英语语法总结的树形结构

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定语从句树状图

定语从句树状图
在复合句中修饰名词和代词的从句叫做定语从句，被定语从句修饰的名词或代词叫做先行词，同学们知道定语从句知识的树状图？
定语从句的定义
关系代词引导的定语从句
关系代词所代替的先行词是人或物的名词或代词，并在句中充当主语、宾语、定语等成分。

关系代词在定语从句中作主语时，从句谓语动词的人称和数要和先行词保持一致。

1）,that
这些词代替的先行词是人的名词或代词，在从句中所起作用如下：
Is he the man an / that I sa/that在从句中作宾语）
2) ary,etlastethemeetingshouldbeover.
第1句用e相当于andbythattime。

七、弄错定语从句中谓语动词的数
原则上说，定语从句中谓语动词的单复数应与所修饰先行词的单复数保持一致，否则就会出错。

如：
谁那样说都是在说谎。

误：Anyoneanthateveryonerespectshim.
正：Heisamanthateveryonerespects.
刚才给我们讲故事的那个人很有趣。

误：Themantoldusastoryjustnoan/fan/595289/。

英汉句法结构对比关照下的英语长句的翻译

第34卷第1期Vol.34N o.1开封教育学院学报Journal of Kaifeng Institute of Education2014年1月20日Jan.20201338doi:10.3969/j.issn.1008-9640.2014.01.019翻译是把一种语言表达的信息准确流畅地转换成另一种语言的活动或行为。

而在翻译实践中，我们常常会遇到这种情况，即在翻译一个长句（一般是指20个词左右或以上的句子）时，虽然每个单词、词组或短语都理解了，但译文在整体上却不够通顺流畅，勉强表达了原文的意思，但遣词造句不地道，不符合译入语的习惯。

究其原因，主要是英汉两种语言在句法结构上存在较大差异，因此对英汉句子结构作对比分析是非常有必要的。

笔者主要从英汉句子结构、语法及重心三个方面分析英汉句法差异，并在此基础上进一步探讨英语长句相应的翻译策略。

一、英汉句法结构对比（一）英语树形结构，汉语竹节结构英语句子结构通常被形象地称为“树形结构”，即无论一个英语句子多长，其主干结构非常突出，而那些零散的词、短语和从句则依靠关联词、连词等与主干连接，如一根根树枝、一片片叶子挂靠在树干上。

虽然英语句子多枝桠蔓生，但结构严谨、逻辑清晰。

而汉语句子各成分的相互结合则多依靠语境的映衬及语义的贯通，句子犹如竹节，按逻辑顺序或时间先后顺序展开，因此汉语句子结构又被称为“竹节结构”［1］。

正是这种结构方面的差异造就了英汉句子结构的不同，英语多复合长句，汉语多简单短句。

遇到英语长句时，可考虑将从句或短语转化成汉语的简单句、短句，分开来表达。

（二）英语形合语法，汉语意合语法英语是一种“形合”语法，语法关系、语态、时态等表达清楚。

而汉语是一种“意合”语法，词语间的搭配以达意为主，不注重词语的形式，没有严格语法意义上的句子结构。

例如，汉语句子甚至可以缺少主要成分，如缺主语：下课了。

缺谓语：明天周四。

因此将英语长句译成汉语时不必过分拘泥于原文的语法形式。

英汉句法结构对比

n n
Especially 关联词
Even if you go there, there won’t be any result. 原译：即使你去了也不会有什么结果。改译1：你去了也不会有什么结果。改译2：你去也白去。 n The wind was so strong that he found it difficult to keep on his feet. 原译：风如此之大，以致他发现站住脚很困难。改译：风太大了，他感到很难站稳。
替代与重复
n
这是英语和汉语的一个重要差异：英语重替代（即多用代词，包括人称代词、指示代词、不定代词和关系代词，还有表示替代的词 so, do）；汉语重重复，重复现象比比皆是。
Examples review
n
我们的民族是一个伟大的民族。
Ours is a great nation/ our nation is great one.
2. 他的不合作态度使这个项目进展十分缓慢。原译：The project makes less progress because of his incooperation. 错误之处：时态；形容词比较级；名词改译1：The project is making very slow progress due to his lack of cooperation. 改译2：The project is proceeding rather slowly because of his uncooperativeness. 其他译法： 1. His uncooperative attitude accounted for the slow progress of the project. 2. His uncooperative attitude resulted in the project’s slow progress.

