语言学笔记 Lecture2
英语语言学笔记纲要（2）
Chapter 2 Phoneticsl What is phonetics?n Phonetics is termed as the study of speech sounds.n Sub-branches of phoneticsu Articulatory phonetics – the production of speech soundsu Acoustic phonetics – the physical properties of speech soundsu Auditory phonetics – the perceptive mechanism of speech soundsl The speech organsn Where does the air stream come from?u From the lungn What is the function of vocal cords?u Controlling the air streamn What are the cavities?u Oral cavityu Pharyngeal cavityu Nasal cavityl Transcription of speech soundsn Units of representationu Segments (the individual sounds)n Phonetic symbolsu The widely used symbols for phonetic transcription of speech sounds is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).u The IPA attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol and the symbols are enclosed in brackets [ ] to distinguish phonetic transcriptions from the spelling system of a language.u In more detailed transcription (narrow transcription) a sound may be transcribed with a symbol to which a smaller is added in order to mark the finer distinctions.l Description of speech soundsn Description of English consonantsu General feature: obstructionu Criteria of consonant descriptionl Places of articulationl Manners of articulationl Voicing of articulationu Places of articulationl This refers to each point at which the air stream can be modified to produce a sound.n Bilabial: [p] [b] [m] [w]n Labiodental: [f] [v]n Interdental: [W] [T]n Alveolar: [t] [d] [s] [z] [l] [n] [r]n Palatal: [F] [V] [tF] [dV] [j]n Velar: [k] [g] [N]n Glottal: [h]u Manners of articulationl This refers to how the air stream is modified, whether it is completely blocked or partially obstructed. n Stops: [p] [b] [t] [d] [k] [g]n Fricatives: [s] [z] [F] [V] [f] [v] [W] [T] [h]n Affricates: [tF] [dV]n Liquids: [l] [r]n Glides: [w] [j]n Nasals: [m] [n] [N]u Voicing of articulationl This refers to the vibrating of the vocal cords when sounds are produced.n Voiced soundsn Voiceless soundsn Description of English vowelsu General feature: without obstructionu Criteria of vowel descriptionl Part of the tongue that is raisedn Frontn Centraln Backl Extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palaten Highn Midn Lowl Kind of opening made at the lipsl Position of the soft palateu Single vowels (monophthongs) and diphthongsl Phonetic features and natural classesn Classes of sounds that share a feature or features are called natural classes.n Major class features can specify segments across the consonant-vowel boundary.n Classification of segments by features is the basis on which variations of sounds can be analyzed.。
语言学课件Lecture 2 - Phonology
1. The pharyngeal cavity lungs windpipe pharynx (声门) glottis vocal cords: voicing / voiceless epiglottis (会厌)
2. The oral cavity Lips (labia唇) Teeth (dentes齿) Tooth-ridge (alveoli齿龈) Hard palate ( 硬腭) Soft palate (velum软腭) Uvula （小舌) Tip of tongue （舌尖） Blade of tongue (舌面) Front of tongue (舌前部) Back of tongue (舌后部) Tongue root (舌根) The most flexible part here in this cavity is the tongue, which is responsible for more varieties of articulation than any other. So, there is no surprise that the word “language’ itself derives from the Latin word “lingua”, meaning the “tongue”.
LECTURE TWO PHONOLOGY
Su Zhanghai
2.1 The phonic medium of language
Speech is prior to writing for several reasons Phonic medium of language and speech sounds The limited-numbered sounds produced by humans through their speech organs which are meaningful in human communication constitute the Phonic Medium of Language; and the individual sounds within this range are the Speech Soe used to record the sound waves for specific research.
语言学胡壮麟第三版第二章笔记
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds The definition of phonetics & phonology Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived. Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems languages. Distinction: The first focuses on chaos while the second focuses on order. Ⅰ How speech sounds are made? A. Speech organs 1. 3 cavities pharynx oral cavity nasal cavity 2. vocal folds apart: voiceless Close: voiced Close tightly: glottal stop 3. uvula B. The IPA The The first first first version version version of of of the the the International International International Phonetic Phonetic Phonetic Alphabet Alphabet （the the IP A IP A chart chart ）was was published published published in in August,1888. Ⅱ Consonants and vowels 1. Definition Consonants Consonants are are are produced produced produced ““by by a a a closure closure closure in in in the the the vocal vocal vocal tract, tract, tract, or or or by by by a a a narrowing narrowing narrowing which which which is is is so so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction ”. A vowel is produced without such “stricture stricture”” so that “air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose ”. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream. 2. Three factors to describe the features of consonants 1) V oicing: voiced & voiceless 2) Manner of articulation: It refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished: (a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may narrow the space considerably; (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other. Classification according to manners of articulation stop/ plosive fricative lateral tap/ flap nasal approximant trill affricate3) place place of of of articulation: articulation: articulation: It It It refers refers refers to to to the the the point point point where where where a a a consonant consonant consonant is is is made. made. made. Practically Practically consonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal fold. Classification according to place of articulation bilabial dental post alveolar palatal uvular glottal labiodental alveolar retroflex velar pharyngea3. V owels 1) cardinal vowel: The cardinal vowels, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart, are are a a a set set set of of of vowel vowel vowel qualities qualities qualities arbitrarily arbitrarily arbitrarily defined, defined, defined, fixed fixed fixed and and and unchanging, unchanging, unchanging, intended intended intended to to provide provide a a a frame frame frame of of of reference reference reference for for for the the the description description description of of of the the the actual actual actual vowels vowels vowels of of of existing existing languages. 2) Classification of vowels the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low) the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back) the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense Vs. lax or long Vs. short) lip-rounding (rounded Vs. unrounded) Ⅲ From phonetics to phonology1. Coarticulation: Coarticulation: When When When simultaneous simultaneous simultaneous or or or overlapping overlapping overlapping articulations articulations articulations are are are involved, involved, involved, we we we call call call the the process coarticulation. Two types of coarticulation 1) Anticipatory coarticulation If If the the the sound sound sound becomes becomes becomes more more more like like like the the the following following following sound, sound, sound, it it it is is is known known known as as as anticipatory anticipatory coarticulation. 2) Perseverative coarticulation If the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation. 2. Phone: The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are phones. Phoneme: It ’s a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast between two different words, they are said to be different phnemes. Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pair. Allophone: Variants of the same phonemes. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. Ⅳ Phonological Process, Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features1. Assimilation: It is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristic of a neighboring sound. Two possibilities of assimilation 1) regressive assimilation: if a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation. 2) Progressive Progressive assimilation: assimilation: assimilation: It It It is is is the the the converse converse converse process process process in in in which which which a a a preceding preceding preceding sound sound sound is is influencing a following sound. 2. Distinctive Features The idea of distinctive features was first developed b Roman Jacobson in the 1940s. Ⅴ SuprasegmentalsSuprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principle suprasegmentals are syllable, stress, tone and intonation. 1. Syllable onset rhyme nucleus coda 2. MOP(maximal onset principle) When there is a choice also where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. 3. Stress It refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. 4. Intonation Intonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length. 5. Tone: a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words Supplement articulatory phonetics: is the study of the production of speech sounds. acoustic phonetics: is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds. auditory phonetics: is concerned with the perception of speech sounds. 。
英语语言学lecture two
Take language as a tool for access to some other fields rather than study it as a subject Language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.What is language?It is very difficult to give a satisfactory definition. We may say “Language is a tool for human communication”. But that does not say anything about its defining properties, only about its function. There are many other systems (secret codes, traffic signals) performing the same function.We may say “Language is a set of rules.”; again that says nothing about its function, and there are other systems containing sets of rules.A tentative definition is given like the following: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language must be a system, since elements in it are arranged according to certain rules. And they can not be combined at will.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the word pen and the thing we use to write with. That fact that different languages have different words for it speaks for the arbitrary nature of language.We say language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all language, no matter how well developed are their writing systems. All evidence shows that writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that children acquire spoken language first before they can read or write also indicates that language is primarily vocal.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is very different from the communication systems other forms of life possess (such as bird songs and animal cries.)Step1. Design features of languageWhat makes our language advantageous over animal “languages”/ distinctive from languages used by other species/ complicated and flexible?1.Arbitrarinessbear no natural relationship to their meaning and objects. We can not explain why a book is called a /buk/ in English but a 书in Chinese.@What is the link between a linguistic sign and its meaning? It is a matter of convention.@There is no logical connection between meanings and sounds. However, language is not entirely arbitrary How about onomatopoeia, words that sound like the sounds they describe.; there are cases where there seems to be some association between sounds and meaning.The onomatopoeic words are certain words in every language which imitate natural sounds, such as bang, crash in English or putong, dingdang in Chinese. But in different languages, totally different words are used to describe the sound. For example, the dog barks wow wow in English but wangwang in Chinese.Some compound words are not entirely arbitrary; there is a certain connection between their sounds and meaning. For example, the machine we type our papers on is called “typewriter”.@There are different levels of arbitrariness. That is to say, syntax is less arbitrary than words. As we know, the order of elements in a sentence follows certain rules, and there is a certain degree of correspondence between the sequence of clauses and the real happenings.(a)He came in and sat down.(b)He sat down and came in.(c)He sat down after he came in.Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning“It is only when you know the meaning that you infer that the form is appropriate.” (Widdowson, 1996).@The arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and this makes it possible for language to have unlimited sources of expression.2.Duality@“By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the tow levels has its own principles of organization.”(Lyons, 1982)The property of duality then only exists in such a system, namely, with both elements and units. Many animals communicate with special calls, which have corresponding meanings. That is, the primary units have meanings but cannot be further divided into elements.@Language is hierarchical. The lowest level consists of dozens of bits of meaningless sounds. The sounds occur in chumps to form syllable which is the smallest unit. (etc. monosyllabic like cat, dog and polysyllabic like transplant,) Scores of syllables becomes the carriers of hundreds of meaningful segments of words that are called morphemes, such as the prefix trans-. Morphemes compose thousands of word. Out of the huge number of words, there can be endless number of sentences, which in turn can form unlimited number of texts and discourses.Stratification----this organization of levels on levels----is the physical manifestation of the “infinite use of finite means”, the trait that most distinguishes human communication from animal.3.Creativity@Language is a far more complicated entity than traffic lights is that we can use it to create new meanings. Words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be understood by people who have never come across that word before.@Birds can only convey a limited range of messages. As Bertrand Russell once observed: “No matter how eloquently a dog may mark, he cannot tell you that his parents were poor but honest.”@Because of duality the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences. (dictionary)4.Displacement (the movement from initial position to subsequent position)移位@Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.Language can be used to refer to things which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future or in faraway places. In other words, language can refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.@Some animals are under “immediate stimulus control”. Calls or cries are produced in contact of food, in presence of danger or in pain. Once the danger or pain is over, calls are stopped. Human language is stimulus free.