外文翻译(带图)
超声波加工中英文对照外文翻译文献
超声波加工中英文对照外文翻译文献超声波加工中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)超声波加工综述摘要超声波加工适合切削不导电、脆性材料，例如工程陶瓷。
与其他非传统加工，如激光束、电火花加工等不同，超声波加工不会导致工件表面热损伤或显著的残余应力，这对脆性材料尤其重要。
超声波加工的基本原理，包括材料去除原理，各类操作参数对材料切除率、刀具磨损、工件精确度要求都有叙述，并着重表述了在加工工程陶瓷上的应用，制造复杂的三维立体陶瓷的问题也在叙述当中。
1 概述超声波加工及其应用超声波加工是一种非传统机械切削技术，通常与低材料去除率有关，它并不被加工材料的导电率和化学特性所限制，它用于加工金属和非金属材料，非常适合于脆性大，硬度高于40HRC[6–12]的材料，比如无机玻璃、硅片、镍、钛合金等等 [13–24]，有了它，76um 的小孔也能加工，但是被加工的孔深度与直径之比限制在 3 比 1 之内 [8, 12]。
超声波加工的历史可以追溯到 1927 年，R. W. Wood 和 A. L. Loomis 发表的论文，1945年。
有关于超声波的第一项专利给了 L. Balamuth，现在超声波加工已经分化很多领域，超声波钻削、超声波切削、超声波尺寸加工、超声波研磨技术和悬浮液钻孔法，然而，在 20世纪 50 年代初只普遍知道超声波冲磨或 USM[8,25, 28, 30, 31]。
在超声波加工中，高频率的电能通过换能器/增幅器被转变为机械振动，之后通过一个能量集中装置被传送出去, 例如变幅杆/刀具组件[1, 17, 18, 30, 32]。
这导致刀具沿着其纵向轴线以振幅 0-50μm 高频率振动（通常≥20KHz）[16, 33, 34]，典型额定功率范围从50～3000W[35]不等，在某些机器上可以达到 4kw。
一个受控静负载被施加于刀具和磨料悬浮液（由研磨材料的混合物组成、例如碳化硅，碳化硼等等，悬浮在水或油中）被泵传送到切削区域，刀具的振动导致磨料颗粒悬浮在刀具和工件表面间，通过微型片冲击工件表面从而去除材料[19]。
外文翻译中英文对照
Strengths优势All these private sector banks hold strong position on CRM part, they have professional, dedicated and well-trained employees.所以这些私人银行在客户管理部分都持支持态度，他们拥有专业的、细致的、训练有素的员工。
Private sector banks offer a wide range of banking and financial products and financial services to corporate and retail customers through a variety of delivery channels such as ATMs, Internet-banking, mobile-banking, etc. 私有银行通过许多传递通道（如自动取款机、网上银行、手机银行等）提供大范围的银行和金融产品、金融服务进行合作并向客户零售。
The area could be Investment management banking, life and non-life insurance, venture capital and asset management, retail loans such as home loans, personal loans, educational loans, car loans, consumer durable loans, credit cards, etc. 涉及的领域包括投资管理银行、生命和非生命保险、风险投资与资产管理、零售贷款（如家庭贷款、个人贷款、教育贷款、汽车贷款、耐用消费品贷款、信用卡等）。
Private sector banks focus on customization of products that are designed to meet the specific needs of customers. 私人银行主要致力于为一些特殊需求的客户进行设计和产品定制。
毕业论文外文翻译格式【范本模板】
因为学校对毕业论文中的外文翻译并无规定，为统一起见,特做以下要求：1、每篇字数为1500字左右，共两篇；2、每篇由两部分组成:译文+原文.3 附件中是一篇范本，具体字号、字体已标注。
外文翻译（包含原文)(宋体四号加粗）外文翻译一（宋体四号加粗）作者：(宋体小四号加粗）Kim Mee Hyun Director, Policy Research & Development Team，Korean Film Council（小四号）出处：(宋体小四号加粗)Korean Cinema from Origins to Renaissance(P358～P340) 韩国电影的发展及前景（标题：宋体四号加粗）1996～现在数量上的增长(正文:宋体小四）在过去的十年间，韩国电影经历了难以置信的增长。
上个世纪60年代，韩国电影迅速崛起，然而很快便陷入停滞状态,直到90年代以后，韩国电影又重新进入繁盛时期。
在这个时期，韩国电影在数量上并没有大幅的增长，但多部电影的观影人数达到了上千万人次。
1996年，韩国本土电影的市场占有量只有23.1%。
但是到了1998年，市场占有量增长到35。
8%，到2001年更是达到了50%。
虽然从1996年开始，韩国电影一直处在不断上升的过程中，但是直到1999年姜帝圭导演的《生死谍变》的成功才诞生了韩国电影的又一个高峰。
虽然《生死谍变》创造了韩国电影史上的最高电影票房纪录，但是1999年以后最高票房纪录几乎每年都会被刷新。
当人们都在津津乐道所谓的“韩国大片”时，2000年朴赞郁导演的《共同警备区JSA》和2001年郭暻泽导演的《朋友》均成功刷新了韩国电影最高票房纪录.2003年康佑硕导演的《实尾岛》和2004年姜帝圭导演的又一部力作《太极旗飘扬》开创了观影人数上千万人次的时代。
姜帝圭和康佑硕导演在韩国电影票房史上扮演了十分重要的角色。
从1993年的《特警冤家》到2003年的《实尾岛》，康佑硕导演了多部成功的电影。
外文文献翻译(图片版)
本科毕业论文外文参考文献译文及原文学院经济与贸易学院专业经济学（贸易方向）年级班别2007级 1 班学号3207004154学生姓名欧阳倩指导教师童雪晖2010 年 6 月 3 日目录1 外文文献译文（一）中国银行业的改革和盈利能力（第1、2、4部分） (1)2 外文文献原文（一）CHINA’S BANKING REFORM AND PROFITABILITY（Part 1、2、4） (9)1概述世界银行（1997年）曾声称，中国的金融业是其经济的软肋。
当一国的经济增长的可持续性岌岌可危的时候，金融业的改革一直被认为是提高资金使用效率和消费型经济增长重新走向平衡的必要（Lardy，1998年，Prasad，2007年）。
事实上，不久前，中国的国有银行被视为“技术上破产”，它们的生存需要依靠充裕的国家流动资金。
但是，在银行改革开展以来，最近，强劲的盈利能力已恢复到国有商业银行的水平。
但自从中国的国有银行在不久之前已经走上了改革的道路，它可能过早宣布银行业的改革尚未取得完全的胜利。
此外，其坚实的财务表现虽然强劲，但不可持续增长。
随着经济增长在2008年全球经济衰退得带动下已经开始软化，银行预计将在一个比以前更加困难的经济形势下探索。
本文的目的不是要评价银行业改革对银行业绩的影响，这在一个完整的信贷周期后更好解决。
相反，我们的目标是通过审查改革的进展和银行改革战略，并分析其近期改革后的强劲的财务表现，但是这不能完全从迄今所进行的改革努力分离。
本文有三个部分。
在第二节中，我们回顾了中国的大型国有银行改革的战略，以及其执行情况，这是中国银行业改革的主要目标。
第三节中分析了2007年的财务表现集中在那些在市场上拥有浮动股份的四大国有商业银行：中国工商银行（工商银行），中国建设银行（建行），对中国银行（中银）和交通银行（交通银行）。
引人注目的是中国农业银行，它仍然处于重组上市过程中得适当时候的后期。
第四节总结一个对银行绩效评估。
(完整版)外文翻译
外文文献原稿和译文原稿logistics distribution center location factors:(1) the goods distribution and quantity. This is the distribution center and distribution of the object, such as goods source and the future of distribution, history and current and future forecast and development, etc. Distribution center should as far as possible and producer form in the area and distribution short optimization. The quantity of goods is along with the growth of the size distribution and constant growth. Goods higher growth rate, the more demand distribution center location is reasonable and reducing conveying process unnecessary waste.(2) transportation conditions. The location of logistics distribution center should be close to the transportation hub, and to form the logistics distribution center in the process of a proper nodes. In the conditional, distribution center should be as close to the railway station, port and highway.(3) land conditions. Logistics distribution center covers an area of land in increasingly expensive problem today is more and more important. Is the use of the existing land or land again? Land price? Whether to conform to the requirements of the plan for the government, and so on, in the construction distribution center have considered.(4) commodities flow. Enterprise production of consumer goods as the population shift and change, should according to enterprise's better distribution system positioning. Meanwhile, industrial products market will transfer change, in order to determine the raw materials and semi-finished products of commodities such as change of flow in the location of logistics distribution center should be considered when the flow of the specific conditions of the relevant goods.(5) other factors. Such as labor, transportation and service convenience degree, investment restrictions, etc.How to reduce logistics cost，enhance the adaptive capacity and strain capacity of distribution center is a key research question of agricultural product logistics distribution center．At present，most of the research on logistics cost concentrates off theoretical analysis of direct factors of logistics cost, and solves the problem of over-high logistics Cost mainly by direct channel solution．This research stresses on the view of how to loeate distribution center, analyzes the influence of locating distribution center on logistics cost．and finds one kind of simple and easy location method by carrying on the location analysis of distribution center through computer modeling and the application of Exeel．So the location of agricultural product logistics distribution center can be achieved scientifically and reasonably, which will attain the goal of reducing logistics cost, and have a decision．making support function to the logisties facilities and planning of agricultural product．The agricultural product logistics distribution center deals with dozens and even hundreds of clients every day, and transactions are made in high-frequency. If the distribution center is far away from other distribution points，the moving and transporting of materials and the collecting of operational data is inconvenient and costly. costly．The modernization of agricultural product logistics s distribution center is a complex engineering system，not only involves logistics technology, information technology, but also logistics management ideas and its methods，in particular the specifying of strategic location and business model is essential for the constructing of distribution center. How to reduce logistics cost，enhance the adaptive capacity and strain capacity of distribution center is a key research question of agricultural product logistics distribution center. The so—called logistics costs refers to the expenditure summation of manpower, material and financial resources in the moving process of the goods．such as loading and unloading，conveying，transport，storage，circulating，processing, information processing and other segments. In a word。
外文翻译
有机碳和从一系列实验室合成的生物炭和生物炭与土壤混合物的养分释放Atanu Mukherjee , Andrew R. ZimmermanDepartment of Geological Sciences, University of Florida, 241 Williamson Hall, P.O. Box 112120, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA摘要生物炭作为土壤改良剂，会增加土壤的吸收能力和生产能力，但其对溶解有机碳（DOC），氮（N），磷（P）的循环和亏损的影响还不是很清楚。
在这里，纯净土壤与土壤混合物被做成批量处理加入各种新鲜的和熟化的生物炭进行提取和淋洗检验其营养释放。
在生物炭的连续批量提取中，累计亏损大约分别为总C，N 和P初始量的0.1-2 ，0.5-8 和0.5-100%。
在较低温度和草制成生物炭却有更大的释放。
氨通常是渗滤液中的最丰富的氮素形态，但是硝酸盐同样在生物炭中也很丰富。
而有机氮和磷的损失分别占总N和P的高达61％和93％。
释放的有机碳，氮和磷的量是与生物炭挥发物含量和酸性官能团密度呈现正相关的。
然而，通过含有矿物质的P样品显示，通过Mehlich-1提取的磷的释放是与灰分含量有更加密切相关的。
一系列的土壤和生物炭的混合物显示，土壤吸收生物炭的营养还是生物炭吸收土壤的营养是取决于生物炭和土壤类型的。
这项研究表明，生物炭包含有不同释放速率的养分形态，生物炭的释放速率是受土壤肥力和作物类型和时间的影响的。
1、引言生物炭是在有限的生物质或没有氧气（裂解）的条件下通过热处理得到的碳产物。
生物炭最近由于其潜力而获得关注，作为土壤改良剂使用时，会改良退化土壤的肥力和通过植物去储存大气中的碳。
最近有很多工作研究生物炭的化学特性和作用于植物与微生物的生长。
但是这些伴随生物炭改变的影响的主要机制和对环境可能造成的后果，例如有机污染物或养分释放，目前还不清楚。
外文翻译---100个改变平面设计的观念(英文为图片)
中文1850字100个改变平面设计的观念（部分）观念53 影子游戏平面设计师永久痴迷的问题之一，即是如何从平面世界中脱离出来。
他们想要让图像和文字摆脱二维水平的限制。
匈牙利裔艺术家LászlóMoholy-Nagy 终生都致力于解决这个棘手的问题。
通过摄影，以及用透镜、反射镜、滤光片来控制光影的方法，他赋予了静态的平面元素一种纵深和动态的感觉。
1929年的一本名为《14部包豪斯著作》的手册封面上，LászlóMoholy-Nagy通过从各种角度拍摄排字盘上的金属字并拼贴在一起的方法，创造了一种奇特的视觉混合物。
这些单词不仅突出于画面而且也不符合透视原理。
他意识到，将字形与它们被扭曲的影子放在一起，可以将纸面转换为一扇通往超凡脱俗的境界的窗口。
László Moholy-Nagy应该会喜欢美国艺术家Ed Ruscha的作品，他的单色的“文字作品”常和一种奇特的光影游戏联系在一起，受洛杉矶的印刷环境启发，他的作品介于电影标题序列和路边广告之间。
他创作于1990年的作品“Mighty Topic”则是以块状的大写字母为前景，而投射在背后墙上的是斜体的大小写的字母的模糊影子。
而且，投影被设计为一个陡峭的角度，一种视觉的荒谬。
然而，奇怪的是，图像并没有给人一种错误的印象，相反，它忠实地再现了一种视觉矛盾，并给南加利福尼亚州的风景、广告牌、汽车旅馆标志和大型加油站的遮檐注入了更多的个性。