【英语】英语语言学树型图

【关键字】英语树形图详细讲解1. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady suddenly left.Det A N Qual Vb) The car stopped at the end of the road.Det N V P Det N P Det Nc) The snow might have blocked the road.Det N Aux Aux V Det Nd) He never appears quite mature.N Qual V Deg A2. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) full of peopleAPA P Nfull of peopleb) a story about a sentimental girlNPNP PPDet N P NPDet A Na story about a sentimental girlc) often read detective storiesVPQual V NPA Noften read detective storiesd) the argument against the proposalsNPNP PPDet N P NPDet Nthe argument against the proposalse) move towards the windowVPV PPP Det Nmove towards the window3. Draw phrase structure trees for each of the following sentences.a) The jet landed.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N Pst VThe jet landedb) Mary became very ill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst V APDeg A Mary became very illc) What will you talk about?CPNP C SN Infl NP Infl VPVP NPV P N What will you e talk about e d) The apple might hit the man.SNP VPDet N Aux V NPDet NThe apple might hit the manORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet N V NPDet NThe apple might hit the mane) He often reads detective stories.SNP VPN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective storiesORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPPresN Qual V NPA NHe often reads etective stories4. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.a) A frightened passenger landed the crippled airplane.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V NPDet A NA frightened passenger landed the crippled airplaneb) A huge moon hung in the black sky.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet A NA huge moon hung in the black skyc) An unusual event occurred before the meeting.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A N Pst V PPP NPDet NAn unusual event occurred before the meetingd) A quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill.InflP(=S)NP Infl VPDet A NP Pst V PPA N P NPDet A NA quaint old house appeared on the grassy hill5. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.InflP(=S)NP VPN Aux V NPDet A NPN CON N Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants ORInflP(=S)NP VPN Infl V NPDet A NPN CON N Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pantsb) Helen put on her clothes and went out.SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pst VP CON VPVP NP V AdvV P Det NHelen put on her clothes and went outc) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.SNP VPN VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P N Mary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statistics ORInflP(=S)NP Infl VPN Pres VP CON VPVP NP VP NPV A P N V A P N Mary is fond of literature but (is) tired of statisticsd) The detective went out and the mysterious man came in.SS CON SNP VP NP VPDet N V Adv Det A N V AdvThe detective went out and the mysterious man came ine) Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt.SNP VPCPN V C SS CON SNP VP NP VPN Aux V Det N Aux V Crusoe knows that spring will come and the snow will melt 6. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function as complements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPN V NPNYou know that I hate warOR CPC InflP(=S)NP Infl VPCPN Pres V C SNP VPN V NPNYou know that I hate warb) He said that Tom asked whether the class was over.SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPCPN V C SNP VPDet N VL A He said that Tom asked whether the class was overc) Gerry can’t believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.SNP VPN VP NPCPAux Neg V NP C SDet N NP VPN V NPDet A N Gerry can not believe the fact thatAnna flunked the English examd) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.SNP VPCPN VL A C SNP VPDet N V NP NPN Det NChris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Roycee) The children argued over whether bats had wings.SNP VPCPDet N VP C SV P NP VPN V NPNThe children argued over whether bats had wings7. Each of the following sentences contains a relative clause. Draw the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of the sentences.a) The essay that he wrote was too long.Deep structureCPC SNP VP Det N CP V APC S Deg PNP Infl VPN V NPNThe essay he wrote that was too longSurface StructureCPC SNP VP Det N CP V APC S Deg PNP NP Infl VPN N Pst V NPNThe essay that he wrote e was too longb) The dog that he keeps bites.Deep structureCPC SNP VP Det N CP VC Infl SPres NP VPN V NPNThe dog he keeps that bitesSurface StructureCPC SNP VP Det N CP VC SNP NP Infl VPN N Pres V NPNThe dog that he keeps e bitesc) Herbert found the man she loved.Deep structureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N C SNP Infl VPNPN VNHerbert found the man she loved whoSurface StructureCPC SNP VPN Infl V NPCPDet N SCNP Infl VPNP NPN VN N Herbert found the man (whom) she loved ed) The girl whom he often quarrels with majors in linguistics.Deep structureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPP NPC Infl SNNP VPPPN Qual VP NPV P NThe girl he often quarrels with whom majors in linguisticsSurface StructureCPC SNP VPDet N CP V PPP NPC SNNP NP Infl VPPPN N Qual VP NPV P NThe girl whom he often quarrels with e majors in linguistics8. The derivations of the following sentences involve the inversion transformation. Give the deep structure and the surface structure trees for each of these sentences.a) Would you come tomorrow?Deep structureCPC SVPNP AdvPN Infl V Advyou would come tomorrowSurface structureCPC SVPNP AdvPInflN Infl V Advwould you e come tomorrowb) Can you pass me the newspaper?Deep structureCPC SVPNP NP NPN Infl V N Det Nyou can pass me the newspaperSurface structureCPC SVPInfl NP NP NPN Infl V N Det NCan you e pass me the newspaperc) Should the students report the incident?Deep structureCPC SVPNP NPDet N Infl V Det Nthe students should report the incidentSurface structureCPC SVPInfl NP NPDet N Infl V Det N should the students e report the incident d) What did you eat for lunch?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Nyou did eat what for lunch Surface structureCPNP C SVPInfl NP PPNP NP N N Infl V PN N what did you e eat e for lunche) Who should this be reported to ?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPVP NPN Infl V V PNthis should be reported to whom Surface structureCPNP C SVPN Infl NP PPVP NPN Infl V V PN whom should this e be reported to ef) What was Helen bringing to the party?Deep structureCPC SVPNP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Det NHelen was bringing what to the partySurface structureCPNP C SVPN Infl NP PPNP NPN Infl V PN Det N what was Helen e bringing e to the party此文档是由网络收集并进行重新排版整理.word可编辑版本！。

活化英语语法教学

活化英语语法教学近年来，我国的英语教学虽然进行了一系列的改革，但是与听、说、读、写密切相关的语法教学却依然沿袭着传统的教学模式：参照语法书讲解，然后辅以填空、翻译、改错。

这样的语法教学内容枯燥、活动单一、气氛沉闷、收效低微。

我认为语法教学的目的是帮助学生学会运用语法规则。

教师选择真实的语言材料，丰富课堂活动，采用正确的纠错方法，激发学生学习的积极性，可有效改变乏味、费时、低效的现象。

一、选择真实的语言材料，活化教学内容语法教学的内容包括语言形式、含义以及语用性。

现时的语法书通常以树形结构编排，即：在主干的语法项目下有若干分支项目。

每一项目略加分析后列出数个孤立的句子。

这样的语法书适合作工具书供查阅使用，因为它着重于语言形式与含义的分析，很难顾及到语用性。

为了加强内容的语用性，并激活课堂学习，教师可将语法书上的语法项目与日常生活中使用的真实语言材料结合起来，让教材反映真实的社会。

这样既可弥补语法书知识无法体现语言的语用性所造成的不足，又从内容上活化了语法教学。

语言材料包括文字材料、声像资料以及电子教材等。

文字材料如报纸、杂志、书籍、诗歌、广告、地图、表格和学生作文等。

声像资料如电影、电视、录像、影碟、广播、录音、图片等。

随着电脑的日益普及以及互联网的覆盖率日益扩大，教师可以从世界各地的高等学府、科研中心、出版机构等网址上选择与教学相关的材料。

教师将这些真实的语言材料根据学生的接受能力以及教学要求进行适当的改编。

如：在进行状语从句的教学时，教师可针对往年奥斯卡最佳影片《恋爱中的莎士比亚》(shakespeare in love)受到人们普遍关注的特点，准备一篇关于莎士比亚生平的短文，帮助学生学习状语从句。

