萨尔瓦多国际经济学件
国际经济学英文课件(萨尔瓦多第十版)ch
International investment and multinational corporations
International investment environment
Political environment: stability, policies, and regulations that affect foreign investment.
New trade theory departs from the assumption of perfect competition and focuses on the role of increasing returns to scale and monopolistic competition.
Classical trade theory posits that specialization in production based on comparative advantage results in increased production and consumption in all countries.
关税是一种税收，由政府对进口商品征收，以增加进口成本并保护国内产业。
关税定义
关税种类
关税作用
包括基本关税、附加关税、反倾销关税和报复性关税等。
通过提高进口商品价格，降低国内市场的竞争压力，保护国内产业和就业。
03
02
01
出口补贴是指政府给予出口企业的财政补贴，以降低出口成本，增加出口量。
出口补贴定义
Balance of trade
The balance of trade is a crucial component of the international balance of payments. It measures the value of a country's exports minus the value of its imports. A positive balance of trade indicates that a country is exporting more goods and services than it is importing, while a negative balance of trade indicates the opposite.
萨尔瓦多《国际经济学》课后习题详解(国际资源流动与跨国公司)【圣才出品】
第12章国际资源流动与跨国公司一、概念题1．脑力流失（brain drain）答：脑力流失是指在一单位内，对其经营发展具有重要作用，甚至是关键性作用的人才非单位意愿的流走，或失去其积极性的现象。
在国际资源流动中则指一些高技术及受过高级训练的人才从发展中国家迁往发达国家以及从其他发达国家迁至美国的现象。
脑力流失在欠发达地区表现更为明显。
由于欠发达地区资源、机会的限制，具备高技能的人才容易流向机会和待遇良好的发达地区。
随着经济全球化和技术革命的进一步扩展，市场竞争利益激烈，脑力流失成为一种常态，频率越来越快。
这给人才流失的企业、地区和国家都带来了严重的不利影响。
只有“以人为本”，最大限度地调动人才的积极性，为人才提供良好的发展环境，才能更好地留住人才。
2．直接投资（direct investments）答：直接投资是指投资者将货币资金直接投入投资项目，形成实物资产或者购买现有企业的投资，通过直接投资，投资者便可以拥有全部或一定数量的企业资产及经营的所有权，直接进行或参与投资的经验管理。
直接投资包括对现金、厂房、机械设备、交通工具、通讯、土地或土地使用权等各种有形资产的投资和对专利、商标、咨询服务等无形资产的投资。
其中，对外直接投资是指一国通过资本的国际转移，将其某种特定商品的生产过程由本国转移到世界的其他国家。
对外直接投资实际上是以资本这一生产要素的贸易替代了自由贸易条件下的商品贸易。
3．横向一体化（horizontal integration）答：企业增长在战略上可分为一体化扩张和多样化扩张。
一体化扩张又可分为横向一体化（水平一体化）和纵向一体化（垂直一体化）。
横向一体化是指为了扩大生产规模、降低成本、巩固企业的市场地位、提高企业竞争优势、增强企业实力而与同行业企业进行联合的一种战略。
实质是资本在同一产业和部门内的集中，目的是实现扩大规模、降低产品成本、巩固市场地位。
国际化经营是横向一体化的一种形式。
萨尔瓦多《国际经济学》笔记和习题及考研真题详解(浮动汇率与固定汇率制度下的价格调节机制)【圣才出品】
十万种考研考证电子书、题库、视频学习平台浮动汇率与固定汇率制度下的价格调节机制16.1 复习笔记一、汇率变动对国际收支的影响1．贬值与跌价（1）贬值贬值意味着汇率是固定的，是指货币当局把汇率从一个固定的或钉住的水平提升到另一水平。
（2）跌价跌价意味着汇率是浮动的，是指以外币表示的本币价格的降低，从汇率的定义出发，此时汇率上升。
（3）两者的联系由于贬值与跌价通常都是对价格操作以调节一国的经常项目和国际收支，它们都是价格调节机制，所以本章对它们一并讨论，即在考虑价格调节机制时，本章不做浮动汇率与固定汇率的区分。
2．贸易或弹性方法该传统的汇率模式假设没有自主的国际间个人资本流（即国际间个人资本流是为了弥补或支付临时贸易不平衡才被动发生的），一国通过变动汇率来削减其经常项目赤字（平衡十万种考研考证电子书、题库、视频学习平台收支）。
（经常项目的修正和国际收支盈余通常需要相反的技术）。
该模式以贸易流为基础，而且调节的速度取决于价格（汇率）的变化如何对进出口（弹性）做出反应，所以称之为贸易或弹性方法。
3．国际收支调节与汇率变动一国通常可以通过使其货币贬值或跌价，来调节国际收支逆差。
外汇供求曲线弹性越大，用来调节固定数额逆差所要求的贬值就越少。
其分析过程如下：如图16-1所示，当R＝1美元/1欧元时，美国每年对欧元的需求量为120亿欧元，而供给量为80亿欧元，所以美国的国际收支逆差为40亿欧元（AB）。
从曲线D€和曲线S€可以看出，美元贬值20%将完全消除逆差（E点）。
对于D€*和S€*，要消除逆差，则要求100%的贬值（E*点）。
十万种考研考证电子书、题库、视频学习平台图16-1 国际收支调节与汇率变动4．外汇需求曲线与供给曲线的推导如图16-2所示，在左图中，D M（R＝1美元/1欧元）和S M下，P M＝1欧元而Q M＝120亿单位，所以美国对欧元的需求量是120亿欧元（B′点），这相当于图16-1中的B 点。
萨尔瓦多国际经济学(第十版)
FIGURE 16-1 Balance-of-Payments Adjustments with Exchange Rate Changes.
FIGURE 16-2 Derivation of the U.S. Demand and Supply Curves for Foreign Exchange.
.
Adjustment with Flexible Exchange Rates
Price adjustment mechanism relies on depreciation and devaluation of currency to adjust current account and balance of payments.
.
Effect of Exchange Rate Changes on Domestic Prices and the Terms of Sale
Depreciation of the currency increases prices of both exports and imports in terms of domestic currency.
.
Introduction
Assumptions
International private c responses to cover temporary trade imbalances.
The nation wants to correct a deficit in its current account by exchange rate changes.
Effect of Exchange Rate Changes on Domestic Prices and the Terms of Sale
国际经济学英文课件(萨尔瓦多第十版)
International Economic Theories and Policies ■ International Trade Theory 国际贸易理论
■ Analyzes the basis of and the gains from international trade.
FIGURE 1-3 Imports and Exports as a Percentage of U.S. GDP, 1965-2001.