2004年，巴黎Châtelet剧院宣传Richard Wagner的Tannhäuser的海报中，Rudi Meyer 用字体和阴影创造了一个幽灵似的视觉幻象。
透视上看，一个大写字母T投射出一个长长的令人生畏的十字架形状的阴影。
一个人们可能不会下意识地注意到的细节——T的角度和十字架阴影并不匹配——成就了作品给观者的怪异印象。
影子游戏经常用于舞台设计，所以并不令人意外，Rudi Meyer在为Châtelet剧院的7年任期中创造了许多这种的平面幻像。
本科毕业设计外文文献翻译
（Sheaｒ waｌl ｓt ｒuctural desigｎ ofh ｉgh-ｌev ｅl fr ａmeworkＷｕ Jiche ｎgＡbstract ： In t ｈis pape ｒ the basic c ｏｎcepts of ｍａn ｐow ｅr ｆｒom th ｅ ｆra ｍｅ sh ｅａr w ａｌl str ｕc ｔｕｒｅ, analy ｓis of the ｓtruct ｕr ａｌ des ｉgn ｏf th ｅ c ｏnt ｅnt ｏｆ t ｈe fr ａme she ａr wall, in ｃｌudi ｎg the ｓeism ｉc wa ｌl she ａr spa本科毕业设计外文文献翻译学校代码： 10128学 号：题 目：Shear wall structural design of high-level framework 学生姓名： 学 院：土木工程学院 系 别：建筑工程系 专 业：土木工程专业（建筑工程方向） 班 级：土木08-（5）班 指导教师： (副教授)ｎratiｏdesign, ａnd a concrｅtｅｓtruｃtuｒe in thｅmｏst co ｍmonｌy useｄframe shear walｌstｒｕcturｅtｈｅdesign of p ｏiｎｔs to note.Keyworｄs: cｏncrｅｔｅ; fｒaｍｅshｅａｒwall sｔｒucｔｕre；hiｇh－risｅbuildｉｎｇsThe wall is aｍoｄern high－rｉｓe buiｌdiｎgs is an iｍpo ｒｔant buiｌdinｇconｔｅnt, the ｓize of thｅfraｍe sheａr wall must comｐly with buildｉng reguｌａtｉons. The pｒｉnｃipｌe is ｔhat the largeｒsｉzｅbｕt the thｉｃknessｍuｓt ｂｅsmaller gｅoｍetric featｕrｅｓshoｕlｄｂe ｐｒeｓented ｔo the pｌatｅ,ｔｈe forｃe is close to cylｉndrｉcal.Ｔhe waｌl sｈｅar wa ｌl strｕｃｔure ｉs a flaｔcomｐonent. Itｓeｘposure to tｈe force aｌoｎg ｔhe ｐlane leｖｅl of theｒole ofｓｈear and momｅｎt, must also take ｉｎtｏａccounｔthe veｒｔical preｓsure.Opeｒate unｄer thｅcomｂiｎed actｉｏn oｆbenｄing momeｎts and axial force aｎｄsheａr forcｅbｙthe caｎtilｅｖｅr deep beａm uｎder ｔｈe acｔion of the force leveｌｔo lｏo ｋinto ｔｈe bottom mouｎted on ｔhe basｉs of. Sheaｒｗaｌl ｉｓdiｖidｅｄinｔo a whole walｌand ｔheａssoｃiated ｓｈeａr wall in thｅactual project,a wholｅwａlｌfor ｅxａmpl ｅ, suｃh as ｇenｅraｌhｏusiｎｇｃonstｒuction in tｈe gablｅｏr fish bｏne strｕcture ｆｉlｍwａｌls ａnd small opｅningｓwall.Cｏupled Sｈeａr ｗalls are ｃonnｅcted bｙｔhｅcｏupｌing ｂeam shｅａr wall.Buｔｂecause tｈeｇｅnerａlｃｏupling beaｍstｉｆfness is less thaｎｔhe wall stiｆfnｅsｓof the lｉmbs，ｓｏ. Wａlｌliｍb aｌonｅis obviｏus.The ｃｅntral beam of tｈeｉnflｅｃtion pｏｉnｔtｏpay aｔtenｔiｏｎto tｈeｗaｌl pressｕre thａn the limiｔs of the lｉmb axis. Will forｍa shortｗiｄe beａms，widｅcolｕmn wａll liｍｂｓhear wａll ｏpｅnings toｏlarge ｃomｐonｅnt aｔbothｅn ｄs ｗith jｕst the domain of vａｒiabｌe crosｓ－ｓecｔｉon ro ｄin ｔhe intｅrｎａｌforcｅｓｕnder tｈｅaｃtioｎof maｎy Ｗalｌlｉmb iｎflｅcｔion point Ｔhｅｒeｆoｒe, ｔhe cａｌcula ｔions ａｎd consｔruction sｈouldAccordinｇtｏappｒoxiｍａｔe tｈe framｅstｒucｔure to ｃonsideｒ.Tｈe desｉｇｎof ｓhｅａr walls ｓhoulｄbe based on the cｈａractｅrisｔics ｏf ａvａｒｉｅty oｆwall itseｌｆ,ａnd dｉfferｅnｔmeｃhanical ch ａrａcteｒisｔｉcｓand requireｍents,wall oｆthｅinternａｌforceｄistrｉbutｉon and failurｅmoｄｅs ｏf sｐecific and cｏmprehensive ｃonｓideration of the design rｅinｆorcemｅnt aｎd stｒuctural measｕres. Ｆrame sｈear wall ｓｔrｕctuｒe deｓiｇn is to cｏｎsider the ｓtructｕre of the oｖerall ａnａｌysis for ｂoｔh dｉrecｔｉｏｎsｏｆthｅhｏrｉzontal and vｅrtiｃalｅfｆects. Oｂtain thｅinternal force ｉs reｑuirｅd in ａccｏrdancｅｗｉｔｈtｈe bias or paｒtｉal ｐull normal sｅcｔｉon forｃｅｃaｌculatiｏn.The waｌl strｕcture oｆtheｆｒame sｈear ｗall ｓｔructural dｅsign of ｔhe coｎtent frame hｉgh-rise buildings, in ｔhe actual ｐrｏjeｃｔiｎｔhｅuse of thｅｍoｓt seisｍic ｗａlls have suffiｃient quantitｉeｓto meｅt ｔheｌｉmitsｏf the lａyer displacement, the loｃation iｓｒelａtiｖely flexiblｅ. Seiｓmic wａll for cｏntinuous layout，ｆulｌ-length ｔhroｕgh．Should bｅdesigned to avoid the waｌl mutaｔioｎs ｉn limb ｌｅｎgth and alignment is noｔuｐａnd down the ｈolｅ. The samｅtｉme．Tｈe inｓide of ｔhe hole marginｓcｏlｕｍｎshｏｕld not ｂｅｌｅssｔhan３00mm ｉｎordｅｒtｏguaraｎteｅtheｌengtｈof the colｕｍn ａs the edgｅof tｈe coｍponent and constｒａiｎt eｄgｅcｏｍponeｎts．Thｅbi-direc ｔiｏnal laｔerａl forｃe ｒesiｓting strucｔurａl fｏrm of verticａl aｎｄhorｉzontaｌwalｌcoｎnected.Eａｃh ｏｔhｅr as ｔhe ａffiｎiｔｙof the shｅar wall. Ｆor ｏnｅ, two seismic frａme sｈe ａr ｗalｌｓ,ｅｖen beam highｒatio ｓhould noｔgreateｒthan 5 aｎd a height of nｏt less thaｎ400mm.Midline colｕmnａnd beａmｓ,wall ｍｉdline shouｌdｎoｔbe greaｔer tha ｎthe ｃoｌｕmｎwidｔｈof1/4，ｉn ordｅr ｔｏreｄuce thｅtoｒsional eｆfect of the sｅiｓmｉｃacｔion ｏnｔｈｅｃolｕmn．Oｔhｅrwｉsｅcan be taken tｏstrengthｅn theｓtirruprａｔｉo iｎｔhe cｏlｕmn tｏmake ｕp.If thｅshear wａｌl sheａｒsｐａn ｔhａnｔhe ｂig twｏ. Ｅveｎthe beａｍcro ｓs-heｉｇht ratiｏgreateｒthan 2.5, ｔhen tｈe design presｓｕｒe ｏf thｅｃｕt shoulｄnoｔmａkｅａｂig 0.2. Howevｅｒ, ｉf the sheａｒwallｓheａr sｐａｎｒatiｏof ｌess than two couｐlinｇｂeａms sｐan of ｌeｓs than ２．5, then the shear coｍｐres ｓiｏn rａｔiｏis noｔgreaｔer thａn 0.15. Thｅｏther haｎｄ，ｔhe bｏttom oｆthe fraｍe ｓhｅar walｌstructure ｔo enhａnce tｈｅdｅsign sｈould ｎoｔbe leｓs thaｎ２０0mmａnd noｔlesｓthaｎstorey 1/１6，othｅｒｐaｒtｓｓhｏulｄnot be lｅss than 160mm ａnd ｎｏt ｌｅss thaｎｓtoｒey １/20. Arounｄthe wall of the frame ｓhｅar ｗall strucｔure sｈｏulｄbe set ｔo the beａm or dark bｅamａnd the sｉｄe columｎｔｏform a borｄｅr. Ｈoｒizｏntａl ｄｉｓtrｉbuｔioｎoｆsｈear waｌls cａn from the sheａr effect，tｈｉs design wｈen ｂuilｄｉng higｈｅr longeｒor fｒaｍｅｓtructｕre reinfoｒcｅment shｏuld be aｐprｏpｒiatelｙincｒeａｓed, ｅspｅcｉａlｌy in the sｅnｓitivｅｐarts of the beam pｏsition ｏr teｍperaｔuｒe, stiffnｅsｓchａnge is besｔappｒopriatｅly increased, ｔｈeｎcｏnsidｅration sｈoulｄbe ｇｉveｎｔo the wａlｌvertｉcaｌreiｎforｃemeｎt,becaｕse ｉt is mａinly fｒom the bｅnding efｆecｔ, aｎｄtake in ｓome ｍｕlti-ｓtorｅｙshｅａｒｗａll structuｒereinforcｅｄreｉnｆorceｍent rate -likｅlｅsｓconｓtｒained edgｅｏｆｔhｅcomｐonent or components reinforｃemeｎt of thｅedge ｃomｐｏnent.Referｅnces: [1 sad Hａyaｓhi,He Yaming. Ｏn the shorｔshｅar ｗall ｈigh-riｓe bｕilｄinｇｄesign ［J]．Kｅｙｕaｎ, 2008, (O2).高层框架剪力墙结构设计吴继成摘要: 本文从框架剪力墙结构设计的基本概念人手, 分析了框架剪力墙的构造设计内容, 包括抗震墙、剪跨比等的设计, 并出混凝土结构中最常用的框架剪力墙结构设计的注意要点。
组培外文文献翻译(29页)
芽的伸长与增殖
胚性愈伤产生的不定芽转移到改良 WPM培养 基附加20mg/L AgNO 3，6-BA(0.9, 2.3, 9.0,
22.5 μm), 和NAA (0.1, 0.3 μm) 里进行芽伸长
和增殖试验（表 4）。每个处理30个芽，重复3次。 每月观察并记录数据，共 16周。不定芽增殖系数 为接种后不定芽数量 /接种前芽数量。
细胞分裂素（ TDZ，6-BA，KT，和ZT），单独或与NAA组合使用，可以同 时诱导芽器官发生，体细胞胚胎发生和球状胚性结构。然而，他们出现的频 率一定的差异：
6-BA是最好的不定芽诱导激素， ZT是最适合诱导体细胞胚胎发生的激素， 而KT是最好的诱导球状胚性结构形成的激素。
本研究通过金花茶的未成熟子叶诱导愈伤组织并获得再生植株过程进行了 研究。通过器官发生和体细胞胚发生，直接或间接地再生，显然可能的（图 6）。胚性愈伤组织诱导需要加入强烈活性的细胞分裂素，TDZ或 6-BA，单独使 用或与弱活性生长素，萘乙酸，IAA或IBA的组合。胚性愈伤组织可以分化 成体细胞胚，球状胚性愈伤结构，或不定芽取决于在培养基中添加的植物调 节剂。
比较以金花茶子叶为外植体诱导的愈伤组织分化途径，可以观察到：（1 ）芽器官发生简单，容易除TDZ以外的植物生长调节剂均可诱导发生。 （2）最 适芽器官发生的细胞分裂素是6-BA。（3）芽伸长和生根困难，需要很长一段 时间（3-4个月），这将不利于快速繁殖。 （4）使用球状胚性结构繁殖给金 花茶提供一个再生的循环过程。总之，从金花茶的未成熟合子胚培养的子叶 产生的高度再生培养，与所使用的细胞分裂素和基础培养基有关。通过芽器 官发生，体细胞胚发生和球状胚性愈伤途径都可以快速繁殖金花茶。
结果与分析 不同方法对愈伤组织诱导和继代培养过程中的褐化现象
土木工程外文翻译(中英互译版)
使用加固纤维聚合物增强混凝土梁的延性Nabil F. Grace, George Abel-Sayed, Wael F. Ragheb摘要：一种为加强结构延性的新型单轴柔软加强质地的聚合物(FRP)已在被研究，开发和生产(在结构测试的中心在劳伦斯技术大学)。
这种织物是两种碳纤维和一种玻璃纤维的混合物，而且经过设计它们在受拉屈服时应变值较低，从而表达出伪延性的性能。
通过对八根混凝土梁在弯曲荷载作用下的加固和检测对研制中的织物的效果和延性进行了研究。
用现在常用的单向碳纤维薄片、织物和板进行加固的相似梁也进行了检测，以便同用研制中的织物加固梁进行性能上的比拟。
这种织物经过设计具有和加固梁中的钢筋同时屈服的潜力，从而和未加固梁一样，它也能得到屈服台阶。
相对于那些用现在常用的碳纤维加固体系进行加固的梁，这种研制中的织物加固的梁承受更高的屈服荷载，并且有更高的延性指标。
这种研制中的织物对加固机制表达出更大的奉献。
关键词：混凝土，延性，纤维加固，变形介绍外贴粘合纤维增强聚合物〔FRP〕片和条带近来已经被确定是一种对钢筋混凝土结构进行修复和加固的有效手段。
关于应用外贴粘合FRP板、薄片和织物对混凝土梁进行变形加固的钢筋混凝土梁的性能，一些试验研究调查已经进行过报告。
Saadatmanesh和Ehsani〔1991〕检测了应用玻璃纤维增强聚合物(GFRP)板进行变形加固的钢筋混凝土梁的性能。
Ritchie等人〔1991〕检测了应用GFRP，碳纤维增强聚合物〔CFRP〕和G/CFRP板进行变形加固的钢筋混凝土梁的性能。
Grace等人〔1999〕和Triantafillou〔1992〕研究了应用CFRP薄片进行变形加固的钢筋混凝土梁的性能。
Norris，Saadatmanesh和Ehsani〔1997〕研究了应用单向CFRP薄片和CFRP织物进行加固的混凝土梁的性能。
在所有的这些研究中，加固的梁比未加固的梁承受更高的极限荷载。
外文翻译
Ti6AL4V在挤压阶段的线性摩擦焊A. Vairis *, M. FrostDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Uni6ersity of Bristol, Queen’s Building, Uni6ersityWalk, Bristol BS8 1TR, UKReceived 25 March 1999; received in revised form 14 June 19990前言Ti6AL4V在线性摩擦焊的挤压阶段对焊接的完整性已经被证明有很重要的作用。
在摩擦界面中最大的摩擦热所在的地方，热量提升的显示依赖于振幅。
这是闪速和轴向缩短实验数据证实了宏观证明。
用真实的实验数据的分析模型来预测应变率，材料暴露在接口塑化区.© 1999 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.关键词：线性摩擦焊接，挤压阶段;Ti6AL4V1引言自从焦耳实验之后，我们就已经知道，机械能将部分之间的摩擦产生的热量转化摩擦表面。
最近，它已被证明在线性摩擦焊的情况下，增加材料在可控制的方法下这些热量是鼓励使用，也能提高效率。
在这个过程中，部分相对移动的压力下彼此由线性机制产生了直接的往复式模式.这提供了一个方便的方法，加入大多数的材料组合，适用于非轴对称零件，需要准确的工件方位。
线性摩擦焊是一种自我调节的过程中，接口在一定压力条件和毗邻地区要达到接受其各个阶段的过程。
观察的过程[1]有四个不同的阶段（图1）。
这些阶段已经在一些细节先前所描述的[1]，本文仅简要讨论。
1.1第一阶段，初始阶段在开始的时候，这两种材料都在压力下接触。
两个表面处于粗糙阶段，从固体摩擦产生的热量。
在整个这一阶段，由于严酷的磨损而接触面积增大。
在这一阶段组织没有轴向缩短。
如果擦的速度太低，对于一个给定的轴向力，将产生摩擦热不足，传导和辐射的损失，这将导致热软化和不足，下一阶段也将不遵循补偿。
英文翻译 附原文
本科毕业设计(论文) 外文翻译（附外文原文）系 ( 院 )：资源与环境工程系课题名称：英文翻译专业(方向)：环境工程班级：2004-1班学生：3040106119指导教师：刘辉利副教授日期：2008年4月20使用褐煤（一种低成本吸附剂）从酸性矿物废水中去除和回收金属离子a. 美国, 大学公园, PA 16802, 宾夕法尼亚州立大学, 能源部和Geo 环境工程学.b. 印度第80号邮箱, Mahatma Gandhi ・Marg, Lucknow 226001, 工业毒素学研究中心, 环境化学分部,于2006 年5月6 日网上获得，2006 年4月24 日接受，2006 年3月19 日;校正，2006 年2月15 日接收。
摘要酸性矿物废水(AMD), 是一个长期的重大环境问题，起因于钢硫铁矿的微生物在水和空气氧化作用, 买得起包含毒性金属离子的一种酸性解答。
这项研究的主要宗旨是通过使用褐煤（一种低成本吸附剂）从酸性矿水(AMD)中去除和回收金属离子。
褐煤已被用于酸性矿水排水AMD 的处理。
经研究其能吸附亚铁, 铁, 锰、锌和钙在multi-component 含水系统中。
研究通过在不同的酸碱度里进行以找出最适宜的酸碱度。
模拟工业条件进行酸性矿物废水处理, 所有研究被进行通过单一的并且设定多专栏流动模式。
空的床接触时间(EBCT) 模型被使用为了使吸附剂用量减到最小。
金属离子的回收并且吸附剂的再生成功地达到了使用0.1 M 硝酸不用分解塔器。
关键词:吸附; 重金属; 吸附; 褐煤; 酸性矿物废水处理; 固体废料再利用; 亚铁; 铁; 锰。
文章概述1. 介绍2. 材料和方法2.1. 化学制品、材料和设备3. 吸附步骤3.1. 酸碱度最佳化3.2. 固定床研究3.2.1 单一栏3.2.2 多栏4. 结果和讨论4.1. ZPC 和渗析特征4.2 酸碱度的影响4.3. Multi-component 固定吸附床4.3.1 褐煤使用率4.4. 吸附机制4.5. 解吸附作用研究5. 结论1. 介绍酸性矿物废水(AMD) 是一个严重的环境问题起因于硫化物矿物风化, 譬如硫铁矿(FeS2) 和它的同素异形体矿物(α-FeS) 。
外文文献翻译
