语言学重点概念总结

Desig n features （定义特征）：the disti nctive features of huma n Ian guage that esse ntially make huma n Ian guage disti nguishable from Ian guages of ani mals.Synchronic （共时的）：said of an approach that studies Ianguage at a theoretical point "in time.Diachro nic （历时的）：said of the study of developme nt of Ian guage and Ian guages over time.Prescriptive （规定式）：to make an authoritaria n stateme nt about the correct ness of a particular use ofIan guage.Descriptive （描写式）：to make an objective and systematic acco unt of the patter ns and use of a Ian guageor variety.Compete nee （语言能力）：uncon scious kno wledge of the system of grammatical rules in a Ian guage.对于一门语言的语法规则系统的无意识获得的知识。

Performa nee （语言运用）：the Ianguage actually used by people in speaking or writing.人们说话写作时实际使用的语言。

Langue （语言）：the Ianguage system shared by a speech community ”一个“语言社团”共有的语言系统。

Parole （言语）：the con crete uttera nces of a speaker.说话人实际说的话语。

Pho no logy （音系学）：the study of the sound patter ns and sound systems of Ian guage. It aims to discoverthe principles that govern the way sounds are organized in Ianguages, and to explain thevariati ons that occur.Intern ati onal Phon etic Alphabet （国际音标）a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart （the IPA chart）, designed bythe Intern ati onal Phon etic Associati on si nee 1888. It has bee n revised from time totime to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice.Cardi nal Vowels （基本元音）：a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intended to provide aframe of reference for the descriptio n of the actual vowels of exist ing Ian guages.Assimilatio n （同化现象）：a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound, a term often used synonym ously with coarticulati on ”lf a follow ing soundis in flue ncing a precedi ng sound, it is called regressive "assimilati on ”the con verse process, in which a precedi ng sound is in flue ncing a follow ing soun d, is■■>> ■■ I g ■>>known as progressive assimilati onMaximal Onset Prin ciple （最大节首原则）：a principle for dividing the syllable when there is a cluster of consonants betweentwo vowels, which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the on set rather tha n the coda.屮Morpheme （语素）：the smallest unit of Ian guage in terms of the relati on ship betwee n expressi on and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.In flection （屈折变化）：is the mani festati on of grammatical relati on ship through the additi on of inflectional affixes such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and cases to whichthey are attached.Derivati on （派生词）：is the most commorword-formati on process to be found in the product ion of new En glish words. It is accomplished by means of a large number of affixes of English Ianguage, and shows the relati on ship betwee n roots and affixes.Bound morpheme （黏着语素）：refer to those which cannot occur alone and must appear with at least one other morpheme. Free morpheme （自由语素）：refer to those which may occur alone or which may con stitute words by themselves. Grammatical word （语法词）：refer to those which main ly work for con struct ing group, phrase, clause complex,or even text, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns. Grammatical words serve to link together differe nt content parts.Lexical word （词汇词）：refer to those which mainly work for referring to substanee, action and quality,such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Lexical words carry the main content of a Ian guage.Closed-class （圭寸闭类）：A word that belongs to the CLOSED-CLASR one whose membership is fixed or limited, such aspronouns, prepositi ons, conjunctions, articles, and others. One cannot easily add or deduce a new member.Open-class （开放类）：is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. When new ideas, inventions, or discoveries emerge, new members are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, and many adverbs are all open-class items.屮Syntax （句法）：the study of the rules gover ning the ways differe nt con stitue nts are comb ined to form sentences in a Ian guage, or the study of the in terrelati on ships betwee n eleme nts in sentence structures.Co-occurre nee （共现）：It means that words of differe nt sets of clauses may permit, or require, theoccurrenee of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a senten ce.En doce ntric （向心结构）：en doce ntric con structi on is one whose distributi on is fun ctio nally equivale nt to that of one or more of its constituents, which serves as a definable Center or Head of the whole.Exoce ntric （离心结构）：exoce ntric con struct ion refers to a group of syn tactically related words where noneof the words is function ally equivale nt to the group as a whole, that is, there is no defi nable Centre ” or Head' in side the group.Subordi natio n （从属关系）：refers to the process or result of linking lin guistic un its so that they havediffere nt syn tactic status, one being depe ndent upon the other, and usually acon stitue nt of the other. The subord in ate con stitue nts are words which modify thehead. Consequently, they can be called modifiers.Coordi natio n （并列）：a commonsyntactic pattern in English and other Ianguages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .Cohesi on:refers to relatio ns of meaning that exist with in the text, that defi ne it as a text. Synonymy （同义关系）：synonymy is the technical name for one of the sense relations between linguisticun its, n amely the same ness relati on.Sema ntic comp onents （语义成分）：sema ntic comp onen ts, or sema ntic features, are sema ntic un its smaller tha n the meaning of a word. For example, the meaning of the word boy may be an alysed into three compo nents: HUMAN, YOUNG and MALE.