这样的材料迎合了学生追求时尚的心理。

使他们兴趣大增。

再如：针对年轻人喜欢唱歌的特点，教师可以借助英文歌曲帮助学生学习语法。

这样语法规则与实际生活结合起来，有助于调动学生的积极性，活化语法教学。

二、加强社会交际型练习，活化课堂活动教学活动的设计丰富多彩，许多论文中都有列举，我认为所有的活动可分为单一强化型和社会交际型两种。

英语句子结构树状图

英语句子结构树状图英语的基本成分有六种：主语（subject）、谓语（predicate）、表语（predicative）、宾语（object）、定语（attribute）和状语（adverbial）.英语句子成分中，有些具有形态标志.如第一人称代词作主语就用主格“I”，作宾语用宾格“me”，作定语用所有格“my”.这些形态变化对分析辨认成分汉语与英语就句子成分表面上看来差不多，实际上有不少差别.例如：（1） Xiao Li went to bed as soon as he came home.小李回家后，立刻就睡觉了.（2） I'll go when I have had my dinner.我吃了饭就去.在英语中，同一个主语在第二次出现时不能省略，必须把每个谓语所陈述的对象都表示出来.而在汉语中，同一个主语在句中第二次出现时，就可以省略.如例（1）中，汉语说“小李回家后立刻就睡觉了”，省去了第二个分句的主语，倒可以避免造成误解.若将第二次出现的主语补出来，说成“小李回家后，他立刻就睡觉了”.听的人反而可能把那个“他”误会成另一个人.英语五种基本句型列式如下：基本句型一：S+V （主+谓）基本句型二：S+V+P （主+谓+表）基本句型三：S+V+O （主+谓+宾）基本句型四：S+V+o+O （主+谓+间宾+直宾）基本句型五：S+V+O+C （主+谓+宾+宾补） 4 追问：那主系表结构呢回答：是主系表结构中的副词啊.\x0d一.何谓主系表结构：所谓主系表结构就是英语句子中的主要成分是主语、系动词和表语.\x0dLi Lei is a Chineseboy.( Li Lei 是名词，作主语.)\x0dHe is from England.( He 是代词，作主语.)\x0dFeeding the birds is my hobby.(“ Feeding the birds ”是动名词短语，作主语.)\x0dWhat she said is right.(“ What she said ”是从句，作主语.)\x0d2.系动词（ Link verb ）：系动词本身有一定的词义，但不能独立作谓语，必须和句子中的表语一起构成谓语.简单地说，将主语和表语联系在一起，并构成一个完整句子的动词就叫做系动词.目前学到的系动词有 be ,feel ,look ,sound ,taste ,smell 等.例如：\x0dThis flower is beautiful.\x0dI felt very tired.\x0dYou look worried.\x0dIt tastes delicious.\x0d3.表语（ Predicative ）：表语是用来说明主语的身份、特征或状态的.它又叫作主语补足语.表语位于系动词之后，主要由名词、代词、形容词、数词、副词、介词短语、分词（短语）或动名词（短语）等来充当.例如：\x0dI am fine .( fine 是形容词，作表语)\x0dHe is a boy .( boy 是名词，作表语)\x0dFive plus two isseven .( seven 是数词，作表语)\x0d是主系表结构中的副词啊.。

英语句法的构造特点

英语句法的构造特点英汉句式的共性，主要体现在简单句上。

就复杂句而言，英汉句式在宏观结构和语义逻辑上都存在着很大差异。

因此，要写好句子，就必须先了解英语句法的构造特点以及英汉句法的异同，否则难免造出“Chinglish”(汉式英语)的句子来。

《英语的“树式结构”和汉语的“竹式结构”有研究认为(潘文国，1997)，英汉语组织句子的最基本规律是不同的：英语为“树式结构”，而汉语为“竹式结构”。

英语句子的“树式结构”体现为三层意思：1)句子有一个基本的主干，主谓一致是英语的本质原则。

2)所有语义分支都源自主干。

3)句子的复杂化不影响这个基本主干。

在句子主干的基础上，其他修饰成分依据相应的语法规则“添加，，到主干之上，就像是树干上的一个个“分枝”，其结构见图5所示。

句前状语前置定语图5英语一般句式的“树式”结构后置定语“不及物动词”和“系动词”，所以，句子主分也形成三个明显的层次，详见图7所示：主谓宾／补——连带成分娼语为‘及物动词，，时，不可缺)定／状——附加成分耐句子的基本格局没有影响)图6英语六大句子成分关系图1)In recent yearswehaVe built many highways that con_ect thn ose lonely villages．主干图7句子树式结桷图与英语句式结构相比，汉语的句子结构按照时间逻辑顺序衔接，就像“竹节”一样“直线式”延伸，如图8所示。

汉语的“竹式结构”也体现为三层意思：1)汉语句子“主干”的意义不明显；无“主干”和“枝权”之分。

2)汉语句子的构造方式是一节一节“拔”起来的。

3)汉语句子扩展时会引起结构的不断变化。

(例2)近几年我们建设了许多高速公路(s1)，把偏远的乡村都连接了起来(s2)，有力地带动了农村经济的发展(s3)。

图8汉语的“竹枝形”结构我们在第二章提到过，汉语是以一系列“动词”发展句子的。

汉语动词无词型变化，使用灵活；句子的发展则以动作发生的自然时空逻辑为依据。

英汉句法结构的差异及其对翻译的启示【精选】

英汉句法结构的差异及其对翻译的启示[摘要] 中西方思维模式的不同和英汉两种语言本身的差异导致了这两种语言的句法结构存在很大差异。

英语句法重形合，树形结构；汉语句法重意合，线性结构。

深刻理解两种语言句法结构的不同特点能够为我们在进行两种语言转换时提供重要的指导意义。

[关键词] 英汉；句法结构；差异；翻译前言：英汉两种语言的句法结构存在很大差异。

我们常说，英语重形合，句子成树形结构，汉语重意合，句子成线形结构。

英汉句法结构到底有何不同？两者为何存在如此大的差异？只有理解了这些问题，才能对我们进行两种语言之间的转换提供指导意义。

英汉句法结构的差异英语的句法结构特点是形合，强调句际之间、句内各成分之间要用形式逻辑关系词连接。

我们知道，英语句子具有严格的句法结构，名词的性、数、格，谓语动词的时态语态，以及主从句之间的关系代词，关系副词等都是把句子连接起来的纽带，由此英语句子在一定的框架内，就形成了以主谓为主干，其他修饰语或限定语成分为旁支的树形结构。