Salvatore: International Economics, 10th Edition © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
■ 1980 to present
■ Most pervasive and dramatic period of globalization 全球化最广泛和剧烈的阶段
■ Fueled by improvements in telecommunications and transportation 受益于电信和运输极大改善
imports and exports of goods and services to GDP 用一国商品和服务进出口总值比上GDP的比值来 粗略衡量
Salvatore: International Economics, 10th Edition © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Salvatore: International Economics, 10th Edition © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
International Trade and the Nation’s Standard of Living
ch04国际经济学课后答案与习题（萨尔瓦多）
ch04国际经济学课后答案与习题（萨尔⽡多）*CHAPTER 4(Core Chapter)THE HECKSCHER-OHLIN AND OTHER TRADE THEORIESOUTLINE4.1 Introduction4.2 Factor Endowments and the Heckscher-Ohlin Theory4.3 The Formal Heckscher-Ohlin ModelCase Study 4-1 The Revealed Comparative Advantage of Various Countries and Regions4.4 Factor-Price Equalization and Income DistributionCase Study 4-2 Has International Trade Increased U.S. Wage Inequalities?4.5 Empirical Tests of the Heckscher-Ohlin Theory4.6 Economies of Scale and International TradeCase Study 4-3 The New International Economies of Scale4.7 Trade Based on Product DifferentiationCase Study 4-4 Growth of Intra-Industry Trade4.8 Technological Gap and Product Cycle ModelsCase Study 4-5: The United States as the Most Competitive Economy in the World4.9 Transportation Costs and International Trade4.10 Environmental Standards and International TradeAppendix The Specific-Factors Model and Intra-Industry Trade ModelsA4.1 The Specific-Factors ModelA4.2 A Model of Intra-Industry TradeKey TermsInternationalofscaleeconomies pricesRelativefactorproducts Heckscher–Ohlin (H–O) theory DifferentiatedtradeIntra-industryHeckscher–Ohlintheorem(H–O)Factor-proportions or factor-endowment theory Technological gap modelcyclemodelProductFactor–price equalization theoremcostsTransportationStolper-Samuelsontheoremmodel Nontraded goods and services Specific-factorsparadox Environmental standardsLeontiefMonopolisticcompetitionscalereturnsIncreasingtoLecture Guide1. This is one of the most important and difficult chapters in the book. It is also a long chapter andrequires four lectures to cover adequately.2. In the first lecture, I would cover sections 1-3. Section 3 is one of the most important sections inthe book because it presents the H-O model. I would proceed slowly and carefully in explaining Figure 4.1 and compare it to the standard trade model of Figure 3.4.3. In the second lecture, I would cover sections 4 and 5. Section 4 on the factor-price equalizationtheorem and income distribution is a difficult section. Case Study 4-2 should be of great interest to the students and give rise to a great deal of class discussion.4. In third lecture, I would cover sections sections 6-7, paying a great deal of attention to section 7on trade in differentiated products.5. In fourth lecture, I would cover the rest of the chapter.Answers to Review Questions and Problems1. a. The Heckscher–Ohlin (H-0) theorem postulates that a nation will export those commodi- ties whose production requires the intensive use of the nation’s relatively abundant and cheap factor and import the commodities whose production requires the intensive useof the nation’s relatively scarce and expensive factor. In short, the relatively labor-richnation exports relatively labor-intensive commodities and imports the relativelycapital-intensive commodities.b. Heckscher and Ohlin identify the relative difference in factor endowments amongnations as the basic determinant of comparative advantage and international trade.c. The H-O Theory represent an extension of the standard trade model because it explains the basis for comparative advantage (classical economists, such as Ricardo had assumed it) and examines the effect of international trade on factor prices and income distribution (which classical economists had left unanswered).2. See Figure 1 on the next page.3. a. The factor–price equalization theorem postulates that international trade will bring about the equalization of the returns to homogeneous or identical factors across nations.b. The Stopler-Samuelson theorem postulates that free international trade reduces the realincome of the nation’s relatively scarce factor and increases the real income of the nation’s relatively abundant factor.Fig 4.1Fig 4.2XXb. The specific-factors model postulates that the opening of trade (1) benefits the specific factorused in the production of the nation’s export commodity, (2) harms the specific factor used in the production of the nation’s import-competing industry, and (3) leads to an ambiguouseffect (i.e., it may benefit or harm) the mobile factor.c. Trade acts as a substitute for the international mobility of factors of production in itseffect on factor prices. With perfect mobility, labor would migrate from the low-wagenation to the high-wage nation until wages in the two nations are equalized. Similarly,capital would move from the low-interest to the high-interest nation until the rate ofinterest was equalized in the two nations.4. a. The Leontief paradox refers to the original Leontief’s finding that U.S. import substituteswere more K-intensive than U.S. exports. This was the opposite of what the H-O theorempostulated.b. The Leontief paradox was resolved by including human capital into the calculations andexcluding industries based on natural resources. Recent research using data on many sectors, for many countries, over many years, and considering that countries could specialize in aparticular subset or group of commodities that were best suited to their specific factorendowments, provides strong support for the H-O theorem.c. The Hecksher-Olhin theory remains the centerpiece of modern trade theory for explaininginternational trade today. To be sure, there are other forces (such as economies of scale,product differentiation, and technological differences across countries) that provide additional reasons and explanations for some international trade not explained by the basic H-O model.These other trade theories complement the basic H-O model in explaining the pattern ofinternational trade in the world today.5. International trade with developing economies, especially newly industrializing economies (NIEs), contributed in two ways to increased wage inequalities between skilled and unskilled workers in the United States during the past two decades. Directly, by reducing the demand for unskilledworkers as a result of increased U.S. imports of labor-intensive manufactures and, indirectly, byspeeding up the introduction of labor-saving innovations, which further reduced the U.S.demand for unskilled workers. International trade, however, was only a small cause of increased wage inequalities in the United States. The most important cause was technological change.6. a. Economies of scale refer to the production situation where output grows proportionatelymore than the increase in inputs or factors of production. For example, output may morethan double with a doubling of inputs.b. Even if two nations were identical in every respect, there is still a basis for mutually bene-ficial trade based on economies of scale. When each nation specializes in the production of one commodity, the combined total world output of both commodities will be greater thanthan without specialization when economies of scale are present. With trade, each nationthen shares in these gains.c. The new international economies of scale refers to the increase in productivity resultingfrom firms purchasing parts and components from nations where they are made cheaperand better, and by establishing production facilities abroad-26-7. a. Product differentiation refers to products that are similar, but not identical. Intra-industrytrade refers to trade in differentiated products, as opposed to inter-industry trade incompletely different products.b. Intra-industry trade arises in order to take advantage of important