波士顿英文介绍

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世界著名城市中英文(按拼音)

世界著名城市中英文（按拼音）[阿富汗] Kabul 喀布尔[阿根廷] Buenos Aires 布宜诺斯艾利斯[阿拉伯联合酋长国] Abu Dhabi 阿布扎比[埃及] Cairo 开罗[埃塞俄比亚] Addis Ababa 亚的斯亚贝巴[爱尔兰] Dublin 都柏林[澳大利亚] Canberra 堪培拉[澳大利亚] Melbourne 墨尔本[澳大利亚] Sydney 悉尼[巴基斯坦] Islamabad 伊斯兰堡[巴基斯坦] Karachi 卡拉奇[巴西] Brasilia 巴西利亚[巴西] Rio de Janeiro 里约热内卢[巴西] Sao Paulo 圣保罗[白俄罗斯] Minsk 明斯克[波兰] Warsaw 华沙[丹麦] Copenhagen 哥本哈根[德国] Berlin 柏林[德国] Frankfurt 法兰克福[俄罗斯] Moscow 莫斯科[法国] Paris 巴黎[菲律宾] Manila 马尼拉[韩国] Seoul 首尔(汉城)[荷兰] Amsterdam 阿姆斯特丹[加拿大] Ottawa 渥太华[加拿大] Toronto 多伦多[加拿大] Vancouver 温哥华[柬埔寨] Bogota 波哥大[科威特] Kuwait City 科威特城[肯尼亚] Nairobi 内罗毕[黎巴嫩] Beirut 贝鲁特[马来西亚] Kuala Lumpur 吉隆坡[美国] Atlanta 亚特兰大[美国] Boston 波士顿[美国] Chicago 芝加哥[美国] Denver 丹佛[美国] Detroit 底特律[美国] Honolulu 夏威夷檀香山[美国] Houston 休斯敦[美国] Los Angeles 洛杉矶[美国] New Orleans 新奥尔良[美国] New York 纽约[美国] Philadelphia 费城[美国] Phoenix 凤凰城[美国] San Francisco 旧金山[美国] St. Paul 圣保罗[美国] Washington DC 华盛顿哥伦比亚特区[缅甸] Yangon 仰光[摩洛哥] Casablanca 卡萨布兰卡[墨西哥] Mexico City 墨西哥城[南非] Cape Town 开普敦[南非] Johannesburg 约翰尼斯堡[日本] Tokyo 东京[瑞士] Geneva 日内瓦[瑞士] Zurich 苏黎世[沙特阿拉伯] Riyadh 利雅得[苏丹] Khartoum 喀土穆[泰国] Bangkok 曼谷[土耳其] Ankara 安卡拉[土耳其] Istanbul 伊斯坦布尔[乌克兰] Kyiv 基辅[西班牙] Barcelona 巴塞罗那[西班牙] Madrid 马德里[希腊] Athens 雅典城[新加坡] Singapore 新加坡[新西兰] Wellington 惠灵顿[匈牙利] Budapest 布达佩斯[伊拉克] Baghdad 巴格达[伊朗] Tehran 德黑兰[以色列] Jerusalem 耶路撒冷[意大利] Rome 罗马[印度] Mumbai 孟买[印度] New Delhi 新德里[印尼] Jakarta 雅加达[英国] London 伦敦[约旦] Amman 安曼[越南] Hanoi 河内[中国] Hong Kong 香港[中国] Taipei 台北。

波士顿英文介绍(Eacy)

Notable recurring events
• Commonwealth Shakespeare Company's Shakespeare on the Common. • Boston Lyric Opera's Outdoor Opera Series. • Ancient Fishweir Project Installation Event. • Massachusetts Cannabis Reform Coalition's Freedom Rally. • Boston Pride. • Fireworks display on the evening of December 31 as part of Boston's First Night celebration.
Boston Common
• The Common is part of the Emerald Necklace of parks and parkways that extend from the Common south to Franklin Park in Roxbury. A visitors' center for all of Boston is located on the Tremont Street side of the park.
Harvard was named after its first benefactor, John Harvard. Although never formally affiliated with a church, the college primarily trained Congregationalist and Unitarian clergy. Harvard's curriculum and students became secular throughout the 18th century and by the 19th century had emerged as the central cultural establishment among Boston elites. Following the American Civil War, President Charles W. Eliot's forty year tenure (1869–1909) transformed the college and affiliated professional schools into a centralized research university, and Harvard became a founding member of the Association of American Universities in 1900. James Bryant Conant led the university through the Great Depression and World War II and began to reform the curriculum and liberalize admissions after the war. The undergraduate college became coeducational after its 1977 merger with Radcliffe College. Drew Gilpin Faust was elected the 28th president in 2007 and is the first woman to lead the university. Harvard has the largest financial endowment of any academic institution in the world, standing at $32 billion as of September 2011.