外文文献翻译Finance companies originate subprime automobile loans using a network of franchises and car dealers. They may fund this lending with traditional debt or equity, but in the 1990s many of these companies also began to issue asset-backed securities. In a typical automobile securitization, an originator pools several thousand automobile loans and sells these to a special-purpose entity such as a trust. The special-purpose entity, in turn, issues securities backed by a beneficial interest in the receivables from the loans in the pool. Typically, the originator continues to service the loans for a fee. Depending on credit enhancements, asset quality, servicer strength, and other variables, these securities are assigned a credit rating and can be traded in capital markets.It is possible that the automobile loans that underly asset-backed securities are not representative of all loans made by finance companies. For example, some lenders may choose to "cherry pick" by securitizing only their relatively less desirable loans. We believe this potential source of selection bias is of limited practical importance because several of the largest finance companies represented in our sample have adopted explicit policies of securitizing all or nearly all of the loans they originate. Unfortunately, data comparing the characteristics of on- and off- balance sheet automobile loan portfolios are not publicly available.Each issuer of publicly-traded automobile loan-backed securities submits periodic reports to the SEC documenting the performance of the underlying collateral pool. Using these data and other sources, Moody's publishes New Issue Reports describing each collateral pool and Pool Performance Reportsthat track the performance of pools over time. Among the variables included in a typical New Issue Report are the initial weighted average interest rate (termed weighted average coupon, or WAC), the weighted average maturity, and the age of loans in a pool, as well as the initial number of loans and asset balance for the pool. Variables available on a monthly frequency from Pool Performance Reports include the principal balance on loans outstanding, delinquency rates, dollars charged-off, and dollars prepaid for active pools.We have compiled sufficient data from Moody's New Issue and PoolPerformance reports to construct a sample of 3,595 pool-month observations on 124 loan pools from 13 different issuers.A total of 3.3 million automobile loans were held in these pools. Table 1 reports summary statistics for our sample of loan pools. Figure 1 provides information on pool issue dates, pool sizes, and WACs. Although some of the pools in our sample were issued during 1994, 1995, and 1996, performance data for most pools are only available after 1996.The fundamental unit of analysis for examining default and prepayment risk is the individual loan. The aggregate competing risks model described in Section 3 requires information on the number of loans that default and prepay in each month in the life of a pool. Because these data are not directly reported by Moody's, we must infer them from available accounting data. To accomplish this, we first calculate the average remaining balance for active loans in a pool by using information on the pool's average loan size, weighted average coupon, and maturity in a standard amortization formula. We then estimate the number of prepaid loans by dividing the reported dollars of principalprepaid in a month by the estimated average remaining loan principal balance for that month.Estimating the number of loans that default in a month requires that we make an assumption about the relationship between charge-offs and loan defaults. We assume that when a loan defaults, sixty percent of its remaining principal is charged off. The number of loans that default is estimated by dividing the reported dollars charged off in a month by the estimated principal balance scaled to reflect the charge-off assumption. The sixty percent charge-off rule represents what we take to be a reasonable approximation of standard practice based on discussions with industry participants. Unfortunately, the detailed accounting data needed to either validate or generalize this simple rule are not publicly available. To the extent that our sixty percent charge-off assumption is too high (respectively, too low) we will under (over) predict default probabilities. Nonetheless, our conclusions about the economic drivers of default and prepayment risk should be robust to reasonable departures from this assumption.财务公司发起的次级汽车贷款，使用网络的专营权和汽车经销商。
外文翻译
井冈山大学外文翻译题目施工组织设计与施工图预算学院建筑工程学院专业工程管理姓名谭智强学号90617008指导教师夏振华2012年11月20日开发一个评估施工现场安全管理系统有效性的模型Developing a model to measure the effectiveness of safety management systems of construction sites作者：Evelyn Ai Lin Teoa,_, Florence Yean Yng Linga起止页码：1584~1592出版日期（期刊号）：2005年6月第005版出版单位：新加坡环境国立大学摘要:在新加坡,实施了建筑行业安全管理系统(SMS)和SMS审计大约有十年之久的现在,安全标准的提高并不显著。
为了回应需要改进的有效性(SMS)和安全管理体系审计的目的,本文提出了一种方法, 人员可以利用测试工具来评估审计建筑公司安全管理体系的有效性。
研究方法采用了15个步进行调查，安全专家被邀请通过面试或工作表达自己的意见。
层次分析法(AHP)及因子分析是用来协助识别影响最为关键的因素和属性的安全。
该模型开发利用多属性值模型(MAVT)的方法。
该方法可以通过网站得到验证审核,利用模型中施工安全指数(CSI)可以计算出来。
结果表明,该模型可以作为一个客观CSI衡量不同管理和评估。
关键词: 安全管理体系;安全审核;施工安全指数1 简介: 支撑这一工作的论据安全管理体系(SMS)作为建筑业一个正式制度的管理现场安全的体系。
承包商预期管理现场安全通过正常的安全管理体系。
如何有效地评价这些系统是很重要的,这样可以使不足之处得以更正。
该研究工作是在协作与职业安全部门监督下进行的,人力资源部门可根据当局评价审计协议来衡量一个建筑工地的有效性的安全管理体系。
新加坡建筑行业服务实施了安全管理体系审计大约有十年之久了,但是提高的安全效果并不显著。
这与影响船舶的修建行业一样,经历了一个稳定提高安全性能的阶段。
外文翻译资料及译文
附录C：外文翻译资料Article Source：Business & Commercial Aviation, Nov 20, 2000. 5-87-88 Interactive Electronic Technical Manuals Electronic publications can increase the efficiency of your digital aircraft and analogtechnicians.Benoff, DaveComputerized technical manuals are silently revolutionizing the aircraft maintenance industry by helping the technician isolate problems quickly, and in the process reduce downtime and costs by more than 10 percent.These electronic publications can reduce the numerous volumes of maintenance manuals, microfiche and work cards that are used to maintain engines, airframes, avionics and their associated components."As compared with the paper manuals, electronic publications give us greater detail and reduced research times," said Chuck Fredrickson, general manager of Mercury Air Center in Fort Wayne, Ind.With all the advances in computer hardware and software technologies, such as high quality digital multimedia, hypertext and the capability to store and transmit digital multimedia via CD-ROMs/ networks, technical publication companies have found an effective, cost-efficient method to disseminate data to technicians.The solution for many operators and OEMs is to take advantage of today's technology in the form of Electronic Technical Manuals (ETM) or Interactive Technical Manuals (IETM). An ETM is any technical manual prepared in digital format that has the ability to be displayed using any electronic hardware media. The difference between the types of ETM/IETMs is the embedded functionality and implementation of the data."The only drawback we had to using ETMs was getting enough computers to meet our technicians' demand," said Walter Berchtold, vice president of maintenance at Jet Aviation's West Palm Beach, Fla., facility.A growing concern is the cost to print paper publications. In an effort to reduce costs, some aircraft manufacturers are offering incentives for owners to switch from paper to electronic publications. With an average printing cost of around 10 cents per page, a typical volume of a paper technical manual can cost the manufacturer over $800 for each copy. When producing a publication electronically, average production costs for a complete set of aircraft manuals are approximately $20 per copy. It is not hard to see the cost advantages of electronic publications.Another advantage of ETMs is the ease of updating information. With a paper copy, the manufacturer has to reprint the revised pages and mail copies to all the owners. When updates are necessary for an electronic manual, changes can either be e-mailed to theowners or downloaded from the manufacturer's Web site.So why haven't more flight departments converted their publications to ETM/IETMs? The answer lies in convincing technicians that electronic publications can increase their efficiency."We had an initial learning curve when the technicians switched over, but now that they are familiar with the software they never want to go back to paper," said Fredrickson.A large majority of corporate technicians also said that while they like the concept of having a tool that aids the troubleshooting process, they are fearful to give up all of their marked-up paper manuals.In 1987, a human factors study was conducted by the U.S. government to compare technician troubleshooting effectiveness, between paper and electronic methodology, and included expert troubleshooting procedures with guidance through the events. Results of the project indicated that technicians using electronic media took less than half the time to complete their tasks than those using the paper method, and technicians using the electronic method accomplished 65 percent more in that reduced time.The report also noted that new technicians