@The intellectual benefits of displacement to us is that it makes it possible for us to talk and think in abstract terms.Step2. Origin of languageSo far there are only fruitless search for the origin of languages. The action reflects people‟s concern with the origin of humanity and may come up with enlightening findings in future. And one thing we can say for certain is that language evolves within specific historical, social and cultural contexts.Step3. Functions of languageA brief explanation to Jakobson’s classification of functions of languge P 91 Informative function (ideational function/ referential function)Language serves an informative function when it is used to tell what the speaker believes, to give information about facts, or to reason things out. Language serves for the expression of content. This function is characterized by the use of declarative sentencesFor most people the informative function is predominantly the major role of language. Language is the instrument of thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite of social development.2. Interpersonal function 人际功能By far the most important sociological use of language is the interpersonal function, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society. For example, the ways in which people address others and refer to themselves ( e.g. Dear Sir, Dear Professor, yours, your obedient servant) indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations.Language marks people‟s identity. For example, the chanting of a crowd at a football match, the shouting of names or slogans at public meetings, the stage-managed audience reactions to TV games shows all signal who we are and where we belong.Performative function 言语行为功能The performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized. Language is also used to “do things”., to perform actions. This is called the performative function. On certain occasions, the uttering of the appropriate words is the central component in the performance of the act. At a meeting, for example, as soon as the chairman says “I declare the meeting open”, the meeting has started”. If the president says “I declare war…”, war exists between the two countries. In all these cases, the act cannot be performed without the sentences being uttered. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.Emotive function (expressive function)@According to some investigations, though the conveying of information occurs in most uses of language, it probably represents not more than 20 percent of what takes place in verbal communication. The emotive function of language is one of the most powerful uses of langue.It is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress.@A man may say ouch! After striking a fingernail with a hammer, or he may mutter damn when realizing that he has forgotten an appointment. Exclamations such as Man! Oh, boy! And hurrah! are usually uttered without any purpose of communicating to others, but as essentially a verbalresponse to a person‟s own feelings.@ The emotive function is the use of language to reveal something about the feelings and attitudes of the speaker. While in the informative function language is used to pass judgement on the truth or falsehood of statement, in emotive function, language is used to evaluate, appraise and assert the speaker‟s attitudes.Phatic communionWe all use such small, seemingly meaningless expressions to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factual content. Ritual exchanges about health or weather such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day often state the obvious.And different cultures have different topics of phatic communion.Broadly speaking, it is function refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as slangs, jokes, jargons etc. 我靠Recreational function (close to Jakobson’s poetic function)The use of language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby‟s babblingThe sheer joy of playing on languageFill in the ancient given rhythm and rhyme scheme in poetry with the current content对联couplet上：指数函数，对数函数，三角函数，数数含辛茹苦；下：平行直线，交叉直线，异面直线，线线意切情深。
Lecture 2 定点数的表示
或
Sf S1S2 … Sn
数 符 数值部分 小数点位置
定点机 原码 补码
小数定点机 –(1 – 2-n) ~ +(1 – 2-n) – 1 ~ +(1 – 2-n)
整数定点机 –(2n – 1) ~ +( 2n – 1) – 2n ~ +( 2n – 1)
反码
–(1 – 2-n) ~ +(1 – 2-n)
1111 1110
0000
0001 0010
1101
1100 1011
0011
0100 0101 0110 1001 1000
1010 0111
定点数－补码
补码定义－整数
0，x
[x]补 =
x 为真值
2n ＞ x ≥ 0
0 ＞x ≥
n 为整数的位数
2n+1 + x
2n（mod 2n+1）
如
x = +1010 [x]补 = 0,1010
[x] 移对应的 十进制整数
-100000 - 11111 - 11110 … … + 11110 + 11111
0 1 2 …
用移码表示浮点数的阶码1 1 - 00001 1 1 1 1 ，能方便地判断浮点数阶码大小 011111 31
±
…
00000 + 00001 + 00010
n+1
移码在数轴上的表示
–2
n
–1 [x]移码
0
2 –1
n
真值
如
x = 10100
[x]移 = 25 + 10100 = 1,10100 x = –10100 [x]移 = 25 – 10100 = 0,01100
语言学胡壮麟第三版第二章笔记
Chapter 2 Speech SoundsThe definition of phonetics & phonologyPhonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.Phonology is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems languages.Distinction: The first focuses on chaos while the second focuses on order.ⅠHow speech sounds are made?A.Speech organs1. 3 cavities pharynxoral cavitynasal cavity2. vocal folds apart: voicelessClose: voicedClose tightly: glottal stop3. uvulaB.The IPAThe first version of the International Phonetic Alphabet（the IPA chart）was published in August,1888.ⅡConsonants and vowels1.DefinitionConsonants are produced “by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction”.A vowel is produced without such “stricture” so that “air escapes in a relatively unimpededway through the mouth or nose”.The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.2.Three factors to describe the features of consonants1)Voicing: voiced & voiceless2)Manner of articulation: It refers to ways in which articulation can be accomplished: (a)the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b)they may narrow the space considerably; (c) they may simply modify the shape of thetract by approaching each other.Classification according to manners of articulationstop/ plosive fricative lateraltap/ flap nasal approximant trill affricate3)place of articulation: It refers to the point where a consonant is made. Practicallyconsonants may be produced at any place between the lips and the vocal fold.Classification according to place of articulationbilabial dentalpost alveolar palatal uvular glottal labiodental alveolar retroflex velar pharyngea3.V owels1)cardinal vowel: The cardinal vowels, as exhibited by the vowel diagram in the IPA chart,are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended toprovide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existinglanguages.2)Classification of vowelsthe height of tongue raising (high, mid, low)the position of the highest part of the tongue (front, central, back)the length or tenseness of the vowel (tense Vs. lax or long Vs. short)lip-rounding (rounded Vs. unrounded)ⅢFrom phonetics to phonology1.Coarticulation: When simultaneous or overlapping articulations are involved, we call theprocess coarticulation.Two types of coarticulation1)Anticipatory coarticulationIf the sound becomes more like the following sound, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.2)Perseverative coarticulationIf the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticulation.2.Phone: The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are phones.Phoneme: It’s a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast between two different words, they are said to be different phnemes.Minimal pair: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pair.Allophone: Variants of the same phonemes. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme.ⅣPhonological Process, Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features1.Assimilation: It is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristic of aneighboring sound.Two possibilities of assimilation1)regressive assimilation: if a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call itregressive assimilation.2)Progressive assimilation: It is the converse process in which a preceding sound isinfluencing a following sound.2.Distinctive FeaturesThe idea of distinctive features was first developed b Roman Jacobson in the 1940s.ⅤSuprasegmentalsSuprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principle suprasegmentals are syllable, stress, tone and intonation.1.Syllable onsetrhyme nucleuscoda2.MOP(maximal onset principle)When there is a choice also where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.3.StressIt refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable.4.IntonationIntonation involves the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.5.Tone: a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual wordsSupplementarticulatory phonetics: is the study of the production of speech sounds.acoustic phonetics: is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds.auditory phonetics: is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.。
英语语言学 Lecture 2 - speech sounds
A New Seaghsounds of spoken English≠letters of written English↓InternationalPhonetic Alphabet →IPAIPA is a standardized and internally accepted system of phonetic transcription.Its basic principle is using a different letter for each distinguishable speech sounds. With minor modification it is now still used by phoneticians and linguists.The International Phonetic Alphabet (Revised to 2005)only some of the sounds →units in the language system.study from various perspectives ↓PhoneticsPhonologyPhonetics -studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.Articulatory Phonetics- the study of the production of speech sounds.Acoustic Phonetics- the study of the physical properties of speech sounds. Perceptual or Auditory Phonetics - concerned with the perception of speech sounds.- the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. Aim- discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.1- analyze an individual language, say English, in order to determine itsphonological structure, i.e. whichsound units are used and how they are put together.2- compare the properties of sound systems in different languages in order to make hypotheses about the rulesthat underlie the use of sounds inthem, and3- ultimately discover the rules that underlie the sound patterns of alllanguages.nasal cavityoral cavitypharyngealcavityThe three resonating cavitiesSpeech Organs 1.lips 2.teeth 3.teeth ridge (alveolar) 4.hard palate 5.soft palate (velum) 6.uvula 7.tip of the tongue 8.blade of the tongue 9.front of the tongue 10.back of the tongue11.vocal cords1 2 1 234 567 8 910 11MouthConsonants are produced ‘by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction’.By contrast, a vowel is produced without such ‘stricture’ so that ‘air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose’.The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.As there is no obstruction of air in the production of vowels, the description of the consonants and vowels cannot be done along the same lines.The place of articulation refers to the point where a consonant is made.Consonants - any place between the lips and the vocal folds.Bilabial双唇音*[w] tongue body raises to velum →labia-velar[f], [v]Upper teeth & Lower lip 唇齿音[ð], [θ]Tongue tip/blade & teeth 齿音[t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l] , [ ]tongue tip/blade&alveolar ridge齿龈音[ſ],[3],([tſ],[d3])tongue tip&back of the alveolar ridge 后齿龈音[j][k], [g], [η], [w] [h] Palatal 硬腭音Velars 软腭音Glottal 声门音[ ] - 书[ u] [ ][ ] [ ] Retroflex 卷舌音Uvular 小舌音Pharyngeal喉音Place of Articulation Bilabial [p], [b], [m], [w] Labiodental [f], [v]Dental [ð], [θ]Alveolar [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], Post-alveolar [ſ], [3],Palatal [j]Velar [k], [g], [η], [w] Glottal [h]RetroflexUvularPharyngealComplete closure(articulators)→ airstreamcannot escapethrough themouth.1.Closing phasepression3.release [p], [b], [k], [g], [t], [d]爆破音（plosive）Most sounds are produced orally, with the velum raised, preventing air flow from entering the nasal cavity. However, when the velum is lowered and the airstream is allowed to flow out through the nose to produce sounds -nasals. [m][n][η]鼻音air stream partially obstructed and turbulent airflow is produced [f], [v] [ð], [θ] [s], [z] [ſ], [3] [h]摩擦音one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed for turbulent air stream[w][j]无摩擦延续音（半元音）obstruction in the incomplete closure between one or both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth [l]边音塞擦音a stop followedimmediately by africativean articulator is set vibrating by the airstream [r] ( )颤音only one vibration is produced [ ]触音/闪音[p] [b] [f] [v] [m] Voiceless bilabial stopVoiced bilabial stopVoiceless labiodental fricative Voiced labiodental fricative Bilabial nasal。
英语语言学笔记第二章
言语产生和言语感知人类可以发出各种声音，但只有其中一部分成为语言系统的单位。
正如我们从前面对语言的讨论中所看到的，语言首先是一个"语音符号系统"，语音远远早于文字而存在，并且，即使是今天，在世界的某些角落，还有些语言是没有文字系统的。
因此，语音的研究是语言学的一个主要组成部分。
在这一章中，我们将考察语音研究的方法以及使用的模式。
我们将从语音研究，即"语音学"开始，然后进入语音模式，即"音系学"的研究。
可以想象，语音被说话者A发出，然后，它被传递并被说话者B接收，语音如图2.1所示经历了3个阶段。
言语产生言语感知（说话者A）→（说话者B）图2.1 言语产生和言语感知过程语音研究自然地分成三个主要领域，一个领域就是一个步骤。
●发音语音学研究语音的产生。
●声学语音学研究语音的物理特征。
●听觉语音学和语音感知有关。
在本书中，我们只集中讨论发音语音学，不涉及其他的研究领域。
语言学教程2.2 言语器官言语器官，如图2.2所示，也经常被称作发音器官。
它们是人体中参与制造言语的部分。
这些器官，并非仅仅用在言语中，它们的主要功能其实是满足呼吸和进食等基本生理需要。
虽然如此，这些器官看起来是经历了长期的进化以适应言语的各种特定的需要。
因为它们的形成保证了其能有效地在言语行为中发挥作用。
如果去考察人体有多少部分参与了言语行为，你会大吃一惊，它们是：肺，气管，喉，鼻和口。
在口里，我们需要辨别舌及腭的不同部分。
在喉里，我们还要辨别咽（喉的上部）和喉头（喉的下部，包括声带）。
咽、口和鼻组成了声道的三大腔，口和鼻常被分别称为口腔和鼻腔。
图2.2 言语器官（略）发音以气流作为其能量来源。
大多数情况下，气流来自于肺部，它从肺里被挤出，然后通过细支气管和支气管（通往气管的一些管道分支）。
以这种方式产生的语音叫做"肺闭塞音"。
气管的顶端是喉头，喉头的前端是喉结。
胡壮麟语言学笔记第二章