波士顿的介绍旅游景点食物

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Boston food
Boston and New England is famous for its traditional cuisine and delicious and affordable. More than 300 years ago, the Puritans emigrated to Boston construction covered with a rich British colors, while Puritan ethics also brings to the city of Boston has a good and stable social environment, so making the birth of many famous universities. Such a profound cultural heritage in cities, its unique food culture naturally doctoral degrees a beautiful landscape. Fresh seafood, there are many fast food shops, various types of dessert, there are local specialties of Boston baked beans, the taste bud stimulating people can't help but "abused" their stomach.
12/21/2012
Seafood
Meat of New England Clam Chowder
新英格兰蛤肉杂烩
12/21/2012

NBA各位置及其职能和队伍的英文名字

（一）NBA各位置及其职能SG shooting guard 得分后卫得分后卫是全队的第二控球员及发动攻势的人，能锋能卫，破坏力特别强。

在外线要有抽冷箭的能力，以个人单打与急停跳投稳定强大的攻击火力，随时得分。

PG point guard 控球后卫控球后卫为全队保护运球过半场的最佳人选，是机会进攻的发动者并执行掌控全场灵活组织的机制，带动全队攻守节奏功能。

需有快速移位、运球切入妙传助攻技巧、高命中率的三分线、指挥攻守节奏战术的本领。

SF small forward 小前锋首先要有良好的体型与速度；第二、他有控球、传球能力；第三、他能运球过人切入或空手切入接球上篮得分；第四、他有外线长射的能力；第五、他在必要时能在禁区单打，破坏之能力。

总而言之，他似乎是无所不能的全能球员。

PF power forward 大前锋大前锋称为强力前锋似乎更为恰当，他应具备的条件是身材高大，篮板能力不错，灵活、居中策应分球能力；并在助攻、助守、掩护、档人上均不可或缺的苦球工。

除此外，中距离投篮，低位单打都具有独特功夫，是球场上第二中锋。

C center 中锋中锋他主要应具备良好高大的体型、爆发力、平衡力、耐冲撞的能力，扮演禁区单打进攻得分、中枢策应传球、抢夺篮板球与防守封阻火锅等重要工作。

喜欢和“狐朋狗友”一起疯玩，喜欢运动的淋漓尽致，喜欢旅行的漂泊浪迹NBA队伍的英文缩写（简称）太阳PHO 马刺SAS 超音速SEA小牛DAL 国王SAC 火箭HOU 灰熊MEM 湖人LAL 快船LAC 森林狼MIN 掘金DEN 开拓者POR爵士UT 勇士GS 黄蜂NO 热火MIA活塞DET 凯尔特人BOS骑士CLE 奇才W AS 魔术ORL 公牛CHI 76人PHI 步行者IND篮网NJ 雄鹿MIL 尼克斯NY猛龙TOR 山猫CHA老鹰A TLNBA队名简介1、菲尼克斯太阳（Phoenix Suns）：球队建于1968年，菲尼克斯是亚利桑那州的首府，位于美国西海岸的沙漠中，年降水量稀少，阳光充足，以“太阳”为队名最有代表意义。

Boston

The Boston public school is the most ancient of public school system, from kindergarten through grade 12, a total of 58600 students. The system includes 145 schools, including Boston Latin school (the most ancient of public school, was founded in 1635; there are 7-grade 12, 7-9 in grade through the public examination enrolling students), English high school (the oldest public high school, was founded in 1821) and matt school of the oldest (public elementary school, was established in 1639. The city also has a private school, church schools and charter schools. 3000 minority students through the metropolitan education opportunities commission (METCO) get in the suburbs of school go to school opportunities. In 2002, Forbes magazine will the Boston public school system as America's best city school systems, the graduation rate reached 82%.