因此在汉译英时，我们一定要注意补充必要的限定语或连接词，保证译出的英语句子是完整的，通顺的。

而汉语的句法结构特点是意合，强调意义关联，以语义为中心，句法结构不必完备，而且也不需要使用诸如连接词等衔接手段，正如申小龙先生所指出，汉语句法特点是重意会、重流动、重具象、4 11 201628重虚实。

[3]因而，汉语句子则形成了一种线形结构，没有主谓框架的限制，往往逐步交代，逐层铺开，节奏简洁明快。

因而在英译汉时，不要拘泥于原文的结构，而是要尽量符合汉语的特点。

英汉句法结构差异的原因我们知道，语言和思维的关系密不可分，两者相互影响，相互作用。

语言是思维的工具，是思维的载体，“没有语言，思维无以定其形，无以约其式，无以证其实”[1] ，而思维模式又影响着语言的使用，英汉两种不同的思维模式势必会影响英汉两种语言不同的句法结构。

大体而言，西方人偏向于抽象思维，逻辑性和分析性强，长于精确，因而英语句子有着严格的形式要求，需要在一定的语法框架内表达，力求客观，理性，精确。

tree的用法总结大全4篇

tree的用法总结大全tree的用法总结大全精选4篇（一）1. 构建树(Tree)：用于构建一个树形数据结构，可以使用Tree类或者其他相关数据结构来实现。

2. 遍历树：通过不同的遍历算法（前序遍历、中序遍历、后序遍历等）对树的节点进行访问和操作。

3. 查找树：根据特定的搜索规则在树中查找节点，如二叉搜索树的查找操作。

4. 插入节点：向树中插入新的节点，可以根据特定的插入规则将节点插入到合适的位置。

5. 删除节点：从树中删除指定的节点，可以根据特定的删除规则执行删除操作，并保持树的结构完整。

6. 查找树的高度：计算树的高度，即树的最大深度，可以使用递归或迭代方法实现。

7. 树的平衡：判断一个树是否平衡，即左右子树的高度差不超过1，可以使用递归方法实现。

8. 树的深度优先搜索(DFS)：使用深度优先搜索算法对树进行遍历，可以使用递归或栈来实现。

9. 树的广度优先搜索(BFS)：使用广度优先搜索算法对树进行遍历，使用队列来实现。

10. 判断树的相等：判断两棵树是否相等，即树的结构和节点值都相同。

11. 判断树的子树：判断一棵树是否是另一棵树的子树，即判断一个树的结构和节点值是否包含在另一个树中。

12. 树的序列化与反序列化：将树转化为字符串或其他形式的序列化数据，或者将序列化数据转化为树结构。

13. 二叉树的镜像：将一棵二叉树的左右节点互换，可以使用递归或迭代方法实现。

14. 树的修剪：删除树中所有不在给定范围内的节点，可以使用递归方法实现。

15. 树的路径求和：查找树中从根节点到叶子节点的路径，使得路径上节点值之和等于目标值。

16. 最近公共祖先：查找两个节点的最近公共祖先节点，可以使用递归方法实现。

17. 判断对称树：判断一棵树是否是对称的，即树的左子树和右子树是否对称。

18. 重建树：根据树的前序遍历和中序遍历结果重建树的结构，或者根据树的后序遍历和中序遍历结果重建树的结构。

19. 树的直径：计算树的直径，即树中任意两个节点之间的最大距离，可以使用深度优先搜索算法实现。

英汉语言之间的主要差异

英汉语⾔之间的主要差异英汉语⾔之间的主要差异导语：如果能够对英汉两种语⾔之间结构⽅⾯的差异有所了解，掌握两者之间的⼀些转化规律，再假以时⽇反复练习，做好⼝笔译也不是⼀件很难的事情。

⼩编在此总结出英汉语⾔在结构⽅⾯的⼀些主要差异，相信对各位必有所裨益。

⼀、英语重形合汉语重意合就整体结构和表达⽅式⽽⾔，英语是⼀种形合性的语⾔，⽽汉语则是⼀种意合性的语⾔。

英语的句⼦⼀般是按照固定的结构和⽅式来组织和表达的，偏重于形式;汉语的句⼦则是按照其字词的含义来组合和连接的，表达⽅式灵活多变，偏重于语意。

英语句⼦之间的关系可以通过时态、标点符号、连接词等表⽰得⼀清⼆楚;⽽汉语句⼦之间的关系则要靠句⼦本⾝的语意来表现。

【例1】 Another attempt, and you’ll succeed. 【译⽂】再试⼀次，你就会成功。

或：只要再试⼀次，你就会成功。

【分析】本句是⼀个由and连接的简单并列句，⼀般将来时态明确表明了两句间的动作关系。

但汉语译⽂就⽐较灵活，句⼦之间的关系主要靠语意来表达，关联词可译(括号内译⽂)也可不译，习惯于不译。

【例2】 Now the integrated circuit has reduced by many times the size of the computer of which it forms a part, thus creating a new generation of portable minicomputer. 【译⽂】现在集成电路成了计算机的组成部分，使计算机的体积⼤⼤缩⼩，从⽽产⽣了新⼀代的可携式微型计算机。

