温州医科大学毕业论文2外文翻译模板

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毕业论文英文翻译模板【范本模板】

湖北汽车工业学院科技学院毕业设计(论文)参考文献译文译文内容无线短消息服务的用户接受:解构感知价值译文出处【作者】Ofir Turela;Alexander Serenkob andNick Bontisa【刊名】Information and Management【出版日期】2007 【卷号】Vol。

44 【期号】NO.1系别：经济管理学院专业：工商管理（汽车市场营销）班级：K1253-3学生姓名：黄登宇学号：20129530310指导教师：李建忠题目Information ＆ Management 44 (2007） 63–73www.elsevier。

com/locate/imUser acceptance of wireless short messagingservices：Deconstructing perceivedvalueOfir Turel a，＊， Alexander Serenko b， Nick Bontis aa DeGroote School of Business, McMaster University， Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4M4， Canadab Faculty of Business Administration， Lakehead University, Thunder Bay， Ontario P7B 5E1, CanadaReceived 22 June 2005; received in revised form 12 April 2006； accepted 26 October 2006Available online 28 November 2006译文原文：译文内容:无线短消息服务的用户接受：解构感知价值无线增值服务，每使用服务，如短消息服务（短信）,近年来吸引了越来越多的关注。

然而，现存的文献提供了一些洞察技术采用无线支付,每使用服务.我们的研究探讨了这一采用相结合的营销和观点的222个年轻的，成人短信用户的实证调查.这是假设知觉价值将是一个关键的多维行为意向的决定因素。

万能医学英语作文模板及翻译

万能医学英语作文模板及翻译英文回答：Universal Medical English Composition Template。

Introduction。

Begin with a hook to capture the reader's attention. Provide background information on the topic.State the purpose of the composition.Body Paragraphs。

Organize your content into logical paragraphs.Each paragraph should focus on one main idea.Support your claims with evidence from research, casestudies, or personal experience.Use clear and concise language.Transition smoothly between paragraphs.Conclusion。

Summarize the main points of the composition.Reiterate the purpose of the writing.End with a strong closing statement.Example Outline。

Introduction。

Hook: Imagine a world where medical professionals from every corner of the globe could communicate seamlessly, sharing knowledge and advancements without language barriers.Background: The importance of effective communicationin healthcare.Purpose: To propose a universal medical English composition template as a solution to language barriers in medicine.Body Paragraph 1: Benefits of a Universal Template。

毕业论文外文翻译格式【范本模板】

因为学校对毕业论文中的外文翻译并无规定，为统一起见,特做以下要求：1、每篇字数为1500字左右，共两篇；2、每篇由两部分组成:译文+原文.3 附件中是一篇范本，具体字号、字体已标注。

外文翻译（包含原文)(宋体四号加粗）外文翻译一（宋体四号加粗）作者：(宋体小四号加粗）Kim Mee Hyun Director, Policy Research & Development Team，Korean Film Council（小四号）出处：(宋体小四号加粗)Korean Cinema from Origins to Renaissance(P358～P340) 韩国电影的发展及前景（标题：宋体四号加粗）1996～现在数量上的增长(正文:宋体小四）在过去的十年间，韩国电影经历了难以置信的增长。

上个世纪60年代，韩国电影迅速崛起，然而很快便陷入停滞状态,直到90年代以后，韩国电影又重新进入繁盛时期。

在这个时期，韩国电影在数量上并没有大幅的增长，但多部电影的观影人数达到了上千万人次。

1996年，韩国本土电影的市场占有量只有23.1%。

但是到了1998年，市场占有量增长到35。

8%，到2001年更是达到了50%。

虽然从1996年开始，韩国电影一直处在不断上升的过程中，但是直到1999年姜帝圭导演的《生死谍变》的成功才诞生了韩国电影的又一个高峰。

虽然《生死谍变》创造了韩国电影史上的最高电影票房纪录，但是1999年以后最高票房纪录几乎每年都会被刷新。

当人们都在津津乐道所谓的“韩国大片”时，2000年朴赞郁导演的《共同警备区JSA》和2001年郭暻泽导演的《朋友》均成功刷新了韩国电影最高票房纪录.2003年康佑硕导演的《实尾岛》和2004年姜帝圭导演的又一部力作《太极旗飘扬》开创了观影人数上千万人次的时代。

姜帝圭和康佑硕导演在韩国电影票房史上扮演了十分重要的角色。

从1993年的《特警冤家》到2003年的《实尾岛》，康佑硕导演了多部成功的电影。

毕业论文外文翻译模版

外文翻译内容时间序列计数数据模型：一个实证申请交通意外摘要计数资料主要划分为横断面，时间序列，和小组。

在过去十年中，伯松分布和负二项分布（注）模式已广泛用于分析横断面、时间系列计数数据、随机效应和固定效应泊松和注模式被用来分析小组计数数据。

然而，最近的文献表明，尽管有关这些模型的分配假设适合横断面计数的数据，但它们往往发现在纯时间序列计数数据没有能力考虑到序列相关性的影响。

实值时间序列模型，诸如框和詹金斯介绍的自动回归移动平均（ARIMA）模型，在过去几十年已用于许多应用程序。

然而，当模拟非负整数值的数据，如在交通事故随着时间的推移，框和詹金斯模式可能不适合了。

这主要是由于在ARIMA模型中正常的的错误假设。

在过去的几年里，一类新的被称为整数值自动回归（ INAR ）泊松模型的时间序列模型，已经由许多作者研究了。

这一级别的模型尤其适用于时间序列分析计算模型的数据，因为这些模型能反映伯松回归的性能，并能够处理序列相关性，因此提供了一种替代的实值时间序列模型。

本文的首要目的是介绍大不列颠的这类分析交通事故的时间序列的INAR模型。

不同类型的时间序列数据被认为是：综合时间序列数据都在空间和调查的时间区域内是比较大的（例如，大不列颠和年的关系），分散的时间序列数据在空间和时间区域内相对较小（例如，拥挤收费区与月的关系）。

INAR模式的性能与同类别的框和詹金斯实值模型相比较。

其结果表明，综合交通事故时间序列数据在系数估计方面和拟合优度的情况下，这些两类模式的性能是十分相似的。

这是因为在这种正常的相近的情况下，平均的计数是很准确的，ARIMA模型可以令人满意。

然而，INAR泊松模型的性能被发现有明显优于的ARIMA模型，因为在分散的时间序列数据的交通事故中，ARIMA模型的计数是在相对较低。

文章最后讨论了INAR 模型的局限性来处理的季节性和观测到的异质性。

1.绪论公路运输给社会带来了巨大的利益，但它也有直接和间接成本。

毕业设计(论文)外文文献译文格式及装订要求

“毕业设计（论文）外文文献译文”格式及装订要求
全校所有专业的学生在完成毕业设计（论文）的同时，必须完成一篇专业外文文献翻译工作（将外文文献翻译成中文），要求译出3000汉字以上的有关技术资料或专业外文文献，内容要与毕业设计（论文）内容相关。