economies of scale inproduction. That is, with intra-industry trade each firm or plant in industrial countries canspecialize in the production of only one, or at most a few, varieties and styles of the sameproduct rather than many different varieties and styles of a product and achieve economies of scale.c. With few varieties and styles, more specialized and faster machinery can be developedfor a continuous operation and a longer production run. The nation then imports othervarieties and styles from other nations. Intra-industry trade benefits consumers because ofthe wider range of choices (i.e., the greater variety of differentiated products) available atthe lower prices made possible by economies of scale in production.8. a. According to the technological gap model, a firm exports a new product until imitators incountries take away its market. In the meantime, the innovating firm will have introduced a new product or process. b. The criticism of the technological gap model are that it does not explain the size of techno- logical gaps and does not explore the reason for technological gaps arising in the first place, or exactly how they are eliminated over time.c. The five stages of the product cycle model are: the introduction of the product, expansion of production for export, standardization and beginning of production abroad through imitation, foreign imitators underselling the nation in third markets, and foreigners underselling theinnovating firms in their home market as well.9. See Figure 2 on page 25.10. A nation with lower environmental standards can use the environment as a resource endow-ment or as a factor of production in attracting polluting firms from abroad and achieving acomparative advantage in the production of polluting goods and services. This can lead totrade disputes with nations with more stringent environmental standards.-27-Multiple-Choice Questions1. The H-O model extends the classical trade model by:a. explaining the basis for comparative advantageb. examining the effect of trade on factor prices*c. both a and bd. neither a nor b2. A nation is said to have a relative abundance of K if it has a:a. greater absolute amount of Kb. smaller absolute amount of Lc. higher L/K ratio*d. lower price of K in relation to the price of L3. A difference in relative commodity prices between nations can be based on a difference in:a. technologyb. factor endowmentsc. tastes*d. all of the above4. In the H-O model, international trade is based mostly on a difference in:a. technology*b. factor endowmentsc. economies of scaled. tastes5. According to the H-O theory, trade reduces international differences in:a. commodity pricesb. in factor prices*c. both commodity and factor pricesd. neither relative nor absolute factor prices6. According to the Stolper-Samuelson theorem, international trade leads toa. reduction in the real income of the nation’s relatively abundant factor*b. reduction in the real income of the nation’s relatively scarce factorc. increase in the real income of the nation’s relatively scarce factord. none of the above7. Which of the following is false with regard to the specific factors theorem, international trade *a. harms the immobile factors that are specific to the nation’s export commodities or sectorsb. harms the immobile factors that are specific to the nation’s import-competing commoditiesc. has an ambiguous effect on the nation’s mobile factorsd. may benefit or harm the nation’s mobile factors8. Perfect international mobility of factors of productiona. leads to a reduction in international differences in the returns to homogenous factorsb. acts as a substitute for international trade in its effects on factor pricesc. operates on the supply of factors in affecting factor prices*d. all of the above9. The Leontief paradox refers to the empirical finding that U.S.*a. import substitutes were more K-intensive than exportsb. exports were more L-intensive than importsc. exports were more K-intensive than import substitutesd. all of the above10. From empirical studies, we conclude that the H-O theory:a. must be rejectedb. must be accepted without reservations*c. can generally be acceptedd. explains all international trade11. International trade can be based on economies of scale even if both nations have identical:a. factor endowmentsb. tastesc. technology*d. all of the above12. A great deal of international trade:a. is intra-industry tradeb. involves differentiated productsc. is based on monopolistic competition*d. all of the above13. Intra-industry trade takes place:a. because products are homogeneous*b. in order to take advantage of economies of scalec. because perfect competition is the prevalent form of market organizationd. all of the above14. Which of the following statements is true with regard to the product-cycle theory?a. it depends on differences in technological changes over time among countriesb. it depends on the opening and the closing of technological gaps among countriesc. it postulates that industrial countries export more advanced products to lessadvanced countries*d. all of the above15. Transport costs:a. increase the price in the importing countryb. reduces the price in the exporting countryc. falls less heavily on the nation with the more elastic demand and supply curves of the traded commodity*d. all of the above-30-ADDITIONAL ESSAYS AND PROBLEMS FOR PART ONE1. Assume that both the United States and Germany produce beef and computer chips with the following costs: United States Germany(dollars) (marks)Unit cost of beef (B) 2 8Unit cost of computer chips (C) 1 2(a) What is the opportunity cost of beef (B) and computer chips (C) in each country?(b) In which commodity does the United States have a comparative cost advantage?What about Germany?(c) What is the range for mutually beneficial trade between the United States and Germanyfor each computer chip traded?(b) How much would the United States and Germany gain if 1 unit of beef is exchangedfor 3 chips?Answ. (a) In the United States:the opportunity cost of one unit of beef is 2 chips;the opportunity cost of one chip is 1/2 unit of beef.In Germany:the opportunity cost of one unit of beef is 4 chips;the opportunity cost of one chip is 1/4 unit of beef.(b) The United States has a comparative cost advantage in beef with respect to Germany,while Germany has a comparative cost advantage in computer chips.(c) The range for mutually beneficial trade between the United States and Germany foreach unit of beef that the United States exports is2C < 1B < 4C(d) Both the United States and Germany would gain 1 chip for each unit of beef traded.2. Given: (1) two nations (1 and 2) which have the same technology but different factor costs conditions, and (3) no transportation costs, tariffs, or other obstructions to trade.Prove geometrically that mutually advantageous trade between the two nations is possible.Note: Your answer should show the autarky (no-trade) and free-trade points of production and consumption for each nation, the gains from trade of each nation, and express the equilibrium condition that should prevail when trade stops expanding.) Ans.: See the figure below.Fig 4.3Fig 4.4Nations 1 and 2 have different production possibilities curves and different community indifference maps. With these, they will usually end up with different relative commodity prices in autarky, thus making mutually beneficial trade possible.In the figure, Nation 1 produces and consumes at point A and Px/Py=P A in autarky, while Nation 2 produces and consumes at point A' and Px/Py=P A'. Since P A < P A', Nation 1 has a comparative advantage in X and Nation 2 in Y. Specialization in production proceeds until point B in Nation 1 and point B' in Nation 2, at which P B =P B' and the quantity supplied for export of each commodity exactly equals the quantity demanded for import.Thus, Nation 1 starts at point A in production and consumption in autarky, moves to point B in production, and by exchanging BC of X for CE of Y reaches