【分析】本句是由⼀个主句、⼀个定语从句和⼀个分词状语组成的主从复合句。

主句⽤现在完成时，定语从句⽤⼀般现在时，再加⼀个由thus连接的现在分词短语作状语，通过时态、逗号、关联词和现在分词短语把各句之间的关系表达得⾮常清楚。

⽽汉语则在对各句简单陈述的基础上，通过调整语序和运⽤“使”、“从⽽”的词意把各句之间的层层递进的因果关系表达出来。

修订版《语言学纲要》第四章语法答案

第四章语法一、举例解释下列名词内部曲折-一是通过改变词中语素的部分元音或辅音来表示语法意义的一种方式，又称语音交替或音位交替。

如英语的所谓不规则动词，大多是用语音交替来表示形态变化.格一一表示名词、代词在句中同其他词的关系，它的意义是直接和句法相关的。

性-一通过词（名词、代词等）的形态变化表现事物的性别特征。

欧洲的许多语言中都有。

屈折词缀一一黏附在词的后面，只改变一个词的形式，不构成新词的词缀。

黏着语素一-不能够独立成词的语素叫黏着语素。

体一-体（aspect）表示动作行为的各种阶段和状态，是动词特有的语法范畴。

最常见的是完成体和未完成体（或持续体、进行体），此外还有起始体、继续体、中断体、反复体、短时体（或瞬间体）等等。

时一一时是动词的语法范畴，时（tense）表示动作行为发生的时间。

这时间往往以说话的时间为准，分为现在、过去、未来。

词法-一语素组合在词的规则和词的变化规则合称词法。

二、填空1、和动词有关的语法范畴有时、体、（态）和（式）。

2、由两个或两个以上的语素构成的词叫做（合成词）。

3、在workers中，worker这一部分可以称为（词干）.4、按照词法结构类型，语言可以分为（词根语）、（黏着语）、（屈折语）和（复综语）。

5、句子的最大特点是（有语调）。

6、仅有一个语素构成的词是（单纯词）。

7、最小的语法单位是（语素）。

8、和名词有关的语法范畴有性、格、（数）。

9、词的组合有五种基本类型，例如“研究问题”属于（支配式），“跑的很快”属于（补充式），“马上出发属于（偏正式），“火山爆发”属于（主谓式）。

10、能够改变词类的是（构词）词缀。

11、表达语法意义的语法形式除了有类的配列之外，还有（形态的一致性配合）和（虚词）。

三、单项选择1、下列各组词中全部属于复合词的一组是（D）A.大学、人民、（英）readerB.劳动、阿姨、（英）railwayC.瓶子、教室、（英）unhappyD.道路、材料、（英）classroom2、与“春光明媚”结构相同的组合是（A ）A.阳光充足B.已经开始C.调查研究D.工人和农民3、以下关于句法变换陈述正确的一项是（B ）A.句法变换反映的是句子之间的关系B.句法变换可以区分句法多义C.容许变换说明一个语言的语序是自由的D.变换从不改变句子的语义4、区分词类最重要的依据是（C）A.意义B、形态变化C、句法功能 D、语言的类型特点5、现代汉语普通话中的“花儿”是（）A .单纯词B .派生词C.复合词 D.语素6、分析以下Michoacan Aztec语中的一些词以及英语翻译。

树形图在英语句子结构分析中的应用

树形图在英语句子结构分析中的应用周云忠;张中芬【摘要】Analysis of English sentence structure by using Tree-diagram is one of the unique methods,which is one of the methods in analytical syntax. Illustrated by tree-diagram, not only is the grammar relationship clearly revealed,but also the ambiguity of the sentence constituent is further explained.%利用树形图来分析英语句子结构是一种比较新颖的分析方法，它是句法学中分析句子结构的方法之一。

通过树形图的说明，除了句子结构成分之间的文法关系得以清楚呈现之外，模棱两可的句子结构也可得到更好的解析。

【期刊名称】《河北软件职业技术学院学报》【年(卷),期】2014(000)004【总页数】4页(P34-37)【关键词】树形图;英语句子结构;分析技巧【作者】周云忠;张中芬【作者单位】重庆科创职业学院，重庆永川 402160;重庆永川卧龙中学，重庆永川 402160【正文语种】中文【中图分类】H314.3句子结构的分析方法很多，如句子成分分析法或层次分析法等，但这些分析法都存在一些不足之处，特别是在分析歧义句时，更显得无能为力。

如下面两个句子：①Mary advised John to see the dentist.②Mary promised John to see the dentist.若不仔细看，我们可能会觉得这两个句子是一样的，认为句子中的每一个单位都有相同的内部结构，并且每个单位都代表着相同的连续关系，它们的功能也一定是同一的。

如果运用成分分析方或层次分析法，不足以理清句子成分的关系。

语言学句子分析树状图的优点

语言学句子分析树状图的优点树形图中各个结点之间，有两种关系值得注意：一种是支配关系，一种是前于关系。

如果在树形图中从结x到结y有一系列的枝把它们连接起来，而且所有的枝顺着同一方向，这即表示结 x支配结 y。

例如，上面的树形图中，标有VP的结支配着标有 NUMER的结，因为连接结VP 与结NUMER的枝都一律从较高的结 VP 降到较低的结NUMER；当x 支配y时，y就叫做x 的后裔。