书写时具体格式要求参考“毕业论文（设计说明书）缩写稿格式、版面要求”，装订时按以下顺序独立装订：1、封面；2、外文文献译文；3、外文文献原文。

附件：毕业设计（论文）外文文献译文封面
毕业设计（论文）
外文文献译文及原文
学生：
学号：
院（系）：
专业：
指导教师：
20 年月日。

医学英文作文翻译

医学英文作文翻译英文：As a medical professional, I believe that effective communication with patients is crucial for providingquality care. It is important to not only explain medical conditions and treatment options in a clear and concise manner, but also to actively listen to patients' concerns and questions.One way to improve communication with patients is to use plain language. Medical jargon can be confusing and intimidating for patients, so it is important to use language that is easily understood. For example, instead of using the term "hypertension," I might say "high blood pressure."Another important aspect of communication is nonverbal cues. As a physician, I try to maintain good eye contact with my patients and use body language to convey empathyand understanding. This helps to build trust and rapportwith patients, which is essential for effective communication.Finally, I believe that active listening is key to effective communication. This means giving patients my full attention, asking open-ended questions, and acknowledging their concerns. By doing so, I can better understand their needs and provide tailored care.中文：作为一名医疗专业人士，我认为与患者有效沟通对于提供优质护理至关重要。

毕业论文外文翻译格式【范本模板】

盐城师范学院毕业论文（设计）外文资料翻译学院：（四号楷体_GB2312下同）专业班级:学生姓名:学号:指导教师：外文出处：(外文）(Times New Roman四号) 附件: 1.外文资料翻译译文； 2.外文原文1．外文资料翻译译文译文文章标题×××××××××正文×××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××………….＊注：（本注释不是外文翻译的部分，只是本式样的说明解释）1. 译文文章标题为三号黑体居中，缩放、间距、位置标准，无首行缩进，无左右缩进,且前空（四号)两行，段前、段后各0.5行间距,行间距为1。

25倍多倍行距;2. 正文中标题为小四号，中文用黑体,英文用Times New Roman体,缩放、间距、位置标准,无左右缩进，无首行缩进，无悬挂式缩进，段前、段后0。

5行间距,行间距为1.25倍多倍行距；3。

正文在文章标题下空一行，为小四号，中文用宋体，英文用Times New Roman体,缩放、间距、位置标准，无左右缩进,首行缩进2字符（两个汉字)，无悬挂式缩进,段前、段后间距无，行间距为1。

毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译〔含原文〕【范本模板】

南京理工大学毕业设计（论文）外文资料翻译教学点: 南京信息职业技术学院专业：电子信息工程姓名：陈洁学号:014910253034外文出处：《Pci System Architecture 》(用外文写)附件： 1.外文资料翻译译文；2。

外文原文。

附件1：外文资料翻译译文64位PCI扩展1.64位数据传送和64位寻址：独立的能力PCI规范给出了允许64位总线主设备与64位目标实现64位数据传送的机理。

在传送的开始，如果回应目标是一个64位或32位设备，64位总线设备会自动识别.如果它是64位设备,达到8个字节(一个4字）可以在每个数据段中传送。

假定是一串0等待状态数据段。

在33MHz总线速率上可以每秒264兆字节获取(8字节／传送＊33百万传送字／秒），在66MHz总线上可以528M字节／秒获取.如果回应目标是32位设备,总线主设备会自动识别并且在下部4位数据通道上（AD［31:：00］)引导，所以数据指向或来自目标。

规范也定义了64位存储器寻址功能。

此功能只用于寻址驻留在4GB地址边界以上的存储器目标。

32位和64位总线主设备都可以实现64位寻址。

此外，对64位寻址反映的存储器目标（驻留在4GB地址边界上）可以看作32位或64位目标来实现。

注意64位寻址和64位数据传送功能是两种特性,各自独立并且严格区分开来是非常重要的。

一个设备可以支持一种、另一种、都支持或都不支持。

2.64位扩展信号为了支持64位数据传送功能，PCI总线另有39个引脚。

●REQ64＃被64位总线主设备有效表明它想执行64位数据传送操作.REQ64＃与FRAME＃信号具有相同的时序和间隔。

REQ64#信号必须由系统主板上的上拉电阻来支持.当32位总线主设备进行传送时，REQ64#不能又漂移。

●ACK64#被目标有效以回应被主设备有效的REQ64＃(如果目标支持64位数据传送）,ACK64#与DEVSEL＃具有相同的时序和间隔（但是直到REQ64＃被主设备有效，ACK64#才可被有效）.像REQ64＃一样，ACK64#信号线也必须由系统主板上的上拉电阻来支持。

