，任答两点即可） （3）请用一句话表述上述材料内容的主题线索。（1分） 【答案】 主题线索：茶叶是人类文明交流的载体；商品交流推动全球化 进程；小小茶叶，撬动大大地球。（1分，言之有理即可）
——摘编自袁行霈《中华文明史》
材料二 美洲的农作物，如烟草、玉米、马铃薯、甜菊、花生、西红柿传 到欧洲、亚洲和非洲，增加了人类的食品种类，改变了人的饮食结构，欧 洲的家畜，如马、牛、山羊则影响和改变北美印第安人的生活方式。美洲 的烟草在很大程度上改变了欧洲人和土耳其人的生活习惯。
——摘自周一良、吴于廑主编《世界通史资料选辑》
（3）依据材料三结合所学知识，概括当今中国倡导的文明交流理念的基 本内容。（1分） 【答案】 内容：倡导文明交流互鉴；尊重文明的多样性；消除文明隔阂 和冲突。（1分，言之有理的其他答案也可）
外国史期末复习材料
外国史期末复习材料一、古代文明1.古代近东文明：美索不达米亚文明、埃及文明、波斯文明等。
2.古希腊文明：希腊城邦制、雅典民主、苏格拉底哲学等。
3.古罗马帝国：罗马共和国、罗马帝国、君士坦丁大帝等。
4.印度古代文明：印度教、佛教、孔雀王朝等。
5.中国古代文明：夏、商、周、秦、汉、三国、晋、隋、唐等。
二、中世纪欧洲文明1.斯堪的纳维亚人的海上活动和探险：维京人的活动范围、维京人殖民活动的后果等。
2.封建制度：封建主义的起源、农奴制度、封建君主国家的兴起等。
3.教会与国家：教皇国权之争、十字军东征、修道院的重要性等。
4.西班牙、葡萄牙和意大利的崛起：航海探险、地理大发现、商业革命等。
三、现代国际关系的发展1.经济革命与农业革命：工业革命的起源、农业革命对工业革命的影响等。
2.科技进步与社会变革：印刷术、火药和指南针的发明对世界历史的影响等。
3.殖民主义与帝国主义：欧洲列强对世界各地的扩张、殖民地经济和文化的影响等。
4.两次世界大战：第一次世界大战的爆发、战争原因及其后果、第二次世界大战的爆发、战争原因及其后果等。
四、冷战与后冷战时期1.冷战的起因与特点：苏联和美国的意识形态冲突、冷战冲突的地缘政治性质等。
2.核武时代：核武器的传播与非扩散、冷战核军备竞赛等。
3.后冷战时期：苏联解体、德国统一、新兴市场经济的崛起等。
4.国际组织与全球化：联合国的作用和局限性、世界贸易组织的作用和问题等。
五、国际关系理论1.现实主义：国家主权、国家利益、权力政治的重要性等。
2.自由主义：国际制度、国际民主体系、民主和经济合作的重要性等。
3.构建主义：角色认同、社会化过程对国际关系的影响等。
4.性别，种族和后现代主义：性别和种族对国际关系的影响、后现代主义对国际关系研究的贡献等。
六、外交政策与国际关系1.大国的外交政策：美国外交政策、中国外交政策、俄罗斯外交政策等。
2.国际合作与竞争：经济合作和贸易战、国际组织的作用与限制等。
【初中历史】东西方文化交流的使者九年级历史复习提纲
【初中历史】东西方文化交流的使者?九年级历史复习提纲
第7课东西方文化交流的使者
一、阿拉伯人把中国的古代发明辗转传入西亚和欧洲等地，也给中国带来阿拉伯的天文学和医学知识，以及伊斯兰教和伊斯兰教文化。
他们在不同文明之间搭建了文化交流的桥梁，促进了这些地区文化和经济的发展。
二、阿拉伯数字的由来：印度人创造了从0到9十个数字的计数法。
阿拉伯人加以改造，12世纪初传到欧洲，被称为“阿拉伯数字”。
16世纪时写法已与现在的写法基本一致。
三、阿拉伯人对世界文化的发展做出的巨大贡献
①翻译保存了许多希腊著作;②创立了完整的代数学;
③拉齐斯的《医学集成》、依本·西拿(医王)的《医典》被欧洲医学界长期奉为权威著作。
四、丝绸之路——连接东西方文化交流与经济发展的重要道路
五、元朝宫廷中的意大利人——马可·波罗及《马可·波罗行纪》
1、1217年马可·波罗从威尼斯出发，1275年到达中国元朝的首都(元世祖忽必烈在位)，在中国生活了17年以后，从海路回到意大利。
后口述了在东方的经历和见闻，由其一位狱友记录成为《马可·波罗行纪》一书。
2、《马可·波罗行纪》一书激起了欧洲人对东方的憧憬和向往，刺激了新航路的开辟，促进了世界各国各地区之间的友好往来。
六、和平交往的意义：和平交往是主旋律，传播了世界先进文化与生产力。
维护世界文化的多样性，对人类整体文明的进步产生了持续而深远的积极影响。
初中历史
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西方文明史复习资料,都是重点哦(2020年整理).pdf
1.American GovernmentConstitutionThe United States is a constitutional democracy, a type of government characterized by limitations (boundaries, restrictions) on government power spelled out in a written constitution. Written in 1787, the U.S. Constitution is both the oldest and shortest written constitution in the world. It serves as the supreme (highest, greatest) law (rule, regulation) of the United States.The Constitution•The Constitution outlines a federal government with three separate branches: the legislative (lawmaking) branch (Congress), the executive (decision-making) branch (the presidency), and the judicial branch (the courts).Bill of RightsThe first ten amendments to the Constitution, which safeguard some specific rights of the American people and the states.•Many states ratified (approved) the Constitution in 1788 and 1789 on the condition that Congress amend it to guarantee certain civil liberties. James Madison drafted these first ten amendments himself, which collectively became known as the Bill of Rights. The Bill of Rights protects some specific rights of both the American people and the states. The table on the next page summarizes the twenty-seven amendments to the ConstitutionLegislative BranchCongress is the legislative branch of the federal government and is responsible for creating laws.Congress consists of two chambers, an upper chamber called the Senate (100 members) and a lower chamber called the House of Representatives (435 members).HOR is fixed and proportionally distributed among the 50 states, each one representing the congressional district.Senate: 100 senators, 2 per state.Congress•Congress has the sole (only) authority to make laws, levy taxes, declare war, and print money, among other powers. Congress also controls the federal budget.Executive Branch•The presidency is the executive branch of the federal government. The president is elected every four years and is responsible for enforcing the laws that Congress makes. The president is also the commander-in-chief of the armed forces and has the power to conduct foreign relations.Judicial Branch•The federal courts make up the judicial branch of the federal government, which consists of regional circuit courts, appeals courts, and the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court is the highest legal authority in the country and has assumed the power of judicial review to decide the legality (validity, truth) of the laws Congress makes.Mythical Founding•Most Americans re-imagine the founding of the United States in mythical terms, as the triumph of wisdom over tyrannical ignorance and as the creation of something new and important in the world.•American citizens tend to revere the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, and the Founding Fathers are seen as models of virtue (quality) and political wisdom.•The iconic image of George Washington on the one-dollar bill or the statue of Abraham Lincoln inside the Lincoln Memorial fits in with this heroic vision of the founders.Struggle Against Tyranny and InjusticeMost Americans often think of their country as the champion of democracy and justice. Many events in American history are therefore seen as part of this struggle. Americans tend to think of the:•Civil War as a battle to end slavery•World War II as the defeat of evil tyrants•Cold War as a triumph of democratic values over communism andtotalitarianism. T oday, many Americans see the fight againstterrorism as the latest example of the United States standing upfor what is right in the world. (World police)–Today, many Americans see the fight against terrorism asthe latest example of the United States standing up forwhat is right in the world. (World police)History as Progress•Although the United States is not a perfect democracy, many Americans interpret its history as progress toward a better democracy. In this view, America has improved from century to century, getting better and more democratic over time.The expansion of the right to vote is the best example.• e.g., At the start of the republic, the right to vote was restricted in most places to older, wealthy, white landowners.Right to Vote•Over time, all citizens won the right to voteIncluding the middle classes, the poor, Women (1920), People of other races (1965), Younger people (1970), American democracy has thus grown as more people have been allowed to participate.2. Superhero mythology reg Intro: HistoryWhat is a myth?A story of unknown authorship that people told long ago in an attempt to answer serious questions about how important things began and occurred.They are stories that explain natural occurrences and express beliefs of right and wrong. Myths usually have a religious or spiritual sense•They are early mans desire to explain the universe.i.e., Apollo, the son of Zeus, drove the chariot of the sun across the skyGods and Goddesses•The gods, goddesses, and heroes are super human in nature.i.e., Atlas bore the weight of the world and the heavens on his shoulders.