胡壮麟语言学笔记第二章Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics –the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced inspeech3. Auditory phonetics –the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the InternationalPhonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters aretaken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at someplaces to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of theair can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which theair passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstructionof the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air streamfrom the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English,[?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?] are stops and [?? ?? ?]are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream fromthe lungs to escape with friction. This is caused by bringing the twoarticulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, closetogether but notcloses enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English, [?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?] are fricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close toanother, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that aturbulent airstream is produced. In English this class of sounds includes[?? ?? ?].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partiallyblocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting itescape at one or both sides of the blockage. [●] is the only lateral in English.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upperfront teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and theupper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and thealveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with thetongue tip and the backof the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curledback so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with theback of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and thehard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the softpalate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and theuvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end ofthe velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and thewalls of the pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal foldspushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation.It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because itis widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by mostnewsreaders of the BBC network.articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearingon the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally,three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-highand mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips –various degrees of lip rounding orspreading.4. The position of the soft palate –raised for oral vowels, and lowered forvowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.]Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actualvowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[?], CV2[?], CV3[?], CV4[?], CV5[ ], CV6[ ], CV7[?],CV8[◆].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for agive position: CV9 – CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want toknow, you may consult the textbook p. 47. – icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.V owel glides: V owels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as onedistinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[??] high front tense unrounded vowel[◆] high back lax rounded vowel[?] central lax unrounded vowel[ ] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broadtranscription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referredto as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these soundscapable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latterwas meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutestshades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. 2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie anddie are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/.By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which soundsubstitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference inmeaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. inEnglish, when the phoneme /?/ occurs at the beginning of the word like peak//, it is said with a little puff of air, it is aspirated. But when /?/ occurs in theword like speak //, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Boththe aspirated [??] in peak and the unaspirated [?=] in speak have the same phonemicfunction, i.e. they are both heard and identified as /?/ and not as /?/; they are bothallophones of the phoneme /?/.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, wecall it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target oraffected segment undergoes a structuralchange in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is conditioned ortriggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a precedingsound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspectsto it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; aset of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless / __________ voiceless. This i s a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies theenvironment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicatesthe position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformedinto the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be / /. It shouldn’t be / / or / / according to this principle.2.12 StressStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [ ] is used just before the syllable it relates to.。
语言学chapter2
语言学chapter2Chapter 2 phonology1,what are the two major media of communication? Of the two, which one is primary and why?The two major media of communication are speech and writing. Speech is more basic than writing. Because the writing system of any language is always “invented” by its users to record speech when the need arises, and in everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount of information conveyed, speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires his mother tongue, and writing is learned and taught later when he goes to school.2.What is voicing and how is it caused?Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds that is called voicing. It is caused by vocal cords which may also be held together tightly so that the air stream vibrates hem at different speeds .3.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow transcription differ.Broad transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols only. Narrow transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics,which are added to the letter-symbols to bring out the finer distinctions than the letters alone can possible do. For example, in broad transcription, the symbol[l]is used for the sound[l]in the four words leaf[li:f],feel[fi:l], build[bild],and health[helθ]. As a matter of fact, the sound [l]in all these four sound combination differ slightly. The [l]in[li:f], occurring before a vowel, is called clear[l], and no diacritic is need to indicate it; the [l]in[fi:l]and[bild]occurring at the end of a word or before another consonant, is pronounced differently from the clear [1] as in “leaf”. It is called dark [?] and innarr ow transcription the diacritic [?] is used to indicate it. Then in the sound combination [helθ], the sou nd [l] is followed by the English dental sound [θ], its pronunciation is somewhat affected by the dental sound that follows it. It is thus called a dental [l], and in narrow transcription the diacritic [、] is used to indicate it. It is transcribed as [helθ]. Another example is the consonant [p]. In the word pit, the sound [p] is pronounced with a strong puff of air, but in spit the puff of air is withheld to some extent. In the case of pit, the [p] sound is said to be aspirated and in the case of spit, the [p] sound is unaspirated. This difference is not shown in broadtranscription, but i n narrow transcription, a small raised “h” is used to show aspiratio n, thus pit is transcribed as [ph?t] and spit is transcribed as [sp?t].4.How are the English consonants classified?English consonants can be classified in two ways: one is in terms of manner of articulation and the other is in terms of place of articulation. In terms of manner of articulation the English consonants can be classified into the following types: stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals and glides. In terms of place of articulation, it can be classified into following types: bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar and glottal.5.What criteria are used to classify the English vowels?Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth , the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels. According to which part of the tongue is held highest, vowels may bedistinguished as front, central, and back. And according to the openness of the mouth, vowels can be classified into close vowels, semi-close vowels , semi-open vowels and open vowels. According to the shape of the lips, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded vowels, and all the back vowels, with the exception of[a:],are rounded vowels. According to the length of the sound, vowels can be classified into tense and lax vowels.6. Give the phonetic symbol fro each of the following sound descriptions:(1)voiced palatal affricate:[?] (2)voiceless labiodental fricative:[f](3)voiced alveolar stop: [d] (4)front, close, short: [i](5)back, semi-open, long: [?:] (6)voiceless, bilabial stop: [p]Give the phonetic features of each of the following sounds:(1)[d]: voiced alveolar stop (2)[l]: voiced alveolar liquids(3)[?]: voiceless palatal affricate (4) [w]: voiced bilabial glides(5) [?]: back, close, short (6) [?]: front, open, short7. How do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? Who do you think will be more interested in the difference between, say, [l] and [?], [ph] and [p], a phonetician or a phonologist? Why?Phonetics is of a general nature, it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages. Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.The difference between these sounds is what the phonetician are interested in. Because phonology is concerned with the sound system of a particular language, but phonetician isinterested in how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess.8. What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to a phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. A phoneme is a phonological unit, it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. Allophones are the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments.9. Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.Sequential rules refer to the ways the phonemes can be combined. Sequential rules regulate which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other. They are rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.For example, if a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel. That is why [lbik] [lkbi] are impossible combinations in English. They have violated the restrictions on the sequencing of phonemes.The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.For example, the [i:] sound is nasalized in words like bean, green, team, and scream. This is because in all these sound combinations the [i:] sound is followed by a nasal [n] or [m].Deletion rule is when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented.In the pronunciation of such wordsas sign, design, and paradigm, there is no [g] sound although it is represented in spelling by the letter[g]. But in their corresponding forms signature, designation, and paradigmatic, the [g] represented bythe letter g is pronounced. The rule can be stated as: Deletea [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.10. What are suprasegmental features? How do the major suprasegmental features of English function in conveying meaning?Suprasegmental features refer to the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.The main suprasegmental features include stress, tone, and intonation.There are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning. For example, a shift of stress may change the part of speech of a word from a noun to a verb although its spelling remains unchanged.Tones are pitch variations which can distinguish meaning just like phonemes.When pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. English has four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rise tone, and the rise-fall tone When spoken in different tones, the same sequence of words may have different meanings.。
语言学复习资料
Lecture 11. Why do linguists tend to be so critical to traditional grammar?Traditional Grammar---broadly refers to the study of language covering the period from ancient times to the end of the 18th century .Linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive. Linguistics regarded the spoken language as primary, not the written. It lacked autonomy. It was modeled on ancient Greek, Latin grammar. It was based on logical concepts from meaning to form, not from form to meaning. Emphasis was laid on written language. The attitude was prescriptive not descriptive.2. What is the difference between the descriptive and the prescriptive approach to the investigation of language? Which is to be preferred and why?Descriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as it is actually used by speakers and writers. Prescriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as certain people think it should be used. Both kinds of grammar are concerned with rules--but in different ways. Specialists in descriptive grammar study the rules or patterns that underlie our use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. On the other hand, prescriptive grammarians lay out rules about what they believe to be the “correct” or “incorrect” use of language. Descriptive grammarians generally advise us not to be overly concerned with matters of correctness: language, they say, isn't good or bad; it simply is. As the history of the glamorous word grammar demonstrates, the English language is a living system of communication, a continually evolving affair. Within a generation or two, words and phrases come into fashion and fall out again. Over centuries, word endings and entire sentence structures can change or disappear.3. What are features of modern linguistics?Linguistics is descriptive not prescriptive. Priority of spoken language. Priority of synchronic description. The linguist is interested in all languages.Lecture 21. What branches does general linguistics include? What these branches study?Phonetics: it studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sound of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech.Phonology: it studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.Morphology: it is concerned with the internal organization of words it studies the minimal units of meaning—morphemes and word-formation processed. Syntax: it is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences.Semitics: it examines how meaning is encoded in a language.Pragmatic s: it is the study of meaning in context. it deals with particular utterance in particular situation and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation.3. (1)Langue vs. parole Langue was considered to be the totality of a language. It was a “storehouse”, the sum of word-images stored in the minds of individuals. We may put it loosely in a formula like:In Saussure's theory, parole refers to the individual side of speech, i.e. speaking is psychophysical, it being the actual, concrete act of speaking on the part of an individual. Parole is thus not a collective instrument; its manifestations are individual and momentary. Langue is code, parole is messag e Langue and parole are closely connected, each dependent on the other: the langue of a community can be arrived at only by a consideration of a large number of paroles, whereas parole can only be intelligible with langue in the minds of all the community members. To a linguist, langue is of primary importance as he wants to make statements which apply, not just to the speech of individuals but to the language as a whole.