如果结x与结y是相异的，x支配y，而且x与y之间没有另一个相异的结，这叫做直接支配。

结y就叫做结x的直接后裔。

在上面的树形图中，标有VP的结有两个直接后裔，即标有V的结和右边的标有NP的结，V和NP这两个结称为姐妹。

支配关系中不被任何其他的结支配的结叫做根。

图中，标有 S的结就是根；被其他结支配而不支配任何其他结的结，叫做叶。

一般说来，树形图是从上到下画出的，所以，根总是在顶部，叶总是在底部。

树形图中的两个结，只有当它们之间没有支配关系的时候，才能在从左到右的方向上排序，这时，这两个结之间，就存在前于关系，左边的结前于右边的结。

在上面的树形图中，标有“铝”的结前于标有VP的结及VP所支配的结，因为结VP与结“铝”之间不存在支配关系；但是，标有“铝”的结不能前于支配它的NP及 N等结。

可见，支配关系同从左到右的前于关系是相互排斥的，也就是说，在树形图中，如果两个结x与y之间存在前于关系，那么，x 与y之间必定不能存在支配关系。

并且，如果 x前于y.则由x支配的所有的结都前于由y支配的所有的结。

根据这些基本性质，一幅树形图可以提供如下 3个方面的语法信息：①句子中的词序：树形图中的各个叶按从左到右的前于关系排列起来，就是它所表示的句子的词序。

这些叶之间是不存在支配关系的。

②句子的层次：一个结的直接后裔就是这个结的直接成分，根据结之间的直接支配关系，便可看出句子的层次关系。

③词类信息、词组类型信息、句法功能信息、词与词或者词组与词组之间的逻辑关系信息和语义关系信息等。

语言学第四章树形图句法教程文件

语言学第四章树形图句法Chapter 4 From word to Text (Syntax)Syntax (grammar)•Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.4.1 Syntactic relations•Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:–4.1.1 positional relation–4.1.2 relations of substitutability–4.1.3 relations of co-occurrence4.1.1 Positional Relation•For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases that can occur in a clause.•The boy kicked the ballNP1 NP2Subject Object•Positional relation, or WORD ORDER, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.• If the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an utterance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all. For example,The boy kicked the ball–*Boy the ball kicked the–*The ball kicked the boy•The teacher saw the students•The students saw the teacher•Positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of Syntagmatic Relations observed by F. de Saussure.–They are also called Horizontal Relations or simply Chain Relations.•Word order is among the three basic ways (word order, genetic and areal classifications) to classify languages in the world.•There are 6 possible types of language:–SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, and VOS.–English belongs to SVO type, though this does not mean that SVO is the only possible word order.4.1.2 Relation of Substitutability•The Relation of Substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure.– The ______ smiles.manboygirl•It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.strong man–The tallest boy smiles.pretty girlyesterday.–He went there last week.the day before.•This is also called Associative Relations by Saussure, and Paradigmatic Relations by Hjemslev.•To make it more understandable, they are called Vertical Relations or Choice Relations.4.1.3 Relation of Co-occurrence•It means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of a sentence.•For instance, a nominal phrase can be preceded by a determiner and adjective(s) and followed by a verbal phrase.•Relations of co-occurrence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.4.2 Grammatical construction and its constituents4.2.1 Grammatical Construction•Any syntactic string of words ranging from sentences over phrasal structures to certain complex lexemes.–an apple–ate an apple–Mary ate an apple4.2.2 Immediate Constituents•Constituent is a part of a larger linguistic unit. Several constituents together form a construction:–the girl (NP)–ate the apple (VP)–The girl ate the apple (S)Immediate Constituent Analysis(IC Analysis)In the case of the above example, if two constituents B (the girl) and C (ate the apple) are jointed to form a hierarchically higher constituent A (here a sentence S), then B and C are said to be the immediate constituents of A. To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called IC analysis.A (Sentence)B CThe boy ate the appleTwo ways: tree diagram and bracketingTree diagram:Bracketing•Bracketing is not as common in use, but it is an economic notation in representing the constituent/phrase structure of a grammatical unit.•(((The) (girl)) ((ate) ((the) (apple))))•[S[NP[Det The][N girl]][VP[V ate][NP[Det the][N apple]]]]4.2.3 Endocentric and Exocentric Constructions•Endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, i.e., a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.–Usually noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to the Head.•Exocentric construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable “Centre” or “Head” inside the group, usually including–the basic sentence,–the prepositional phrase,–the predicate (verb + object) construction,–the connective (be + complement) construction.•The boy smiled.(Neither constituent can substitute for the sentence structure as a whole.) •He hid behind the door.(Neither constituent can function as an adverbial.)•He kicked the ball .(Neither constituent stands for the verb-object sequence.)•John seemed angry.(After division, the connective construction no longer exists.)4.2.4 Coordination and Subordination•Endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents:1) Coordination•Coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but and or .–These two or more words or phrases or clauses have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally. •Coordination of NPs:–[NP the lady] or [NP the tiger]•Coordination of VPs:–[VP go to the library] and [VP read a book ]•Coordination of PPs:–[PP down the stairs] and [PP out the door ]•Coordination of APs:–[AP quite expensive] and [AP very beautiful]•Coordination of Ss:–[S John loves Mary] and [S Mary loves John too].2) Subordination•Subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.–The subordinate constituents are words which modify the head. Consequently,they can be called modifiers.•two dogsHead•(My brother) can drink (wine).Head•Swimming in the lake (is fun).Head•(The pepper was) hot beyond endurance.Head3) Subordinate clauses•Clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. There are three basic types of subordinate clauses:–complement clauses–adjunct (or adverbial) clauses–relative clauses•John believes [that the airplane was invented by an Irishman].(complement clause)•Elizabeth opened her presents [before John finished his dinner].(adverbial clause)•The woman [that I love] is moving to the south.(relative clause)4.3. Syntactic Function•The syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.–Names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.4.3.1 Subject•In some languages, subject refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case（主格）.•The typical example can be found in Latin, where subject is always in nominative case, such as pater and filius in the following examples.–pater filium amat (the father loves the son)–patrum filius amat (the son loves the father)•In English, the subject of a sentence is often said to be the agent, or the doer of the action, while the object is the person or thing acted upon by the agent.–This definition seems to work for these sentences:–Mary slapped John.■ A dog bit Bill.•but is clearly wrong in the following examples:–John was bitten by a dog.–John underwent major heart surgery.•In order to account for the case of subject in passive voice, we have two other terms “grammatical subject” (John) and “logical subject” (a dog).•Another traditional definition of the subject is “what the sentence is about” (i.e., topic).•Again, this seems to work for many sentences, such as–Bill is a very crafty fellow.•but fails in others, such as–(Jack is pretty reliable, but) Bill I don’t trust.–As for Bill, I wouldn’t take his promises very seriously.•All three sentences seem to be “about” Bill; thus we could say that Bill is the topic of all three sentences.•The above sentences make it clear that the topic is not always the grammatical subject.What characteristics do subjects have?A. Word order•Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in the statement:–Sally collects stamps.–*Collects Sally stamps.B. Pro-forms•The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject, which is not used when the pronoun occurs in other positions: –He loves me.–I love him.–We threw stones at them.–They threw stones at us.C. Agreement with the verb•In the simple present tense, an -s is added to the verb when a third person subject is singular, but the number and person of the object or any other element in the sentence have no effect at all on the form of the verb:–She angers him.–They anger him.–She angers them.D. Content questions•If the subject is replaced by a question word (who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged, as in–John stole the Queen’s picture from the British Council.–Who stole the Queen’s picture from the British council?–What would John steal, if he had the chance?–What did John steal from the British Council?–Where did John steal the Queen’s picture from?E. Tag question•A tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement. It always contains a pronoun which refers back to the subject, and never to any other element in the sentence.