point E in consumption. E > A since it involves more of both X and Y and lies on a higher community indifference curve.Nation 2 starts at A' in production and consumption in autarky, moves to point B' in production, and by exchanging B'C' of Y for C'E' of X reaches point E'in consumption (which exceeds A').At Px/Py=P B =P B', Nation 1 wants to export BC of X for CE of Y, while Nation 2 wants to export B'C' (=CE) of Y for C'E' (=BC) of X. Thus, P B =P B' is the equilibrium relative commodity price because it clears both (the X and Y) markets.3. (a) Identify the conditions that may give rise to trade between two nations. (b) What aresome of the assumptions on which the Heckscher-Ohlin theory is based? (c) What does this theory say about the pattern of trade and effect of trade on factor prices?Ans. (a) Trade can be based on a difference in factor endowments, technology, or tastesbetween two nations. A difference either in factor endowments or technology results in a different production possibilities frontier for each nation, which, unlessneutralized by a difference in tastes, leads to a difference in relative commodity price and mutually beneficial trade. If two nations face increasing costs and have identical production possibilities frontiers but different tastes, there will also be a differencein relative commodity prices and the basis for mutually beneficial trade between the two nations. The difference in relative commodity prices is then translated into adifference in absolute commodity prices between the two nations, which is the immediate cause of trade.(b) The Heckscher-Ohlin theory (sometimes referred to as the modern theory – asopposed to the classical theory - of international trade) assumes that nations have the same tastes, use the same technology, face constant returns to scale (i.e., a givenpercentage increase in all inputs increases output by the same percentage) but differ widely in factor endowments. It also says that in the face of identical tastes or demand conditions, this difference in factor endowments will result in a difference in relative factor prices between nations, which in turn leads to a difference in relativecommodity prices and trade. Thus, in the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, the internationaldifference in supply conditions alone determines the pattern of trade. To be noted is that the two nations need not be identical in other respects in order for internationaltrade to be based primarily on the difference in their factor endowments.(c) The Heckscher-Ohlin theorem postulates that each nation will export the commodityintensive in its relatively abundant and cheap factor and import the commodityintensive in its relatively scarce and expensive factor. As an important corollary, itadds that under highly restrictive assumptions, trade will completely eliminate thepretrade relative and absolute differences in the price of homogeneous factors amongnations. Under less restrictive and more usual conditions, however, trade will reduce, but not eliminate, the pretrade differences in relative and absolute factor prices among nations. In any event, the Heckscher-Ohlin theory does say something very useful onhow trade affects factor prices and the distribution of income in each nation. Classical economists were practically silent on this point.4. Suppose that tastes change in Nation 1 (the L-abundant and L-cheap nation) so that consumers demand more of commodity X (the L-intensive commodity) and less of commodity Y (the K- intensive commodity). Suppose that Nation 1 is India, commodity X is textiles, and commodi- ty Y is food. Starting from the no-trade equilibrium position and using the Heckscher-Ohlinmodel, trace the effect of this change in tastes on India's (a) relative commodity prices anddemand for food and textiles, (b) production of both commodities and factor prices, and(c) comparative advantage and volume of trade. (d) Do you expect international trade to leadto the complete equalization of relative commodity and factor prices between India and theUnited States? Why?Ans. (a) The change in tastes can be visualized by a shift toward the textile axis in India'sindifference map in such a way that an indifference curve is tangent to the steepersegment of India's production frontier (because of increasing opportunity costs) after the increase in demand for textiles. This will cause the pretrade relative commodity price of textiles to rise in India.(b) The increase in the relative price of textiles will lead domestic producers in India toshift labor and capital from the production of food to the production of textiles. Since textiles are L-intensive in relation to food, the demand for labor and therefore the wage rate will rise in India. At the same time, as the demand for food falls, thedemand for and thus the price of capital will fall. With labor becoming relative more expensive, producers in India will substitute capital for labor in the production of both textiles and food.(c) Even with the rise in relative wages and in the relative price of textiles, India stillremains the L-abundant and low-wage nation with respect to a nation such as theUnited States. However, the pretrade difference in the relative price of textilesbetween India and the United States is now somewhat smaller than before the change in tastes in India. As a result the volume of trade required to equalize relativecommodity prices and hence factor prices is smaller than before. That is, India need now export a smaller quantity of textiles and import less food than before for therelative price of textiles in India and the United States to be equalized. Similarly, the gap between real wages and between India and the United States is now smaller and can be more quickly and easily closed (i.e., with a smaller volume of trade).(d) Since many of the assumptions required for the complete equalization of relativecommodity and factor prices do not hold in the real world, great differences can be expected and do in fact remain between real wages in India and the United States.Nevertheless, trade would tend to reduce these differences, and the H-O model does identify the forces that must be considered to analyze the effect of trade on thedifferences in the relative and absolute commodity and factor prices between Indiaand the United States.5. (a) Explain why the Heckscher-Ohlin trade model needs to be extended. (b) Indicate in what important ways the Heckscher-Ohlin trade model can be extended. (c) Explain what ismeant by differentiated products and intra-industry trade.Ans. (a) The Heckscher-Ohlin trade model needs to be extended because, while generallycorrect, it fails to explain a significant portion of international trade, particularly the trade in manufactured products among industrial nations.(b) The international trade left unexplained by the basic Heckscher-Ohlin trade model canbe explained by (1) economies of scale, (2) intra-industry trade, and (3) trade based on imitation gaps and product differentiation.(c) Differentiated products refer to similar, but not identical, products (such as cars,typewriters, cigarettes, soaps, and so on) produced by the same industry or broadproduct group. Intra-industry trade refers to the international trade in differentiated products.。
萨尔瓦多国际经济学件
In this chapter:
Introduction Import Quotas Other Nontariff Barriers and the New
Protectionism The Political Economy of Protectionism Strategic Trade and Industrial Policies History of U.S. Commercial Policy The Uruguay Round, Outstanding Trade
Problems and the Doha Round
Salvatore: International Economics, 10th Edition © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Introduction
Though tariffs have historically been the most important form of trade restriction, there are many other types of trade barriers.
Import Quotas
Import Quota vs. Equivalent Import Tariff
Import quota limits imports to specified levels with certainty, while the trade effect of an import tariff may be uncertain.