(2)Synchronic vs. Diachronic linguistics.Synchronic study of language---- refers to the study of language as a whole and the description of a particular state of a language at a given point of time in the development of language without considering its evolution and change in history.Diachronic study of language ---- refers to the study of the process of evolution of language at various histories (historical). A diachronic description of a language traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time.(3)Microlinguistics vs. MacrolinguisticsMicrolinguistics ---- refers to the study of the structure and systems of language, including the various subjects of study of the internal structures of language, such fields as phonology, morphology, syntax.Macrolinguistics ---- refers to the study of language from a broad angle in variou s interdisciplinary subjects, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguisticsLecture 31. Define language. How can you understand it?To give the definition, language is a means of verbal communication .it is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language learning and use are determined by the intervention of biological, cognitive, psychosocial and environmental factors .in short ,language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.2. Illustrate the differences between human language and animal communication system in terms of displacement and cultural transmission.Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. With language, we can recall the past or anticipate the future. For example, we can refer to the first has been dead for over 2500 years .Most animals respond communicatively as soon as they are stimulated by some occurrence of communal interest. For instance, a warning cry of a bird instantly announces danger. Such animals are under “immediate stimulus control”. Human language is, unlike animal communication systems, stimulus free. What we talk about need not be triggered by any external stimulus in the world or any internal state.Cultural transmission ---- refers to the fact that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. They are not biologically transmitted from generation to generation. Though the capacity for language in human being has a genetic basis, the particular language a human being learns is a cultural fact, not a genetic one. Simply, while you may inherit brown eyes and dark hair from your parents, you do not inherit their language. You acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes. e.g. An infant born to Korean parents, who is adopted and brought up from birth by English speakers in the U.S, may have physical characteristics inherited from its natural parents, but it will inevitably speak English. And if the child is isolated from the society, he can’t acquire the language successfully. So language is acquired in a socio-cultural context.3. Why is language human specific?Firstly, human language has “design features” which animal communication system do not have, at least not in the true sense of them. Secondly, linguistshave done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees. Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to do so4. List basic functions of language and define each of them by their aimsReferential Function whenever we ask people for information or tell others about our circumstances and things alike, we are using language in an attempt to share what we know and exchange what we have in our minds. This is often called "referential", or "ideational".Interpersonal Function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in a discourse situation and the addresser's attitude toward what he speaks or writes about.Textual Function relates our abilities to construct texts out of our utterances and writings.The performative function is primarily to change the social status of persons; the performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.Emotive function is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress.For example, swear words, obscenities are probably the commonest signals to be used in this way, especially when we are in an angry or frustrated state.Phatic Communion language can serve the function of creating or maintaining social relationship between speakers.Identifying function Our use of language can tell our listener or reader a great deal about ourselves, in particular, about our regional origins, social background, and level of education, occupation, age, sex, and personality.The recreational function of a language is often overlooked because it seems restrictive in purpose and supposedly limited in usefulness. However, no one will deny the use of language for the sheer joy of using it.5. Arbitrariness, Duality of structure, Displacement,Discreteness, Cultural transmission.Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. Take the case of the English word “man”. In Chinese “rén”Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization.For instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language.Creativity----the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never produced or heard before. Creativity is a universal property of human language. For example, we can write a sentence like the following and go on endlessly:This is the dog that chased the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that Tom built.Lecture 41. How do phonetics and phonology differ from each other? And how are they related to each other?Phonetics-- general, descriptive, and classificatory. It studies speech sounds as they are.Phonology-- concerned with the sound system of language, studies the functioning of the speech sounds. Phonetics provides the means for describing speech sounds; phonology studies the ways in which speech sounds form system and patterns. Phonetics is of general nature; it is the branch of linguistics ,studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description ,classification , and transcription without reference to the function of speech sounds in a particular language ,while phonology is language specific . It deals with speech sounds within the context of a particular language; it is concerned with the working and functioning of speech sounds in a language. Phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind. Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which form meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.2 Illustrate phone, phoneme and allophone by examples. How is a phone different from a phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning.When we hear the following words produced: pit, spit, tip, feel, leaf, the phones we have heard are [ph] (as in pit), [p] (as in spit), [p¬] (as in tip), [s], [t], [f], [i:], [i], [l].A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. So a phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. We use slant lines “/ /” pan and ban differ only in their initial sounds /p/ and /b/.Allophone: the different phones that represent or are derived from one phoneme are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example: /p/ is a phoneme, but it may be pronounced as phones [ph], [p], [p¬] .So [ph], [p], [p¬] are the allophones of the same phoneme /p/.3. Explain the sequential rules, assimilation rules and deletion rule by examples.Assimilation rule It assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. When a phoneme is realized differently in actual connected speech from what it usually is, as a result of being near some other phonemes belonging to a neighboring word, assimilation takes place “in” may be pronounced differently as [in], or [i?] or [im], when occurring in different phonetic contexts: indiscrete alveolar [in], inconceivable velar [i?] ,input bilabial [im]The deletion rule It tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. e.g. “g” is mute in “sign”, “design”. It is pronounced in their corresponding derivat ives “signature”, “designation”. The rule is: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.4 Minimal pairsWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are said to have formed a minimal pair.Lecture 51 What does morphology study?It studies morphemes and their different forms and the way they combine in word formation (the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed).2 What are the main features of morpheme?(1) Morphemes cannot be broken down any further into recognizable or meaningful parts. In other words, a morpheme can’t be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.(2) A word may consist of one morpheme or more than one morpheme, while a morpheme may not necessarily represent a word.(3) Morpheme is also a two-fact language unit, which possesses both sound and meaning.(4) Morpheme is not identical with a syllable for syllable has nothing to do with meaning.3 Free morpheme, Bound morphemeFree morpheme, if a morpheme can constitute a word (free form) by itself, it is called a free morpheme.Bound morpheme, If a morpheme has meaning only when connected with at least another morpheme, it is bound. Traditionally, these prefix and suffix morphemes have been called bound morphemes.Lecture 61 Do you think that morphology and syntax should be treated as separate areas of study? Give your views and support them with reasons.Morphology & Syntax(1) A principle distinction between morphology and syntax, is that the former is concerned with the internal composition of a word, whereas the latter is concerned with combinations of words(2) From a nineteen-century linguistic perspective,morphology is the science of the forms of language and more abstractly, of the formatives(构形成分) that give form to words.Syntax, by contrast, is concerned not with formation or forms or formatives but with comparatively insubstantial notions of order or arrangement, in keeping with the etymology of the term. Syntax is thus outside the scope of linguistic morphology, because of the abstract nature of the elements whose arrangement it deals with.(3) Morphology is considered to be part of syntax, both may be grouped together as grammar.(4) Since sentence is usually regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a language, syntax has long been the center of grammatical study.(5) Different linguistics theories differ in their treatment of sentence structure. Conclusion: There are arguments in favor of morpheme-based grammar and there are arguments against it. The same is true of the more traditionalword-based grammar.2. Explain and exemplify IC analysis.IC analysis is one of the structuralist grammars. It is a major feature of Bloomfieldian descriptivism.This approach works through the different levels of structure within a sentence in a series of steps.At each level, a construction is divided into its major constituents, which are termed immediate constituents, and the process continues until no further divisions can be made. The constituents in the last step are called ultimate constituents. In general, the division is binary. IC analysis can be represented in different ways.3. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSyntagmatic: a linear relationship between the signs present in the sentence. (the relation between one item and others in a sequence) .Paradigmatic is a particular one in that it denotes a relationship between a sign in a sentence and a sign not in a sentence. (A word may be said to have paradigmatic relations with words that could be substituted for it in the sentence.)4. Rheme vs. ThemeRheme refers to information that is new. The nucleus, or the core of the utterance ---- what the speaker states about, or in regard to the starting point of the utteranceTheme the known (or given) information --- information that is not new to the reader or listener.5. TG-grammar in1957 in Syntactic Structures, which has transformed linguistics from a relatively obscure discipline of interest mainly to language teachers and future missionaries into a major social science of direct relevance to psychologists, sociologists, philosophers and others.Lecture 71. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? (1). Referential theory of meaning (the naming theory) .The meaning of an expression is what it refers to, or stands for. Expressions or words are "names" or "labels" for things. E.g. man, furniture, fish, China --- whose main function is precisely that of naming or labeling. They are meaningful in that they each refer to an individual or a collection of living beings or objects existing in the reality. There is a one-to-one correspondence between name and object.(2). Mentalist theory of meaning, There has been a tendency to adopt a mentalist approach in their treatment of meaning by a group of modern linguists headed by Chomsky since 1960's. They view the primary function of language as the communication of ideas and have adopted the assumption, as a working basis for linguistic inquiry, that the data needed about language can be supplied by direct resort to intuition. It states that the meaning of an expression is the idea, or concept associated with it in the mind of anyone who knows it. It attempts to explain the meaning of words in terms of the image in the speaker's / hearer's mind. Two of the best-known theories of it are the “sign " theory of Saussure and the semiotic triangle of Ogden and Richards. According to Saussure's sign theory, a linguistic sign consists of a signifier and a signified. They can be more strictly regarded as a sound image (signifier) and a concept (signified) , which are linked by a psychological associative bond, that is, both the noise we make and the objects of world we talk about are mirrored in some way by conceptual entities. Two of the best-known theories of it are the “sign " theory of de Saussure and the semiotic triangle of Ogden and Richards.When we hear a sound, e. g. dog, the image or concept of the dog will be mirrored in our mind, and the image will be the meaning of the expression(3)Behaviorist theory of meaning. This theory was very popular during the 1920's to 1960's. It has great influence in the fields of psychology, philosophy and linguistics. Its representat ive is L. Bloomfield of America. This theory states that the meaning of an expression is either the stimulus that evokes it or the response that it evokes, or a combination of both, on particular occasions of utterance. He illustrated his views with a famous account of Jack and Jill, trying to define meaning in terms of the behaviorist point of view ---stimulus-and-response point of view. E.g. Jill is hungry. She sees an apple and gets Jack to fetch it for her by speaking to him. He interpreted this in terms of stimulus and response with the diagram.Jill JackS------------r~~~~~s----------RHere S means practical events (physical) which precede the act of speech, i.e. Jill's hunger. It is termed as a stimulus. And r refers to a linguistic response of Jill to this stimulus. Jill expresses this response by speaking to Jack. The sound waves reaching Jack result in creating a linguistic stimulus in him, which is indicated by a small letter s. R refers to the eventual physical response Jack makes in getting the apple for Jill. Thus, Bloomfield argued that meaning consists in the relation between speech (which is shown by r----- s) and the practical events S and R that precede and follow it. In this way, he wanted to contrast his theory with the mentalistic theories which involve thoughts, concepts, images, etc.But to interpret meaning in terms of the relation between speech and physical entities and events needs to know other 'predisposing factors' concerning thespeaker and hearer. This is a task Bloomfield found too difficult to accomplish and thus he did not pursue.