using the electronic technical manuals were 12-percent more efficient than the older, more experienced technicians. (Novices using paper took 15 percent longer than the experts.)It is interesting that 90 percent of the technicians who used the electronic manuals said they preferred them to the paper versions. This proved to the industry that with proper training, the older technicians could easily transition from paper to electronic media.Electronic publications are not a new concept, although how they are applied today is. "Research over the last 20 years has provided a solid foundation for today's IETM implementation," said Joseph Fuller of the U.S. Naval Surface Warfare Center. "IETMs such as those for the Apache, Comanche, F-22, JSTAR and V-22 have progressed from concept to military and commercial implementation."In the late 1970s, the U.S. military investigated the feasibility of converting existing paper and microfilm. The Navy Technical Information Presentation System (NTIPS) and the Air Force Computer- based Maintenance Aid System (CMAS) were implemented with significant cost savings.The report stated that transition to electronic publications resulted in reductions in corrective maintenance time, fewer false removals of good components, more accurate and complete maintenance data collection reports, reduction in training requirements and reduced system downtime.The problem that the military encountered was ETMs were created in multiple levels of complexity with little to no standardization. Options for publications range from simple page-turning programs to full-functioning automated databases.This resulted in the classification of ETMs so that the best type of electronic publication could be selected for the proper application.Choosing a LevelWith all of the OEM and second- and third-party electronic publications that are available it is important that you choose the application level that is appropriate for your operation.John J. Miller, BAE Systems' manager of electronic publications, told B/CAthat "When choosing the level of an ETM/IETM, things like complexity of the aircraft and its systems, ease of use, currency of data and commonality of data should be the deciding factors; and, of course, price. If operational and support costs are reduced when you purchase a full-functioning IETM, then you should purchase the better system."Miller is an expert on the production, sustainment and emerging technologies associated with electronic publications, and was the manager of publications for Boeing in Philadelphia.Electronic publications are classified in one of five categories. A Class 1 publication is a basic electronic "page turner" that allows you to view the maintenance manual as it was printed. With a Class 2 publication all the original text of the manual is viewed as one continuous page with no page breaks. In Class 3, 4 and 5 publications the maintenance manual is viewed on a computer in a frame-based environment with increasing options as the class changes. (See sidebar.)Choosing the appropriate ETM for your operation is typically limited to whatever is being offered on the market, but since 1991 human factors reports state the demand has increased and, therefore, options are expected to follow.ETM/IETM ProvidersCompanies that create ETM/IETMs are classified as either OEM or second party provider. Class 1, 3 and 4 ETM/IETMs are the most commonly used electronic publications for business and commercial operators and costs can range anywhere from $100 to $3,000 for each ETM/ IETM. The following are just a few examples ofETM/IETMs that are available on the market.Dassault Falcon Jet offers operatorsof the Falcon 50/50EX, 900/900EX and 2000 a Class 4 IETM called the Falcon Integrated Electronic Library by Dassault (FIELD). Produced in conjunction with Sogitec Industries in Suresnes Cedex, France, the electronic publication contains service documentation, basic wiring, recommended maintenance and TBO schedules, maintenance manual, tools manual, service bulletins, maintenance and repair manual, and avionics manual.The FIELD software allows the user to view the procedures and hot- link directly to the Illustrated parts catalog. The software also enables the user to generate discrepancy forms, quotation sheets, annotations in the manual and specific preferences for each user.BAE's Miller said most of the IETM presentation systems have features called "Technical Notes." If a user of the electronic publication notices a discrepancy or needs to annotate the manual for future troubleshooting, the user can add a Tech Note (an electronic mark-up) to the step or procedure and save it to the base document. The next time that or another user is in the procedure, clicking on the tech note icon launches a pop-up screen displaying the previous technician's comments. The same electronic transfer of tech notes can be sent to other devices by using either a docking station or through a network server. In addition, systems also can use "personal notes" similar to technical notes that are assigned ID codes that only the authoring technician can access.Requirements for the FIELD software include the minimum of a 16X CD-ROM drive,Pentium II 200 MHz computer, Windows 95, Internet Explorer 4 SP 1 and Database Access V3.5 or higher.Raytheon offers owners of Beech and Hawker aircraft a Class 4 IETM called Raytheon Electronic Publication Systems (REPS). The REPS software links the frame-based procedures with the parts catalog using a single CD-ROM.Raytheon Aircraft Technical Publications said other in- production Raytheon aircraft manual sets will be converted to the REPS format, with the goal of having all of them available by 2001. In addition Raytheon offers select Component Maintenance Manuals (CMM). The Class 1 ETM is a stand-alone "page-turner" electronic manual that utilizes the PDF format of Adobe Acrobat.Other manufacturers including Bombardier, Cessna and Gulfstream offer operators similar online and PDF documentation using a customer- accessed Web account.Boeing is one manufacturer that has developed an onboard Class 5 IETM. Called the Computerized Fault Reporting System (CFRS), it has replaced the F-15 U.S. Air Force Fault Reporting Manuals. Technologies that are currently being applied to Boeing's military system are expected to eventually become a part of the corporate environment.The CFRS system determines re-portable faults by analyzing information entered during a comprehensive aircrew debrief along with electronically recovered maintenance data from the Data Transfer Module (DTM). After debrief the technicians can review aircraft faults and schedule maintenance work to be performed. The maintenance task is assigned a Job Control Number (JCN) and is forwarded electronically to the correct work center or shop. Appropriate information is provided to the Air Force's Core Automated Maintenance System (CAMS).When a fault is reported by pilot debrief, certain aircraft systems have the fault isolation procedural data on a Portable Maintenance Aid (PMA). The JCN is selected on a hardened laptop with a wireless Local Area Network (LAN) connection to the CFRS LAN infrastructure. The Digital Wiring Data System (DWDS) displays aircraft wiring diagrams to the maintenance technician for wiring fault isolation. On completion of maintenance, the data collected is provided to the Air Force, Boeing and vendors for system analysis.Third party IETM developers such as BAE Systems and Dayton T. Brown offer OEMs the ability to subcontract out the development of Class 1 through 5 ETM/IETMs. For example, Advantext, Inc. offers PDF and IPDF Class 1 ETMs for manufacturers such as Piper and Bell Helicopters. Technical publications that are available include maintenance manuals, parts catalogs, service bulletins, wiring diagrams, service letters and interactive parts ordering forms.The difference between the PDF and IPDF version is that the IPDF version has the ability to search for text and include hyperlinks. A Class 1 ETM, when printed, is an exact reproduction of the OEM manuals, including any misspellings or errors. Minimum requirements for the Advantext technical publications is a 486 processor, 16 MB RAM with 14 MB of free hard disk space and a 4X CD-ROM or better.Aircraft Technical Publishers (ATP) offers Class 1, 2 and 3 ETM/ IETMsfor the Beechjet 400/400A; King Air 300/ 350, 200 and 90; Learjet 23/24/25/28/29/35/36/55; Socata TB9/10/20/21 and TBM 700A; Sabreliner 265-65, -70 and -80; andBeech 1900. The libraries can include maintenance manuals, Illustrated parts bulletins, wiring manuals, Airworthiness Directives, Service Bulletins, component maintenance manuals and structural maintenance manuals. System minimum requirements are Pentium 133 MHz, Windows 95 with 16 MB RAM, 25 MB free hard disk space and a 4X CD-ROM or better.Additional providers such as Galaxy Scientific are providing ETM/ IETMs to the FAA. This Class 2, 3 and 4 publication browser is used to store, display and edit documentation for the Human Factors Section of the administration."Clearly IETMs have moved from research to reality," said Fuller, and the future looks to hold more promise.The Future of Tech PubsThe use of ETM/IETMs on laptop and desktop computers has led research and development corporations to investigate the human interface options to the computer. Elements that affect how a technician can interface with a computer are the work environment, economics and ease of use. Organizations such as the Office of Naval Research have focused their efforts on the following needs of technicians: -- Adaptability to the environment.