电Psycholi nguistics （心理语言学）：psycholi nguistics is the study of psychological aspects of Ian guage; it usuallystudies the psychological states and men tal activity associated with the use of Ianguage. As an interdisciplinary academic field based on psychology and linguistics, psycholi nguistics in vestigates the six follow ing subjects： Ian guage acquisiti on,Ian guage comprehe nsion, Ian guage product ion, Ian guage disorders, Ian guage and thought, and cognitive architecture of Ianguage, The most important research subjects are acquisiti on, comprehe nsion and producti on.Lan guage acquisiti on （语言习得）：Ian guage acquisiti on is one of the cen tral topics in psycholi nguistics. Acquiri ng a first Ianguage is something every child does successfully, in a matter of a fewyears and without the need for formal lessons. Four phases are identified and acknowledged in the process of language acquisition: holophrastic stage, two-word stage, three-word utterances, and, fluent grammatical conversation stage. cohort model （集群模型）:The cohort model is a supposed doctrine dealing with the spoken word recognition postulated by Marslen-Wilson and Welsh in 1990, it is suggested that the first few phonemes of a spoken word activate a set or cohort of word candidates that are consistent with the input. These candidates compete with one another for activation. As more acoustic input is analyzed, candidates that are no longer consistent with the input drop out of the set. This process continues until only one word candidate matches the input; the best fitting word may be chosen if no single candidate is a clear winner.interactive model （交互模型）:The interactive model holds that in recognizing the spoken words higher processing levels have a direct, “top-down ”influence on lower levels. Lexical knowledge canaffect the perception of phonemes. There is interactivity in the form of lexical effects on the perception of sublexical units. In certain cases, listeners 'knowledge of words can lead to the inhibition of certain phonemes; in other cases, listeners continue to “hear ”phonemes that have been removed from the speech signal andreplaced by noise.serial model （串行模型）:Serial model proposes that the sentence comprehension system continually and sequentiallyfollows the constraints of a language 's grammar with remarkable speed. Serial model describes how the processor quickly constructs one or more representations of a sentence based on a restricted range of information that is guaranteed to be relevant to its interpretation, primarily grammatical information. Any such representation is then quickly interpreted and evaluated, using the full range of information that might be relevant. parallel model （并行模型）:Parallel model emphasizes that the comprehension system is sensitive to a vast range of information, including grammatical, lexical, and contextual, as well as knowledge of the speaker/writer and of the world in general. Parallel model describes how the processor uses all relevant information to quickly evaluate the full range of possible interpretations of a sentence. It is generally acknowledged that listeners and readers integrate grammatical and situational knowledge in understanding a sentence.figure-ground alignment （图形- 背景关系）:Figure-ground alignment seems to apply to space with the ground as the prepositional object and the preposition expressing the spatial relational configuration. It also applies to human perception of moving objects. Since the moving object is typically the most prominent one, because it is moving, it is typically the figure, while the remaining stimuli constitute the ground.basic level category （基本层次范畴）:Basic level category is the most economical level at which you can find the mostreleva nt in formati on. The in formatio non our in teractio ns with objects in the realworld are stored at this level. It is at this level that we conjure up the gen eralgestalt of the category.image schema （意象图式）：Image schema is a recurri ng, dyn amic pattern of our perceptual in teract ions and motor programs that gives cohere nee and structure to our experie nee.Metaphor （隐喻）：Metaphor in volves the comparis on of two con cepts in that one is con strued in termsof the other. It 'often described in terms of a target domain and a source domain. The target doma in is the experie nee being described by the metaphor and the source domain is the means that we use in order to describe the experienee.Metonymy （转喻）：Metonymy is a figure of speech that has to do with the substitution of the name of one thing for that of ano ther.屮Commun icative Compete nee （交际能力）is a sociolinguistic rule put forward by Dell Hymesin contrast with the “ompeteneevs. performanee ” dichotomy in theoretic linguistics.Con text of Situati on （语境理论）：is a framework put forward by Firth. This theory has the following elements （Firth, 1950: 43-44 [Palmer, 1981: 53-54]）.A. The releva nt features of the participa nts: pers ons, pers on alities:（i） The verbal acti on of the participa nts.