–John loves Mary, doesn’t he?–Mary loves John, doesn’t she?–*John loves Mary, doesn’t she?4.3.2 Predicate•Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together. •It usually expresses actions, processes, and states that refer to the subject.–The boy is running. (process)–Peter broke the glass. (action)–Jane must be mad! (state)•The word predicator is suggested for verb or verbs included in a predicate.4.3.3 Object•Object is also a term hard to define. Since, traditionally, subject can be defined as the doer of the action, object may refer to the “receiver” or “goal” of an action, and it is further classified into Direct Object and Indirect Object.–Mother bought a doll.–Mother gave my sister a doll.IO DO•In some inflecting languages, object is marked by case labels: the accusative case (受格) for direct object, and the dative case （与格）for indirect object.–In English, “object” is recognized by tracing its relation to word order (after the verb and preposition) and by inflections (of pro-nouns).–Mother gave a doll to my sister.–John kicked me.•Modern linguists suggest that object refers to such an item that it can become subject in a passive transformation.–John broke the glass. → The glass was broken by John.–Peter saw Jane. → Jane was seen by Peter.•Although there are nominal phrases in the following, they are by no means objects because they cannot be transformed into passive voice.–He died last week.–The match lasted three hours.–He changed trains at Manchester. (*Trains were changed by him at Manchester.)4.4. Category•The term category refers to the defining properties of these general units:–Categories of the noun: number, gender, case and countability–Categories of the verb: tense, aspect, voice4.4.1 Number•Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of word classes displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc.–In English, number is mainly observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural, such as dog: dogs.–Number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs, such as He laughs: They laugh, this man: these men.•In other languages, for example, French, the manifestation of number can also be found in adjectives and articles.–le cheval royal (the royal horse)–les chevaux royaux (the royal horses)4.4.2 Gender•Such contrasts as “masculine : feminine : neuter”, “animate : inanimate”, etc. for the analysis of word classes.–Though there is a correlation between natural gender and grammatical gender, the assignment may seem quite arbitrary in many cases.–For instance, in Latin, ignis‘fire’ is masculine, while flamma ‘flame’ is feminine.•English gender contrast can only be observed in pronouns and a small number of nouns, and, they are mainly of the natural gender type.–he: she: it–prince: princess–author: authoress•In French, gender is manifested also both in adjectives and articles.–beau cadeau (fine gift)–belle maison (fine house)–Le cadeau est beau. (The gift is good.)–La maison est belle. (The house is beautiful.)•Sometimes gender changes the lexical meaning as well, for example, in French:–le poele (the stove)–la poele (the frying pan)–le pendule (the pendulum)–la pendule (the clock)4.4.3 Case•The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.–In Latin grammar, cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms “accusative”, “nominative”, “dative”, etc.–There are five cases in ancient Greek and eight in Sanskrit. Finnish has as many as fifteen formally distinct cases in nouns, each with its own syntactic function.•In English, case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds to a combination of preposition and noun, and it is realized in three channels:–inflection–following a preposition–word order•as manifested in–teacher : teach er’s–with : to a man–John kicked Peter : Peter kicked John4.4.4 Agreement•Agreement (or concord) may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationshipwith one another shall also, be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories).•This syntactic relationship may be anaphoric （照应）, as when a pronoun agrees with its antecedent,–Whose is this pen? --Oh, it’s the one I lost.•or it may involve a relation between a head and its dependent, as when a verb agrees with its subject and object:–Each person may have one coin.•Agreement of number between nouns and verbs:–This man runs. The bird flies.–These men run. These birds fly.SentenceClausePhraseWord•the three tallest girls (nominal phrase)•has been doing(verbal phrase)•extremely difficult(adjectival phrase)•to the door (prepositional phrase)•very fast(adverbial phrase)•The best thing would be to leave early.•It’s gr eat for a man to be free.•Having finished their task, they came to help us.•John being away, Bill had to do the work.•Filled with shame, he left the house.•All our savings gone, we started looking for jobs.•It’s no use crying over spilt milk.•Do you mind my opening the window?Sentence: (traditional approach)simpleSentence complexnon-simplecompoundSentence: (functional approach)Yes/noInterrogativeIndicative wh-DeclarativeSentenceJussiveImperativeOptativeBasic sentence types: (Bolinger)•Mother fell.(Nominal + intransitive verbal)•Mother is young.(Nominal + copula + complement)•Mother loves Dad.(Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal).•Mother fed Dad breakfast.(Nominal + transitive verbal + nominal + nominal)•There is time.(There + existential + nominal)Basic sentence types: (Quirk)•SVC Mary is kind.a nurse.•SVA Mary is here.in the house.•SV The child is laughing.•SVO Somebody caught the ball.•SVOC We have proved him wrong.a fool.•SVOA I put the plate on the table.•SVOO She gives me expensive presents.4.6 Recursiveness•Recursiveness mainly means that a phrasal constituent can be embedded within another constituent having the same category, but it has become an umbrella term such important linguistic phenomena as coordination and subordination, conjoining and embedding, hypotactic and paratactic.–All these are means to extend sentences.–How long can a sentence be?•Theoretically, there is no limit to the embedding of one relative clause into another relative clause, so long as it does not become an obstacle to successful communication.•The same holds true for nominal clauses and adverbial clauses.–I met a man who had a son whose wife sold cookies that she had baked in her kitchen that was fully equipped with electrical appliances that were new …•John’s sister•John’s sister’s husband•John’s sister’s husband’s uncle•John’s sister’s husband’s uncle’s daughter, etc.•that house in Beijing•the garden of that house in Beijing•the tree in the garden of that house in Beijing•a bird on the tree in the garden of that house in Beijing4.6.1 Conjoining 连接•Conjoining: coordination.•Conjunctions: and, but, and or.–John bought a hat and his wife bought a handbag.–Give me liberty or give me death.4.6.2 Embedding嵌入•Embedding: subordination.•Main clauses and subordinate clauses.•Three basic types of subordinate clauses:–Relative clause: I saw the man who had visited you last year.–Complement clause: I don’t know whether Professor Li needs this book.–Adverbial clause: If you listened to me, you wouldn't make mistakes.4.7. Beyond the sentence(Text and discourse)•The development of modern linguistic science has helped push the study of syntax beyond the traditional sentence boundary.•Linguists are now exploring the syntactic relation between sentences in a paragraph or chapter or the whole text, which leads to the emergence of text linguistics and discourse analysis.4.7.1 Sentential Connection•Hypotactic 主次(subordinate clauses):–You can phone the doctor if you like. However, I very much doubt whether he is in. –We live near the sea. So we enjoy a healthy climate.•Paratactic 并联(coordinate clauses):–In Guangzhou it is hot and humid during the summer. In Beijing it is hot and dry. –He dictated the letter. She wrote it.–The door was open. He walked in.4.7.2 Cohesion衔接•Cohesion is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax. It refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and defines it as a text. •Discoursal / textual Cohesiveness can be realized by employing various cohesive devices:–Conjunction 连接–Ellipsis 省略–lexical collocation 词汇搭配–lexical repetition 词汇重复–Reference 指称–Substitution 替代, etc.•“Did she get there at six?”“No, (she got there) earlier (than six).”(Ellipsis)•“Shall we invite Bill?”“No. 1 can’t stand the man.”(Lexical collocation)•He couldn’t open the door. It was locked tight.(Reference)•“Why don’t you use your own recorder?”“I don't have one.”(Substitution)•I wanted to help him. Unfortunately it was too late.(Logical connection)。