-- Ease of use.-- Improved presentation of complex system relationship.-- Maximum reuse and distribution of engineering data.-- Intelligent data access.With these factors in mind, exploratory development has begun in the areas of computer vision, augmented reality display and speech recognition.Computer vision can be created using visual feedback from a head- mounted camera. The camera identifies the relative position and orientation of an object in an observed scene, and the object is used to correlate the object with a three-dimensional model. In order for a computer vision scenario to work, engineering data has to be provided through visually compatible software.When systems such as Sogitech's View Tech electronic publication browser and Dassault Systemes SA's Enovia are combined, a virtual 3D model is generated.The digital mockup allows the engineering information to directly update the technical publication information. If a system such as CATIA could be integrated into a Video Reference System (VRS), then it could be possible that a technician would point the camera to the aircraft component, the digital model identifies the component and the IETM automatically displays the appropriate information.This example of artificial intelligence is already under development at companies like Boeing and Dassault. An augmented reality display is a concept where visual cues are presented to users on a head-mounted, see-through display system.The cues are presented to the technician based on the identification of components on a 3D model and correlation with the observed screen. The cues are then presented as stereoscopic images projected onto the object in the observed scene.In addition a "Private Eye" system could provide a miniature display of the maintenance procedure that is provided from a palm- size computer. Limited success hascurrently been seen in similar systems for the disabled. The user of a Private Eye system can look at the object selected and navigate without ever having to touch the computer. Drawbacks from this type of system are mental and eye fatigue, and spatial disorientation.Out of all the technologies, speech recognition has developed into an almost usable and effective system. The progression through maintenance procedures is driven by speaker-independent recognition. A state engine controls navigation, and launches audio responses and visual cues to the user. Voice recognition software is available, although set up and use has not been extremely successful.Looking at other industries, industrial manufacturing has already started using "Palm Pilot" personal digital assistants (PDAs) to aid technicians in troubleshooting. These devices allow the technician to have the complete publication beside them when they are in tight spaces. "It would be nice to take the electronic publications into the aircraft, so we are not constantly going back to the work station to print out additional information," said Jet Aviation's Berchtold.With all the advantages that a ETM/ IETM offers it should be noted that electronic publications are not the right solution all of the time, just as CBT is not the right solution for training in every situation. Only you can determine if electronic publications meet your needs, and most technical publication providers offer demo copies for your review. B/CA IllustrationPhoto: Photograph: BAE Systems' Christine Gill prepares a maintenance manual for SGML conversion BAE Systems; Photograph: Galaxy Scientific provides the FAA's human factors group with online IETM support.; Photograph: Raytheon's Class 4 IETM "REPS" allows a user to see text and diagrams simultaneously with hotlinks to illustrated parts catalogs.外文翻译资料译文部分文章出处:民航商业杂志，2000-11-20,5-87-88交互式电子技术手册的电子出版物可以提高数字飞机和模拟技术的效率。
图纸常见外文翻译
Takto oznacene plochy +0.5mm k souboru dat
Plochy, urcujici polohu pro nadrazene sestavy 做过该标记的表面+0.5mm，此记录的规定表面是为了更好的总体构造。
Nicht bemasste Beschnittradien R (5+1)mm 未注明尺寸的极边缘半径 R (5+1)mm
errechnet/calculated 计重
Gewogen/ actual 实际的 Versuch/prototype 试生产 Fertigung/ production 生产
Sicherh..-Dok./ Safety doc. 安全
Benennung 命名 Maszstab/ Scale 比例
Typ-Pruef-Dok. und Typ-Pruef-Nr
Type-appr.-doc. nd
Type approval number 批准类型文件和批准类型编号。
CAD-System und Verwaltungssystem-Schluessel
CAD-System and administration code 计算机辅助系统监控号码
Anlageflaeche fuer Fuehrungsprofil / Dosedaci plocha pro Vodici profil 导向支承面 Anlageflaeche fuer Schottplatte / Dosedaci plocha pro Deska oddelovaci 隔板面 Beschnitt-und Formtoleranzen in diesem Bereich + 1.5 / Tolerance orezu a tvaru v teto oblasti + 1.5 边缘形状公差范围 + 1.5 Anlageflaeche fuer Scheinwerfer / Dosedaci plocha pro Svetlomet 大灯截面 Anlageflaeche fuer Traeger Stoss.vorn / Dosedaci plocha pro Nosnik pr. narazniku 托架接合点面 Schveissmutter positionieren/Matice polohovat 焊接螺位置 Schnitt/Rez 截 面 Fuehrungsprofil/ Vodici profil 导 向 支 承 Schraube/Sroub 螺 丝 Scheinwerfer/Svetlomet 支撑螺母 Die physische Mitte des Lochs liegt im Walzen von Durchschnitt 0.8mm auf der Achse, die das Gewinde der Einschweissmutter festlegt. Fyzicky stred otvoru lezi ve valci o prumeru 0.8 mm vytvorenem na ose, kterou stanovi zavit
外文翻译及外文原文(参考格式)
外文翻译要求：1、外文资料与毕业设计（论文）选题密切相关，译文准确、质量好。
2、阅读2篇幅以上（10000字符左右）的外文资料，完成2篇不同文章的共2000汉字以上的英译汉翻译3、外文资料可以由指导教师提供，外文资料原则上应是外国作者。
严禁采用专业外语教材文章。
4、排序：“一篇中文译文、一篇外文原文、一篇中文译文、一篇外文原文”。
插图内文字及图名也译成中文。
5、标题与译文格式（字体、字号、行距、页边距等）与论文格式要求相同。
下页附：外文翻译与原文参考格式英文翻译 (黑体、四号、顶格)外文原文出处：(译文前列出外文原文出处、作者、国籍，译文后附上外文原文)《ASHRAE Handbook —Refrigeration 》.CHAPTER3 .SYSTEM Practices for ammonia 3.1 System Selection 3.2 Equipment3.10 Reciprocating Compressors第3章 氨制冷系统的实施3.1 系统选择在选择一个氨制冷系统设计时，须要考虑一些设计决策要素，包括是否采用（1）单级压缩（2）带经济器的压缩（3）多级压缩（4）直接蒸发（5）满液式（6）液体再循环（7）载冷剂。
单级压缩系统基本的单级压缩系统由蒸发器、压缩机、冷凝器、储液器（假如用的话）和制冷剂控制装置（膨胀阀、浮球阀等）。
1997 ASHRAE 手册——“原理篇”中的第一章讨论了压缩制冷循环。
图1.壳管式经济器的布置外文翻译的标题与译文中的字体、字号、行距、页边距等与论文格式相同。
英文原文(黑体、四号、顶格)英文翻译2（黑体，四号，顶格）外文原文出处：（黑体，四号，顶格）P. Fanning. Nonlinear Models of Reinforced and Post-tensioned Concrete Beams. Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, University College Dublin. Received 16 Jul 2001.非线形模型钢筋和后张法预应力混凝土梁摘要:商业有限元软件一般包括混凝土在荷载做用下非线性反应的专用数值模型。
外文文献翻译原文+译文
外文文献翻译原文Analysis of Con tin uous Prestressed Concrete BeamsChris BurgoyneMarch 26, 20051、IntroductionThis conference is devoted to the development of structural analysis rather than the strength of materials, but the effective use of prestressed concrete relies on an appropriate combination of structural analysis techniques with knowledge of the material behaviour. Design of prestressed concrete structures is usually left to specialists; the unwary will either make mistakes or spend inordinate time trying to extract a solution from the various equations.There are a number of fundamental differences between the behaviour of prestressed concrete and that of other materials. Structures are not unstressed when unloaded; the design space of feasible solutions is totally bounded；in hyperstatic structures, various states of self-stress can be induced by altering the cable profile, and all of these factors get influenced by creep and thermal effects. How were these problems recognised and how have they been tackled?Ever since the development of reinforced concrete by Hennebique at the end of the 19th century (Cusack 1984), it was recognised that steel and concrete could be more effectively combined if the steel was pretensioned, putting the concrete into compression. Cracking could be reduced, if not prevented altogether, which would increase stiffness and improve durability. Early attempts all failed because the initial prestress soon vanished, leaving the structure to be- have as though it was reinforced; good descriptions of these attempts are given by Leonhardt (1964) and Abeles (1964).It was Freyssineti’s observations of the sagging of the shallow arches on three bridges that he had just completed in 1927 over the River Allier near Vichy which led directly to prestressed concrete (Freyssinet 1956). Only the bridge at Boutiron survived WWII (Fig 1). Hitherto, it had been assumed that concrete had a Young’s modulus which remained fixed, but he recognised that the de- ferred strains due to creep explained why the prestress had been lost in the early trials. Freyssinet (Fig. 2) also correctly reasoned that high tensile steel had to be used, so that some prestress would remain after the creep had occurred, and alsothat high quality concrete should be used, since this minimised the total amount of creep. The