•Gods sometimes appear in disguised form•Human emotions are experienced by the Gods–i.e., Hera’s jealousy (we will talk about this in a moment)Common Themes in Mythology•Good vs. Evil Light vs. Dark• A metamorphosis may occur Like a butterfly•In Greek mythology–The stories were part of their religion–Their festivals and ritual practices came from the storiesWhat is Greek Mythology?The ancient Greeks were polytheistic, meaning they worshiped multiple gods. They also told many stories (myths) about the gods, which were meant to guide human behavior and teach about the relationship between gods and humans.• The people of ancient Greece shared stories called myths about the gods, goddesses, and heroes in which they believed.• Each god or goddess was worshipped as a deity and ruled over certain areas of the Greeks’ lives.• These exciting stories explained natural phenomena that could not be explained by science in the ancient world.Why is it important?“As one of the major contributors to Western civilization, ancient Greek cultu re has provided the creative energy and prototypes for later forms of Western society. Intellectual and cultural achievements, together with social and economic developments in ancient Greece and its neighboring areas, mark the real beginning of Western civilization and the ending of the uncivilized, barbarous age” (pg. 7).• The Ancient Greek culture has been kept alive by the oral and later written stories handed down through thousands of years.• Modern plays, novels, television programs, movies and even advertisements refer to Greek gods, goddesses, heroes and their stories.• Their history entertains us and provide us with modern Western culture.Gods and Goddesses of the Pantheon on Mount OlympusZeus – Leader of the Olympian Gods (page 12)• He ruled the Olympians.• He was the god of the sky, lightning and thunder carrying a thunderbolt as his symbol (much like a superhero we will talk about in a moment).• He married Hera, his sister, which was a family habit.• He fathered many children with various goddesses and mortals.Hera – Wife of Zeus• She was the protector of marriage and the home.• She was associated with the peacock, because of her great beauty.• She and Zeus were always quarreling.• She was called the queen of intriguers, a vin dictive and jealous wife, who frequently outwitted her husband, Zeus.Poseidon – God of the Sea• He built an underwater palace with a great pearl and coral throne.• Although he chose Thetis, a beautiful water nymph, as his queen, he, like hisbrother Zeus, was a great wanderer fathering hundreds of children.• He was a difficult god, changeful and quarrelsome, but created many curious forms for his sea creatures.• He invented the horse for his sister Demeter, whom he loved.Hades – God of the Underworld• He was the jealous brother to Zeus and Poseidon.• He made Persephone his wife after stealing her from her mother,Demeter, who was his sister.• Because he was a violent god, who was also very possessive of every newsoul, he rarely left his underworld domain.Athena-Goddess of Wisdom, Justice, War, Civilization and Peace• She was born full grown out of the head of Zeus.• She taught man to use tools and taught his wife to spin and weave.• She was the best-loved goddess on Olympus.• She hated Ares, god of war, often besting him in battle.• The Greek city of Athens is named after her.• She was said to have created the spider.Apollo-The Sun God; God of Music, Poetry, Wisdom, Light and Truth• He was the twin brother of Artemis and the most handsom e of the gods.• He was also the god of the healing arts and of medicine.• He drove his chariot across the sky to pull the sun each day.• His son, Phaethon, drives Apollo’s sun chariot with disastrous resultsSo what does this have to do with superheroes?1.In addition to gods and goddesses, the Greeks included many heroes in their myths. Heroes were either human or demigods (the offspring of a human and a god or goddess).2. Most superheroes of today have their origins in the ancient myths of Greece, Rome, and other old empires. T oday, we worship superheroes in the same ways we once worshipped the gods.Zeus and SupermanBoth Superman and Zeus are born leaders, the most powerful of their respective groups. Superman is often thought of as godlike, the alien deity who has become incredibly protective of his adoptive home. Like Zeus, Superman dons a disguise so that he may walk among the mortals and see what life is like on the ground. But both are much more at home in the sky, soaring above us like the gods they are.Hades and BatmanThe dark prince, preferring underground quarters and with unimaginable wealth 2. As Hades is the dark brother of Zeus, so too is Batman the dark version of Superman. Like Hades, Batman makes his home underground and a significant part of his power comes from his riches. This aspect in particular perhaps makes Batman more like Pluto, the Roman version of Hades (page 37). It’s hard not to think of Batman as ruling the underworld of the DC Universe, deciding the ultimate fate of damned souls. Additionally, Batman is often found on the outside of the JLA circle, the member no one quite trusts, much like Hades and his Olympic family.Poseidon and Aquaman1. Poseidon was the main inspiration for Aquaman. They have the same weapon of choice, the trident and both are considered ruler of the seven seas, able to command the ocean and its inhabitants.2. Perhaps the main difference between the two is that while Poseidon is one of thethree most powerful of the Olympian Gods, Aquaman isn't seen as many people's favorite superhero. I guess it just goes to show that the ancient Greeks thought that the ability to talk to fish was a lot cooler than we do.Hera and Wonder Woman•So, putting aside the warrior aspect of the “Amazon warrior” for a moment, Wonder Woman is really all about the traditions of her people. She fiercely defends her home and her family- just like Hera. While she would likely disagree with Hera about the whole “needing a good man thing”, she does find herself paired with Superman and Steve Trevor quite a bit. At any rate, both are effectively the “mother” of their respective groups, and react quite fiercely if any of her family attacked.What Is A Superhero?1. Like the gods and goddesses of mythology, a superhero possesses