Import tariff:
Higher consumption than quota Higher imports than quota
国际经济学(萨尔瓦多)第10版中文课件
2018/9/12
CUEB-国际经济学 第一章 导论
43
第三节 比较优势论
(The Theory of Comparative Advantage)
时间：1817年 代表人物： David Ricardo (英） 代表作：Principles of Political Economy and Taxation
2018/9/12
CUEB-国际经济学 第一章 导论
34
A和B对X与Y的需求量
X A B 1 1 Y 1 1
2018/9/12
CUEB-国际经济学 第一章 导论
35
折成劳动量
X A 1 2 3 Y 2 1 3
B
2018/9/12
CUEB-国际经济学 第一章 导论
36
假设A与B两国的劳动存量
分工的好处和利益必须通过交换来实现；
市场机制是决定分工模式和实现分工利益的最 有效的机制； 国际分工意味着在更大范围内实现生产的专业 化，有助于劳动生产率的提高和收入的增加；
自由的国际贸易是实现国际分工利益的最有效 途径。
2018/9/12
CUEB-国际经济学 第一章 导论
27
（二）绝对优势理论
CUEB-国际经济学 第一章 导论 2
宏观国际经济理论
2018/9/12
主要内容
一、微观国际经济理论
国际贸易纯理论 国际贸易政策 外汇理论与政策 国际收支调整理论与政策 内外平衡政策
二、宏观国际经济理论
三、生产要素的国际流动 四、国际经济协调
CUEB-国际经济学 第一章 导论 3
萨尔瓦多《国际经济学》笔记及习题(国际货币体系：过去、现在与未来)【圣才出品】
第21章国际货币体系：过去、现在与未来21.1 复习笔记一、国际货币体系概述1．含义国际货币体系是指影响国际收支的各种规则、习惯、工具、设施和组织。
2．评价标准一个好的国际货币体系应当使国际贸易和投资的总量最大化，并将国际贸易的收益在世界各国间进行“公平的”分配。
评价一种国际货币体系，可以从调整、流动性和可靠性三个方面进行。
（1）调整是指纠正国际收支失衡的过程。
一个好的国际货币体系应该使调整成本和所需时间最小。
（2）流动性是指可以用来应付国际收支暂时失衡问题的储备资产的数量。
好的国际货币体系应提供足够的储备资产，以使一国可以弥补其国际收支赤字而不会使本国经济紧缩或使世界经济通胀。
（3）可靠性是指调节机制具有正常运行的自动机制，能够保持国际储备的绝对价值和相对价值。
二、金本位制和两次世界大战之间的经验1．金本位制时期（1880～1914年）（1）含义在金本位制下，每个国家确定其本国货币的含金量，并被动地准备不断按照这一价格买卖任何数量的黄金。
因为每一种货币其单位含金量是固定的，所以汇率也就是固定的。
这称为铸币平价。
汇率将围绕平价上下波动（在黄金输入点和输出点之间），波动幅度为两个货币中心间单位外汇所含黄金的运输成本。
（2）汇率调节机制金本位制下的汇率调节机制被休谟称为“价格—黄金流动机制”。
它的作用过程是：由于每个国家的货币供给既包括黄金也包括以黄金作为发行后备的纸币，所以逆差国的货币供给将会减少，而顺差国的货币供给将增加。
这将引起逆差国的内部价格下降而顺差国的内部价格上升。
结果，逆差国的出口受到刺激进口受到抑制，直至其国际收支逆差消失。
相反的情况则发生于国际收支顺差国。
（3）实际经验在金本位制下，大部分实际调节过程是通过短期资本流动来进行的，其主要结果是收入的变化；而不是如“价格—黄金流动机制”理论信奉的那样，通过内部价格的变化进行调节。
稳定而有活力的经济环境，可以大大加强其调节能力。
2．两次世界大战之间的经验1919～1924年这一时期，其特点是疯狂而失控的汇率波动。
萨尔瓦多《国际经济学》课后习题详解(汇率的决定)【圣才出品】
第15章汇率的决定一、概念题1．绝对购买力平价理论（absolute purchasing-power parity theory）答：绝对购买力平价是指两国货币的汇率等于两国价格水平的比率，即R＝P/P*，其中R等于两国货币的汇率或即期汇率，P和P*分别为本国和外国总的价格水平。
绝对购买力平价认为，如果一价定律有效，在物价指数中各种可贸易商品所占的权重相等，那么，一国货币对外汇率主要是由两国货币在其本国所具有的购买力决定的，两种货币购买力之比决定了两国货币的兑换比率。
在自由贸易的条件下，通过自由贸易竞争，使两国汇率与两国物价水平保持相对稳定，国际收支趋向平衡。
2．巴拉萨-萨缪尔森效应（Balassa-Samuelson effect）答：巴拉萨-萨缪尔森效应是由巴拉萨与萨缪尔森1964年首次提出的，是指在经济增长率越高的国家，工资实际增长率也越高，实际汇率的上升也越快的现象。
当贸易产品部门（制造业）生产效率迅速提高时，该部门的工资增长率也会提高。
国内无论哪个产业，工资水平都有平均化的趋势，所以尽管非贸易部门（服务业）生产效率提高并不大，但是其他行业工资也会以大致相同的比例上涨。
这会引起非贸易产品对贸易产品的相对价格上升。
假定贸易产品（按外汇计算）的价格水平一定，这种相对价格的变化在固定汇率的条件下，会引起非贸易产品价格的上涨，进而引起总体物价水平（贸易产品与非贸易产品的加权平均）的上涨。
如果为了稳定国内物价而采取浮动汇率的话，则会引起汇率的上升。
无论哪种情况都会使实际汇率下降。
3．货币需求（demand for money）答：货币需求是指社会各部门在既定的收入或财富范围内能够而且愿意以货币形式持有的数量。
在现代高度货币化的经济社会里，社会各部门需要持有一定的货币去媒介交换、支付费用、偿还债务、从事投资或保存价值，因此便产生了货币需求。
货币需求通常表现为一国在既定时间上社会各部门所持有的货币量。
萨尔瓦多《国际经济学》中文版·第八版 精华知识点
第1 章绪论1.国际经济学的重要性1.产品的国际化。
2.全球经济一体化。
2.国际贸易与一国的生活水平1.许多小国生活要依赖别的国家2.国际间的依存关系非常密切3.一个国家的经济政策会影响到另外一个国家。
3、国际经济学的主要问题研究国家之间的相互依存性。
是宏观经济学与微观经济学在国家间的运用。
4、国际经济理论和政策的目的经济理论的目的一般在于预测与解释，是具体活动的高度概括。
5、当前的国际问题第2 章比较优势原理1.他认为分工可以提高劳动生产率Z 分工能提高劳动者的熟练程度Z 使每一个人从事专业生产，节省与劳动没有关系的时间Z 有利于发明创造2.贸易可以引起国际分工，国际分工的基础是天然禀赋或后天的有利条件。
如果每一个国家都按照有利的条件进行分工，然后进行交换，将使得资源与劳动力得到极大的利用。
从而提高劳动生产率，增加财富。
3.引言贸易基础贸易所得贸易模式4.、重商主义的贸易观点经济学开始于亚当密斯。
重商主义的观点：尽量使出口大于进口。
国家的财富是金银等稀有金属。
政府应该严格控制经济活动。
贸易是一种零和游戏。
除了1815-1914 年的英国，没有一个西方国家彻底摆脱过重商主义。
5、绝对优势理论他认为分工可以提高劳动生产率Z 分工能提高劳动者的熟练程度Z 使每一个人从事专业生产，节省与劳动没有关系的时间Z 有利于发明创造,贸易可以引起国际分工，国际分工的基础是天然禀赋或后天的有利条件。
如果每一个国家都按照有利的条件进行分工，然后进行交换，将使得资源与劳动力得到极大的利用。
从而提高劳动生产率，增加财富。
3-1 分工后的例（另外P24）3-3 绝对比较优势的适用范围非常一小部分贸易。
主要是发达国家与发展国家。
7.比较优势理论7-3 贸易所得的证明♦4C 小于6W 小于12C。
♦现实生活中的例子。
7-4 例外的情况比例相同的情况。
7-5 考虑货币的比较优势♦绝对劣势还可以进行分工的原因是工资的差异。
（P27）7-6 比较优势与机会成本♦李嘉图的比较优势建立在许多假设的基础上。
ch05 国际经济学课后答案与习题(萨尔瓦多)
*CHAPTER 5(Core Chapter)TRADE RESTRICTIONS: TARIFFSOUTLINE5.1 Introduction5.2 Types of TariffsCase Study 5-1 Average Tariff on Industrial Products in Major Developed CountriesCase Study 5-2 Average Tariff on Industrial Products in Some Major Developing Countries 5.3 Effects of a Tariff in a Small Nation5.4 Effect of a Tariff on Consumer and Producer Surplus5.5 Costs and Benefits of a Tariff in a Small NationCase Study 5-3 The Welfare Effects of Liberalizing Trade in Some U.S. ProductsCase Study 5-4 The Welfare Effects of Liberalizing Trade in Some EU Products5.6 Costs and Benefits of a Tariff in a Large Nation5.7 The Optimum Tariff and Retaliation5.8 Theory of Tariff StructureCase Study 5-5 Rising Tariff Rates with Degree of Domestic ProcessingCase Study 5-6 Structure of Tariffs in the United States, EU, and CanadaAppendix: Optimum Tariff and Retaliation with Offer CurvesKey TermsTrade or commercial policies Revenue effect of a tariffsurplustariff ConsumerImportExport tariff Rent or producer surplustariff Protectioncost or deadweight loss of a tariff valoremAdSpecific tariff Terms of trade effect of the tarifftarifftariff OptimumCompoundConsumption effect of a tariff Prohibitive tariffProduction effect of a tariff Rate of effective protectionTrade effect of a tariffLecture Guide1. I would cover sections 1-4 in the first lecture. The most difficult part is Section 4 on themeaning and measurement of consumer and producer surplus. Since a clear understanding of the meaning and measurement of consumer and producer surplus is crucial in measuring the welfare effect of tariffs, I would explain these concepts very carefully.2. I would cover sections 5 and 6 in the second lecture. These are the most difficult sections inthe chapter and also the most important.3. The theory of tariff