美国州50个州介绍英文名缩写和风土

缩写州名州名汉译首府首府汉译AL Alabama 亚拉巴马 Montgomery 蒙哥马利AK Alaska 阿拉斯加 Juneau 朱AZ Arizona 亚利桑那 Phoenix 菲尼克斯AR Arkansas 阿肯色 Little Rock 小石城CA California 加利福尼亚 Sacramento 萨克拉门托CO Colorado 科罗拉多 Denver 丹佛CT Connecticut 康涅狄格 Harford 哈特福德DE Delaware 特拉华 Dover 多佛DC District of Columbia 哥伦比亚特区FL Florida 佛罗里达 Tallahassee 塔拉哈西GA Georgia 佐治亚 Atlanta 亚特兰大HI Hawaii 夏威夷 Honolulu 火奴鲁鲁ID Idaho 爱达荷 Boise 博伊西IL Illinois 伊利诺斯 Springfield 斯普林菲尔德IN Indiana 印第安纳 Indianapolis 印第安纳波利斯IA Iowa 爱荷华 Des moines 得梅因KS Kansas 堪萨斯Topeka 托皮卡KY Kentucky 肯塔基Frankfort 法兰克福LA Louisiana 路易斯安那Baton Rouge 巴吞鲁日ME Maine 缅因Augusta 奥古斯塔MD Maryland 马里兰 Annapolis 安那波利斯MA Massachusetts 马萨诸塞Boston 波士顿MI Michigan 密歇根Lansing 兰辛MN Minnesota 明尼苏达 St.Paul 圣保罗MS Mississippi 密西西比 Jackson 杰克逊MO Missouri 密苏里Jefferson City 杰斐逊城MT Montana 蒙大拿 Helena 海伦娜NE Nebraska 内布拉斯加 Lincoln 林肯NV Nevada 内华达 Carson City 卡森城NH New Hampshire 新罕布什尔 Concord 康科德NJ New Jersey 新泽西 Trenton 特伦顿NM New Mexico 新墨西哥SantaFe 圣菲NY New York 纽约 Albany 奥尔巴尼NC North Carolina 北卡罗来纳Raleigh 罗利ND North Dakota 北达科他Bismarck 俾斯麦OH Ohio 俄亥俄 Columbus 哥伦布OK Oklahoma 俄克拉荷马 Oklahoma City 俄克拉何马城OR Oregon 俄勒冈 Salem 塞勒姆PA Pennsylvania 宾夕法尼亚Harrisburg 哈里斯堡RI Rhode Island 罗得岛 Providence 普罗维登斯SC South Carolina 南卡罗来纳Columbia 哥伦比亚SD South Dakota 南达科他 Pierre 皮尔TN Tennessee 田纳西 Nashville 纳什维尔TX Texas 得克萨斯Austin 奥斯汀UT Utah 犹他 Salt LakeCity 盐湖城VT Vermont 佛蒙特 Montpelier 蒙比利埃VA Virginia 弗吉尼亚Richmond 里士满WA Washington 华盛顿 Olympia 奥林匹亚WV West Virginia 西弗吉尼亚 Charleston 查尔斯顿WI Wisconsin 威斯康辛 Madison 麦迪逊WY Wyoming 怀俄明 Cheyenne 夏延# 32007-09-14 10:21阿拉斯加 Alaska阿拉斯加州小档案：人口：640,000面积：570,374 平方英哩，面积排名第一首都：Juneau州税：没有州税，一些城市或地区会收6% 的税外加物品和服务的特别税。

各国甜点介绍desserts英文版

America
Nagasaki Castella (长崎蜂蜜蛋糕)
Honey cake originated in ancient Netherlands, when nobles（贵族） entertain envoys（使节） will use it to express to the guests the most solemn （隆重的）tribute. This use sugar, eggs and flour made pastries immediately popular among the population, which is the origin of Nagasaki honey cake.
japan
Thank you
Switzerland
Tiramisu 提拉米苏
Tiramisu is Italy dessert representative. It is popular since the middle of 1980s. Tiramisu in Italian, “Tira” means “pull”, “Mi” means “me”, “Su” means “up”. The whole is "pull me up", which is the same as "take me away" and "remember me", take not just sweetness, but also love and happiness.
Italy
Famous Austrian dessert. Originated in 1832, made
Sachertorte （沙河蛋糕）