extraordinary or superhuman powers and is dedicated to protecting the public. However, by most definitions, characters do not strictly require actual superhuman powers to be deemed superheroes.Terms such as costumed crime fighters or caped crusaders are sometimes used to refer to those such as Batman and Superman.2. Normally, superheroes use their powers to counter day-to-day crime while also combating threats against humanity by super-villains, their criminal counterparts. Often, one of these super-vil lains will be the superhero’s archenemy.Common Traits Many superhero characters display the following traits:2.Extraordinary powers or abilities, relevant skills and/or advanced3.equipment.4.Superhuman strength5. Ability to fly6. Enhanced senses7.The projection of energy bolts8. A strong moral (ethical) code 10. expectation of reward.9. Willingness to risk one’s own safety in the service of good without11.Refusal or strong reluctance to kill or wield lethal weapons.12 A motivation (inspiration)•13. Sense of responsibility (Spider-Man)15. Personal vendetta against criminals (Batman)16.Strong belief in justice and humanitarian service (Superman)17.Independent Wealth or an occupation that allows for minimal supervision18.A headquarters or base of operations kept hidden from the general publicPresentation3 The Old Testament 97Jewish Culture, The Old Testament, and The New TestamentMoses & Exodus:“Let My People Go!”•Moses received revelations from God: burning bush, rod / staff, 10 plagues, parting of the Red Sea•End of 13th century BCE- Moses led the Israelites out of bondage in Egypt during Rames II reign called the EXODUS•Moses led the 12 Tribes of Israel to Mount Sinai where Yahweh gave him the 10 Commandments, uniting the Hebrews under one God•Moses and Hebrews searched for the “Promised Land” or the land of milk and honey, however they wandered in the desert for 40 yearsJewish Culture•Jewish culture emerged and survived in extraordinary circumstances.•The Jewish people were exiled from one country to another in Europe and elsewhere in the world.•As part of the origins of Western civilization, Jewish culture has contributed to the Western historical development by providing substantial religious ingredients and many other aspects of the whole basic framework of Western society.•At the same time, the Jewish people suffered a lot due to their cultural and religious distinctivenessA brief account of Jewish history•It is said that Jews belong to the Semitic race, as with the original Babylonians, Phoenicians, and Assyrians. They claim to be descended from Abraham, and have emigrated from Mesopotamia (along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers) and have settled in the 16th C BC in north Egyppt and then entered Canaan in the 12th C BC. After fighting many wars with local tribes, they ultimately settled on both sides of the Jordan River.The Division and Fall of Israel•After Solomon’s death, a separatist movement headed by Jeroboam rose up in the north of Israel and broke the country into two parts, the south: Judah and the north: Israel (ruled by the descendants of Solomon)•Frequent wars occurred between the two sectors and weakened their power.•In 722 BC, the Assyrian king and his troops attacked Jerusalem and Israel was ruined.•Judah could not evade the fate of being destroyed.•Under the leadership of Nebuchadnezzar II, the king of Babylonia, Jerusalem was besieged twice and the second siege laster three years until the city was finally taken in 586 BC. (Babylonian Captivity)•From then on, Judah and Israel were nonexistent as independent countries. Impact of Ancient Israel•Covenant = formal agreement between Hebrews and God (Yahweh); Hebrews worshipped God and only God, and in return, they would be God’s Chosen People and given Canaan as the Promised Land•Spiritual ideas profoundly influenced Western culture, morality, ethics and conduct •Three of the world’s most dominant religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam all derive their roots from the spiritual beliefs of the Ancient IsraelitesWhat is the bible?•The Bible is a book that can be found almost anywhere on the earth. It has been translated into more than 2000 different languages and dialects. It is also the world's most popular book. Every year more copies of the Bible are sold than any other publication, and the number of sales is increasing.Unknown Authorship1. The Bible is one of the world's oldest books. Its oldest sections were written about 1500 years before the birth of Christ. Even its newest sections were written about 1900 years ago.2. Clearly, then, having been written over a period of about 1600 years, the Bible was not written by one person. No one knows precisely how many people contributed to the Bible. It is estimated there were about forty authors.3. One of the most important facts about the Bible is that those who wrote it did not claim to be the source of the ideas they wrote about. sometimes indirectly, the authors assert that what they were writing really came from God.The Old TestamentThe Old Testament is the first section of the Christian Bible and is based primarily upon the Jewish, Hebrew Bible, a collection of religious writings by ancient Israelites.The importance of Christianity•Christianity is the most important religion in the Western world. Having served asa dominant ideological tool, Christianity once exerted powerful influences on thesocial and intellectual life of the Western world. It is still of much importance to the Western culture, especially in the spiritual life of the Westerners though its heyday has passed. It could be said that no one can understand the West without studying Christianity.However…Christianity has been at the heart of great historical changes and has broken up into several factions, principally Catholicism, the Eastern Orthodoxy and the Protestantism, which all try to interpret the Christian doctrines from different perspectives. This has given rise to more difficulties and complexities for those wishing to acquire a better knowledge of Western religionsChristianity and Judaism•The relationship between Christianity and Judaism proved extraordinarily difficult and complicated due to historical incidents. On one hand, the birth of Christianity indirectly acknowledged the Jewish contribution and the influence of Judaism, and once could also say Christianity could have never been established without the Jewish involvement during the dark years when the Jewish people lived under the cruel oppression of the Roman rule and had begun to fight against it.The New Testament•The New Testament