structure is also difficult and important. I found that the best way toexplain it is by using the simple example in the text on the suit with and without imported inputs. This section is likely to generate a great deal of discussion about the trade relations between developed and developing nations. If you do not plan to cover optional Chapter 8 on growth and development, you could spend a bit more time on this topic here , even though it will come up again in Chapter 6.Answer to Problems1. a. See Figure 1 on the next page.b. Consumption is 70X, production is 50X and imports are 20X.c. The consumption effect is –30X, the production effect is +30X, the trade effectis –60X, and the revenue effect is $30 (see Figure 1).2. a. The consumer surplus is $250 without and $l22.50 with the tariff (see Figure 1).b. Of the increase in the revenue of producers with the tariff (as compared with theirrevenues under free trade), $22.50 represents the increase in production costs andanother $22.50 represents the increase in rent or producer surplus (see Figure 1).c. The dollar value or the protection cost of the tariff is $45 (see Figure 1).3. The dollar value or the protection cost of the tariff is $45 (see Figure 2).4. The dollar value or the protection cost of the tariff is $45 (see Figure 3).5. The optimum tariff is the tariff that maximizes the net benefit resulting from theimprovement in the nation’s terms of trade against the negative effect resulting fromreduction in the volume of trade.X Fig 5.1X Fig 5.2XFig 5.36. a. When a nation imposes an optimum tariff, the trade partner’s welfare declines because ofthe lower volume of trade and the deterioration in its terms of trade.b. The trade partner is likely to retaliate and in the end both nations are likely to lose becauseof the reduction in the volume of trade.7. Even when the trade partner does not retaliate when one nation imposes the optimum tariff,the gains of the tariff-imposing nation are less than the losses of the trade partner, so that theworld as a whole is worse off than under free trade. It is in this sense that free trade maximizesworld welfare.8. a. The nominal tariff is calculated on the market price of the product or service. The rate ofeffective protection, on the other hand, is calculated on the value added in the nation. It isequal to the value of the price of the commodity or service minus the value of the importedinputs used in the production of the commodity or service.b. The nominal tariff is important to consumers because it determines by how much the priceof the imported commodity increases. The rate of effective protection is important fordomestic producers because it determines the actual rate of protection provided by thetariff to domestic processing.9. a. Rates of effective protection in industrial nations are generally much higher than thecorresponding nominal rates and increase with the degree of processing.b. The tariff structure of developed nations is of great concern for developing nationsbecause it discourages manufacturing production in developing nations.10. If a nation reduces the nominal tariff on the importation of the raw materials required toproduce a commodity but does not reduce the tariff on the importation of the finalcommodity produced with the imported raw material, then the effective tariff rates willincrease relative to the nominal tariff rate on the commodity.Multiple-choice Questions1. Which of the following statements is incorrect?a. an ad valorem tariff is expressed as a percentage of the price of the traded commodity.b. a specific tariff is expressed as a fixed sum of the value of the traded commodity.c. export tariffs are prohibited by the U.S. Constitution*d. the U.S. uses exclusively the specific tariff2. A small nation is one:a. which does not affect world price by its tradingb. which faces an infinitely elastic world supply curve for its import commodityc. whose consumers will pay a price that exceeds the world price by the amount of the tariff *d. all of the above3. If a small nation increases the tariff on its import commodity, its:a. consumption of the commodity increasesb. production of the commodity decreasesc. imports of the commodity increase*d. none of the above4. The increase in producer surplus when a small nation imposes a tariff is measured by the area: *a. to the left of the supply curve between the commodity price with and without the tariffb. under the supply curve between the quantity produced with and without the tariffc. under the demand curve between the commodity price with and without the tariffd. none of the above.5. If a small nation increases the tariff on its import commodity:*a. the rent of domestic producers of the commodity increasesb. the protection cost of the tariff decreasesc. the deadweight loss decreasesd. all of the above6. The imposition of an optimum tariff by a small nation:a. improves its terms of tradeb. reduces the volume of tradec. increases the nation's welfare*d. non of the above7. The optimum tariff for a small nation is:a. 100%b. 50%*c. 0d. depends on the elasticity of demand and supply for the import commodity in the nation8. The imposition of an optimum tariff by