(4)Contextual theory of meaning. The Operational theory or Meaning-is-use Theory of meaning. Representatives--- L. Wittgenstein, S. Chase and J. R. Firth. Explains that the meaning of an expression is determined by, if not identical with, its use in language. The famous English linguists Chase and Firth advocated that the true meaning of a word is to be found by observing what a man does with it, not what he says about it. The German philosopher Wittgenstein goes a step further. He boldly asserted that the meaning of a word is its use.2. How do you understand ambiguity?Ambiguity refers to the linguistic phenomenon in which one linguistic expression allows more than one understandings or interpretations. E.g. the office of the president is vacant.Basically, ambiguity can be classified into two types: A. Lexical ambiguity:1) words with more than one sense. She can’t bear children. 2) Some words are ambiguous. He put it in the boot.3) A single word, with several different meanings which are not closed related. Mug-- He had a mug./ He had an ugly mug. 4) A word with several very closely related senses is ambiguous.B. Syntactic ambiguity. Structural ambiguity is concerned with the syntactic representation of sentences. It occurs when more than one syntactic structure can be associated with a sequence of words. E.g. 1) American history teacher 3. How would you describe the oddness of the following sentences, using semantic feature?A. The television drank my water.B. His dog writes poetry.4. synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, homonymy, hyponymy Polysemy: The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is known as polysemy; such a word is polysemic.Homonymy: Lexical items which have the phonological or spelling norm, but differ in meaning are called homonyms. Such a linguistic phenomenon, i.e. identity of form and diversity of meaning is referred to as homonymy.Hyponymy: It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a specific word. The word is more general in meaning is called the superordinate and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. E.g flower-----rose, tulip, carnation, lily. Animal----dog, cat, tiger, lionAntonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms. Oppositeness can be found on different dimensions. Root contrast derivative contrast semantic contrast (1) gradable (2) complementary (3) converses~Synonymy---sameness of meaningStyle: the same cognitive meaning but different stylistic meaning.(1) cast (literary, biblical) .throw (general). Chuck (slang)Dialect---geographical variationRegister—varieties of a language according to their topic and context of use.E.g. you can’t cancel your room reservation. No cancellations can be accepted.Lecture 81. What does pragmatics study?P20How does pragmatics differ from semantics, and utterance meaning from sentence meaning? How are semantics and pragmatics different from each other? Traditional semantics studied meaning, but the meaning of language was considered as something intrinsic, and inherent, i.e. a property attached to language itself. Therefore, meanings of words, meanings of sentences were all studied in an isolated manner, detached from the context in which they were used. Pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. The essential distinction between semantics and pragmatics is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning . If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.How does a sentence meaning differ from an utterance meaning? A sentence meaning is often considered as the intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. It is abstract and independent of context. The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. For example, “There is a dog at the door”. The speaker could utter it as a matter- of- fact statement, telling the hearer that the dog is at the door. The speaker could use it as a warning, asking the hearer not to approach the door. There are other possibilities, too. So, t he understanding of the utterance meaning of “There is adog at the door” de pends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.2. What are the five illocutionary speech acts Searle specifies? (1) Representatives(阐述类)---- stating or describing ,saying what the speaker believes to be true.The earth is flat.（2）directives (指令类)----trying to get the hearer to do somethingDon’t touch that.(3) commissives (承诺类) -----committing the speaker himself to some future course of actionE.g: I promise to come.(4) expressives ( 表达类) ----expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.e.g : I’m sorry for the mess I have made.(5) declaration ( 宣布类)---- bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingPriest: I now pronounce you husband and wife.Referee: you are out!Lecture 91. what contributions has sociolinguistics provided to the field of language teaching?。
语言学第二章chapter2
2.1 Three branches of phonetics (p. 26)
1．Articulatory Phonetics 发音语音学 Phonetics： 2．Acoustic Phonetics 声学语音学 3．Auditory Phonetics 听觉语音学
2. Phonetics (p. 25)
----A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription。
The place of articulation：
• • • • • • • bilabial: [p], [b], [w] labiodental :[f] [v] dental: [θ] [ð] alveolar: [t], [d], [s], [z], [n], [l], [r] palatal: [ʃ] [ʒ] [tʃ] [dʒ] [j] velar: [k], [g] glottal: [h]
k g h η
Fricatives 摩擦音 Affricates 破擦音
Nasals 鼻音 Liquids 流音
VL
VD
VL
VD
I
r
j
VD
VD
p b
f v θδ
t d
s z ∫З
k g
h
Classification of vowels 元音分类 English vowels can be divided into two large categories: • Monophthongs or pure/single vowels
英语语言学笔记（2）
⼆、⾳系学 语⾔的声⾳媒介 什么是语⾳学 发⾳器官 ⾳标……宽式和严式标⾳法 英语语⾳的分类 ⾳系学和语⾳学 语⾳、⾳位、⾳位变体 ⾳位对⽴、互补分部、最⼩对⽴ ⼏条⾳系规则 超切分特征 Two major media of communication: speech and writing The limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language. ⽤于⼈类语⾔交际的声⾳称为语⾳，这些数⽬有限的⼀组语⾳构成了语⾔的声⾳媒介。
Phonetics语⾳学: is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world's language. Three branches of phonetics : articulatory phonetics 发⾳语⾳学（most highly developed）, auditory phonetics 听觉语⾳学and acoustic phonetics 声学语⾳学 Organs of speech 发⾳器官 The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas or cavities: The pharyngeal cavity咽腔——the throat The oral cavity⼝腔——the mouth The nasal cavity ⿐腔——the nose Vibration of the vocal cords （声带） results in a quality of speech sounds called "voicing" 浊⾳，which is a feature of all vowels 元⾳ and some consonants 辅⾳。
新编简明英语语言学教程chapter2笔记
Chapter 2 Phonology2.1 The phonic medium of language (Lead in)Language is primarily vocal. The primary medium of human language is sound. Linguists are not interested in all sounds, but in speech sounds----sounds that convey meaning in human communication.Sounds which are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language.Language is a “system of vocal symbols”. Speech sounds had existed long before writing was invented, and even today, in some parts of the world, there are still languages that have no writing system. Therefore, the study of speech sounds is a major part of linguistics.2.2 Phonetics2.2.1 What is phonetics?----A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription, e.g. [p] bilabial, stop.Phonetics looks at speech sounds from three distinct but related points of view:(Speech production-----------------speech transmission---------------speech perception)⏹Articulatory phonetics（发音语音学）----from the speakers‟point of view, “how speakers produce speechsounds”⏹Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）----from the hearers‟ point of view, “how sounds are perceived”⏹Acoustic phonetics（声学语音学）----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from oneto another.2.2.2 Organs of speechSpeech organs, also known as V ocal organs, are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The diagram of speech organs:1. Lips 7. Tip of tongue2. Teeth 8. Blade of tongue3. Teeth ridge (alveolar) 9. Back of tongue4. Hard palate 10. V ocal cords5. Soft palate (velum) 11.Pharyngeal cavity6. Uvula 12. Nasal cavityThe important cavities:☆The pharyngeal cavity 咽腔---- the throatLarynx: at the top of the trachea, the front of which is the Adam‟s apple. This is the first place where sound modification might occur. The larynx contains the Vocal folds, also known as Vocal cords or Vocal bands. The vocal folds are a pair of structure that lies horizontally with their front ends joined together at the back of the Adam‟s apple. Their rear ends, however, remain separated and can move to various positions. The vocal folds are either (a) apart, (b) close together, (c) totally closed.Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voicing, which is a feature of all vowels and some consonants in English.Voiceless: when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.V oiced (V oicing): when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect.☆The oral cavity 口腔---- the mouthThe oral cavity provides the greatest source of modification of the air stream. ([k]/[g], [t]/[d], [θ]/[δ], [f]/[v], [p]/[b])☆The nasal cavity 鼻腔---- the noseThe nasal cavity is connected with the oral cavity. The soft part of the roof of the mouth, the velum, can be drawn back to close the passage so that all air exiting from the lungs can only go through the mouth. The sounds produced in this condition are not nasalized. If the passage is left open to allow air to exit through the nose, the sounds produced are nasalized sounds.2.2.3 Orthographic representation of speech sounds--- broad and narrow transcriptions（语音的正字法表征：宽式/窄式标音）---- A standardized and internationally accepted system of phonetic transcription is the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). The basic principle of the IPA is using one letter to represent one speech sound.Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols only（代表字母的符号）e.g. clear [l]Narrow transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols together with the diacritics. e.g. dark [ l ], aspirated [ p ] (Diacritics are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.)E.g. : [l]→[li:f]--→ a clear [l] (no diacritic); [l]→[bild]--→a dark [l] (~)[p]→[pit]--→an aspirated [p h](h表示送气)[p]→[spit]--→an unaspirated [p] (no diacritic)2.2.4 Classification of English speech sounds---- English speech sounds are generally classified into two large categories:⏹V owels⏹ConsonantsNote: The essential difference between these two classes is that in the production of the former the air stream meets with no obstruction of any kind in the throat, the nose or the mouth, while in that of the latter it is somehow obstructed.2.2.4.1 Classification of English consonantsEnglish consonants can be classified either in terms of manner of articulation or in terms of place of articulation.In terms of manner of articulation根据发音方法分(the manner in which obstruction is created)① Stops闭塞音: the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptly[p]/[b], [t]/[d], [k]/[g]② Fricatives摩擦音: the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the month[f]/[v], [s]/[z], [∫]/[з], [θ]/[δ], [h] (approximant)③ Affricates塞擦音: the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives [t∫]/[dз]④ Liquids流音: the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouth[l]→a lateral sound; [r]→ retroflex⑤ Glides滑音: [w], [j] (semi-vowels)Liquid + glides + [h]→ approximants⑥ Nasals鼻音: the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through it[m], [n], [η]By place of articulation根据发音部位分(the place where obstruction is created)①bilabial双唇音: upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructions [p]/[b], [w]→(velar)②labiodentals唇齿音: the lower lip and the upper teeth [f]/[v]③dental齿音:the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth [θ]/[δ]④alveolar齿龈音: the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge [t]/[d], [s]/[z], [n], [l], [r]⑤palatal腭音: tongue in the middle of the p alate [θ]/[δ], [t∫]/[dз], [j]⑥velars软腭音:the back of the tongue against the velum [k], [g], [η]⑦glottal喉音: the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx [h]Conclusion: Factors to describe a consonant(1) State of vocal cords (VL/VD)(2) Manner of articulation (MA)(3) Place of articulation (PA)2.2.4.2 Classification of English vowelsV owel sounds are classified according to: the position of the tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.Highest Part of the tongue (front, central, back)Front vowels are the ones in the production of which the front part of the tongue is raised the highest such as [i:] [i] [e] [æ] [a].When the central part of the tongue maintains its highest position, the vowels thus produced are central vowels such as [3:] [Ə] and [ ] .If the back of the tongue is held the highest, the vowels thus produced are back vowels such as [u:][u] Openness of mouthRounded or unrounded lipsrounded vowels: All the back vowels in English are rounded except [ɑ:].unrounded vowels: All the front vowels and central vowels in English are unrounded.Length of the vowellong vowels: They are usually marked with a colon such as [i:] and [ɑ:]short vowels: other vowels in English are short vowels such as [e], [ə] and [æ].monophthongs: individual vowelsdiphthongs: produced by moving from one vowel position to another through intervening positions. (集中/合口)2.3 Phonology2.3.1 Phonology and phoneticsWhat does English phonetics deal with?English phonetics is concerned with all speech sounds that occur in the English language. It studies how these sounds are produced and how they are described and classified.What does English phonology deal with?English phonology investigates the sound system of English. Different from English phonetics, English phonology is not interested in the actual production of English sounds, but in the abstract aspects:A. the function of sounds--- whether a sound can differentiate the meanings of wordsB. their patterns of combination--- how sounds are combined to form a permissible sound sequence⏹Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approachand focus.⏹Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims toanswer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.⏹Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used toconvey meaning in linguistic communication.(Speaker‟s mind--- Mouth--- Ear--- Listener‟s mind)2.3.2 Phone, phoneme, and allophonePhoneme: minimal distinctive unit in sound system of a language; a phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value, it is an abstract unit; not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Phone: a phone is a phonetic unit or segment; the realization of phoneme in general. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don‟t. For example, in the words feel[fi:ł], leaf[li:f], tar[t h a:], star[sta:],there are altogether 7 phones: [f],[i:],[ł], [l], [t h]. [t], [a:], but [ł] and[l] do not distinguish meaning, [t h] and [t] do not distinguish meaning as well.Allomophone: the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme; realizations of a particular phoneme.2.3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairPhonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning, they‟re in phonemic contrast.E.g. pin & bin → /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe → /p/ vs. /b/Complementary distribution:two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time, or occur in different environment, besides they do not distinguish meaning.E.g. dark [l] & clear [l], aspirated [p] & unaspirated [p]Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.E. g. mail vs. nail beat, bit, bet, bat, boot, but, bait, bite, boat2.3.4 Some rules in phonology2.3.4.1 Sequential rulesSequential rules ---- the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language, e.g. in English, “k b i I” might possibly form blik, klib, bilk, kilb.⏹If a word begins with a [l] or a [r], then the next sound must be a vowel.⏹If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, the combination should obey thefollowing three rules, e.g. spring, strict, square, splendid, screama) the first phoneme must be /s/,b) the second phoneme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/,c) the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w/.⏹The affricates [t∫],[dз] and the sibilants [s],[z],[θ],[δ]are not to be followed by anothersibilants.2.3.4.2 Assimilation ruleAssimilation: articulatory adaptation of one sound to a nearby sound with regard to one or more features.Nasalization: /m/, /n/, /ŋ/[-nasal]→ [+nasal]/_______ [+nasal]Dentalization: /ð/, /θ/[-dental]→[+dental]/______[+dental]V elarizatio n: /k/, /g/, / ŋ/: Word-final /n/ becomes velar before velar plosives/k, g/: ten cups; ten girls[-velar]→ [+ velar]/______[+velar]2.3.4.3 Deletion ruleDeletion rule---- it tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented, e.g. design, paradigm, there is no [g] sound; but the [g] sound is pronounced in their corresponding forms signature, designation, paradigmatic.E.g. delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant 省略词末鼻辅音前的[g]音2.3.5 Suprasegmental features--- stress, tone, intonationsegmental features（切分特征）--- the distinctive features which can only have an effect on one sound segment are called segmental features.Suprasegmental features----the phonemic features that involve more than single sound segments (larger than phoneme)2.3.5.1 StressWord stress⏹The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning, e.g. a shift in stress in English may change the part ofspeech of a word:verb: im‟port; in‟crease; re‟bel; re‟cord …noun: …import; …increase; …rebel; …record …⏹Similar alteration of stress also occurs between a compound noun and a phrase consisting of the sameelements:compound: …blackbird; …greenhouse; …hotdog…noun phrase: black …bird; green …house; hot …dog…⏹The meaning-distinctive role played by word stress is also manifested in the combinations of -ing forms andnouns:modifier: …dining-room; …reading room; …sleeping bag…doer: sleeping …baby; swimming …fish; flying …plane…Sentence stressSentence stress----the relative force given to the components of a sentence. Generally, nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs, numerals and demonstrative pronouns are stressed. Other categories like articles, person pronouns, auxiliary verbs prepositions and conjunctions are usually not stressed.Note: for pragmatic reason, this rule is not always right, e.g. we may stress any part in the following sentences.He is driving my car.My mother bought me a new skirt yesterday.2.3.5.2 T oneTones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.⏹English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.ma 妈(level)ma 麻(the second rise)ma 马(the third rise)ma 骂(the fourth fall)2.3.5.3 IntonationWhen pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used (first three types):falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)the rise-fall toneHe is not ↘ there. What did you put in my ↗ drink, ↘ Jane?He is not ↗ there? What did you put in my ↘ drink, ↗ Jane?For instance,“That’s not the book he wants.”Ss exercise: Explain the meaning of the following words or phrases or sentences when marked with different stress or with different intonation.Assignments1. Ss complete the review questions during the classes.2. Ask students to do the exercises 1-10 on Page 30.。
语言学笔记(上课的笔记)
语言学笔记(上课的笔记)CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION (高叔叔说这章要考50分，所以东西有点多~)1.Linguistics1.1Definition: linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. Three key words:? Language:preceded by the zero article implies not any particular language but language in general. ? Study: investigate examine research ? Scientific:observation →generalization→hypotheses formation→datacollection→hypotheses testing→ theory f ormulation How to make a study \1) Exhaustiveness: gather all the materialsrelevant to one'sinvestigation and give theman adequate explanation. 2) Consistency: make no contradiction between parts of the total statement 3) Economy: other things being equal, simpler shorter analysis is better.4) Objectivity: be as objective as possible in describing and analyzing the data, allowing no prejudice to influence one’s generalization. 1.2 the scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics: the study of language as a whole. This deals with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions models and methods applicable in any linguistic study, in contrast to branches of study which relate linguistics to the research of other areas.General linguistics can be further divided into theoretical linguistics (micro-linguistics) and application of linguistics (macro-linguistics). 1.2.1 Theoretical linguistics:1)Phnetics :the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.2) Phonology : studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.3)Morphology: study of the way in which the smallest meaningful components called morpheme are arranged to form words.4) Syntax[‘sint?ks]: studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences 5)Semantics [si’m?ntiks]: the study of meaning in isolation, statically out of context. 1.2.2 Application of linguistics(2-8了解即可)1) Pragmatics: the dynamic study of meaning in context.2) Applied linguistics: application of linguistics theories, principles, methods and research findings to any language connected areas (broad sense), to language teaching esp to the teaching of foreign or second language (narrow sense) It includes language acquisition, language testing, language evaluation.3) Sociolinguistics: the study of social factors of language such as education background, economic status, sex and its relation with society. It includes language norm, language change and language policy.4) Psycolinguistics: studies the correlation between linguistic behavior and psychological processes that are believed to underlie that behavior. it aims to answer three questions:1) how human work when we use language; 2)how we acquire our mother tongue ; 3)how we percept and internalize the information we receive in communication.5) Anthropological linguistics: it uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.6) Neurolinguistics : studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.7) Mathematical linguistics: studies the mathematical features of language by employing models and concepts of mathematics.8) Computational linguistics; approaches in which mathematical techniques and concepts are applied with theaid of computer machine. Translation or automatic translation; project which teaches machine how to recognize speech sounds and therefore words (speech synthesis) 1.3 important distinctions in linguistics ( 重点 )1.3.1 Prescriptive and descriptive [Descriptive →objectivePrescriptive→subjective ]? If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language peopleactually use , it is descriptive(描写性） ? If it aims to lay down rules for correct behavior, that is to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, It is called Prescriptive（规定性).Traditional grammar is Prescriptive, while modern linguistics is descriptive. 1.3.2 Synchronic (共时) vs diachronic (历时) ? The description of language at some point in time is a Synchronic study. (Periodical study)? The description of language as it changes through time is a diachronic study. (Hisistorical study) 1.3.3 Speech and WritingTwo major media of communication,speech is primary to writing. 1.3.4 Langue (语言) and Parole (言语)? Ferdinand de Saussure (1857―1913), pioneer of semiotics (符号学) ,he is the father of modern linguistics.? Course in General Linguistics published in 1916. Saussure’s work marked the beginning of modern linguistics. ? Langue refers to the abstractlinguistic system shared by all members of a speech community. It is a set of rules and conventions which all language users all have to abide by. It is abstract, not the language people actually use. ? Parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use . It is concrete, naturally occurring language event. 1.3.5 competence（语言能力）and performance (语言运用) It was proposed by American linguistics N. Chomsky in the late 1950's.? Competence refers to the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language and, ? Performance refers to the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication, ? what linguist should study is competence, not performance, why? 1) Competence is comparatively stable2) Performance is haphazard due to some social or psychological factors such as stress, anxiety and embarrassment, or mistakes such as slips of the tongues and unnecessary pauses, despite a perfect knowledge. It is a distinction between what one “knows” and what one “does”. nguage2.1 Definition of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 2.2 Design features of language (重点) Design features refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.? Arbitrariness（任意性）It means there is no logical (intrinsic or direct) connection between sounds and meanings, or the linguistic forms bear no natural relationship to their meaning. ? Productivity (创造性/多产性)Different sounds can be grouped to form words ,and different words can be arranged to form different sentences. Productivity is unique to human language. ? Duality (二元性)*Language is a system consisting of two levels: Lower (sounds) and Higher (meaning)? At the lower level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless,which can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning? At the higher level, the units of meaning can be grouped and regrouped into an infinite number of sentences.Phoneme―morpheme―word―phrase―clause―sentence? Displacement (移位性) [2 dimensions: Temporal时间的 & Spatial空间的 ]Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present real or imagined, matters in the past ,present or future .? Cultural transmission (文化传递性)Language can be passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and learning rather than by instinct or inheritance/birth. ? Specialization (特化作用)Linguistic signals do not normally serve any other type of purpose, such as breathing or feeding. ? Interchangeability/reciprocity (相互性)This refers to the fact that any speaker/ sender of a linguistic signal can also be a listener/ receiver. 2.3 Functions of Language1)Informational function（信息功能）: transmission of information (tell story /teaching)2) Interpersonal function（人际功能）: interaction between the addresser (writer) and addressee (reader) and their attitudes among each other. (personal talk)3)Performative function（施为功能）: use language to change one’s social status.4)Emotive function（感情功能）: change the emotional status of audiencefor or against some one or something. 5)Phatic function（寒暄功能）: maintain a comfortable relationship between people without involving any factualcontent (nice day/ good morning )6)Recreational function（娱乐功能）: use language for sheer joy7) Meta-lingual function（元语言功能）: use language to talk about language itself.CHAPTER 2 PHONOLOGY(木有讲~~)CHAPTER 3 MORPHOLOGY(形态学) ? What is word?Word is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether in spoken or written form.? Three aspects of words:1) A physically definable unit：Phonological & orthographic 2)The common factor underlying a set of forms. 3) A grammatical unit ? Classification of words:1) Variable and invariable words （有时态变化的词和没有变化的词） 2) Lexical words(实词) and grammatical (function, form) words(虚词) 3) Open-class words (开放性词) and closed-class words（封闭性词） ? Word formation:（最重要的两种）1) Compounding（复合词） 2）Derivation(派生词) 3. What is Morphology?Morphology: the study of the internal structure of words and rules for word formation. In other words, it is the study of the composition of words.3.1Two sub-branches of Morphology: 1) inflectional morphology屈折形态学 2) derivational morphology词汇形态学 3.2 Morpheme词位，语素 (形位) 3.2.1 Definition of morpheme? Morpheme: Smallest meaningful components of words. 3.2.2 Allomorphs 词位变体 The different/ variant forms of the same morpheme are called its allomorphs（词位变体）. A morpheme needs to be represented in certain phonological and orthographic forms. one denotes its lexical meaning and the other the grammatical meaning. 6.3 Types of Morphemes6.3.1 Free Morphemes 自由词位（语素）? A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. Free morphemes fallinto two categories: content words (open-class words) & function words (closed-class words) 6.3.2 Bound Morphemes 黏着词位（语素） ? Bound morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combined with at least one other morpheme, either free or bound, to form a word.? Bound morphemes include two types: roots (词根) and affixes（词缀）? Affixes are of two types: inflectional(屈折词缀)and derivational(派生词缀)1) Inflectional affixes manifest various grammatical relations such as number, tense, degree, and case. 2) Derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word. CHAPTER 4 SYNTAX(木有讲~~) CHAPTER 5 SEMANTICS(语义学) 5.1 The definition of semantics? Semantics is the branch of linguistics which studies meaning in language.The theme of semantics is meaning. Language must have meaning and meaning is part of language.A sentence is considered correct or acceptable if it is well-formed both grammatically and semantically. 5.2 Approaches to meaning 5.2.1 Meaning as naming? The meaning of an expression is what it refers to (or denotes), stands for, or names.also called referential (or denotational) theory, or naming theory. 5.2.2 Meaning as concept? Any particular sound image is psychologically associated with aparticular concept. 