contains 27 parts, which were completed in the later half of the first century AD or the first half of the second century AD. They are all of the recollections of the early Christians. The earliest manuscript was written in Greek and possibly translated from Arabic, the Palestine language. It conists of the four Gospels(brief collections of Jesus’ life), a book of the Acts of the Apostles, Letters, and The Revelations of John.Presentation4 Halloween 97Origins and Traditions OriginsHalloween began two thousand years ago in Ireland, England, and Northern France with the ancient religion of the Celts (Paganism).They celebrated their New Year on November 1st.This day marked the beginning of the dark, cold winter, a time of year that was often associated with human death. On the night of October 31, they celebrated Samhain, when it was believed that the ghosts of the dead returned to earth.CostumesPeople thought that they would encounter ghosts if they left their homes…So they wore costumes. This way, the ghosts couldn’t recognize them!Eg. Beetle juice Edward Scissor handsThe Christian InfluenceAs the influence of Christianity spread into Celtic lands, in the 7th century, Pope Boniface IV introduced All Saints' Day, a time to honor saints and martyrs, to replace the Pagan festival of Samhain. It was observed on May 13th.A change of dateIn 834, Pope Gregory III moved All Saint's Day from May 13th to Nov. 1st. Oct.31st thus became All Hallows' Eve ('hallow' means 'saint').All Souls DayNovember 2nd, called All Souls Day, is the day set apart in the Roman Catholic Church for the commemoration of the dead.Trick-or-treating began with the poor in the 15th century…During the All Souls Day festival in England, poor peop le would beg for “soul cakes,” made out of square pieces of bread with currantsFamilies would give soul cakes in return for a promise to pray for the family’s relativeschildren…The practice, which was referred to as "going a-souling" was eventually taken up by children who would visit the houses in their neighborhood and be given ale, food, and money.Today…Children still go from house-to-house, but instead of ale, food, and money, they get candy.With Irish Immigration…In 1848, millions of Irish emigrants poured into America as a result of the potato famine. They brought with them their traditions of Halloween.Halloween came to America.They called Halloween Oidche Shamhna (`Night of Samhain'), as their ancestors had, and kept the traditional observances.When they arrived in America they found that pumpkins were both plentiful and easier to carve than turnips.Chapter 5 The Middle Ages: IntroductionLearning Intentions (goals)1) Know when the Three Stages of the Middle Ages were.2) Know some of the key events from the topic.3)Know the key event the Unit focuses upon.What was the Middle Ages the ‘Middle’ of?•The Middle Ages was the period of European history between 500AD and 1500AD.•Other names for this period include the Dark Ages and the Age of Religion.•The most common name for this period is the Medieval Period.•‘Medieval’ is the Latin T erm for the ‘Middle Ages’ (it comes from the same word that gave us Median in mathematics).The Early Middle Ages (550 – 1000)Key Events:•End of the Roman Empire•The Rise of Islam•The rule of Barbarian Kings.•Charlemagne creates the Carolingian Empire.•Europe terrified by waves of invaders.•The emergence of Knights and Feudalism.The beginning of the Middle•The Middle Ages begins with the Fall of the Roman Empire in 476.•The Romans had ruled provinces in Europe, the Middle East and North Africa for nearly a thousand years.•Challenges to Roman security increased during the first century (0-100 AD) as tribes from Germania (Germany) began to confront the Romans.Division of Rome•One of the consequences of the weakening of Rome was the division of the Roman Empire.•This was intended to make governing easier.•In 376 AD the Empire was divided into two:•The Western Roman Empire (capital city of Rome)•The Eastern Roman Empire (capital city of Constantinople)The Barbarians takeover•By the end of the 400s Rome had been weakened by political instability.•Roman legions (armies) were stretched thin across an empire that was becoming too large to defend easily.•German tribes such as the Goths, Visigoths, Vandals, Angles and Saxons took advantage of this weakness.•In 476 the Visigoth King Odovocar removed the last Western Roman Ruler from power.Rome’s greatest legacy - Christianity•The Barbarians desired the farmlands, roads and wealth of the Western Roman Empire.•The unintended consequence of conquest was that the tribes spread the Christian faith throughout all the peoples of Europe.•Rome’s official religion since 395 had been Christianity.•This ended nearly three centuries of persecution of Christians (including being burned alive, crucified and thrown into the gladiatorial arenas).•Their was only one recognised church (the Roman Catholic). The Pope is the head of the church.·Christianity became the official religion of Rome following the conversion of Emperor Constantine in 312.•Constantine converted after he claimed to experience a vision of a flaming cross in the sky before a battle.•He promised to convert to Christianity and succeeded in the battle.•Some historians argue that the real reason was it secured the loyalty of Christians in his army (who were becoming a significant and influential group).The Rise of Islam•Christianity had started as an obscure Jewish sect (religion with a small number of followers).•The conversion of Constantine and the Barbarian conquerors ensured that it defined European culture throughout the Middle Ages.•24 years after the fall of western Rome a religious leader was born in Saudi Arabia whose vision would challenge the Christian world view – Muhammed.The Spread of Islam•Muhammad was the prophet of the faith of Islam.•The Islamic Holy Book (The Koran) was the final authority on faith and lifestyle for the followers of Islam. It was recited by Muhammed after receiving a vision from Allah.•Like Christianity, Islam is a monotheistic religion (acknowledging only one God).•Although the Koran mentions both Mary and Jesus respectfully it states that Jesus was another prophet (and not the Son of God or divine).Reasons why tension between the Christian West and Islamic East were inevitable:1. Both religions claimed to be the One True Faith.2. Both religions came from the Middle East and claimed similar places as Holy(e.g. Jerusalem)3. Islamic Empires spread rapidly – and managed to conquer parts of EuropeThe New Medieval World•The end of the Western Roman Empire meant that the political unity of Europe had collapsed.