毕业论文外文翻译

毕业论文外文翻译Title: The Influence of Technological Advancements on Education Abstract:This paper explores the impact of technological advancements on education. With the rapid development of technology, its introduction into education has revolutionized the way knowledge is acquired and shared. The benefits of technology integration in education include improving learning outcomes, enhancing access to education, and fostering collaboration and communication. On the other hand, potential challenges such as inequality in access to technology and the risk of replacing traditional teaching methods with digital tools are also discussed. To address these challenges, the paper proposes recommendations and strategies for effectively using technology in education. It concludes that while technology has the potential to significantly enhance education, careful planning, teacher training, and continuous evaluation are crucial to ensure its successful integration.1. IntroductionEducation is the foundation of personal and societal development. Over the years, technological advancements have played a significant role in transforming various sectors, including education. The integration of technology in education has opened up new possibilities for teaching and learning.2. Benefits of Technological Integration in Education2.1 Improved Learning OutcomesTechnology has the potential to enhance learning outcomes by providing personalized and engaging learning experiences.Interactive multimedia resources, such as videos, simulations, and virtual reality, can make complex concepts more accessible and understandable for students. Additionally, learning management systems and online platforms enable students to access educational materials anytime and anywhere, facilitating self-paced learning. 2.2 Enhanced Access to EducationTechnology has greatly expanded access to education, especially in remote and underserved areas. Online courses, virtual classrooms, and open educational resources have democratized education, allowing individuals to overcome geographical barriers and access learning opportunities that were previously unavailable. Furthermore, technology has created opportunities for lifelong learning, making education more accessible to adults and professionals.2.3 Collaboration and CommunicationTechnology enables collaboration and communication among students, teachers, and experts from different locations. Online discussion forums, video conferencing, and collaborative tools promote active participation, peer learning, and knowledge sharing. These digital platforms also facilitate communication between teachers and students, providing instant feedback and support outside of the traditional classroom settings.3. Challenges and ConcernsDespite the numerous benefits, there are challenges and concerns associated with technology integration in education.3.1 Inequality in Access to TechnologyThe digital divide creates unequal access to technology, making it difficult for some students to fully benefit from technology in their educational journey. Limited access to devices, stable internet connection, and technology literacy are major barriers that need to be addressed to ensure equal opportunities for all learners.3.2 Potential Over-reliance on TechnologyThere is a risk of over-reliance on technology, leading to the exclusion of effective traditional teaching methods or neglecting essential skills, such as critical thinking and problem-solving. It is important to strike a balance between technology use and traditional teaching approaches, ensuring that technology complements and enhances, rather than replaces, the core aspects of education.4. Recommendations and StrategiesTo harness the potential of technology in education, it is important to consider the following recommendations and strategies:4.1 Infrastructure and AccessEfforts should be made to bridge the digital divide by providing infrastructure, such as devices and internet connectivity, to underserved communities. Schools and educational institutions should prioritize equal access to technology and ensure that students have the necessary skills to utilize it effectively.4.2 Teacher Training and Professional DevelopmentTeachers play a critical role in integrating technology into the curriculum. Adequate training and professional development programs are essential to equip teachers with the skills andknowledge to effectively use technology for teaching and learning purposes. Continuous support and opportunities for collaboration and sharing of best practices should be provided.4.3 Continuous Evaluation and AdaptationRegular evaluation and feedback mechanisms should be in place to assess the impact of technology integration on learning outcomes. This will help identify areas for improvement and adapt teaching practices accordingly. Continuous evaluation will also ensure that the integration of technology remains aligned with educational goals and objectives.5. ConclusionTechnology has the potential to reshape education in unprecedented ways. This paper has highlighted the benefits and challenges of technology integration in education. It is essential to recognize that technology is a tool, not a substitute for quality teaching and learning. Strategic planning, teacher training, and evaluation are necessary to ensure technology's effective integration into education, thus harnessing its full potential to improve learning outcomes, enhance access to education, and foster collaboration and communication.。

外文翻译模板

本科生毕业论文(设计)外文参考文献译文本译文题目出处：作者单位作者姓名专业班级作者学号指导教师（职称）年月译文要求一、译文内容须与课题（或专业内容）联系，并需在封面注明详细出处。

二、出处格式为图书：作者.书名.版本（第×版）.译者.出版地：出版者，出版年.起页～止页期刊：作者.文章名称.期刊名称，年号，卷号（期号）：起页～止页三、译文不少于2000汉字。

四、翻译内容用小四号宋体字编辑，采用A4号纸双面打印，封面与封底采用浅蓝色封面纸（卡纸）打印。

要求内容明确，语句通顺。

五、译文及其相应参考文献一起装订，顺序依次为封面、译文、文献。

六、翻译应在第七学期完成。

译文评阅导师评语应根据学校“译文要求”，对学生译文翻译的准确性、翻译数量以及译文的文字表述情况等做具体的评价后，再评分。

评分：___________________（百分制）指导教师（签名）：___________________年月日题目（黑体3号, 字母、阿拉伯数字为Time New Roman5号加粗，居中，段前3行，段后2行）1.前言（黑体小3号, 字母、阿拉伯数字为Time New Roman 小3号加粗）×××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××× （宋体小4号，行间距固定1.5倍行距，字符间距为标准）2. ×××××××××××××××××××××××××××××××，其×××××可表示如下：)2sin(101111path t f A E ϕϕπ++= (2-1） )2sin(202222path t f A E ϕϕπ++= (2-2）×××××××××××××××××××××××××××× (如表2-1所示)表2-1□××××××××××××××× ××× ××× ××× ××××× ×× ×× ×× ××××× ×× ×× ×× ××××× ×× ×× ×× ×××××××××××（表标题：位于表格上方，宋体5号，字母、阿拉伯数字为Time New Roman 5号，表内容：宋体5号，字母、阿拉伯数字为Time New Roman 5号）××××××××××××××××××××××××××× (如图2-1所示)图2-1□××××××××××（图标题：位于图下方，宋体5号，字母、阿拉伯数字为Time New Roman 5号）............................陕西师范大学本科生毕业论文(设计)外文参考文献译文本参考文献原文(纸质版可打印附后，电子版可截图附后)。

(论文)外文翻译模版

沈阳工业大学
本科生外文翻译
文章中文题目：_______________________________ 文章外文题目：_______________________________
学院：
专业班级：
学生姓名：
指导教师：
年月日
外文翻译格式、装订要求（对中文的要求）：
1．字数要求：不少于3000中文字符，或不少于10000个英文字符。

2．外文翻译内容一律用A4纸打印；
3．图表5号字，宋体。

图表要居中；图的编号和名称在图下，居中；表的编号和名称在表上，居中。

4．大标题用三号宋体（加粗）、小标题用四号宋体（加粗）、内容用小四宋体、行间距20磅、页边距上下2.54厘米、左右3.17厘米。

5.中文在上，外文在下，左侧装订。

（外文必须用A4纸打印，原文其它格式格式可以不变）
6.统一用上页封面和指导教师评语，指导教师评语装订在最后一页。

毕业论文外文翻译【范本模板】

絮凝：污泥性质和废水处理的影响摘要进行研究，以确定在激活的絮凝作用污泥单元过程。

实验室和完整的大型研究显示，絮凝最重要的，在于确定沉淀，脱水,污水和消化污泥特性(活性污泥属性），并可能涉及到的所有进程的功能是至关重要的。

在这些研究中，结果表明，二价阳离子，如钙和镁改善活性污泥的性质，而单价阳离子如如钠，钾和铵离子，不利于这些属性. “二价阳离子通过衔接机制，促进负责絮凝带负电荷的生物大分子(主要是蛋白质和多糖).结果发现，氧化铁起着重大作用,在活性污泥的絮凝和决心通过铁和生物大分子之间的表面相互作用的性质。

氧化铁有效地消除从凝固的胶体溶液聚合物和空调的研究.这项研究包括钾的实验评估影响沉降和脱水性能和铵离子,镁的影响沉降性能；影响钠，钾,钙和镁的废水质量；固体停留时间，对出水水质的影响;絮状物评估在有氧和高温消化的属性。

一个絮状物模型中提出钙，镁,铁絮凝的功能是很重要曝气池，沉淀池，脱水设备和好氧或厌氧沼气池.结果表明，活性污泥絮状物性能的影响废水处理效率.关键词：阳离子，活性污泥，沉淀，脱水，镁，铵。