5.2.3 Meaning as behaviour? The meaning of an expression is the stimulus either the stimulus that evokes it or the response that it evokes, or a combination of both onparticular occasions of utterance,also called behaviourism or behaviourist theory. 5.2.4 Meaning as context? The meaning is found in the context within which a particular expression is uttered. Two kinds of context are recognized: a linguistic context and a situational context. 5.2.5 Meaning as truth conditions ? The sense of a declarative sentence permits you to know under what circumstances that sentence is true. Those “circumstances”are called truth conditions of the sentence. This is called truth-conditional theory/semantics,S is true if and only if P5.2.6 Meaning as useIt asserts that the meaning of an expression is just the use to which it is put in the language,also called use theory. 5.3 Word meaning5.3.1 Sense and reference? Sense(意义) relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves (mostly words), it is concerned with intralinguistic relations.? Reference（所指） deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements, words, sentences, etc., and the non-linguistic world of experience.5.3.2 Seven types of meaning（记得到那七种意义就可以了~概念不用背）According to the British linguist G. Leech, meaning in its broadest sense can be classified into seven types: 5.3.2.1 Conceptual meaning（概念意义）? The meaning of words may be discussed in terms of what they denote or refer to. 5.3.2.2 Connotative meaning（内涵意义）? Connotative meaning is the communicative value that a word or a combination of words has by virtue of what refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.Difference between connotative meaning and conceptual meaning ? Connotative meaning is peripheral, and relatively unstable.? In addition, connotative meaning is indeterminate and open-ended in a sense in which conceptual meaning is not.5.3.2.3 Social meaning（社会意义）? Social meaning is that which an expression conveys about the social circumstances of its use. It chiefly includes stylistic meaning and the illocutionary force of an utterance. 5.3.2.4 Affective meaning（情感意义）? Affective meaning or emotive meaning refers to the fact that language reflects the feelings of a speaker. 5.3.2.5 Reflective meaning（联想意义）? Reflective meaning is the meaning which arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense. 5.3.2.6 Collocative meaning（搭配意义）? Collocative meaning is composed of the associations a word obtains because of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its circumstances.5.3.2.7 Thematic meaning（主题意义）? Thematic meaning is what is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms of ordering, focus, and emphasis.5.3.3 Semantic relations between words（记名字就可以了~~那两个有differences的要注意） ? Homonymy(同音异义)：words having different meaning have the same form. Words are identical in sound =>homophones(同音异形异义字) Words are identical in form =>homographes(同形异义字)Words are identical in sound and form =>homonyms(同形同音异义字) ? Polysemy（一词多义）：one word having two or more meanings which are all related by extension. Difference between polysemy and Homonymy The distinction can be found in the typical dictionary entry for words. If a word has two or more meanings (polysemic), then there will be a single entry, with a numbered list of the different meanings of the word. If the two words are treated as homonyms, they will typically have two separate entries. ? Synonymy （近义词）：the sense relation of “sameness of meaning”. ? Antonymy（反义词）：refers to oppositemess of meaning. ? Hyponymy（下义关系）：the relationship where the meaning of one word is included in the meaning of another.Hyponymy: X is a kind of Y eg:Potato is a kind of vegetable,? Meronymy（部分与整体）：the semantic relationship which obtains between “parts” and “wholes”body.Meronymy: X is a part of Y eg:Head is a part of body.5.4 Sentence meaningPredication (句子) consist of Arugement（变元）&Predicates（谓语）consist of Features（语义特征） 5.5 Semantic relations between sentences(名字要记到，最好晓得例子) ? Entailment(蕴含关系)? Presupposition（预设关系） ? Synonymy（同义关系）? Inconsistency（不一致关系）感谢您的阅读，祝您生活愉快。
胡壮麟语言学第2章笔记
语音学发音~；声学~；听觉~[国际音标IPA]一套用来描写语言中的发音的符号系统●第一套IPA的主要准则如下，这些准则一直延用至今：每一个独立的音都有一个独立的字母相对应，相同的符号出现在任何的语言都表示相同的发音字母尽可能采用罗马字母，新字母和附加符号只有在绝对需要的时候才使用●IPA有一套附加符号来标注同音变体之间的细微变化●IPA被修正和修改了几次，现已广泛运用于世界各地的字典和课本中●现在的国际音标系统主要来自于英国语言学家Daniel Jones和他的同事在20世纪20年代创造的系统[严式标音]使用复杂的符号来精确表示语音，包括其中所有可能的细小变化[宽式标音]用一套简单的符号表示语音[标准发音RP]一种在英语教学中最常用的典范发音，很多人称之为BBC英语或牛津英语起源于英格兰的东南部，在整个英格兰，被中上层或上层阶级使用，同时又广泛应用于私立教育系统中大部分BBC的新闻广播员说这种英语[音段]在语言的语音系统中，任何可以从物理或听觉方面定义的最小的可分离单位above中有五个单词，但只有四个音段{辅音& 元音（区别）}●音段分为辅音和元音[辅音]发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻挡[元音] 发音时，气流在声道不受阻碍，没有气流的紊乱或停滞●[j]和[w]两音具有元音的发音特征，却承担辅音的功能，因此一般被称为半元音或半辅音[辅音]发音时，声道的某些部位受到压缩或阻碍后，使得气流在口腔里转向、受阻或完全被阻挡，由此产生辅音●分类标准：发音方法——塞音、擦音、通音、边音、颤音、触音等发音部位——双唇音、唇齿音、齿音、齿龈音、颚龈音、卷舌音、颚音、软腭音、小舌音、咽音、声门音●具有相同的发音部位和发音方法的两个辅音构成辅音对；成对的辅音以清浊区分●描写辅音时一般要用到三个特征：发音部位—清浊—发音方法[元音]发音时气流在声道内不受阻的音{描写基本要求}●舌头抬起的高度（高中低）●舌头最高部分的位置（前央后）●发音的长度或强度（紧、松或长、短）●唇的圆展（圆唇——闭、半闭、半开、开，非圆唇）[基本元音]一套被任意定义的固定而无变化的元音，为语言的实际元音的描写提供参照其中有8个主要基本元音，8个次要基本元音；它们成对出现，并且都是单元音[纯元音/ 单元音] 发音过程中性质恒定的元音[元音音渡] 发音过程中性质有听觉上的变化的元音；有双元音、三重元音两种[协同发音]实际话语过程中，语音持续受邻音影响，发生同时或重合发音的过程[逆化~] 语音的改变接近于后面的音lamb[重复性~] 发音显示出前面语音的影响map音系学{音位分析}{语音学& 音系学（区别）}语音研究被分为两种不同但又有联系的学科：语音学、音系学两者有相当的重合部分，要想在两者之间划出界限是困难的语音学——研究语音如何制造、传递、接受研究人类器官可能发出的所有语音关心发音或感知方面的东西，注重区别发音时的不同音系学——研究语言的语音系统涉及人类语言中语音的语言学模式，以发现语音的组成规则，并解释发生的变化研究说话人为表达意义而系统地选择语音的方法关心不同的语音模式和形成变体的规则[音位]通过“最小对立体”测试法区别出来的、具有区别对立功能的语音，是“外在的语音对立单位”[最小对立体]具有类似的语音序列，且只有一个对应位置上语音不同的一对或一组单词[“最小对立体”测试法]取一个词，用另外的一个音代替其中的一个音，看是否会产生不同的意义可用以区分某种语言中能够导致词义变化的语音替代[音位变体]在不同位置的音位的变体现象同一个音位的不同变异形式，是音位在特定语音环境中的具体体现或具体代表{将不同的音判属同一音位的限制条件}语音相近、互补分布（从不出现在相同的环境中）[自由音位变体]可能来自方言、词曲差异、习惯、个人喜好，与分布规律无关[音素]从语音的自然属性角度划分出来的最小语音单位[p=，p h][音系过程]“目标”或说“受影响的音段”在特定的环境和语境中发生了结构上的变化包括三方面：1）有一套语音来产生音系过程2）有一套经历了音系过程的语音3）音系过程得以发生的条件[同化]一个音具有了邻音的一部分或全部特征这一过程鼻化、齿化、腭化常被当作协同发音的同义词使用[逆同化] 后面的音影响前面的音lamb[顺同化]反之map同化可以越过音节和词的界限发生pan cake you can keep them[区别特征]将一个语言单位和另一个语言单位区别开来的特征广泛运用于音位学，其中的“音位”便可以依据区别性特征来下定义[二分特征]按照两个相互排斥的可能性将语言单位进行分类的特征●可以归入两个范畴：一个有这个特征，另一个没有这个特征●有两个值或两种规格，分别记做“+”和“-”[音节][超音段特征]语音的这些方面涉及了比单个音段更多的东西，主要概念有：音节、重音、声调、语调[结构]一般由三个部分组成：节首、核心、韵尾；其中核心是必须部分[开音节] 没有韵尾的音节[闭音节] 有韵尾的音节●音节划分要遵守[最大节首原则]●当选择如何划归辅音时，应将辅音归入节首，而不是韵尾[重音]音节发音时所用的力度●是个相对的概念：它和非重音之间的一个基本区别是：它在响度、长度、音高上是提升的，比后者更为突出显著●在词一级，只适用于至少有两个音节的词；在句一级，一个单音节的词也可以说相对于句子中的其他词是加重的●原则上，重音可以放在任何音节处，它们随历史发展而变化，也表现出地区或方言性差异●有时重音会因一个词的不同语法功能而被放在不同音节上。
胡壮麟语言学教程修订版课堂笔记和讲义精选Chapter
Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics – the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced inspeech3. Auditory phonetics – the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system of symbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the InternationalPhonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters aretaken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4 Consonants2.4.1 Consonants and vowelsA consonant is produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at someplaces to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity.A vowel is produced without obstruction so no turbulence or a total stopping of theair can be perceived.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which theair passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstructionof the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation1. Stop/plosive: A speech sound which is produced by stopping the air streamfrom the lungs and then suddenly releasing it. In English,[☐ ♌ ♦ ♎ ♑] are stops and [❍ ⏹ ☠]are nasal stops.2. Fricative: A speech sound which is produced by allowing the air stream fromthe lungs to escape with friction. This is caused by bringing the twoarticulators, e.g. the upper teeth and the lower lip, close together but notcloses enough to stop the airstreams completely. In English,[♐ ❆ ♦ ☞ ✞ ♒] are fricatives.3. (Median) approximant: An articulation in which one articulator is close toanother, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extent that aturbulent airstream is produced. In English this class of sounds includes[♦ ❒ ].4. Lateral (approximant): A speech sound which is produced by partiallyblocking the airstream from the lungs, usually by the tongue, but letting itescape at one or both sides of the blockage. [●] is the only lateral in English.Other consonantal articulations include trill, tap or flap, and affricate.2.4.4 Places of articulation1. Bilabial: A speech sound which is made with the two lips.2. Labiodental: A speech sound which is made with the lower lip and the upperfront teeth.3. Dental: A speech sound which is made by the tongue tip or blade and theupper front teeth.4. Alveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade and thealveolar ridge.5. Postalveolar: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip and the backof the alveolar ridge.6. Retroflex: A speech sound which is made with the tongue tip or blade curledback so that the underside of the tongue tip or blade forms a stricture with theback of the alveolar ridge or the hard palate.7. Palatal: A speech sound which is made with the front of the tongue and thehard palate.8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the softpalate.9. Uvular: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and theuvula, the short projection of the soft tissue and muscle at the posterior end ofthe velum.10. Pharyngeal: A speech sound which is made with the root of the tongue and thewalls of the pharynx.11. Glottal: A speech sound which is made with the two pieces of vocal foldspushed towards each other.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows no regional variation.It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by mostnewsreaders of the BBC network.articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearingon the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal[n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral[j] palatal approximant[h] glottal fricative[r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally,three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-highand mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips –various degrees of lip rounding orspreading.4. The position of the soft palate –raised for oral vowels, and lowered forvowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.]Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actualvowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eightas follows: CV1[♓], CV2[♏], CV3[☪], CV4[♋], CV5[ ], CV6[ ], CV7[☐],CV8[◆].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for agive position: CV9 – CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want toknow, you may consult the textbook p. 47. – icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.V owel glides: V owels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[♓] high front tense unrounded vowel[◆] high back lax rounded vowel[☜] central lax unrounded vowel[ ] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units.Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referredto as a narrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these soundscapable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latterwas meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutestshades of pronunciation.2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguisticpatterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur. 2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie anddie are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/.By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which soundsubstitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference inmeaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. inEnglish, when the phoneme /☐/ occurs at the beginning of the word like peak/☐♓/, it is said with a little puff of air, it is aspirated. But when /☐/ occurs in theword like speak /♦☐♓/, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Boththe aspirated [☐♒] in peak and the unaspirated [☐=] in speak have the same phonemicfunction, i.e. they are both heard and identified as /☐/ and not as /♌/; they are bothallophones of the phoneme /☐/.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rulesThe changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structuralchange in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is conditioned ortriggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a precedingsound. Consequently, we can say that any phonological process must have three aspectsto it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; aset of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless / __________ voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies theenvironment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicatesthe position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformedinto the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binary features are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda. E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be / ✈⏹♦❒♓/. It shouldn’t be / ✈⏹♦❒♓/ or / ✈⏹♦❒♓/ according to this principle.2.12 StressStress refers to the degree of force used in producing a syllable. In transcription, a raised vertical line [ ] is used just before the syllable it relates to.。
英语语言学重点