•In response, the German tribes formed their own kingdoms.•Their Kings had limited power so relied upon the loyalty of local land owners (called Lords).The Rise of the Medieval Church•The main source of continuity from Roman to Medieval times was the church.•The Catholic Church had arranged diplomatic meetings with the leaders of barbarian tribes before the Fall of Rome.•It also sent waves of missionaries into German tribal areas (successfully!).•The leader of the Church (the Pope) became a symbol of unity at a time of great disruption.Pope Francis is the reigning pope of the Catholic ChurchCharlemagne the Great Odd facts•‘Carolingian’ just means ‘Descendents of Charles’•The FIRST Charles was ‘Charles Martel’–the grandfather of Charlemagne. The Empire was named after this common family name.•Some of the Charles which followed after the death of Charlemagne included:•CHARLES THE FAT, CHARLES THE BALD AND CHARLES THE SIMPLE!Medieval Europe – Threatened from all sides.The Medieval response: Feudalism•The waves of invaders and raiders during the 800s and 900s made central control of Europe very difficult.• A system based on local power and loyalty emerged. This was known as FEUDALISM: A political and social system that tied together Kings, Lords and Peasants in a relationship based upon loyalty and land.•Feudalism was a way to provide protection and security quickly.•It had one key weakness – the whole system relied upon having LAND to give to people in return for loyalty.•This hunger for land (along with the invasions) resulted in a Medieval Arms race to produce the strongest military and defences.•In this context the creation of heavily armed Knights (now using the stirrups) and castles developed!The Three Invasions – The Vikings•The Vikings came from Denmark, Sweden and Norway.•Due to overpopulation and the harshness of their rocky and cold environment they set out on a series of raids.•The brutality and speed of their attacks made them the most feared threat to Western Europe.•The goals of their invasions differed. In some areas they simply raided monasteries and towns and carried off the treasure, food, women and slaves they needed.•In other cases (such as the region called Normandy) they settled permanently. The Three Invasions – The Islamic•As the Vikings attacked the North and coastal Europe Islamic raids attacked the south.•Muslim forces controlled the islands of Sicily in the Mediterranean and southern Spain.•They used fortresses in these regions to attack Western Europe. Fortresses were also built in France so merchants could be raided.•Muslim forces besieged Rome in 846 and plundered the cathedrals of St.Peter and Paul (although they never raided the city itself). They also destroyed a religious centre at Monte Cassino.•The former Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine) had to deal with repeated raids because it was so close to the Middle EastThe Three Invasions – The Magyars•The Magyars originally came from Western Russia.•Like another ‘barbarian’ tribe (The Huns) they were excellent horseman and could shoot arrows while riding.•They carried out a series of raids and managed to left a path of destruction from Eastern Europe to Southern Germany.•Their invasions were stopped in 955 when a German King called Otto the Great defeated them.。
最新完美版西方文明史复习
西方文明史题型：50%英文部分--选择15判断15简答4*5’ 英文表述（画了12道）50%中文部分--3道论述大题15'+15'+20' （画了11道）前5章攻略：每章前的Chapter theme（很重要）——宋翻译的资料｛串通整个西方历史｝选择、判断、简答（张的总结）：PPT论述：看书，自己上网查资料备注：红色为必须知道和背会的部分总目录（纵线）：Part 1古希腊第一章：亚历山大和他的时代（古希腊文明）Part 2 古罗马第二章：古罗马共和国兴衰史（古罗马文明）第三章：凯撒与耶稣（早期基督教）第四章：罗马和平和帝国的衰亡（罗马后期，帝国时代）Part 3中世纪第五章：信仰之刃--中世纪的繁盛期（中世纪西方文明）Part 4 现代国家的滥觞第六章：“朕即国家”--英法两国君主专制的发展（资产阶级革命前夜）第七章：“勇于求索！”--科学革命（文艺复兴后的科技发展）第八章：启蒙运动横线（5）：1.政治文明－根基希腊：雅典城邦（民主意识形态的开始）平和，相互自治／独立性，平等性罗马：军事三重政治形势－杀死弟弟之后建立王政（kingship）的政权形势－独裁（dictator）－经过7个伊特鲁利亚人－罗马共和（代议制）内战－屋大维中世纪：西罗马－日耳曼民族：部落君主与教会之争现代：西欧国家－英法：法律至高无上，民主middle－size孟德斯鸠（论法精神）的理论和启蒙运动2.宗教文明（根源形态）对人和社会走向的本质（中国文化没有）多神教polytheism：人与自然之神的敬畏－裸体，万事万物的可读性可视性（形象具体化）一神教monotheism（基督教christianity）：人与上帝（对立的关系）－人卑微，压制／上帝高高在上突破自我－文艺复兴，宗教改革（新教形成－人的地位提高，上帝下降），科学革命，思想启蒙运动自然神－生命本源之初上帝有主宰作用，上帝的地位更为地下无神论3.艺术文明古希腊：自然神的缺陷性与人（外形）同形，本质一样（宗教与人的结合）古罗马：缺乏艺术，与自然缺乏和谐性，庞大形态的建筑模式（抬到看）凯旋门：帝国权威，规模宏大（从上到下的压制）建筑物的绘画：（庞培古城）男女并存－人一定要是相关性的，实践的中世纪：基督教－宗教传播者，突出的对人的刻画（赋予极强的宗教性）现代：（理论上）文艺复兴：人文主义humanism4.科技文明：科学（好奇心亚里士多德）技术（需求和需要）－自然哲学古希腊：幻化，可望不可及，纯理论古罗马：实际－外在建筑的强大。
西方文明史 考试复习
大连理工大学西方文明史复习纲要the Code of HammurabiThe culture of MesopotamiaAtrahasisReligion: Ziggurats divinationcuneiformthe Epic of GilgameshThe Culture of EgyptOsiris , IsisMap3.1Why was Homer used as the basis for Greek Education?What questions did the Greek Philosopher pose, and what answers did they suggest?----The Socrates Method----Plato's philosophical thoughtthe Republic , ideas of governmentAcademy----Aristotle's philosophical thoughtGreek Civilization----Why was Greek Religion connected to every aspect of daily life?A: names of major Greek godsRitual is important in Greek ReligionFestivals : to honor...Know the will of the gods----How is democracy developed in Ancient Greek?A: Solon, Cleisthenes, PericlesHistory, DramaAncient RomeEarly Rome----What political institutions help to explain the Romans' success in conquering Italy?---- How did Greek culture influence Roman culture, cite examples of Religion and education to answer the question.names of Roman gods----The Evolution of Roman Law---- Why is second and early third century considered the "classical age of Roman law"?Age of Augustus --. literature in golden age (填空题）Pantheon aqueduct Colosseum amphitheaterChristianityGod's commandgolden rulegospelsSaint Paul ,Hierarchical structure of Papal Monarchy---The two emperors who carried out reforms to restore order and stability? Constantine , Theodosius----Who is Augustine ? What are his two most famous works?----Who is Jerome? What is his contribution to Christianity ?----What is a pope?, why is Pope Gregory the Great remembered----How did Byzantine Empire came into existence?, where is Constantinople in the Map 7.5?----What is Justinian's major contributionIslam?The five pillars of IslamChristianity and Medieval Civilization (填空题, 连线题）Saints ，heresy , relics, crusade vassalage(解释名词)----meaning and Characteristics of the Italian RenaissanceHumanismcivic humanismNeo-Platonisma new view of mankindWhat effect did humanists 's view have on education?----What is" liberal studies"---- the impact of printing (填空）Artistic Renaissance填图, Da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo,a belief that rejects the orthodox tenets of a religionany opinions or doctrines at variance with the official or orthodox position。