语法树状图

Thank You!
L/O/G/O

语法树状图语法树形帮助语法树状图语法树形图树形图树状图
语法树状图
L/O/G/O
不定式
不定式可以起名词，形容词和副词的作用。在句子中可以充当主语，宾语，补语，定语和状语等 1.To see one time is better than to hear a hundred times. 2.I have decided to marry her to the greatest thing in the world. 3. The greatest happiness is to work for the happiness of all.(放在系动词之后，充当补语成分） 4.There is nothing to worry about.(放在名词或代词之后，充当定语成分） 5. In order to catch up with others, she decided to study even harder.(表示行为的目的，结果和原因)
不定式的时态
时态/语态一般式进行式完成式主动式 To learn To be learning To have learning 被动式 To be learned ----------------To have been learned
完成进行式
To have being learning
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动名词
动名词可以起名词的作用，在句中可以充当主语，补语，宾语和定语。
1.Living in a modern Asian city is not very different from living in an American city. 2.Seeing is believing.(放在系动词之后充当补语） 3.He felt it no use discussing the problem with them at a moment. 4.The cows are led to the barn where the milking machines are fixed.

非谓语动词的语法详解

非谓语动词的语法总结1. 英语句子呈「树」状辅排，即以主语与谓语动词搭配形成形式主轴，即句子的主干成分。

2. 然后利用各种关联词和介词等把句中的各种短语（介词短语，名词短语），附加成分（同位语，插入语），分词（现在分词分句，独立成分）和从句（定语从句，状语从句，同位语从句）往这根主干上钩搭。

犹如一棵枝叶横生的大树，盘根错节。

任何完整的一个英语句子，无论长短复杂，本质就是一棵树，它有且必有一个主干，即主语+谓语+（宾语）。

英语句子的树形结构说的通俗一点，如果把谓语动词比作老虎，那么英语句子就是【一山不容二虎】，绝对不允许两个（或更多）谓语动词同时存在。

这时候，问题就来了：如果表达的意思比较复杂，涉及到了多个动作（动词），那英语是不是就要用多个完整独立的句子来分别表达了？当然不需要，英语没有这么白痴。

谓语动词是老虎，一山不容二虎。

这时候如果句子中需要出现其它动词，这个动词必须被【降级】，才能和谓语动词同时存在。

通常来讲，有以下几种被降级的方式：降为非谓语动词形态（不定式，现在式，过去式）从句形态从属连词，例如because，although等（注意：这里不包括并列连词and，but和or。

）对应到第一个图，上面1，2，3种办法都让动词变成了树枝的形式，钩搭在【主谓宾】主干上。

比如2，定语从句和状语从句的关系连词（which，that，when，whatever等）都是降级的标志，其后的从句虽然拥有自己的主谓宾结构，但这个谓语已经被关系连词降级了，例如定语从句：The boy who is crying said this.定语从句我们学从句的时候被关系连词搞的晕头转向，不过从树形结构上来看，却很容易理解。

你可以把他们理解为一种降级标记：从句中的谓语动词被降级，以树枝的形式存在，关系连词是将树枝钩搭在主干上的钩子。

这时候如果漏了关系连词who，句子就会有两个谓语动词同时存在（said和is），违反了一个句子有且仅有一个谓语动词的规则，语法上句子就是错的。

英语句子的树枝状结构

英语句子的树枝状结构
英语句子的树枝状结构是一种用来分析和理解句子中各个组成部分之间关系的方法。

它通过将句子分解成不同的层级和分支，展示句子的语法结构和语义关系。

以下是一个简单的英语句子的树枝状结构示例：
The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.
1. 句子主干（Sentence Core）：The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog.
- 主语（Subject）：The quick brown fox
- 谓语（Predicate）：jumps over
- 宾语（Object）：the lazy dog
2. 定语（Modifiers）：
- 形容词（Adjective）：quick, brown
- 冠词（Article）：The
通过这种树枝状结构，我们可以清晰地看到句子中的各个组成部
分及其之间的关系，有助于我们更好地理解和分析句子的语法结构和语义。