前言活性污泥是由微生物财团和胞外聚合物和二价阳离子（手冢，1969年形成了矩阵一起举行的有机和无机粒子；诺瓦克和豪根，1981年埃里克森和ALM,1991; Bruus等，1992;希金斯和诺瓦克，1997年，B）。

bruus等人. （1992年）和希金斯和诺瓦克(1997年b）表明,多余的单价阳离子可引起中絮状物的恶化结构和沉降性能。

观察与二价阳离子的增加沉降性能的改善.许多工业系统需要高纯度的进水.因此，除了规定的化学品在工业过程和废水预处理的废水进入激活污泥盆地的阳离子组成。

这些废水通常会在一些阳离子缺陷,将包含他人的过多.单价离子的增加导致活性污泥脱水性能的恶化，而二价离子的增加已被证明可以改善活性污泥脱水性能希金斯和诺瓦克，1997，（二）已被观察到。

这些意见进行了实验室和工业系统中活性污泥絮体。

毕业论文英文翻译要求（通用版）（范文模版）

毕业论文英文翻译要求（通用版）（范文模版）第一篇：毕业论文英文翻译要求(通用版)（范文模版）本科毕业设计（论文）英文翻译要求翻译的文章应与毕业设计课题或专业知识相关的文献，要求翻译1-2篇，合计中文字数不少于3000字。

外文翻译应包括：外文题目，作者、出版日期和出版社，翻译内容的起止页码，外文原文，然后是中文题目，作者、出版日期和出版社，中文翻译。

外文翻译所用的文献，应主要选自学术期刊或学术会议的文章，其次是教科书或其他书籍。

英文原文和翻译均作为毕业论文附录，同时给出英文原文的出处，如果是网上下载的原文请给出网址。

第二篇：毕业论文英文翻译武汉科技大学本科毕业设计外文翻译Automatic Statistical Process Control of a CNC Turning Centre Using Tool Offsets and Tool ChangeP.R.Gibson and K.HoangDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, University of Wollongong, Australia School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, University of New South Wales, Australia 数控车削中心刀补及换刀的自动统计过程控制P.R.Gibson and K.Hoang澳大利亚伍伦贡大学机械工程系，新威尔士大学机械制造工程学院武汉科技大学本科毕业设计外文翻译该论文涉及了自动统计过程控制（ASPC）在数控车削中刀补和换刀的自动周期测量上的运用。

由于当今制造对快速稳定的控制系统的需求，而且为了实现较高的产出率，一个闭环ASPC系统已被采用。

我们引入了自动周期测量技术，以全面测量该系统。

关键字：工艺规划；数控；车削简介今天，所有制造行业都面临着采用更加经济高效的质量控制系统，以满足客户的需求这一问题。

翻译论文研究外文毕业论文翻译论文【最新范本模板】

毕业设计（论文)外文资料翻译学院: 自动化工程学院专业：□自动化□测控技术与仪器姓名:学号：附件： 1。

外文资料翻译译文；2。

外文原文。

附件1：外文资料翻译译文改进型智能机器人的语音识别方法2、语音识别概述最近，由于其重大的理论意义和实用价值，语音识别已经受到越来越多的关注。

到现在为止，多数的语音识别是基于传统的线性系统理论，例如隐马尔可夫模型和动态时间规整技术。

随着语音识别的深度研究，研究者发现，语音信号是一个复杂的非线性过程，如果语音识别研究想要获得突破，那么就必须引进非线性系统理论方法。

最近，随着非线性系统理论的发展，如人工神经网络，混沌与分形，可能应用这些理论到语音识别中.因此,本文的研究是在神经网络和混沌与分形理论的基础上介绍了语音识别的过程。

语音识别可以划分为独立发声式和非独立发声式两种.非独立发声式是指发音模式是由单个人来进行训练，其对训练人命令的识别速度很快,但它对与其他人的指令识别速度很慢，或者不能识别。

独立发声式是指其发音模式是由不同年龄，不同性别，不同地域的人来进行训练，它能识别一个群体的指令.一般地，由于用户不需要操作训练，独立发声式系统得到了更广泛的应用. 所以，在独立发声式系统中，从语音信号中提取语音特征是语音识别系统的一个基本问题.语音识别包括训练和识别，我们可以把它看做一种模式化的识别任务。