西方文明史导论复习
西方文明史导论复习西方文明史导论复习希腊一、为什么西方人总是“言必称希腊？”①希腊文化优秀，优秀的事物能完成时间、空间题材三个超越。
②古典的自然主义同过于人为修饰的近代文明形成的巨大反差。
③希腊文化的极性：他们自称英雄，把一切都放到生与死的永恒天平上来称量。
古希腊的三本历史著作都是讲战争的。
（荷马：《荷马史诗》希罗多德：《历史》修昔底德：《伯罗奔尼撒战争史》）④希腊人纯情，是自然主义者。
希腊的建筑、生活，都溶化在大自然之中。
⑤希腊爱美。
美是分等级分内外的。
最后，美是必须独立的。
⑥世界上有四种动力观：生存、信仰、功利、理想主义。
希腊人属于最后一种。
⑦希腊喜欢进行抽象的思考，喜欢理性，强调生活的精度、广度、深度和强度。
⑧希腊人守纪律，例如斯巴达人。
⑨小结：这是从现代人的角度看希腊人，希腊真正的文化基础是英雄主义。
二、希腊文化的特征第一个特征：英雄主义1《荷马史诗》：友情和智慧2 斯巴达的英雄：体魄与力度3 雅典的英雄：美和文化第二个特征：爱文化文化的原意就是培育。
①以艺术为例，希腊人对生命的热烈的爱。
文化从外在进入内心,再从内心进入“精神的太阳”。
②以神话为例：希腊神都是战斗英雄,中国神都是农业工程师。
西方人用武器吃饭，中国人拿树枝就餐。
猛兽崇拜与龙凤崇拜、十二生肖的比较。
③以伦理为例，幸福的观念：五种基本处境：物质、身体、社会、情感、文化需求。
④以哲学为例，苏格拉底、柏拉图、亚里士多德希腊文化熔诗性和纪律性为一炉，体现出人的真性情，因此成为西方文化传统中的要素。
希腊在政治、文化上的发展呈多元化，古希腊人所创造出的许多文化、制度和艺术精品，使古典希腊的文化成为西方文明的第一座文化丰碑。
第三个特征：爱美—美的个性形态美的三个等级①自然的美②心灵的美③真理的美：艺术品的自我满足（以艺术品为例：艺术品体现内在美。
人体不需要穿衣服，也体现出美。
美是独立的，真理是不需要掩饰的。
柏拉图之爱。
）第四个特征：高尚的竞争①竞争的目的是改善自己，不像罗马人，竞争是为了存活；②高尚竞争败者承认赢家；③高尚的竞争使得竞争成为团结的手段。
中西文化史期末复习资料
中西文化史复习资料1、古希腊和古罗马分别给后世留下了哪些文化遗产？古希腊：史诗与喜剧--《荷马史诗》，戏剧建筑（与雕塑）艺术--雅典娜神庙，帕特农神庙哲学与史学--苏格拉底，柏拉图，亚里士多德古希腊：原始XX和神话--宙斯文学与史学--《伊尼特》（《埃涅阿斯纪》）维吉尔，拉丁文，李维《罗马史》塔西佗《历史》《编年史》《日耳曼尼亚志》凯撒《高卢战记》建筑--古罗马圆形斗兽场，帕第奥奇神庙（万神庙）法律--《十二铜表法》基督教的兴起与传播--《圣经》上帝耶和华，复活节，感恩节，圣诞节2.你怎样理解德国法学家耶林所说的古罗马人的三次征服世界？德国著名法学家耶林在他所著的《罗马法精神》一书中说：“罗马帝国三次征服世界，第一次以武力，第二次以XX（指基督教），第三次以法律。
”武力因罗马帝国的灭亡而消失，XX 随着人民思想觉悟的提高，科学的发展而缩小影响，唯有法律征服世界是最为持久的征服。
3.如何看待基督教与欧洲封建社会的关系？欧洲封建社会的精神支柱是基督教。
4.中国古文字与中国社会形态演变的关系？汉字结构，数量，读音，字义的自然流变，汉字的规X化问题1、书写形式越来越多2、笔画模式的越来越多3、书写方式的越来越多社会流变：无统一的规定，国家未统一，且各个国家未制定汉字书写的标准人们对社会与自然的认识不断增长，文字需要适应社会生产生活的变化5.乡土文化的保护问题？在经济日益发展的今天，乡土文化作为文化的基本单元，正处于被忽视和被破坏的境地，因此，保护和传播乡土文化成为新世纪的文化要求，理应成为未来关注文化发展的主线之一。
1、乡土文化具有强大的生命力，若能在乡土文化中注入新时代的因素，便可助其发扬光大，为保护民族优秀传统文化做出一份贡献。
2、乡土文化自远古发展和流传至今，承载着人们世代的价值观和伦理道德，这种植根于普通民众的文化，具有最初的最原始的艺术生命形式。
3、乡土文化所提供的资源，往往是推动当地经济发展、丰富当地文化生活的重要因素。
最新完美版 西方文明史复习概要 中英对照+重点+部分答案
西方文明史复习概要中英对照+重点+部分答案①考试题型：选择、填空各15分，共30分；英文简答题共4道，20分；中文论述题，三道共50分。
②复习策略：书本为主，所考内容为每一章开章引言，以及每张重点（下文会具体交代）；PPT用来贯穿主线索，便于理解史实。
两者缺一不可，相辅相成。
考试不会太难，大家掌握必要常识和单词即可。
③下面是我对知识点的总结，如有纰漏，还望指正。
总目录：Part 1古希腊第一章：亚历山大和他的时代（古希腊文明）Part 2 古罗马第二章：古罗马共和国兴衰史（古罗马文明）第三章：凯撒与耶稣（早期基督教）第四章：罗马和平和帝国的衰亡（罗马后期，帝国时代）Part 3中世纪第五章：信仰之刃--中世纪的繁盛期（中世纪西方文明）Part 4 现代国家的滥觞第六章：“朕即国家”--英法两国君主专制的发展（资产阶级革命前夜）第七章：“勇于求索！”--科学革命（文艺复兴后的科技发展）第八章：启蒙运动第一章：本章讲述的是古希腊时期的民主制度和文化（哲学与神话），以及希腊化时代。
重点掌握古希腊著名哲学思想，以及亚历山大主要事迹。
引言：（此处只是简单概述翻译，具体内容还望大家读书。
下面几章的此部分内容亦是如此。
）公元前五世纪，雅典城邦（the Greek city-state Athens,城邦还可以称为 the polis）诞生了最早的民主制度,由此带来了社会文化的大繁荣，那个世纪便被称为古希腊的“黄金时代”（the Golden Age）,堪称是西方文明的滥觞。
此后由于政治经济的最巨大差异，古希腊最强大的两个城邦——雅典和斯巴达（Sparta）陷入了长期的内战，直到公元前404年雅典战败才结束，史称“伯罗奔尼撒的战争”（Peloponnesian War）。
但是由于斯巴达自身政治制度的落后，它的盟主地位（hegemony,盟主权）终于在公元前371年被底比斯城邦取代（Thebes）。
在著名政治家Epaminondas的领导下，底比斯才得以统帅希腊，但随着他在公元前362年去世，一切都结束了。
初中世界历史历史总复习提纲东西方文化交流的使者
初中世界历史历史总复习提纲东西方文化交流的使者
一、东西方文化交流的契机和方式
1.古代贸易往来促进文化交流
-丝绸之路的开通
-商业城市的兴起
2.宗教传播和互相影响
-佛教在中国的传播
-基督教在欧洲的传播
3.征战和征服带来的文化融合
-蒙古帝国的征服和文化传播
-罗马帝国的征服和文化传播
1.马可·波罗
-描述中国的《马可·波罗游记》
-介绍中国文化和风俗习惯
-促进东西方贸易和文化交流
2.克里斯托弗·哥伦布
-开辟美洲大陆航线
-将新大陆介绍给欧洲
-为后来的殖民扩张和文化交流奠定基础
3.西班牙和葡萄牙的航海家
-麦哲伦首次环球航行
-达·伽马的航行到达印度
-探索和开辟新的航线，促进贸易和文化交流
三、东西方文化交流的影响和成果
1.科技知识的交流
-造纸术、火药和印刷术的传播
-医学和数学知识的交流
2.文化和艺术的交流
-文学、艺术、建筑等方面的交流和借鉴
-音乐、舞蹈等艺术形式的交流和融合
3.社会制度和观念的交流
-欧洲封建制度和东方帝国制度的相互影响
-宗教观念和信仰体系的传播和转变
四、东西方文化交流的意义和启示
1.促进了人类文明的发展
-不同文化的交流和融合，丰富了人类文明的多样性-促进了科技、艺术等方面的进步和创新
-促进了贸易和经济的发展
-促进了国家间的外交和文化交流3.拓展了人们的视野和思维方式
-让人们更加了解和尊重不同文化-促使人们思考和探索更广阔的世界。
《中西文化比较》考试复习资料
1、文化与文明的关系：(1)《苏联大百科全书》中概括：“文化概念最初是指对自然的有目的的影响，以及人本身的培养和训练。
培养不仅包括培养人们遵守现有的准则和习惯的能力，而且包括鼓励他们遵守这些准则和习惯的愿望，使他们相信文化能够满足人的全部要求和需求。
任何社会文化都包含这两层意思。
”(2)中国古代的典籍中涉及到文明，《尚书》、《易经》等，李渔的《闲情偶记》中有“求辟草昧而致文明，不可得也”，隐含与蒙昧相对应的文化状态的含义，接近现代意义。
西方的文明概念与城市文化兴起关系密切。
（3）在许多情况下，文明和文化两个词通用。
文明往往指的是相对成熟或者高级的文化形态。
中华文明古希腊文明等。
但对于处在低级状态下的文化，一般不用文明一词。
如因纽特文明。
（4）一些学者认为文化为精神现象，而文明指制度化、形态化的社会现实，如政治、军事、法律等。
有的学者（美国巴格比）用文明将较大较复杂的文化与较小较简单的文化区别。
四大文明古国与一些“亚文明”。
许多人不加细究地把文明作为文化的广义解释，用它来描述那些综合性、整体性较强的文化事实。
工业文明、农业文明、精神文明等。
2、中西学者对文化的阐述：1把文化看做一个包含多层次、多方面内容的综合体，用它来概括人类创造和积累起来的全部物质与精神财富以及人们的生活方式。
2把文化理解为人类精神现象或观念形态的总和。
3强调文化作为人的社会行为与习俗的意义。
4还有一种普遍的认识，即把文化主要视作人类的艺术活动及富有仪式性的民俗活动的概括。
5一部分学者尤其是历史哲学家十分重视文化的历史传承性质，他们倾向于把文化理解为一个社会的传统行为方式或全部社会遗产。
6从功能和价值层面来认识文化的意义是文化概念探讨的又一思路。
7强调文化对人的思想行为的潜在指导和规范作用是另一类文化阐释的核心。
3、文化性质和特征：1、我们赞成把文化看做具有多层次结构的有机系统。
2、我们把民族性和地域性看做五年后的重要特征。
3、文化还具有规则性。
西方文明史复习资料汇总
西方文明史复习资料考试题型：名词解释、填空题、简答题、论述题1、什么是欧洲文明？三大要素：古典遗产Classical Heritage 蛮族入侵Barbarian Invasions基督教Christianity.四大特色：海洋、延续、多元、西进四大遗产：古希腊的理性Ancient Greek rationality古罗马的法律Ancient Roman legal codes希伯来的信仰Ancient Hebrew faith日尔曼的进取Germanic spirit of venture2、西方文明沿革的历史轨迹米诺斯文明（约BC20----15世纪）——迈锡尼文明（约BC16-----12世纪）——古典希腊文明（BC8----1世纪）——古罗马文明（BC7----AD5世纪）——【中世纪基督教文明（5----15世纪）——现代西方文明（15世纪---）】或——【拜占庭文明——东正教文明、伊斯兰教文明】3、文明【重点】（可用书本上的定义）一个特定的人群，在特定的时空范围内积累的物质财富和精神财富。
物质文明：遗存、器物，生产生活的技术水平。
精神文明：哲学、宗教、文学艺术、思想。
功能文明：管理体制、运行机制。
“文明”第一次作为一个名词使用是法国启蒙思想家密拉波于1756年在《人类的朋友》一书中提出的。
4、“文明”与“文化”的异同【重点】文化——人类所创造的一切物质和精神成果的总和。
文明——是发展到高级阶段的人类文化，是文化中积极进步的成果，是人类一定历史发展阶段所形成的历史形态。
文化与文明的异同：异：高级阶段积极进步的成果同：两者的相互联系和相互重合的部分，远远多于它们所表现出来的差异与区分之处。
从广义上讲，文明和文化可以基本等同，没必要过多地纠缠它们的细微差别。
5、人类的起源【重点】地球的历史可分为太古代、元古代、古生代、中生代和新生代。
古猿出现在新生代第三纪的渐新世，人类由古猿演化而来。
从猿到人经过了三个阶段：攀树的猿群、正在形成中的人、完全形成中的人。
中外古代文明史复习资料.doc
1.文化的定义：是人类活动的产物，是人类本质的体现，是人类区别于自然区别于动物的体现。
总的来说，文化是政治自然改造社会的活动，是人的活动，是超越本能的人类有意识地作用于自然界和社会的一切活动及其结果，都属于文化，即文化是自然的文化。
一、中国文化的多元发生（文化的时间段、地区分布、特点以长江、黄河流域最为典型河姆渡文化（苗蛮集团）分布于长江中下游地区，距今六七千年，有大量稻谷遗迹和猪狗水牛等，家畜遗骨，采用木结构的杆栏式建筑。
仰韶文化（华夏集团）黄河中游（关中、晋南、豫西），距今七千年至五千年，遗物中有彩陶，曾被称为彩陶文化。
大汶口文化（东夷集团）中晚期，黄河下游（鲁西南和苏北）前3500年左右，大汶口文化早期距今约6000年。
良渚文化（苗蛮集团）太湖流域，前3300-前2200年，玉文化发达。
龙山文化（东夷集团）黄河中下游地区，距今约4千年，黑陶文化。
新石器文化是多元区域性发展，后又融合，汇聚于中原（华夏集团），华夏集团成为中国文化的主流，产生国家：夏商周，延续时间最长，始终未曾中断的文明。
二、殷商西周——从神本走向人本（神本人本的表现和特点）神本文化的表现：对祭祀的重视，频频举行盛大祭祀以表示对鬼神的敬意对占卜的重视、占卜分占筮和龟卜青铜器风格的神秘色彩。
商代青铜器有强烈的装饰色彩。
这些装饰具有怪异神秘的意味，具有超现实的神秘色彩，表现超现实的权威。
人本文化的表现：（说明西周人更加理性）更注重人文色彩，西周人本文化一方面是宗法制的确立，另一方面是建立了西周礼制。
三、春秋战国一思想解放的时代、中国文化的“轴心时代”。
（九流十家、六家，春秋战国文化精神风貌；器物特点；区域文化即七大文化圈特点）区域文化即七大文化圈特点：中原文化圈：黄河中游，华夏文化最重要的发源地，周洛阳王畿所在地尚礼。
三晋尚法、质实俭约。
北方文化圈：中原北部，中原文化与少数民族文化的融合。
民风强悍，任侠好气，多游侠之士。
齐鲁文化圈：有共同性，又呈现不同特色：鲁文化，本于周礼，以儒家思想为中心，崇尚礼乐。
2023年人教版九年级上册历史期末复习专题一古代东西方文明
专题一 古代东西方文明
【解析】根据材料可知，《汉谟拉比法典》内容十 分丰富，涉及了古巴比伦社会的多个方面，反映了 古巴比伦的社会状况，A项正确。
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专题一 古代东西方文明
3.《佛本生经》记载，首陀罗一男子爱上刹帝利之 女子，最后首陀罗却不能与之婚姻，只好在绝望中 忧郁而死。这反映了( C ) A.佛教主张舍弃人间情欲 B.种姓制度主张自由恋爱 C.高低种姓之间壁垒森严 D.佛教完全否定种姓制度
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专题一 古代东西方文明
2.《汉谟拉比法典》内容十分广泛，包括诉讼程序、 盗窃、军人份地、租佃、雇佣、商业、高利贷、婚 姻、继承、伤害、债务、奴隶等方面。以上内容说 明该法典( A ) A.反映了古巴比伦的社会状况 B.维护了封建贵族的利益 C.加强了东西方之间经贸往来 D.奠定了欧洲民法的基础
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专题一 古代东西方文明
(3)综合上述材料，概括中世纪西欧城市文明的历 史作用。(2分) 中世纪西欧城市文明孕育了近现代文明；促进了西 欧的近代化进程。(2分，答出任意两点即可，其他 答案言之成理亦可)
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专题一 古代东西方文明
8.