a large nation:a. improves its terms of tradeb. reduces the volume of tradec. increases the nation's welfare*d. all of the above9. The imposition of an optimum tariff by a large nation:a. improves the terms of trade of the trade partner*b. reduces the volume of tradec. increases the trade partner’s welfared. all of the above10. If two large countries impose an optimum tariff*a. the welfare of the both nations decreaseb. the welfare of the both nations increasec. the welfare of the larger nation will increase and that of the other nation decreasesd. the welfare of the larger nation will decrease and that of the other nation increases11. If one nation imposes an optimum tariff and the other nation does not retaliate*a. the welfare of the first nation increases and that of the welfare of the second nation fallsb. the welfare of the second nation increases and that of the welfare of the second nation fallsc. the welfare of both nations falld. the welfare of both nations increase12. If one nation imposes an optimum tariff and the other nation does not retaliatea. the welfare of the first nation increases more than the fall in the welfare of the secondnation*b. the welfare of the first nation increases more than the fall in the welfare of the secondnationc. the welfare of the second nation increases less than the fall in the welfare of the firstnationd. the welfare of the first nation increases by the same amount as the fall in the welfare of the second nation13. The nominal tariff is the tariff calculated on thea. price of the input used in the production of the commodity*b. price of the commodity or servicec. value addedd. all of the above14. The effective tariff rate is the tariff calculated on thea. price of the input used in the production of the commodityb. commodity or service*c. value added in the nationd. all of the above15. If the nominal tariff on a commodity is higher than the nominal tariff on the imported input used in the production of the commodity, then the rate of effective protection is*a. higher on the commodity than on the inputb. lower on the commodity than on the imported inputc. equal on the commodity and on the imported inputd. any of the above。
萨尔瓦多《国际经济学》笔记及习题(要素禀赋与赫克歇尔—俄林理论)【圣才出品】
第5章要素禀赋与赫克歇尔—俄林理论5.1 复习笔记一、赫克歇尔—俄林理论的假设条件（1）贸易中有两个国家（国家A与国家B），两种商品（X与Y），两种生产要素（劳动与资本）。
（2）两国在生产中都使用相同的技术。
（3）在两个国家中，商品X都是劳动密集型产品，商品Y都是资本密集型产品。
（4）在两个国家中，两种商品的生产都是规模报酬不变的。
（5）两国在生产中均为不完全分工。
（6）两国需求偏好相同。
（7）在两个国家中，两种商品与两种要素市场都是完全竞争的。
（8）在一国国内，要素可以自由流动，但要素不能在国际间自由流动。
（9）没有运输成本、关税或影响国际贸易自由进行的其他壁垒。
（10）两国资源均得到了充分利用。
（11）两国的贸易是平衡的。
二、要素密集度、要素充裕度和生产可能性曲线的形状1．要素密集度在一个只有两种商品（X和Y）和两种要素（劳动和资本）的世界中，如果生产Y时的资本/劳动比率大于生产X时的资本/劳动比率，我们就说Y是资本密集型商品。
如果我们把资本（K）放在坐标系的纵轴，把劳动（L）放在坐标系的横轴，而且生产沿着一条从原点出发的射线进行，则该射线的斜率就是生产这种商品的资本/劳动比率（K/L），见图5-1。
图5-1 国家1和国家2商品X和商品Y的要素密集度在国家1，生产商品Y的资本/劳动比率（K/L）为1，生产X的这一比率为1/4。
图中国家1从原点出发的两条射线的斜率给出了这两个值。
因此，在国家1商品Y是资本密集型的。
在国家2，Y的K/L＝4而X的K/L＝1，因此，在两个国家Y都是资本密集型的，而X都是劳动密集型的。
国家2在生产两种商品时的资本/劳动比率都高于国家1，这是因为国家2资本的相对价格（r/w）比较低。
如果r/w下降，生产者在生产两种商品时都会用K 来代替L，以降低其生产成本。
这样，将导致生产两种商品时的资本/劳动比率都有所上升。
2．要素充裕度（1）以实物单位定义用各国所有可以利用的资本和劳动的总和来衡量。
萨尔瓦多《国际经济学》课后习题详解(国际贸易的标准理论)【圣才出品】
第3章国际贸易的标准理论一、概念题1．自给自足（autarky）答：自给自足特指在经济上完全依靠自己的力量来满足各种需要，而不与外部世界发生任何贸易关系。
在工业社会以前，大部分国家都处于自给自足的状态，经济发展落后，彼此间交流沟通很少。
这种情况的自给自足是狭隘的，因为本国的生产要素使用没有达到最优状态，且人民物质生活比较贫乏。
当前，随着经济的发展，有些国家由于要素禀赋的充裕以及技术的革新，有些产品生产上已经实现了自给自足。
2．社会无差异曲线（community indifference curve）答：社会无差异曲线是表明一个国家或经济体保持等量的国民消费水平或福利水平的两种商品的各种消费量组合点的轨迹。
或者说，它是显示社会福利水平为一常数的各种消费选择。
每一条社会无差异曲线都代表一定的社会效用水平，曲线上的每一点的斜率表示社会对两种商品的边际替代率；较高的曲线反映较高的满足程度，较低的曲线反映较低的满足程度。
社会无差异曲线凸向原点，斜率为负，而且互不相交。
3．去工业化（deindustrialization）答：去工业化又称为非工业化、逆工业化，指制造业就业比重持续下降。
它有两个主要特点：制造业发展停滞；制造业大规模裁员，就业从第二产业转向服务行业，制造业就业比重急剧下降。
去工业化现象最早始于美国。
一般来说，去工业化现象是出现在一些大城市地区以及那些以资源为基础、传统的衰退产业相对集中的老工业基地。
这主要是因为：①大城市地区土地租金和工资等生产成本较高，劳动和环境保护意识较强，加上市中心区生活和环境质量的下降，导致企业家把制造工厂由发达国家大城市迁移到中小城镇和农村地区，甚至迁移到国外。
②由于资源的枯竭和生产成本的上升，工业发达国家的一些传统产业如钢铁、造船、工程机械和纺织等，逐步走向衰退。
这些衰退产业主要集中在一些老工业基地，由此导致这些地区制造业出现严重的下降。
③随着技术发展，企业可以把生产过程的某些部分，尤其是劳动密集型的加工装配环节，分散到国外工资成本相对低廉的地区，而发展中国家提供的各种优惠政策又加剧了这种趋势。
萨尔瓦多《国际经济学》课后习题详解(外汇市场与汇率)【圣才出品】
第14章外汇市场与汇率一、概念题1．升值（appreciation）答：升值是指单位货币所含有的价值或所代表的价值的上升，又称“货币增值”“通货升值”，是“货币贬值”的对称。
货币升值可以从不同角度来理解：从国内角度看，在金属货币制度下，货币升值是指增加本国货币的法定含金属量，提高其对金属的比价，以提高本国货币价值的措施；在现代纸币制度下，它是指当流通中的纸币数量低于所需要的货币需要量即通货紧缩时，纸币价值上升。
从国际角度看，货币价值表示为与外国货币的兑换能力，具体表现为汇率的变动。
这时，货币升值是指一单位本国货币兑换外国货币能力的提高，即本国货币对外汇价的提高。
2．套利（arbitrage）答：套利是指在期货市场上，在买入（或卖出）某种期货合约的同时，卖出（或买入）相关的另一种期货合约，以期在有利时机同时将这两种期货合约平仓，以获取差价收益的交易行为。
套利一般可分为三类：跨期套利、跨市套利和跨商品套利。
跨期套利是套利交易中最普遍的一种，是利用同一商品在不同交割月份之间正常价格差出现异常变化时进行对冲而获利的一种套利方式，可分为牛市套利和熊市套利。
跨市套利是在不同交易所之间的套利交易行为。
当同一期货商品合约在两个或更多的交易所进行交易时，由于区域间的地理差别，各商品合约间存在一定的价差关系，从而为交易者的跨市套利提供了机会。
在做跨市套利时应注意影响各市场价格差的几个因素，如运费、关税、汇率等。
跨商品套利指的是利用两种不同、但相关联商品之间的价差进行交易。
这两种商品之间具有相互替代性或受同一供求因素制约。
跨商品套利的交易形式是同时买进和卖出相同交割月份但不同种类的商品期货合约。
3．抛补套利（covered interest arbitrage）答：抛补套利是指套利者在把资金从甲地调往乙地以获取较高利息的同时，还在外汇市场上卖出远期的乙国货币以防止风险。
它是一种套利与掉期相结合的一种交易，通过这种交易既可以获得利率差额的好处，同时又可以获得较高的利息收入，但是要付出一笔掉期成本。
萨尔瓦多国际经济学(第十版)英文课件ch
Export oriented economy, highly dependent on external markets and raw material supply; The economic structure is single and sensitive to changes in the external economic environment; The relatively low labor cost is conducive to the development of export processing industry.