Key to Exercises for Lecture 2 PhonologyI. <blank filling>1.Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the soundsthat occur in the world’s languages.2.Phonetics look at speech sounds from three distinct but related perspectives: the speaker, thehearer, and the way sound travel. This gives rise to three branches of phonetics: articulatory phonetics; auditory phonetics; acoustic phonetics.3.Articulatory phonetics is a study of sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e., how aspeaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds.4.Auditory phonetics is a study of sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e., how the soundsare perceived by the hearer.5.Acoustic phonetics is a study of how sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, thephysical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another. 6.Spectrographs are machines used by acoustic phoneticians to record human sound waves forthe description of the physical properties of the stream of human sounds.7.T he man’s articulatory apparatus is contained in the pharyngeal cavity (the throat), the oralcavity (the mouth), and the nasal cavity (the nose).8.The ‘pharyngeal’ means the throat.9.B y ‘oral cavity’ is meant the mouth.10.The nose is the si mple term for ‘the nasal cavity’?11.T he word ‘language’ derive from t he Latin word ‘l ingua’.12.The original meaning of ‘language’ is t he ‘t ongue’.13.‘V oicing’ is the v ibration of the vocal cords, a feature of all vowels and some consonants inEnglish.14.‘Voiceless’ is a feature of sounds without vibration, or when the vocal cords are drawn wideapart, letting air go though without causing vibration.15.The sound [k] or [g] is produced when obstruction is created between the back of the tongueand the velar area.16.The sounds [t] and [d] are pronounced when obstruction is created between the tip of thetongue and the alveolar ridge.17.T he sounds [θ] and [ð] are produced when p artial obstruction is created between the upperfront teeth and the tip of the tongue.18.The sounds [ f ] and [ v ] are produced when obstruction is created between the upper teethand the lower tip.19.The sounds [ p ] and [ b ] pronounced are produced when partial obstruction is createdbetween the lips.20.The nasal consonants in English are [m], [n] and [ ].21.The International Phonetic Alphabet came into being towards the end of the nineteenthcentury.22.The basic principle of IPA is to use one letter selected from major European languages torepresent one speech sound.23.Diacritics are a set of letter-symbols the IPA gives its users to bring out the finer distinctionsthan the letters alone may possibly do.24.Broad transcription is the transcription with letter-symbols only.25.Narrow transcription is the transcription with diacritics. For instance, the sound [l] istranscribed as dark or clear sound in different contexts.26.Broad transcription is used in dictionaries.27.Vowels and consonants are the two broad categories of the speech sounds in English.28.The essential difference between vowels and consonants is that in the production of the former,the air stream coming from the lungs meets with no obstruction whatsoever, whereas in the production of the latter, it is obstructed in one way or another.29.Consonants are usually classified in two ways: in terms of manner of articulation and in termsof place of articulation.30.Consonants can be grouped into stops, fricatives, affricates, liquids, nasals, glides in terms ofmanner of articulation.31.Consonants can be grouped into bilabial, labiodental, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, glottal interms of place of articulation.32.Liquids in English are one type of consonants, or [ l ] and [ r ], produced when the airflow isobstructed but allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue (the tip or the sides) and the roof of the mouths.33.Glides in English are one type of consonants, sometimes called ‘s emivowels’, or [w] and [j],produced with a narrow passage between the lips or between the tongue and the hard palate to cause some slight noise from the local obstruction.34.V owels are usually classified in terms of the position of the tongue in the mouth, the opennessof the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.35.Vowels can be grouped into front, central, back vowels in terms of the position of the tonguein the mouth.36.Vowels can be grouped into close, semi-close, semi-open, open vowels in terms of theopenness of the mouth.37.Vowels can be grouped into rounded and unrounded vowels in terms of the shape of the lips.38.Vowels can be grouped into short and long in terms of length.39.Phonology and phonetics are similar in that both are concerned with the same aspect oflanguage, the speech sounds.40.Phonology and phonetics differ in their approach and focus. Phonology deals with how speechsounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. Phonetics, however, is interested in all human speech sounds and deals with how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, and so on. Hence, phonetics is general, whereas phonology tends to be more specific and related to the meaningful use of the sounds.41.A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. All speech sounds we hear and produce in linguisticcommunication are phones.42.A phoneme is a phonological unit of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit; it is not anyparticular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, /p/ is a phoneme in the English sound system, which is realized as aspirated (as in ‘peak’) or unaspirated (as in ‘speak’) in different contexts.43.Allophones are all the different phones that can represent a phoneme in different phoneticcontexts.44.A phonemic contrast is fo rmed when two distinctive phonemes (as in ‘pet’ and ‘bet’) arerelated to each other.plementary distribution arises when allophones of a phoneme are related to each other inthat they do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution.46.A minimal pair is such a pair of different forms as identical in every way except for one soundsegment which occurs in the same place in the strings (as ‘pill’ and ‘till’).47.The sequential rules are the rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particularlanguage.48.If there are three consonants at the initial of an English word, they should be combinedaccording to the rules as follows:(1) The first phoneme must be / s /;(2) The second phoneme must be / p / or / t / or / k /;(3) The third phoneme must be / l / or / r / or / w /.49.The assimilation rule is a rule that assimilates one sound to another by ‘c opying’ a feature of asequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar (as in ‘impossible’).50.The deletion rule is a phonological rule that tells us when a sound is to be deleted although itis orthographically represented. For example, [g] deletion occurs before a final nasal consonant, as in ‘signature’.51.The suprasegmental features include stress, tone and intonation, which are above the level ofthe segments.52.There are generally two kinds of stress: word stress, sentence stress.53.Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocalcords, and which can distinguish meaning like phonemes, as in ‘ma’.54.Intonation is the collective expression of meaning when pitch, stress and sound length are tiedto the sentence rather than the word in isolation.55.The difference between tone and intonation is that while the former is pitch variation that candistinguish meaning, the latter is the combination of pitch, stress and sound length in the sentence to realize meaning.56.Nucleus refers to the major pitch change in an intonation unit. Within one intonation unit, thenucleus normally falls on the last stressed syllable.II. <true or false>1. Writing is more basic than speech.False.Speech is more basic than writing.2. There have been some 2,500 languages in the world.False.There have been over 5,000 languages in the world.3. About two thirds of languages in the world have not had written form.True.4. Linguists are interested in all sounds.False.Linguists are only interested in sounds produced by humans through their speech organs and have a role to play in linguistic communication.5. The limited range of sounds that are meaningful in human communication constitute the phonic medium of language.True.6. Phonetic similarity, not phonetic identity, is the criterion with which we operate in the phonological analysis of languages.True.7. The greatest source of modification of the air stream is found in the oral cavity.True.8. The narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue results in the sound [j].True.9. [k], [g] and [n] are velar sounds.False.The first two are velar sounds, while the last one is alveolar.10. [i] is a semi-close vowel.False.It is a close vowel.11. [h] is the glottal sound.True.12. [ei] is a monophthong.False.It is a diphthong.13. Phonology is of a general nature.False.Phonology is concerned with the functions of sounds in linguistic communication and is not of a general nature.14. Phonetics deals with speech sounds in all human languages.True.15. A phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning.True.16. A phoneme is a phonetic unit.False.It is a phonological unit.17. ‘Tsled’ is a possible word in English.False.18. English is a tone language.False.English is NOT a tone language.III. <explanation>Explain the following:1. the two kinds of transcription in the following words: leaf; pitLeaf. Its broad transcription is [li:f], where each of the three letter-symbols [l], [i:] and [f] represents a sound respectively. Its narrow transcription is still [li:f], but its clear [l] is different from the dark [ł] as in ‘feel’ ([fi:ł]).Pit. Its broad transcription is [pit], where each of the three letter-symbols [p], [i] and [t] represents a sound respectively. Its narrow transcription is [phit].2. the possible different reading of the sentence ‘That’s not the book he wants.’A. 'That’s 'not the 'book he ‘ wants. (falling tone: fact)B. 'That’s 'not the 'book he ‚ wants. (rising tone: question)C. ‘ That’s 'not the 'book he ‚ wants. (fall-rise tone: implying ‘some other book’)3. the possible advantages in the use of the Chinese language instead of English.One is that we can use one sound to realize a number of meaning. Another is that very often Chinese characters can remind people of the images of the relevant objects of the world. Still another is that the Chinese language has a rich handwriting culture, which may help distinguish one person from another, and so on.。
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语言学笔记陈银2014/3/8Lecture 2Pretest•Define the following terms:• 1. design features• 2. arbitrariness• 3. duality• 4. creativity• 5. displacement• 6. languageAnswers• 1. design features:the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals.(从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。
)• 2. arbitrariness：the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.(语言符号和这些符号所指的实体间不存在任何物质的联系。
)• 3. duality：the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (eg. words) and meaningless segments (e.g. sounds, letters) 语言的结构组织可分为两个抽象的层面：有意义的单元（如词语）和无意义的片段（如语音.字母）• 4.creativity：also called productivity, refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one’s native language, including those which he has never heard before, but which are appropriate to the speaking situation.(亦称“能产性，指人们可以说出（或构造）也可以懂得无穷多的语句，哪怕是从未听说过的句子（只要语境条件充分）。
”)• 5.displacement: the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speakers immediate situation. (语言能够指称说话人即时情景以外的语境。
) • nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(语言是人类用于交际的有声符号系统。
)What’s the property of language?•Systematic---- rule-governed, elements in it are arranged according to certain rules; can’t be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat•Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g.“pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.•Symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions ideas by convention. “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”----Shakespeare•V ocal---- the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form.•Human-specific---- different from the communication systems other forms of life possess,e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries.1.4 Origin of LanguageHow did language come into being?(1) The Divine Theory endowed by God (Adam’s naming; The Tower of Babel)(2)The Invention Theory(3)The Evolutionary Theory(1). The Divine TheoryAdam’s naming•And out of the ground the LORD God formed every beast of the field, and every fowl of the air; and brought them unto Adam to see what he would call them: and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the name thereof.•耶和华神用土造成野地各样走兽和空中各样飞鸟,并把它们都带到亚当面前，看他叫把它们叫什么。
亚当怎样叫这些它们，它们就叫什么名字。
•And Adam gave names to all cattle, and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field; but for Adam there was not found an help meet for him.•那人便给一切牲畜和空中飞鸟，野地走兽都起了名。
只是那人没有遇见配偶帮助他。
（2）. The Invention TheoryThe Bow-wow theory（咆哮说/拟声说）imitative of animal calls (mew【猫叫声】, hiss【嘶嘶声】)The Pooh-pooh theory （啵啵说/感叹说）instinctive cries out of emotions (interjections)The “Yo-he-ho”theory（吆嘿嗬说/喘息说）rhythmic grunts when working (heave【举，投】, haul【拉】)The Ding-dong theory natural resonance：(ding-dong, bang)（3）. The Evolutionary TheoryThere is certain relationship between the development of language and the evolutionary development of thehuman species.• 1. Children are born with both thought and language.• 2. The development of the physical apparatus for speech.• 3. It is labor that created the necessity for language.1.5 Functions of LanguageLinguists talk about the FUNCTIONS of language in an abstract sense. They summarize practical functions and attempt some broad classifications.☞Jakobson (1960): referential (context), emotive (addresser), poetic (message), conative (addressee), phatic (contact), meta-lingual (code)☞Halliday early: instrumental, regulatory, representational, interactional, personal, heuristic and imaginative.☞Halliday (1994): ideational (logical), interpersonal (social) and textual (relevant)M.A.K Halliday: Michael Alexander Kirkwood Halliday (often M.A.K. Halliday) (born 1925) is a British linguist who developed an internationally influential grammar model, the systemic functional grammar [SFL].1.5 Functions of LanguageIdeational (informative): to express the speaker’sexperience of the external and internal worldInterpersonal: to establish and maintain social rules1,Performative: to perform actions (directive)2,Emotive (expressive) : overlapped with expression of the inner experience3,Phatic: purely social/interpersonalTextual (Metalingual): to describe language itself历年专八语言学真题•The ______ function refers to the fact that language can be used for establishing a favorable atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas.A. phaticB. directiveC. evocativeD. performative1.5. Functions of language•Linguists talk about the functions of language in an abstract sense, that is, not in terms of using language to chat, to think, to buy and sell, to read and write, to greet, praise and condemn people, etc.•They summarize these practical functions and attempt some broad classifications of the basic functions of language.•For Jakobson, language is above all for communication.•While for many people, the purpose of communication is referential, for him (and the Prague school structuralists), reference is not the only, not even theprimary goal of communication.•In his famous article, Linguistics and Poetics, he defined six primary factors of any speech event, namely:•speaker, addressee, context, message, code, contact.•In conjunction with these, Jakobson established a well-known framework of language functions based on the six key elements of communication, namely: •referential 所指(to convey message and information),•poetic 诗学(to indulge in language for its own sake),•emotive 情感(to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),•conative 意动(to persuade and influence others through commands and requests), •phatic 寒暄(to establish communion with others)•metalingual 元语言(to clear up intentions and meanings).•They correspond to such communication elements as context, message, addresser, addressee, contact and code respectively.•Jakobson's views of the functions of language are still of great importance.•Halliday proposes a theory of metafunctions of language, that is, language has ideational（概念）, interpersonal（人际）and textual（语篇）functions.•1) ideational function is to organize the speaker’s or the writer’s experience of thereal or imaginary world, i. e. language refers to real or imagined persons, things actions, events, states, etc.•概念功能指组织说话者或作者现实或虚构世界的体验，即语言指称实际或虚构的人、物、动作、事件、状态等。