辨别下列史实的正误，在该题前的括号内
正确的打“√”；错误的打“×”，并加以改正。
【 ×】(1)德谟克利特指出，求得知识的最好办法
是有系统的问和答，主张人应该“认识你自己”。
改正：“德谟克利特”改为“苏格拉底”
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专题一 古代东西方文明
【 ×】(2)马其顿国王凯撒的东征，建立了地跨欧、 亚、非三大洲的帝国，促进了东西方文化的大交汇。 改正：“凯撒”改为“亚历山大” 【 √ 】(3)622年，穆罕默德在麦地那建立了一个 以共同信仰为基础的宗教社团——穆斯林公社。 改正：
中西文化史期末复习资料-推荐下载
中西文化史复习资料1、古希腊和古罗马分别给后世留下了哪些文化遗产？古希腊：史诗与喜剧--《荷马史诗》，戏剧建筑（与雕塑）艺术--雅典娜神庙，帕特农神庙 哲学与史学--苏格拉底，柏拉图，亚里士多德古希腊：原始宗教和神话--宙斯 文学与史学--《伊尼特》（《埃涅阿斯纪》）维吉尔，拉丁文，李维《罗马史》塔西佗《历史》《编年史》《日耳曼尼亚志》凯撒《高卢战记》 建筑--古罗马圆形斗兽场，帕第奥奇神庙（万神庙） 法律--《十二铜表法》基督教的兴起与传播--《圣经》上帝耶和华，复活节，感恩节，圣诞节2.你怎样理解德国法学家耶林所说的古罗马人的三次征服世界？德国著名法学家耶林在他所著的《罗马法精神》一书中说：“罗马帝国三次征服世界，第一次以武力，第二次以宗教（指基督教），第三次以法律。
”武力因罗马帝国的灭亡而消失，宗教随着人民思想觉悟的提高，科学的发展而缩小影响，唯有法律征服世界是最为持久的征服。
3.如何看待基督教与欧洲封建社会的关系？欧洲封建社会的精神支柱是基督教。
4.中国古文字与中国社会形态演变的关系？汉字结构，数量，读音，字义的自然流变，汉字的规范化问题1、书写形式越来越多2、笔画模式的越来越多3、书写方式的越来越多社会流变：无统一的规定，国家未统一，且各个国家未制定汉字书写的标准人们对社会与自然的认识不断增长，文字需要适应社会生产生活的变化5.乡土文化的保护问题？在经济日益发展的今天，乡土文化作为文化的基本单元，正处于被忽视和被破坏的境地，因此，保护和传播乡土文化成为新世纪的文化要求，理应成为未来关注文化发展的主线之一。
1、乡土文化具有强大的生命力，若能在乡土文化中注入新时代的因素，便可助其发扬光大，为保护民族优秀传统文化做出一份贡献。
2、乡土文化自远古发展和流传至今，承载着人们世代的价值观和伦理道德，这种植根于普通民众的文化，具有最初的最原始的艺术生命形式。
3、乡土文化所提供的资源，往往是推动当地经济发展、丰富当地文化生活的重要因素。
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希腊，希伯来都是西方文化起源的决定性因素。这就是西方文化起源的两希论。
西方文化的核心内容----自由
中国传统文化的核心内容----仁(建立在亲疏等级基础上的爱)
中世纪史也叫中古史，指的是476年西罗马帝国灭亡到1640年英国资产阶级革命爆发这一时期的历史。封建制度的形成、发展和解体是这一时期欧洲历史的主线。但是世界各国封建社会的发展是不平衡的，当西欧在5世纪刚刚进入封建社会的时候，中国已经走完了约1000年封建社会的历程。
八月二十六日に、李さんは牧野（まきの）さんを訪ねました。夏休みはその前の日に終わりました。今年の夏休みに、李さんは国へ帰りました、李さんはちんたおの人です。ちんたおはとてもきれいでいいところです。
李さんは船でちんたおへ行きました。船賃は三十元ぐらいでした。李さんの家は海から遠くありません。歩いて十五分ぐらいです。ですから、李さんは毎日、昼寝のあと。お兄さんと一緒に海で泳ぎました。
小李是坐船回的青岛。船票是三十元。小李的家离海不远。步行花十五分钟。所以，小李每天睡完午觉就和哥哥一起去海里游泳。
小李的家人算小李一共五个人。父母加一个姐姐加一个哥哥。小李是小儿子。爸爸在海洋研究所工作，妈妈今年退休了。姐姐是中学教师。
Hale Waihona Puke 単語: 牧野（まきの）（专）① 牧野（姓氏）
ちんたお（专）① 青岛（城市名）
更为重要的是,将具有特定涵义的"中世纪"这一概念拿来泛指世界各 国历史,在注意了经济上生产方式这一共同点的同时,却忽视了各国文化发 展的巨大差异."中世纪"的西方文化总体上处于衰落的趋势,游牧民族的
入侵造成了西方古典文化的大破坏,使古典文化面临着灭绝的危险,整个西 方社会的文化水准也因此而大为下降,教会成了古典文化的主要保存者和使 用者,尽管能够保存下来的十分有限.而"中世纪"其它地区的文化却是另
"中世纪"没有绝对的时间界限.西方绝大多数学者认为,"中世纪" 始于公元500年左右,终于1500年左右,前者的代表性事件是西罗马帝国的 灭亡,后者的代表性事件则是新航路的开辟.其中,又以1000年,1350年 为界,分为中世纪初期,中期和晚期三个阶段.中国大多数历史学家都习惯 于把公元476年西罗马帝国灭亡作为"中世纪"的开端,而下限则争议颇多, 有的主张以公元16世纪尼德兰革命为断限,有的主张以新航路的发现为断 限,但更多的是把1640年英国资产阶级革命作下限.