（ii） The non-verbal action of the participa nts.B. The releva nt objects.C. The effects of the verbal acti on.Ethno graphy of Communi cati on （交际民族学）：is an authoritative research framework of our time in a lin guistic study of social and cultural factors （Hymes, 1962）.Speech Community （话语群体）：refers to a group of people who share not only the same rules of speak ing, but at least one linguistic variety as well. " （Hymes, 1972: 52） SPEAKING: is a mnemonicway of summarizing certain components of speech which make possible the descriptionand an alysis of com muni cative behavior: S=Situatio n （场景），P=Participa nts （参与者），E=Ends （目的），A=Act sequenee （相关形式与内容），K=Key （语气），l=lnstrumentalities （语式），N=Norms （准则），and G=Genres （体裁）.Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis （萨丕尔--沃尔夫假设）：is a theoretic assumptio n which suggests that our Ian guage helps mould our way ofthinking and, con seque ntly, differe nt Ian guages may probably express speakers' uniqueways of understanding the world. In a loose sense, this term can bein tercha ngeably used with lin guistic relativity and lin guistic determ ini sm.Variati onist Lin guistics （语言变体）：is a theoretic framework advaneed by William Labov to study how Ianguage variation and cha nge take place in differe nt social con texts or geographic districts un derthe in flue nee of social factors such as economics, educati on, class, gen der, style, and so on. The method it uses is basically quantitative, but qualitative instruments have recently been introduced in this branch of linguistic research for a better description and explanation of the data collected.屮performative （施为句）：A performative is a sentence like “name this ship the Queen Elizabeth ”，which does notdescribe things and cannot be said to be true or false. The uttering of a performativesentence is, or is a part of, the doing of an action. Verbs like name'are known as performative verbs.locuti onary act （发话行为）：The locuti onary act is the ordinary act we perform whe n we speak, i.e. we move our vocal orga ns and produce a nu mber of soun ds, orga ni zed in a certa in way and with a certain meaning. For example, when somebody says Morning! ”，we could say he produced a sound, word or sentence —Morning! ” perlocuti onary act （取效行为）：The perlocuti onary act concerns the con seque ntial effects of a locuti on upon the hearer. By telli ng somebody someth ing the speaker may cha nge the opinion of the hearer on something, or mislead him, or surprise him, or induce him to do something, etc. Whether or not these effects are intended by the speaker, they can be regarded as part of the act that the speaker has performed.illocutio nary act （行事行为）：The illocutio nary act is the act performed in the perform ing of a locuti onary act. Whenwe speak we not only produce some units of Ianguage with certain meanings, but also make clear our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood, or they also have certain forces as Austin prefers to say. In the example of Morning! ” we can say it has the force of a greeting, or it ought to have been taken as a greeting. cooperative prin ciple （合作原则）：This is the principle suggested by Grice about the regularity in conversation, which reads Make your con versati onal con tributi on such as is required, at the stage atwhich it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direct ion of the talk excha nge in whichyou are engaged ".There are four categories of maxims under it, namely, quantity maxims, quality maxims, relati on maxim, and manner maxims.con versati onal implicature （会话含义）This is a type of implied meaning, which is deduced on the basis of the conventional meaning of words together with the con text, un der the guida nee of the CP and its maxims. In this sense, implicature is comparable to illocutionary force in speech act theory inthat they are both concerned with the con textual side of meaning, or 言外之意in Chinese. en tailme nt （衍推）：This is a logical relati on ship betwee n two sentences in which the truth of the sec ondn ecessarily follows from the truth of the first, while the falsity of the first follows from the falsity of the sec ond. For example, whe n f saw a boy "is true,f' saw a child "is n ecessarily true; and if f saw a child "is not true, I saw a boy” will not be true either.誓third-pers on n arrator （第三人称叙述者）：If the narrator is not a character in the fictional world, he or she is usually called a THIRD-PERSON NARRATOR, because refere nee to all the characters in the fictio nal world of the story will in volve the use of the third-pers on pronouns, he, she, itor they. This type of n arrator is arguably the dominant n arrator type.i-n arrator （第一人称叙述者）：The pers on who tells the story may also be a character in the fictional world ofthe story, relati ng the story after the eve nt. In this case the critics call the narrator a FIRST-PERSONNARRATOBr l-NARRATORbecause when the narrator refers to himself or herself in the story the first person pronoun I is used. First-personnarrators are often said to be limited ” because they don't know all the facts or On reliable ” because they trick the reader by withholdi ng in formatio n or telli ng untruths. This often happens in murder and mystery stories.屮con corda nee （共现索弓丨）：sorting the data in some way, for example, alphabetically on words occurring in the immediate con text of the word.corpus （语料库）：a collect ion of lin guistic data, either compiled as writte n texts or as a transcription of recorded speech. The main purpose of a corpus is to verify ahypothesis about Ianguage, for example, to determine how the usage of a particular sound, word, or syn tactic con struct ion varies.。