history of Freyssineti’s early prestressed concrete work is written elsewhereFigure1:Boutiron Bridge,Vic h yFigure 2: Eugen FreyssinetAt about the same time work was underway on creep at the BRE laboratory in England ((Glanville 1930) and (1933)). It is debatable which man should be given credit for the discovery of creep but Freyssinet clearly gets the credit for successfully using the knowledge to prestress concrete.There are still problems associated with understanding how prestressed concrete works, partly because there is more than one way of thinking about it. These different philosophies are to some extent contradictory, and certainly confusing to the young engineer. It is also reflected, to a certain extent, in the various codes of practice.Permissible stress design philosophy sees prestressed concrete as a way of avoiding cracking by eliminating tensile stresses; the objective is for sufficient compression to remain after creep losses. Untensionedreinforcement, which attracts prestress due to creep, is anathema. This philosophy derives directly from Freyssinet’s logic and is primarily a working stress concept.Ultimate strength philosophy sees prestressing as a way of utilising high tensile steel as reinforcement. High strength steels have high elastic strain capacity, which could not be utilised when used as reinforcement; if the steel is pretensioned, much of that strain capacity is taken out before bonding the steel to the concrete. Structures designed this way are normally designed to be in compression everywhere under permanent loads, but allowed to crack under high live load. The idea derives directly from the work of Dischinger (1936) and his work on the bridge at Aue in 1939 (Schonberg and Fichter 1939), as well as that of Finsterwalder (1939). It is primarily an ultimate load concept. The idea of partial prestressing derives from these ideas.The Load-Balancing philosophy, introduced by T.Y. Lin, uses prestressing to counter the effect of the permanent loads (Lin 1963). The sag of the cables causes an upward force on the beam, which counteracts the load on the beam. Clearly, only one load can be balanced, but if this is taken as the total dead weight, then under that load the beam will perceive only the net axial prestress and will have no tendency to creep up or down.These three philosophies all have their champions, and heated debates take place between them as to which is the most fundamental.2、Section designFrom the outset it was recognised that prestressed concrete has to be checked at both the working load and the ultimate load. For steel structures, and those made from reinforced concrete, there is a fairly direct relationship between the load capacity under an allowable stress design, and that at the ultimate load under an ultimate strength design. Older codes were based on permissible stresses at the working load; new codes use moment capacities at the ultimate load. Different load factors are used in the two codes, but a structure which passes one code is likely to be acceptable under the other.For prestressed concrete, those ideas do not hold, since the structure is highly stressed, even when unloaded. A small increase of load can cause some stress limits to be breached, while a large increase in load might be needed to cross other limits. The designer has considerable freedom to vary both the working load and ultimate load capacities independently; both need to be checked.A designer normally has to check the tensile and compressive stresses, in both the top and bottom fibre of the section, for every load case. The critical sections are normally, but not always, the mid-span and the sections over piers but other sections may become critical ，when the cable profile has to be determined.The stresses at any position are made up of three components, one of which normally has a different sign from the other two; consistency of sign convention is essential.If P is the prestressing force and e its eccentricity, A and Z are the area of the cross-section and its elastic section modulus, while M is the applied moment, then where ft and fc are the permissible stresses in tension and compression.c e t f ZM Z P A P f ≤-+≤Thus, for any combination of P and M , the designer already has four in- equalities to deal with.The prestressing force differs over time, due to creep losses, and a designer isusually faced with at least three combinations of prestressing force and moment;• the applied moment at the time the prestress is first applied, before creep losses occur,• the maximum applied moment after creep losses, and• the minimum applied moment after creep losses.Figure 4: Gustave MagnelOther combinations may be needed in more complex cases. There are at least twelve inequalities that have to be satisfied at any cross-section, but since an I-section can be defined by six variables, and two are needed to define the prestress, the problem is over-specified and it is not immediately obvious which conditions are superfluous. In the hands of inexperienced engineers, the design process can be very long-winded. However, it is possible to separate out the design of the cross-section from the design of the prestress. By considering pairs of stress limits on the same fibre, but for different load cases, the effects of the prestress can be eliminated, leaving expressions of the form:rangestress e Perm issibl Range Mom entZ These inequalities, which can be evaluated exhaustively with little difficulty, allow the minimum size of the cross-section to be determined.Once a suitable cross-section has been found, the prestress can be designed using a construction due to Magnel (Fig.4). The stress limits can all be rearranged into the form:()M fZ PA Z e ++-≤1 By plotting these on a diagram of eccentricity versus the reciprocal of the prestressing force, a series of bound lines will be formed. Provided the inequalities (2) are satisfied, these bound lines will always leave a zone showing all feasible combinations of P and e. The most economical design, using the minimum prestress, usually lies on the right hand side of the diagram, where the design is limited by the permissible tensile stresses.Plotting the eccentricity on the vertical axis allows direct comparison with the crosssection, as shown in Fig. 5. Inequalities (3) make no reference to the physical dimensions of the structure, but these practical cover limits can be shown as wellA good designer knows how changes to the design and the loadings alter the Magnel diagram. Changing both the maximum andminimum bending moments, but keeping the range the same, raises and lowers the feasible region. If the moments become more sagging the feasible region gets lower in the beam.In general, as spans increase, the dead load moments increase in proportion to the live load. A stage will be reached where the economic point (A on Fig.5) moves outside the physical limits of the beam; Guyon (1951a) denoted the limiting condition as the critical span. Shorter spans will be governed by tensile stresses in the two extreme fibres, while longer spans will be governed by the limiting eccentricity and tensile stresses in the bottom fibre. However, it does not take a large increase in moment ，at which point compressive stresses will govern in the bottom fibre under maximum moment.Only when much longer spans are required, and the feasible region moves as far down as possible, does the structure become governed by compressive stresses in both fibres.3、Continuous beamsThe design of statically determinate beams is relatively straightforward; the engineer can work on the basis of the design of individual cross-sections, as outlined above. A number of complications arise when the structure is indeterminate which means that the designer has to consider, not only a critical section,but also the behaviour of the beam as a whole. These are due to the interaction of a number of factors, such as Creep, Temperature effects and Construction Sequence effects. It is the development of these ideas whichforms the core of this paper. The problems of continuity were addressed at a conference in London (Andrew and Witt 1951). The basic principles, and nomenclature, were already in use, but to modern eyes concentration on hand analysis techniques was unusual, and one of the principle concerns seems to have been the difficulty of estimating losses of prestressing force.3.1 Secondary MomentsA prestressing cable in a beam causes the structure to deflect. Unlike the statically determinate beam, where this motion is unrestrained, the movement causes a redistribution of the support reactions which in turn induces additional moments. These are often termed Secondary Moments, but they are not always small, or Parasitic Moments, but they are not always bad.Freyssinet’s bridge across the Marne at Luzancy, started in 1941 but not completed until 1946, is often thought of as a simply supported beam, but it was actually built as a two-hinged arch (Harris 1986), with support reactions adjusted