estate庄园，区，死人财产，房地产
5. 暑假 (夏休み)
工业文明的特点
1、机器大生产
2、传统家庭关系的转变
3、人文精神的发展，交往形式的平等
4、财富的不断增长（关键）
5、科学范式的大量应用和科技的快速发展
迄今为止，工业文明是最富活力和创造性的文明。工业社会是唯一的一个依赖持续的经济增长而生存的社会。财富的增长一旦停滞，工业社会就丧失了合法性。由财富的不断增长所要求，工业社会离不开创新，创新是工业社会生死攸关的基础。由创新所要求，工业社会中的知识增长也是无止境的。农业社会也曾有过发明和改进，有时发明和改进的数量和规模还相当大，但是，进步从来不是、也不能被期望是持续不断的，即使是进步最快的农业社会（如唐宋时的中国），其创新的数量、水平和影响也远远不能和工业社会相比。农业社会的本质要求相当静止的社会和稳定的分工，工业社会的本质要求永远的创新和变化。
"中世纪"一词最早诞生于欧洲文艺复兴时代,是公元15—16世纪意大 利人文主义语言学家,历史学家比昂多等人首先提出并使用的.他们认为, 在罗马帝国衰亡直至自己所处的时代之间存在着一个"中间世纪",即"中 世纪".17世纪末,德国历史学家克利斯托弗 凯列尔在其所著《通史》中, 首次将人类历史划分为古代,中世纪和近代三个时期.从18世纪末,"中世 纪"的概念便被西方学术界长期沿用下来.
典型的"中世纪"概念有着特定的地域界限和情感色彩.当西方文艺复 兴时代的启蒙思想家创造"中世纪"一词的时候,他们意念中所指的并不是 整个世界,也不是整个欧洲,而仅仅限于指天主教所统治的地区,即中欧和 西欧.从感情上说,他们对亚洲文化(中国文化,印度文化等)和阿拉伯文 化及拜占庭文化是十分向往的,对古代的希腊,罗马文化更是崇拜得五体投 地;而对公元6至16世纪间"蛮族"的入侵而造成的古典文化的衰落极为不
西方文化起源于两希文化，两希指的是希腊文化和希伯来文化。
古希腊留下的哲学思想成为欧洲中世纪乃至近代一个重要的思想渊源。古希腊的几何学，逻辑学，政治学，民主制度等都为后世欧洲所继承。因此说古希腊的文化是西方文化的重要源头之一。
希伯来人，即古代以色列人。他们为全世界贡献了一本书，就是《圣经》。基督教起源于公元一世纪的犹太人中。犹太人是古代以色列人的一支。从犹太人中诞生的基督教被传到欧洲分成天主教和东正教两支。其中天主教的教会在中世纪的欧洲势力强大，天主教会的成员也成为欧洲极少数识字的成员。在中世纪早期的黑暗时代，教会和教堂成为文明的保留地。直到今天，基督教对欧洲文化的影响仍然广泛存在。因此说古希伯来也是西方文化的重要源头之一。
2、起迄年代:
由于概念不同，对世界中古史的起迄年代的认识也不同。国内过去传统上定上限为 476 年西罗马帝国灭亡，下限为 1640 年英国资产阶级革命，这是以革命夺权为标准划线，现多不用。现在教科书定为下限 15 世纪末地理大发现之前，但上限仍为五世纪．
英国剑桥中世纪史对上限介绍了十二种说法，它以 284 年罗马皇帝戴可立先即位为世界中世纪史开端，下限采用 1453 年拜占廷帝国灭亡为界．此说在西方较流行，象《欧洲中世纪简史》、《世界文明史》、《全球通史》等作者在划定时限时，下限都是 15 世纪，上限则 3 ～ 5 世纪不等。
中世纪的欧洲，文化落后，思想愚昧，是历史上所谓的“黑暗时代”，而在中国，正是文化和科学技术高度发达的时期，东西方文化形成了强烈的对比。宗教在世界广大地区占据了思想领域的统治地位。佛教、基督教、伊斯兰教在许多国家成为“国教”。儒家学说则主宰了中国的思想领域。这种文化现象虽然对封建社会的巩固一度有推动作用，而当资本主义兴起后，它就成为社会进步和科学发展的障碍。伴随着资本主义萌芽的产生，欧洲出现的“文艺复兴”是人类思想的一次大解放，它促进了文化艺术的繁荣和近代科学的大飞跃。在东方，由于封建思想的长期桎梏，社会发展趋于缓慢，从此开始落后于西方。
外一副景象:在近东地区,拜占庭帝国从一开始就以罗马帝国的正统继承者 自居,积极保存了古希腊,罗马文化遗产;拜占庭帝国衰弱后,悄然兴起的 俄罗斯继承了其文化遗产.在中东地区,阿拉伯世界的穆斯林们按照伊斯兰
教教义的教导,向世界各先进国家广求知识,使阿拉伯文化迅速发展,达到 了相当高的水平.作为世界四大文明古国之一的印度虽因内部分裂和外敌入 侵而使其古代灿烂的文化受到相当破坏,但仍有一定的发展,而同样是世界
能等麻美子--夕颜
宗次郎---yichumo,langdemo
ultimata根本的原理
ultimate最后的；最终的；基本原则，基本事实
ultimately最后；最终
ultimatum最后通牒
ultimo上月的
ultra极端的，过分的，极端分子
ultrahigh超高的（频率）
四大文明古国之一的中国,古典文明非但未受到大的破坏,反而在不断吸收,
消化外来文化的基础上将古典文化发展到一个新的高度,成为当时世界上最
具有影响的文化之一.这些带有根本性的差异是"中世纪"一词很难反映出
在欧洲的封建社会里，国王、贵族和骑土等大大小小的封建主构成了金字塔般的等级制度，但是他们的权力和义务都是有限的，“我的附庸的附庸不是我的附庸”，这种复杂的等级关系使得欧洲封建国家长期处在割据状态，和东方中国“普天之下，莫非王上；率土之滨，莫非王巨”的中央集权的封建君主专制大不一样。各国统治者仍不断进行战争，相互抢掠吞并，许多国家一直没有出现统一的稳固政权。封建地主凭借土地所有权和政权对农民进行剥削。在欧洲，基督教会已成为封建统治工具，他们和世俗封建主共同维护封建制度。农民和农奴的劳动被封建主以劳役、实物地租、名目繁多的捐税和教会“什一税”等形式侵吞。农民的反抗持续不断，但是起义的规模一般比较小，没有像中国那样发生过多次推翻了一个王朝的大规模农民战争。
李さんの家族は李さんを入れて五人です。ご両親とお姉さん一人とお兄さんが一人がいます。李さんは末っ子（すえっこ）です。お父さんは海洋研究所に勤めています。お母さんは今年、定年になりました。お姉さんは中学校の先生をしています。
译文：
暑假
八月二十六号，小李去牧野家拜访。暑假在那之前一天结束了。今年暑假，小李回国了，小李是青岛人。青岛是非常漂亮的好地方。
船賃（ふなちん）（名）② 船费
海（うみ）（名）① 大海
昼寝（ひるね）（名）0 午睡
入れる（いれる）（他一）0 连…在内，放入
末っ子（すえっこ）（名）0 小女儿，小儿子
海洋（かいよう）（名）0 海洋
研究所（けんきゅうじょ）（名）0 研究所
定年（ていねん）（名）0 退休
中学校（ちゅうがっこう）（名）③ 中学
无论是西方还是东方，封建经济主要是以一家一户农民为基本生产单位的自给自足的自然经济。农民由于可以拥有一些基本的生产、生活资料，可以获得一定的劳动产品，因此，劳动积极性比奴隶高得多。中世纪时代铁制工具早已普及，再加上生产技术不断进步，使社会财富大大丰富起来，并且促进了商业的发展。14、15世纪在地中海沿海地区，商品经济发达的城市出现了专门从事商品生产的资本主义工场手工业。中国在16、17世纪，在江南一带城市中也出现了资本主义萌芽。在封建生产关系中滋生出资本主义生产关系，说明封建社会已经走到它的尽头。从那时候起，欧洲一些国家的资本主义兴起已形成一个不可逆转的势头。