通常地，语音信号可以看作为一段通过隐马尔可夫模型来表征的时间序列。

通过这些特征提取,语音信号被转化为特征向量并把它作为一种意见，在训练程序中，这些意见将反馈到HMM的模型参数估计中。

这些参数包括意见和他们响应状态所对应的概率密度函数，状态间的转移概率,等等。

经过参数估计以后，这个已训练模式就可以应用到识别任务当中。

输入信号将会被确认为造成词,其精确度是可以评估的。

整个过程如图一所示。

图1 语音识别系统的模块图3、理论与方法从语音信号中进行独立扬声器的特征提取是语音识别系统中的一个基本问题。

温州大学本科毕业设计(论文)外文翻译

本科毕业设计（论文）外文翻译题目高层建筑结构探索—住宅3学院建工学院专业土木工程班级09土木本一学号09 (35)学生姓名……指导教师……温州大学教务处制外文原文Building Materials Selection and SpecificationFae'q A. A. RadwanFaculty of Engineering, Near East University, KKTC, Lefkosa, Mersin 10, TurkeyAbstract:The limitations in the selection of the building materials and to the sustainability of any building construction materials that can be used are presented. The practices and techniques that can be used in reducing and minimizing the environmental impacts of building are discussed. Recommendations of using secondary and recycled materials in the construction of buildings are given. Framework for methods of assessment of the sustainability in building construction for environmental performance is presented.Key Words:Limitations, sustainability, environmental impacts, framework, climate.1.IntroductionThere is an apparently unbounded range of possibilities for the selection of building materials for the construction of structures of almost any shape or stature. Its quality will affect the structure function and long life, and requirements may differ with climate, soil, site size, and with the experience and knowledge of the designer. The factors that have the most outstanding solutions are impermeability, control of heat, air, and water flow, and the stability of the structure [1-3]. Raw materials extraction, manufacturing processes, and the transportation of the materials to the project site have a multitude of impacts on the environment. These include the disruption of habitats and ecological systems, use of water, and, through energy use, the emissions of air pollutants and climate change gases. Building materials also have major impacts on the building occupants manufacture, construction of buildings and the use of building materials make a significant environmental impact internally, locally and globally. But it is not easy to deliver information to make adequate inclusion decisions considering the whole life cycle of a building. Decisions on sustainable building integrate a number of strategies during the design, construction and operation of building projects. Selection of sustainable building materials represents an important strategy in the design of a building.2. SustainabilityIn recent years, the concept of sustainability has been the subject of much disputation by academics and professionals alike. In 1987, the World Conference on Environment and Development defined sustainable development as development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (WCED, 1987).Sustainability must address ecological impacts, regardless of conflicting interpretations of the WCED definition.A good sustainable product must give as much satisfaction as possible for the user. If not, itwill be unsuccessful on the market and an economic failure.It is also important to inform people as to what basis a certain product is considered to be sustainable or not and why they should buy it [4- 5].When developing a new product, it is illustrative to move between the three corners Ecology, Equity and Economy in order to obtain a suitable balance so that each category can be fulfilled in the best way.·Ecology (environmental protection).·Equity (social equity).·Economy (economic growth).2.1 Materials Selection and SustainabilityAmong the notable technological developments of the 20th century has been the development of tens of thousands of new materials for use in construction and engineering. The construction industry has also grown to the point where it is a very large consumer of energy and materials. Concern for the environment and the impact of human activity on the Earth's ecological systems has now become clear sighted.We are faced with the problems of material selection and the environmental consequences of their use. Environmentalists have proposed various methods for assessing the impact of materials and energy use, these include ecological foot printing, ecological rucksacks, embodied energy and carbon dioxide values, and so on. Engineers have put forward rational selection methods for the choice of materials. These techniques will be reviewed and explored in an attempt to provide an environmentally-aware, materials selection method- logy for use in construction.Strictly, the term sustainable means that something is capable of being sustained not for an hour, or a day, or a week, month or year, but indefinitely.The implication is that if some process which uses materials and energy is described as sustainable, then the materials and energy which are consumed are capable of being replaced by natural or other processes as fast as they are consumed. In many cases materials and energy appear to be consumed at a faster rate than they are being replaced. However, to make a judgment, we would need to know what the respective supply and consumption rates are in other words we need some quantitative or numerical index to help us [2].2.2 Environmental CriteriaSince construction uses such large quantities of materials, it has a major impact on the environment. In order to assess and evaluate such impact, a number of criteria or indices have been devised by economists, engineers and environmentalists, and the more important of these are the following [2].2.2.1 Embodied EnergyThis is quite simply the amount of energy consumed in manufacturing a unit quantity of a material, and it is usually expressed in kJ/kg. Its value is determined by the efficiency of the manufacturing plant. Values range from 275 GJ/tonne for aluminum (a high value) to 0.1 GJ/tonne for gravel aggregates (a low value) [2].2.2.2 Embodied Carbon DioxideEmbodied C02 is similar to embodied energy. It is the weight of C02 emitted during manufacture of unit weight of the material, and is usually expressed as kg of C02 per ton.Again, the value will depend upon the efficiency of the manufacturing plant [2].2.2.3 Ecological RucksackThe ecological rucksack concept was devised as a way of assessing material efficiency by F. Schmidt一Bleek [6]. He recognized that many tonnes of raw material could be extracted and processed to make just one kilogram of material. For example, the environmental rucksack for the precious metal platinum is 250,000:1.2.3 Rational Selection MethodThere are various approaches to the problem of selecting materials from the huge numbers now available. Designers can have recourse to materials property charts and data books. Alternatively, they can talk to their colleagues, hoping that by widening the knowledge circle, they will not omit a significant group of materials. Another strategy is simply to specify the same or a similar material to those used in previous, similar designs. All these are valid approaches, but they may result in the specification of a less than ideal material and overall, a less than optimal solution to the problem [3-5].The basis of the rational selection methods devised to date is a recognition that the performance of a component, artifact or structure is limited by the properties of the materials from which it is made. It will be rare for the performance of the item to depend solely on onematerial property; in nearly all cases, it is a combination of properties, which is important. To give an example, in lightweight design, strength to weight ratio of, and stiffness to weight ratio E/pwill be important. Ref. [3] has put forward the idea of plotting material properties against each other to produce material property maps. On these maps, each class of material occupies a field in material property space, and sub-fields map the space occupied by individual materials.These materials property charts are very information-rich they carry a large amount of information in a compact but accessible form. Interestingly, they reveal correlations between material properties, which can help in checking and estimating data, and they can also be used in performance optimization, in a manner such as that set out as follow.If we consider the complete range of materials, it immediately becomes apparent that for each property of an engineering material there is a characteristic range of values, and this range can be very large. For example, consider stiffness (Young's Modulus E). Materials range from jelly (very low stiffness) up to diamond (very high stiffness). The properties can span five decades (orders of magnitude),A number of conclusions can be drawn, including:(1) A rational selection method such the one put forward by Ashby is capable of incorporating environmental parameters such as embodied energy and C02 or the environmental rucksack concepts, thereby making possible rational selections based on environmental considerations.(2) This method is not as simple to use as the environmental preference method or the environmental profiles method. However, this rational method could be used to generate data for the environmental profiles and preference methods.(3) The construction industry needs to take steps to better integrate itself into the materials cycle. The quantity of demolition waste needs to be reduced, and more of it should be recycled. To this end, the building designers need to keep full records of materials of construction, and buildings need to be designed for easy dismantling at the end of their useful lives.3. Foundations and Construction ComponentIn any consideration of which building materials and alternatives can feasibly be integrated into the foundations of a large-scale development there are several limitations that must beconsidered.In terms of the actual materials that may be used, there are three main limitations. First, because of the large scale and heavy loads that the foundations must support, strength is imperative. Any materials must be consistently strong and able to effectively distribute the weight of the structure. The second major limitation is climate. In areas with sub-zero winter conditions, frost heave is a major consideration. For this reason, foundations must be deep enough to support the structure despite any changes in near-surface volume; shallow foundations will be insufficient unless certain innovative steps are taken. The limitation of climate also influences any decision on insulating foundations. Finally, there is the consideration of cost. This consideration is reliant on material availability, cost per unit, and building techniques and associated labor. For these reasons, the only materials that can feasibly be used are concrete and steel. Therefore, the alternatives for minimizing impact lie more in the methods of construction and any realistic