by means of flat jacks and wedges which were later grouted-in (Fig.6). The same principles were applied in the later and larger beams built over the same river.Magnel built the first indeterminate beam bridge at Sclayn, in Belgium (Fig.7) in 1946. The cables are virtually straight, but he adjusted the deck profile so that the cables were close to the soffit near mid-span. Even with straight cables the sagging secondary momentsare large; about 50% of the hogging moment at the central support caused by dead and live load.The secondary moments cannot be found until the profile is known but the cablecannot be designed until the secondary moments are known. Guyon (1951b) introduced the concept of the concordant profile, which is a profile that causes no secondary moments; es and ep thus coincide. Any line of thrust is itself a concordant profile.The designer is then faced with a slightly simpler problem; a cable profile has to be chosen which not only satisfies the eccentricity limits (3) but is also concordant. That in itself is not a trivial operation, but is helped by the fact that the bending moment diagram that results from any load applied to a beam will itself be a concordant profile for a cable of constant force. Such loads are termed notional loads to distinguish them from the real loads on the structure. Superposition can be used to progressively build up a set of notional loads whose bending moment diagram gives the desired concordant profile.3.2 Temperature effectsTemperature variations apply to all structures but the effect on prestressed concrete beams can be more pronounced than in other structures. The temperature profile through the depth of a beam (Emerson 1973) can be split into three components for the purposes of calculation (Hambly 1991). The first causes a longitudinal expansion, which is normally released by the articulation of the structure; the second causes curvature which leads to deflection in all beams and reactant moments in continuous beams, while the third causes a set of self-equilibrating set of stresses across the cross-section.The reactant moments can be calculated and allowed-for, but it is the self- equilibrating stresses that cause the main problems for prestressed concrete beams. These beams normally have high thermal mass which means that daily temperature variations do not penetrate to the core of the structure. The result is a very non-uniform temperature distribution across the depth which in turn leads to significant self-equilibrating stresses. If the core of the structure is warm, while the surface is cool, such as at night, then quite large tensile stresses can be developed on the top and bottom surfaces. However, they only penetrate a very short distance into the concrete and the potential crack width is very small. It can be very expensive to overcome the tensile stress by changing the section or the prestress。
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外文翻译通常，应变计应用在两个方面：在机械和结构的实验力分析中和应用力，扭矩，压力,流量以及加速度传感器结构中。
非粘贴丝式应变计通常是当作专门的转换器来使用，其结构是使用一些有预载荷的电阻丝连接成惠斯登电桥，如图4.11：在最初的预载荷中，四根金属丝的应变和电阻在理论上是相等的，它们组成一个平衡电桥，并且e0 = 0 （参考第10章电桥电路特性）。
输入端一个小的位移（满量程≈0.04 mm）将会使两根金属丝的拉力增大而使另外两根的拉力减小（假设金属丝不会变松弛），引起电阻阻值的变化，电桥失衡，输出电压与输入位移成比例。
金属丝可以由砷镍、镍铬和铁镍等多种合金制造，直径约为0.03 mm，可以承受的最大应力仅为0.002 N，灵敏系数为2到4，每个桥臂的电阻为120Ω到1000Ω, 最大激励电压5到10V，满量程输出典型值为20到50mV。
粘结丝式应变计（现在主要被粘贴箔式结构的应变计取代）应用于应力分析和作为转换器。
具有很细丝式敏感栅粘贴在待测试件表面，来感受应变。
金属丝被埋入矩形的粘合剂中，不能弯曲从而如实地反映待测试件的压缩和拉伸应力。
因为金属丝的材料和尺寸与那些非粘贴应变计相似，所以灵敏度和电阻具有了可比性。
粘贴箔式应变计采用与丝式应变计相同或类似的材料，现在主要用于多用途力分析任务及多种传感器中。
其感应元件是利用光腐蚀工艺加工成厚度小于0.0002的薄片，当其形状改变时，它具有很大的灵活性。
如图4.12：例如，这三个线形敏感栅应变计被设计成端部宽大的形状。
这种局部的增大将会减小横向灵敏度，以及在测量应变沿敏感栅单元的长度方向的分量时产生的干扰输入信号。
在丝式应变计中，这种端部形状也应用在纵向单元的连接处，以便增加横向抗干扰能力。
并且在制造过程中也非常方便在图4.12上的全部四个应变计上焊接焊盘。
采用蒸发沉积工艺制成的金属薄膜应变计与采用溅镀沉积工艺制成的应变片一样通常都作为转换器。
两种工艺首先都是使用一个合适弹性元件来转换局部应力的大小，就像使用粘贴箔式应变片一样。
就应力转换元件来说，它应该是一个薄的圆形金属光栅。
蒸发沉积工艺和溅镀沉积工艺都是使所有的应变计单元直接放在应变表面；而不是单独放上的，和粘贴式应变计一样。
在蒸发沉积工艺中，光栅在一个真空腔中，其外有绝缘材料。
加热绝缘材料让其蒸发，之后再冷凝，这样就会形成一个绝缘膜在光栅上面。
之后把合适的成型模板放在光栅上面，让金属应变材料重复的蒸发和冷凝。
在绝缘底层上形成我们想要的应变计的形状。
在溅镀过程中，一个薄的绝缘层在真空中再次沉积在整个光栅表面；但是，沉积的具体方法与蒸发沉积所用的方法不同。
之后把全部的金属应变材料层（不是模板）溅镀在绝缘底层上面。
现在把光栅从真空腔中移出来，并利用微缩图像技术，使用感光材料来描述出应变计的形状。
把光栅在放回到真空腔中，我们现在使用溅镀沉积来除去所有没有被掩盖的金属层，仅留下完整的应变计的形状。
箔膜应变计的电阻和灵敏系数通常和那些粘贴式箔应变计类似。
由于没有像粘贴式箔应变计那样使用粘合剂，所以薄膜式电阻应变计展现出了良好的频率特性和温度稳定性。
现在的溅镀技术发展为喷气发动机涡轮刀刃测量提供了的非常有用的耐高压、耐高温、耐腐蚀传感器。
粘贴半导体式应变计通常被用作转换器；但是，它们经常应用在应变非常小的地方。
它们是从采用特殊工艺的硅晶体上面切割下来的，并且N型和P型都可使用。
P型应变计在有拉伸应力的情况下电阻会增加，而N型应变计则减小。
它们的主要特点是具有特别高的灵敏系数---可以达到150。
式（4.14）表明这些高的灵敏系数主要取决于压阻效应，基于半导体的转换器一般叫做压阻转换器。
不幸的是，高的灵敏度系数通常伴随着高的温度系数，非线性和高的装配难度。
解决这些存在问题的方法，就是将其应用在传感器制造行业，但是这种转换器是无法应用到常规的应力分析中的。
扩散半导体式应变计（通常作为专用转换器），采用了在电子集成电路制造业中使用的扩散工艺。
以压力转换器为例，敏感栅采用硅材料而不是金属，而且可以通过在敏感栅上沉积杂质从而在特定的位置得到固有的应变单元以实现应变计的功能。
这种结构可以在某些场合降低成本，特别是在一个硅晶片上制造大量的敏感栅的时候。
这次讨论的余下内容主要集中在粘贴金属箔式应变计上面，因为它们是最有可能被那些单独的工程师应用在力分析和自制的转换器中。
这些应变计被安在一个绝缘薄膜上（聚酰亚胺，玻璃纤维增强酚醛等）其厚度约为0.001；由于粘结薄膜的厚度的存在，使厚度仅为0.0002的金属敏感栅在待测体的表面看起来比厚度为0.001绝缘薄膜苗条很多。
当我们想要测量弯曲应力而待测体又非常的薄的时候，这种转变非常有意义，因为应变计可以感受与待测体表面相近应变。
在力分析中，我们目标是想测量一个点的受力情况；而这在应变计中是无法实现的，因为敏感栅覆盖了一个有限的区域并且应变计显示的是这个区域的一个平均值；如果应变成线性变化，那么这个平均值就是这个应变计长度方向中点的值，如果应变不是成线性变化的话，应变计所显示的应力点就不确定了。
但是，这个不确定的范围随着应变计的尺寸减小而减小,所以当应变变化梯度很快的时候就需要尺寸小的应变计。
而实际的应变片的最小尺寸是由制造业的制造工艺和处理工艺还有装备问题所限制；最小的应变计的尺寸其长度大约在0.015（0.38mm）。
应变计可以应用在弯曲的表面。
最大弯曲半径在一些应变计中可以达到0.06。
应变计电阻的典型值一般是120，350和1000Ω，允许电流一般取决于热传导的环境，但我们一般还是取5到40mA；灵敏度系数是2 到4。
一个应变计的电阻是很容易测量的，但是测量灵敏度系数却需要把应变计粘贴到待测元件上面以便我们可以通过理论计算出应变的大小。
因为贴上的应变计无法从待测体上面拿下来，所以应变计的灵敏度系数并不是你买到的那个的实际灵敏度系数，而是在相同条件下对同一批应变计测量出的一个平均值。
因而我们利用制造业的统计质量控制技术来维持灵敏度系数的精度。
通常允许1%的误差，这也是力分析中精度的最低要求。
注意，这并不限制应变计的精度，因为转换器的校准是采用“端对端”（比如说在压力转换器中，输入压力，输出电压）所以我们并不需要知道应变计的灵敏度系数。
最大的测量误差可以在0.5%到4%；但是在特殊场合应变计设备允许测量达到0.1英寸/英寸。
应变计的疲劳特性由使用环境决定；但是通常1千万次弯曲允许±1,500微应变（即45,000磅/平方英寸在钢铁中，是常见的箔式应变计的设计满量程值）。
粘贴半导体式应变计工作满量程比较低（一般是20με），它可以设计成具有可在粗糙表面使用和具有快速响应的转换器以便应用在小范围的输入测量，而箔式应变计则需要比较平缓的弹性元件。
许多粘合剂都在改进以便可以更好的把应变计粘贴到待测体上。
应变片和粘贴方法都允许工作在-425℉ (-269℃) 到 1500℉ (816℃)的范围内。
在温度特别高的场合应采用焊接或者火焰喷涂的方法而不是采用粘合剂。
有些粘合剂可以在室温晒干，而有的需要烘焙。
晒干的时间可以从几分钟到几天。
粘结处的质量显然与应变计粘贴的正确性有关，因为我们完全依靠应变计把待测量体的形变转换到应变计的敏感栅上。
这种问题在高温、潮湿和长时间工作的环境里面尤为突出。
所以保护性的防水材料通常被用来提高可靠性。
除了单元件应变计，应变计联合起来的形式叫做应变花（如图4.13）：通常用在特殊的力分析结构或者转换器应用中。
当单个应变片以同样的式样粘贴时，这些应变计的相位就变成了主要的问题，而这个在花状制造工艺中实现要比用户利用单元件应变计自己制造要简单的多。
应变花通常用来解决那些大小和方向都不确定的表面应力的问题。
从理论上讲，采用具有3个花瓣状的应变计的测量方法可以测量出所有我们需要的数据。
因为这种测量方法是要在一个点上定义力的大小，所以从理论上讲3个应变计应该在这个点上有重合的部分。
这种“三明治”的结构（叫做层叠应变花）是非常可行的，但是，这种结构使最上的应变片远离待测量体表面，并且增加它的自热，因为它可以很好的隔离待测体表面的温度，尤其在待测体作为一个散热器的时候。
如果它的缺点比优点重要时，我们还可以使用平坦的花状设计，通常这种设计是可行的（见图4.13）。
原文Typically, the strain gauge applications in two aspects: mechanical and structural analysis of experimental force and applied force, torque, pressure, flow and the structure of accele- ration sensor. The non-paste wire strain gauge is usually as a specialized converter to use, and its structure is to use some pre-load resistance wire which is connected into a Wheat-stone bridge, shown in Figure 4.11:In the initial pre-load, strain and resistance of the four wire, in theory, be equal, they form a balanced bridge, and e0 = 0 (refer to Chapter 10 of the bridge circuit characteristics). Input of a small displacement (full range of ≈ 0.04 mm) will make two wire tensi on increases leaving another two of the tension is reduced ( assuming that the wire will not change relaxation ) caused by the change of resistance .The imbalance of the bridge, the output voltage and the input displacement is proportional to. Wire can be a variety of nickel arsenic, nickel, chromium and iron-nickel alloy, about 0.03 mm in diameter, can withstand the maximum stress is only 0.002 N, the sensitivity coefficient of 2-4, each bridge arm resistance of 120Ω to 1,000 Ω, the maximum excitation voltage 5 to 10V full scale output is typically 20 to 50mV.Bonded wire strain gauges (pasted strain gauges instead of the foil structure) used in stress analysis and as a converter. With very filaments sensitive gate paste the test surface to feel the strain. The wire is buried in the rectangular adhesive can not be bent in order to faithfully reflect the test compression and tensile stress. Material and size of the wire and those non -paste the strain meter, with comparable sensitivity and resistance.Paste the foil strain gauge wire strain gauges of the same or similar materials, is now mainly used in the multi-purpose power analysis tasks and a variety of sensors.Its sensing element is the use of light corrosion processing technology, the thickness is less than 0.0002 sheet when its shape changes, it has a great deal of flexibility. Figure 4.12:For example,the three linear sensitive gate strain meter has been designed into the end of the large shape. Such a partial increases will reduce the transverse sensitivity, as well as the interference of the input signal in the measurement of the strain component along the direc- tion of the length of the sensitive gate units. Wire strain gauges, the shape of the end of the application in the junction of the vertical unit in order to increase the lateral anti-jamming capa- bility. Soldering pads on all four strain gauges in the manufacturing process is also very