Development of service industry
Vigorously develop service industries such as tourism and finance, and increase the proportion of service industry in the national economy.
目录
contents
Frontier issues in international economicsCourse Summary and Outlook
CHAPTER
01
Course Introduction
Developing students' understanding and analytical abilities in international economics
要点一
要点二
Detailed description
Based on traditional trade theory, the new international trade theory explores the impact of factors such as technological progress, economies of scale, and imperfect competition on international trade, providing a new perspective for understanding the current world trade pattern.
萨尔瓦多《国际经济学》笔记及习题(比较优势原理)【圣才出品】
第2章比较优势原理2.1 复习笔记一、重商主义重商主义诞生于17～18世纪。
重商主义者认为国家富强的方法应当是尽量使出口大于进口。
出超的结果是金银等贵重金属的流入，而一个国家拥有越多的金银，就会越富有、越强大。
因此，政府应当竭尽所能鼓励出口，不主张甚至限制商品（尤其是奢侈类消费品）的进口。
然而，由于不可能所有贸易国同时出超，而且任一时点上金银总量是固定的，一个国家的获利总是基于其他国家的损失。
因此，重商主义者鼓吹经济民族主义，认为国家利益在根本上是冲突的。
二、绝对优势原理1．绝对优势原理的内容绝对优势原理由亚当·斯密提出。
该理论认为当一国相对另一国在某种商品的生产上有更高效率（或有绝对优势），但在另一种商品生产上效率较低（或有绝对劣势）时，那么两国就可以通过专门生产自己有绝对优势的产品并用其中一部分来交换其有绝对劣势的商品。
这样，资源可以被最有效地使用，而且两种商品的产出会有很大增长。
这种增长可用来测度两国专门化生产所产生的收益，这种收益通过国际贸易在两国间进行分配。
2．绝对优势原理的政策主张亚当·斯密认为，所有国家都可以通过自由贸易获利，倡导自由放任，即政府尽可能少干涉经济活动。
自由贸易会使世界资源获得最有效的利用，使世界福利最大化。
3．绝对优势原理的局限性绝对优势只能解释现在世界贸易中的一小部分，例如在发达国家与发展中国家之间的一些贸易。
大多数世界贸易，尤其是发达国家间的贸易，无法用绝对优势解释。
三、比较优势原理1．比较优势原理比较优势原理由李嘉图提出。
该理论认为，即使一国在两种商品的生产上较之另一国均处于劣势（即无绝对优势），仍可能有互利贸易。
一个国家可以专门生产并出口自己绝对劣势相对较小的商品（这是其有比较优势的商品），同时进口其绝对劣势相对较大的商品（这是其有比较劣势的商品）。
2．比较优势原理的例外当一国在两种商品上的绝对劣势与另一国相同时，两国将均无比较优势，因而两国之间不会有互惠贸易发生。
萨尔瓦多《国际经济学》笔记和习题详解(开放经济中的价格与产出：总需求与总供给)
第19章 开放经济中的价格与产出：总需求与总供给19.1 复习笔记本章将放松价格不变的假定，利用总供求框架和国际贸易与国际资本的流动效应相结合的方法来考察开放经济中价格与产出的关系。
一、总供求与封闭经济中的均衡1．总需求曲线（1）含义总需求曲线（）反映了在国家货币供给、政府支出和税收一定的条件下，经济中产品和劳务的需求总量与总价格水平之间的关系。
（2）推导如图19.1所示，左图中在给定的价格水平下，曲线和曲线的交点决定了利率（）和国民收入（）的均衡水平。
这说明右图中总需求曲线上的价格为收入为的点。
当价格从升到使货币贬值时，曲线将移动到的位置，这就得到了与较低的收入水平点相适应的左图的点和右图中总需求曲线上的点。
AD IS LM E E i E Y AD E P E Y E P P'LM LM'Y'E'E'图19.1 从曲线推导总需求曲线（3）特征 ①总需求曲线向下倾斜，说明物价水平越低，对国内商品与劳务的需求量就越高。
②总需求曲线的斜率反映价格变动所引起的总需求和收入的变动状况。
斜率值越大，一定的价格变动引起的总需求和收入的变动就越小。
③价格水平的变化是通过实际货币供给来影响总需求的，因此，曲线的斜率取决于实际货币供给变动对总需求的效应。
④扩张性的财政政策和货币政策促使总需求曲线向右移动，而紧缩性的财政政策和货币政策促使总需求曲线向左移动。
2．总供给曲线（1）含义总供给曲线（）反映了经济中商品和劳务的总供给量与价格总水平之间的关系。
（2）长期与短期总供给曲线如图19.2所示，长期总供给曲线与价格无关，并在一国自然产出水平上垂直，它取决于一国有效的劳动力、自然资源和技术的投入。
短期总供给曲线向上倾斜，表明一国的产出量会因为信息和市场的不完善而暂时地超过（点）或低于（点）其自然水平（点）。
图19.2 长期与短期总供给曲线3．封闭经济中的短期与长期均衡IS LM AD AS N Y A B E如图19.3所示，在、和曲线的交点处，经济同时处于长期和短期的均衡。
国际经济学英文课件萨尔瓦多第十版ppt
Technical Progress
All technical progress reduces the amount of both labor and capital required to produce any given level of output.
Three different types of Hicksian technical progress:
Growth of Factors of Production
The Rybczynski Theorem
At constant commodity prices, an increase in the ende by a greater proportion the output of the commodity intensive in that factor and will reduce the output of the other commodity.
Salvatore: International Economics, 10th Edition © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Technical Progress
All technical progress reduces the amount of both labor and capital required to produce any given level of output.
The production frontier will shift out evenly in all directions at the same rate at which technical progress takes place.