structural changes that can be made.The three main foundation components of concrete, steel, and insulation will be examined as the only reasonable materials for the construction of a building with limitations such as the foundations [1].3.1 ConcreteIt is the fundamental component of the foundation construction, receiving the building loads through walls or posts and distributes them down and outwards through the footings. Concrete and cement have ecological advantages which include durability, long life, heat storage capability, and (in general) chemical inertness [8]. The life cycle concerns of concrete are as follows. First, there is land and habitat loss from mining activities. Furthermore, the quality of both air and water quality suffer from the acquisition, transportation, and manufacture. Carbon dioxide emissions are also a negative environmental impact accrued through the production and use of concrete. Similarly, dust and particulate are emitted at most stages of the concrete life-cycle. $oth carbon dioxide and particulate matter have negative impacts on air quality [1]. Water pollution is also another concern associated with the production of concrete at the production phase. Fly ash is by-product of the energy production from coal-fired plants and increasing its proportion in cement is environmentally beneficial in two ways. First, it helps inreducing the amount of solid waste which requires disposal. As well, fly ash in the cement mixture reduced the overall energy use by changing the consistency of the concrete. Fly ash, increases concrete strength, improves sulfate foundation, decreases permeability, reduced the water ratio required, and improves the pump ability and workability of the concrete [9]. Now in the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency requires that all buildings that receive federa funding contain fly ash and most concrete producer: have access to this industrial waste [9].There are alternative methods of both making concrete and building foundations with this concrete that have environmental benefits, no matter the structure scale or climate. These include Autoclaved Aerated Concrete, the increased integration of fly ash into the cement mixture, and the use of pre-cast foundation systems to reduce resource use. Through consideration and possible integration of these alternatives, impacts could potentially be reduced.3.2 SteelAs wood resources are becoming limited, steel is increasingly popular with builders. In the case of a large-scale building, steel reinforcement is basically a necessity for overall strength and weight distribution.The initial life cycle impacts of steel use are similar to those of concrete. These include land and habitat loss from mining activities, and air and water quality degradation from materials acquisition and manufacture [1]. However, the largest proportion of steel used nowadays contains a percentage of recycled materials. In terms of improving environmental conditions by reducing impacts, this is the only real recommendation for the use of steel in building foundations; to purchase recycled steel products. Not only would this reduce industrial and commercial solid waste, such a decision would also reward the manufacturers of such products.3. 3 InsulationNew and innovative pre-cast building foundations are becoming increasingly available and feasible for implementation. These new systems can reduce the overall raw material use, as well as conserve energy through the creation of an efficient building envelope. A further used of this rigid insulation as a skirt around the building foundations helps to eliminate any potential frost problems, improve drainage, and help further reduce heat loss. A polyethylene air and watervapor barrier is applied above the insulating layer, as is a three to four inch layer of sand. These shallow foundation systems have excellent insulating properties, decreased use of raw materials for concrete, and comparatively low demands for labor. However, the use of rigid insulation is increased. Also, in soils where frost and drainage is a consideration additional piles in the centre of the foundation may be required to prevent movement. This increases the relative land disturbance, although it remains still much less than that of deep foundation systems. Shallow foundations are structurally sound and are becoming increasingly common in colder climates. There are strength considerations associated with these new techniques which must be addressed by someone with the technical ability to do so, before they can be feasibly recommended for the building of the new residence.As discussed above, there are limitations to the sustainability of any foundation construction materials used. In other words, there are environmental impacts associated with all types of foundations. For these reasons, a primary recommendation is the use of secondary materials (fly ash and recycled steel) in the construction of foundations.4. FrameworkThe material components of the building envelope, that is, the foundation, wall construction, insulation and roof, have been analyzed within a framework of primarily qualitative criteria that aim to evaluate the sustainability of alternate materials relative to the materials cited in the current foundation design. This analytical process has enabled the identification of several construction materials that can be feasibly integrated into current design and construction standards of the building envelope.The tools and strategies described below are useful in analyzing the relative benefits of different materials[9-14].Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA). LCA is a comprehensive analysis that takes into consideration all aspects of a material over its entire lifetime: raw materials extraction; manufacturing and processing; transport; use; and post-use recycling, reuse, or disposal. This approach enables a true "apples to apples" comparison between materials.The BEES system (Building for Environmental and Economic Sustainability) developed by the National Institute of Standards and Technology is the most widely used methodology. BEES provides materials with ascore that can be compared to other similar products. At this time, however, a fairly limited number of materials have completed the BEES analysis.Life-Cycle Costing. Life-Cycle Costing is an analysis of the short- and long-term costs associated with a material, from purchase to ultimate recycling or disposal. This includes frequency of replacement, maintenance costs, and costs that are avoided through use of the material (or system). LCC is useful in looking beyond a comparison based solely on first costs. Similar to LCA, this type of analysis is not available for all materials, but a back-of-the-envelope calculation is usually fairly easy to work up.Certification. Many conventional building products are approved or certified by independent third party or government groups. The Forest Stewardship Council certifies the certifiers (Smart Wood and SCS) that assess whether forestry companies are using sustainable management practices to harvest wood. The Carpet and Rug Institute provides a Green Label for carpets that meet certain low-VOC criteria. Green Guard certifies products that meet strict indoor air quality criteria. The Department of Energy's Energy Star label identifies equipment and appliances that meet or exceed standards for energy efficiency. Scientific Certification Systems and Green Seal certify recycled-content claims and other green product claims made by manufacturers.5. ConclusionOver-consumption, resource utilization, pollution and over-population are examples of the perhaps most basic problems for the environment in the future. A more sustainable future can be achieved by producing more sustainable products causing less environmental impact. Materials and design are and will always be very important areas when developing more sustainable products.The Life Cycle Assessment concept might be the most effective way of determining the environmental impacts for all product stages from extract of material to the product disposal stage. A price must be set for restoration on every environmental impact. Information can be received from official authorities pertaining to the environment in different countries. Renewable and easy recyclable materials are preferably used together with a design for easy recycling and repair of the products. Minimization of the energy connected to the product is also important. Full sustainability can never be achieved for products according to thermodynamic laws.However, the attempt to achieve more sustainability is a requisite if we want to preserve the earth for the coming generations. Education, research and spreading of information will be very important for the future in order to receive more sustainable products especially because the market demand is important in order to develop successful sustainable products.References[1] M. Davison, J. Persmann, J. Reid, J. Stange and T. Weins, Green Building Materials Residence, A WATgreen/ERS 285 study.[2] J. L. Sturges, Construction Materials Selection and Sustainability, School of the Built Environment, Leeds Metropolitan University, UK.[3] M. F. Ashby, Materials Selection in Mechanical Design, Pergamon, Oxford, 1992.[4] M. F. Ashby and K. Johnson, Materials and Design: The Art And Science of Materials Selection in Product Design, Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002[5] L. Y. Ljungberg, Materials selection and design for development of sustainable products, Materials and Design 28(2007)466-479.[6] F. Berkhout and D. Smith, Products and the environment: an integrated approach to policy, Eur. Environ 9 (1999)174-185.[7] F. Schmidt-Bleek, Carnoules Declaration of the FactorTen Club, Wuppertal Institute, Germany, 1994.[8] A.Wilson,Building green on a budget,Environmental Building News8(5)(1999).[9] G.E.Dieter，Engineering Design，McGraw-Hill，New York，l991.[10] Sandy Patience (Ed.)，The Role of Evidence in The Selection of Building Products and Materials，Constructing Excellence in The Built Environment.[11] M.D.Bovea and R.Vidal，Increasing product value by integrating environmental impacts costs and customer valuation，J Resour Conserv Recycling 41(2004) 133-145.[12] N.S.Ermolaeva,M.B.G.Castro and P.V.Kandachar, Materials selection for an automotive structure by integrating structural optimization with environmental impact assessment，Materials and Design 25 (2004) 689.698.[13] M.Goedkoop and R.Spiensma，The Eco-Indicator 99：A Dam age Oriented Method for Life Cycle Impact Assessment，Amersfooft：PRe consultant B.V.，2000.中文翻译建筑材料的选择和规格Fae'q A. A. RadwanFaculty of Engineering, Near East University, KKTC, Lefkosa, Mersin 10, Turkey 摘要：建筑材料选择的局限性和可利用的建筑建设材料的可持续发展问题已经呈现出来，可以减少和降低建筑对坏境影响的实践经验和技术已经给出。