convenient in Figure 4.12.Evaporation deposition process made of metal film strain gauges using the strain gauge is usually as a converter made by the sputter deposition process. The two processes are first of all use a suitable elastic element to convert the size of the local stress, like using paste foil strain gauge. On the stress transition elements, it should be a thin circular metal grating. Vapor deposition process and the sputtering deposition process so that all of the strain gauge unit directly on the strain surface; rather than individually placed, and paste the strain meter. Evaporation deposition process, the grating in a vacuum chamber, the external insulation ma- terials. Heat insulating materials allowed to evaporate, and then condensation will form an in- sulating film in the grating above. After forming the template on the grating above, so that the evaporation and condensation of metal strain duplication of material. Formed in the insulating substrates, we want the shape of the strain gauge.In the sputtering process, a thin insulating layer is again deposited in a vacuum in the entire grating surface; However, the specific method of deposition and evaporation deposition me- thod. After sputtering the metal strain material layer (not the template) in the insulation of the bottom above. The grating moved from the vacuum chamber, and a thumbnail image techno- logy, the use of photosensitive material to describe the shape of the strain gauge. The grating back into the vacuum chamber, we use sputter deposition to remove all the metal layer is not concealed, leaving only the shape of the strain gauge. Foil strain gauge resistance and sensi- tivity coefficient is usually similar to the meter and paste-type foil strain. Did not like the paste- type foil strain gauge as the use of adhesives, thin film-type resistance strain meter show good frequency characteristics and temperature stability. Sputtering the development of jet engine turbine blade measurement provides a very useful high pressure, high temperature, corrosion-resistant sensors.The paste-type semiconductor strain gauge is usually used as a converter; However, they are often applied in a very small strain. They are cut off from the top of the silicon crystal using a special process, and N-type and P-type can be used. P-type strain gages under tensile stress resistance will increase, while the N-type strain gauge decreases. Their main characte- ristics is a particularly high sensitivity coefficient - can reach 150. ( 4.14 ) shows that these high-sensitivity coefficient depends mainly on the piezoresistive effect of semiconductor- based converters is generally called the piezoresistive converter. Unfortunately, the high sen- sitivity coefficient is usually accompanied by a high temperature coefficient, nonlinear and high assembly difficulty. To solve these problems the method is applied to the sensor manu- facturing industry, but this converter can not be applied to the conventional stress analysis. Diffusion semiconductor strain gauge (usually as a dedicated conversion), the diffusion process used in the manufacturing of electronic integrated circuits. Converter, for example, pressure sensitive-gate silicon material rather than metal, and can thus by the deposition of impurities on the sensitive gate at a specific location, the inherent strain element to achievethe function of the strain gauge. This structure can reduce costs in some cases, especially in the sensitive gate when manufactured on a silicon wafer.The remainder of this discussion is mainly concentrated in the paste metal foil strain gauge above, because they are most likely to be the individual engineers used in the power of ana- lysis and self-made converter. These strain gages has been safety in an insulating film (polyi- mide, glass fiber reinforced phenolic, etc.) to a thickness of about 0.001; due to the presence of the thickness of the adhesive film, the thickness of only 0.0002 metal-sensitive gate in the test body the surface looks better than the thickness of 0.001 insulating film slim many. When we want to measure the bending stress and test the body and very thin, this shift is very meaningful, because the strain gauges can feel the test body surface similar strain. In power analysis, our goal is to measure a point of the force; strain gauge can not be achieved, because of the sensitive gate covering a limited area, and strain gauges to display an average for this region; If you should become a linear change, then the average is the strain gauge length direction of the midpoint of the values, if the strain is not a linear change, the stress points shown by the strain gauge is not identified. However, the scope of this uncertainty decreases as the strain gauge size decreases, so when the strain gradient quickly when you need the small size of the strain gauge. The minimum size of the actual strain gauge is limited by the manufacturing of the manufacturing process and handling process, there are equip- ment problems; the smallest the size of the strain gauge length about 0.015 (0.38mm). The strain gauges can be applied to curved surfaces. The maximum bending radius can be achi- eved in a number of strain gages 0.06.Typical values of the strain gage resistor 120, 350 and 1000Ω, allow current generally depends on the thermal conductivity of the environment, but we generally take 5 to 40mA; sensitivity coefficient is 2-4. The resistance of a strain gauge is easy to measure, but the measurement sensitivity coefficients need to strain gauges pasted into the top of the DUT so that we can strain the size of the theoretical calculations. An average value of the pasted strain gauges can not be won from the top of the test body, the sensitivity coefficient of the strain gauge is not you buy the actual sensitivity coefficient, but the same number of strain under the same conditions for measuring the . Therefore, we use the manufacturing of statistical quality control techniques to maintain the accuracy of the sensitivity coefficient. Usually allow a 1% error, which is the power to analyze the accuracy of the minimum requirements. Note that this does not limit the accuracy of the strain gauge calibration of the converter is using "end-to-end (for example, enter the pressure in the pressure converter, the output voltage) so we do not need to know the sensitivity coefficient of the strain gauge. Maximum measurement error of 0.5% to 4%; but for special occasions, strain gauge equipment to allow measurement of 0.1 inches / inch. Fatigue characteristics of the strain gauge is determined by the use of the environment; but usually a million times bent to allow ±1,500 micro-strain (ie 45,000 pounds / square inch in the steel foil strain gauge designfull-scale value). Paste type semiconductor strain gauge full scale the lower (yes 20με), it can be designed to have a rough surface and the rapid response of the converter in order to apply a small range of input measurement, foil strain gauge gentle elastic element.Many adhesives are improving so that you can better strain gauge pasted into the DUT. The strain gauge and paste methods are allowed to work in the -425 ° F (-269 ° C) to 1500 ° F (816 ° C) range. Particularly high temperature occasions welding or flame spraying methodshould be used instead of using adhesives. Some adhesives can be dried at room temperature, while others need to be baked. Dry time can be from minutes to days. The quality of the glued joints is clearly the correctness of the strain gauges pasted, because we are totally dependent on the strain gauge body for measuring the deformation of the strain gauge sensitive gate. This problem in the high temperature, humidity and long hours of work environment which is particularly prominent. Protective waterproof material is often used to improve reliability.In addition to the element strain gages, strain gages together form called a rosette (Figure 4.13):It is usually used in the force analysis of the structure or converter applications. When a single strain gauge paste the same style, the phase of the strain gauge into a major problem in the flower-like manufacturing process than the user element strain gauge made much simpler . The rosette is usually used to solve the problem of the size and direction do not determine the surface stress. In theory, with three petal-like strain gauge measurement method can measure all the data we need. This measurement is to be defined at one point size, so in theory the three strain gauges should be at this point, the overlap part of. This "sandwich" structure (called a stacked rosette) is very feasible, However, this structure away from the top of the strain gauge be measuring the surface and increase its self-heating, because it can be a good isolation be measured surface temperature, especially in the testbody as a radiator. If its disadvantages than advantages, we can also use the flat flower-shaped design, usually this design is feasible (see Figure 4.13).。