医学英语作文及翻译

医学英语作文及翻译Composition:In the realm of healthcare, the importance of medical English cannot be overstated. It serves as a universal language that connects medical professionals from diverse backgrounds, facilitating the exchange of knowledge and expertise. The English language is instrumental in medical research, international conferences, and the publication of medical literature.The field of medicine is ever-evolving, with new discoveries and advancements being made regularly. As such, medical professionals must keep abreast of the latest developments, which often requires reading and understanding medical literature written in English. This is why proficiency in medical English is crucial for doctors, nurses, and other healthcare workers.Moreover, medical English plays a pivotal role in patient care. With the increase in international travel, healthcare providers often encounter patients who speak different languages. In such cases, medical English serves as a common ground for communication, ensuring that patients receive accurate diagnoses and treatments.In addition, medical English is essential for medical education. Students pursuing careers in healthcare must learna vast array of medical terms and phrases, which are predominantly in English. This knowledge is not only necessary for their studies but also for their future professional practice.Translation:在医疗保健领域，医学英语的重要性不言而喻。

论文及英文翻译格式[推荐阅读]

论文及英文翻译格式[推荐阅读]第一篇：论文及英文翻译格式六、毕业设计(论文)的撰写1、内容与要求毕业设计(论文)的内容一般依次由以下部分组成：封面、任务书、中文摘要、英文摘要、目录、(符号说明)、前言、正文、结论、参考文献、致谢、(附录)、外文资料译文、外文原文。

毕业设计(论文)应采用汉语(外语专业用外语)撰写。

要求内容层次分明、文理通顺、数据可靠、文字简练、说明透彻、立论正确、推理严谨。

2、毕业设计(论文)的格式及规范毕业设计(论文)的格式、图纸绘制、实验数据、各种标准的运用和引用都要符合各学科、各专业国家标准的规定。

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毕业论文外文翻译范例

外文原文(一)Savigny and his Anglo-American Disciple s*M. H. HoeflichFriedrich Carl von Savigny, nobleman, law reformer, champion of the revived German professoriate, and founder of the Historical School of jurisprudence, not only helped to revolutionize the study of law and legal institutions in Germany and in other civil law countries, but also exercised a profound influence on many of the most creative jurists and legal scholars in England and the United States. Nevertheless, tracing the influence of an individual is always a difficult task. It is especially difficult as regards Savigny and the approach to law and legal sources propounded by the Historical School. This difficulty arises, in part, because Savigny was not alone in adopting this approach. Hugo, for instance, espoused quite similar ideas in Germany; George Long echoed many of these concepts in England during the 1850s, and, of course, Sir Henry Sumner Maine also espoused many of these same concepts central to historical jurisprudence in England in the 1860s and 1870s. Thus, when one looks at the doctrinal writings of British and American jurists and legal scholars in the period before 1875, it is often impossible to say with any certainty that a particular idea which sounds very much the sort of thing that might, indeed, have been derived from Savigny's works, was, in fact, so derived. It is possible, nevertheless, to trace much of the influence of Savigny and his legal writings in the United States and in Great Britain during this period with some certainty because so great was his fame and so great was the respect accorded to his published work that explicit references to him and to his work abound in the doctrinal writing of this period, as well as in actual law cases in the courts. Thus, Max Gutzwiller, in his classic study Der einfluss Savignys auf die Entwicklung des International privatrechts, was able to show how Savigny's ideas on conflict of laws influenced such English and American scholars as Story, Phillimore, Burge, and Dicey. Similarly, Andreas Schwarz, in his "Einflusse Deutscher Zivilistik im Auslande," briefly sketched Savigny's influence upon John Austin, Frederick Pollock, and James Bryce. In this article I wish to examine Savigny's influence over a broader spectrum and to draw a picture of his general fame and reputation both in Britain and in the United States as the leading Romanist, legal historian, and German legal academic of his day. The picture of this Anglo-American respect accorded to Savigny and the historical school of jurisprudence which emerges from these sources is fascinating. It sheds light not only upon Savigny’s trans-channel, trans-Atlantic fame, but also upon the extraordinarily*M.H.Hoeflich, Savigny and his Anglo-American Disciples, American Journal of Comparative Law, vol.37, No.1, 1989.cosmopolitan outlook of many of the leading American and English jurists of the time. Of course, when one sets out to trace the influence of a particular individual and his work, it is necessary to demonstrate, if possible, precisely how knowledge of the man and his work was transmitted. In the case of Savigny and his work on Roman law and ideas of historical jurisprudence, there were three principal modes of transmission. First, there was the direct influence he exercised through his contacts with American lawyers and scholars. Second, there was the influence he exercised through his books. Third, there was the influence he exerted indirectly through intermediate scholars and their works. Let us examine each mode separately.I.INFLUENCE OF THE TRANSLATED WORKSWhile American and British interest in German legal scholarship was high in the antebellum period, the number of American and English jurists who could read German fluently was relatively low. Even those who borrowed from the Germans, for instance, Joseph Story, most often had to depend upon translations. It is thus quite important that Savigny’s works were amongst the most frequently translated into English, both in the United States and in Great Britain. His most influential early work, the Vom Beruf unserer Zeitfur Rechtsgeschichte und Gestzgebung, was translated into English by Abraham Hayward and published in London in 1831. Two years earlier the first volume of his History of Roman Law in the Middle Ages was translated by Cathcart and published in Edinburgh. In 1830, as well, a French translation was published at Paris. Sir Erskine Perry's translation of Savigny's Treatise on Possession was published in London in 1848. This was followed by Archibald Brown's epitome of the treatise on possession in 1872 and Rattigan's translation of the second volume of the System as Jural Relations or the Law of Persons in 1884. Guthrie published a translation of the seventh volume of the System as Private International Law at Edinburgh in 1869. Indeed, two English translations were even published in the far flung corners of the British Raj. A translation of the first volume of the System was published by William Holloway at Madras in 1867 and the volume on possession was translated by Kelleher and published at Calcutta in 1888. Thus, the determined English-speaking scholar had ample access to Savigny's works throughout the nineteenth century.Equally important for the dissemination of Savigny's ideas were those books and articles published in English that explained and analyzed his works. A number of these must have played an important role in this process. One of the earliest of these is John Reddie's Historical Notices of the Roman law and of the Progress of its Study in Germany, published at Edinburgh in 1826. Reddie was a noted Scots jurist and held the Gottingen J.U.D. The book, significantly, is dedicated to Gustav Hugo. It is of that genre known as an external history of Roman law-not so much a history of substantive Roman legal doctrine but rather a historyof Roman legal institutions and of the study of Roman law from antiquity through the nineteenth century. It is very much a polemic for the study of Roman law and for the Historical School. It imparts to the reader the excitement of Savigny and his followers about the study of law historically and it is clear that no reader of the work could possibly be left unmoved. It is, in short, the first work of public relations in English on behalf of Savigny and his ideas.Having mentioned Reddie's promotion of Savigny and the Historical School, it is important to understand the level of excitement with which things Roman and especially Roman law were greeted during this period. Many of the finest American jurists were attracted-to use Peter Stein's term-to Roman and Civil law, but attracted in a way that, at times, seems to have been more enthusiastic than intellectual. Similarly, Roman and Civil law excited much interest in Great Britain, as illustrated by the distinctly Roman influence to be found in the work of John Austin. The attraction of Roman and Civil law can be illustrated and best understood, perhaps, in the context of the publicity and excitement in the English-speaking world surrounding the discovery of the only complete manuscript of the classical Roman jurist Gaius' Institutes in Italy in 1816 by the ancient historian and German consul at Rome, B.G. Niebuhr. Niebuhr, the greatest ancient historian of his time, turned to Savigny for help with the Gaius manuscript (indeed, it was Savigny who recognized the manuscript for what it was) and, almost immediately, the books and journals-not just law journals by any means-were filled with accounts of the discovery, its importance to legal historical studies, and, of course, what it said. For instance, the second volume of the American Jurist contains a long article on the civil law by the scholarly Boston lawyer and classicist, John Pickering. The first quarter of the article is a gushing account of the discovery and first publication of the Gaius manuscript and a paean to Niebuhr and Savigny for their role in this. Similarly, in an article published in the London Law Magazine in 1829 on the civil law, the author contemptuously refers to a certain professor who continued to tell his students that the text of Gaius' Institutes was lost for all time. What could better show his ignorance of all things legal and literary than to be unaware of Niebuhr's great discovery?Another example of this reaction to the discovery of the Gaius palimpsest is to be found in David Irving's Introduction to the Study of the Civil Law. This volume is also more a history of Roman legal scholarship and sources than a study of substantive Roman law. Its pages are filled with references to Savigny's Geschichte and its approach clearly reflects the influence of the Historical School. Indeed, Irving speaks of Savigny's work as "one of the most remarkable productions of the age." He must have been truly impressed with German scholarship and must also have been able to convince the Faculty of Advocates, forwhom he was librarian, of the worth of German scholarship, for in 1820 the Faculty sent him to Gottingen so that he might study their law libraries. Irving devotes several pages of his elementary textbook on Roman law to the praise of the "remarkable" discovery of the Gaius palimpsest. He traces the discovery of the text by Niebuhr and Savigny in language that would have befitted an adventure tale. He elaborates on the various labors required to produce a new edition of the text and was particularly impressed by the use of a then new chemical process to make the under text of the palimpsest visible. He speaks of the reception of the new text as being greeted with "ardor and exultation" strong words for those who spend their lives amidst the "musty tomes" of the Roman law.This excitement over the Verona Gaius is really rather strange. Much of the substance of the Gaius text was already known to legal historians and civil lawyers from its incorporation into Justinian's Institutes and so, from a substantive legal perspective, the find was not crucial. The Gaius did provide new information on Roman procedural rules and it did also provide additional information for those scholars attempting to reconstruct pre-Justinianic Roman law. Nevertheless, these contributions alone seem hardly able to justify the excitement the discovery caused. Instead, I think that the Verona Gaius discovery simply hit a chord in the literary and legal community much the same as did the discovery of the Rosetta Stone or of Schliemann’s Troy. Here was a monument of a great civilization brought newly to light and able to be read for the first time in millenia. And just as the Rosetta Stone helped to establish the modern discipline of Egyptology and Schliemann's discoveries assured the development of classical archaeology as a modern academic discipline, the discovery of the Verona Gaius added to the attraction Roman law held for scholars and for lawyers, even amongst those who were not Romanists by profession. Ancillary to this, the discovery and publication of the Gaius manuscript also added to the fame of the two principals involved in the discovery, Niebuhr and Savigny. What this meant in the English-speaking world is that even those who could not or did not wish to read Savigny's technical works knew of him as one of the discoverers of the Gaius text. This fame itself may well have helped in spreading Savigny's legal and philosophical ideas, for, I would suggest, the Gaius "connection" may well have disposed people to read other of Savigny's writings, unconnected to the Gaius, because they were already familiar with his name.Another example of an English-speaking promoter of Savigny is Luther Stearns Cushing, a noted Boston lawyer who lectured on Roman law at the Harvard Law School in 1848-49 and again in 1851- 1852.Cushing published his lectures at Boston in 1854 under the title An Introduction to the Study of Roman Law. He devoted a full chapter to a description of the historical school and to the controversy betweenSavigny and Thibaut over codification. While Cushing attempted to portray fairly the arguments of both sides, he left no doubt as to his preference for Savigny's approach:The labors of the historical school have established an entirely new and distinct era in the study of the Roman jurisprudence; and though these writers cannot be said to have thrown their predecessors into the shade, it seems to be generally admitted, that almost every branch of the Roman law has received some important modification at their hands, and that a knowledge of their writings, to some extent, at least, is essentially necessary to its acquisition.译文(一)萨维尼和他的英美信徒们*M·H·豪弗里奇弗雷德里奇·卡尔·冯·萨维尼出身贵族，是一位出色的法律改革家，也是一位倡导重建德国教授协会的拥护者，还是历史法学派的创建人之一。