Boston_波士顿简介_旅游_英文

Public Garden (Boston)
• The Public Garden, also known as Boston Public Garden, is a large park located in the heart of Boston, Massachusetts, adjacent to Boston Common.
• The hottest month is July, with a mean temperature of 23.0 °C. The coldest month is January, with a mean of −1.7 °C.
• The city averages 43.8 inches (1,110 mm) of precipitation a year, with 43.8 inches (111 cm) of snowfall per season.
Boston Common
• Boston Common, located near the Financial District and Beacon Hill, is the oldest public park in the United States.
• Franklin Park, the city's largest park and home of the Franklin Park Zoo.
• Boston's subway system, the oldest underground rapid transit system in the Americas, and is the fourth-busiest rapid transit system in the country , with 65.5 miles (105 km) of track on four lines.

美国波士顿大学公共卫生学院

立思辰留学360介绍，波士顿大学（Boston University，缩写BU）是一所大型私立综合性全国大学，成立于1839年，位于美国东部大型城市波士顿，提供本科、硕士、博士，三种学位类型。

学校共两个校区：主校区位于波士顿附近的查理斯河，另外一个校区也是医学院的所在，位于波士顿南端，校内开设有医学、牙医学、法学等共18所学院，在海外33个城市和地区开设有海外学习课程。

卡内基高等教育研究机构评其为高等研究型大学；其诺贝尔奖得主包括：马丁路德·金、伊利·威塞尔、35个普利兹奖得主、6项学术奖。

公共卫生学院公共卫生学院（School of Public Health, SPH）成立于1976年，研究生开设的学位类型有MPH、PhD、DrPH，以及双学位等项目。

注：(1) 所有申请材料通过公共卫生学院申请服务系统（SOPHAS）递交。

其中托福要求100分以上，雅思7.0分以上。

(2) MS申请截止时间为2月15日。

(3) 除DRPH外，其他专业均要求学士学位。

(4) 学术声誉：USNEWS排名2013年秋季招生数据学术背景注：表格中的数字均为平均值，申请者若想在学术方面有竞争力，GRE各部分成绩必须50%以上，GPA必须3.0以上。

本科专业背景（人数最多TOP10专业）公共卫生硕士（MASTER OF PUBLIC HEALTH, MPH）共有8个专业方向，其中健康政策与管理又有3个分支：医疗管理（Health Care Management）健康政策（Health Policy）医疗财务（Health Care Finance）申请时间及所需考试成绩互联网留学360介绍，公共卫生硕士秋季申请截止时间为2月1日，春季申请截止时间为10月15日。

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (PHD)适合申请者的职业目标是从事公共卫生领域一个具体领域的科研、教学或公共卫生管理的领导岗位。

英语作文介绍美国波士顿

英语作文介绍美国波士顿Boston: A City Rich in History and CultureNestled along the Charles River in the heart of Massachusetts, Boston is a city that has been shaped by its rich history, vibrant culture, and diverse community. Its storied past is evident in every corner, from the ancient cobblestone streets of the Freedom Trail to the grand architecture of the Beacon Hill district.Boston's history dates back to its founding by the Puritans in 1630, who settled here seeking religious freedom. This legacy is reflected in the city's many historical landmarks, such as the Old South Meeting House, where the Boston Tea Party was planned, and the Boston Common, America's oldest public park.The city is also renowned for its educational institutions, with two of the world's top universities, Harvard and MIT, located here. These institutions have attracted students and scholars from around the globe, contributing to Boston's status as a global center for research and innovation.Boston's cultural vibrancy is on display throughout the year, with a range of events and festivals that celebrate the city's diversity. The Boston Symphony Orchestra, one of theoldest and most renowned orchestras in the United States, performs at the iconic Symphony Hall, while the Boston Pops, led by the legendary Keith Lockhart, entertains crowds with its annual summer concerts.Sports are also a major part of Boston's identity, with the city being home to several professional teams, including the Boston Red Sox (MLB), Boston Celtics (NBA), and Boston Bruins (NHL). These teams have a storied history and a loyal fan base, creating a vibrant sports culture that is unique to Boston.The city's cuisine is also a blend of traditional and contemporary flavors. From classic seafood dishes like clam chowder and lobster rolls to ethnic delicacies from around the world, Boston's restaurants offer a taste of its diverse community.In conclusion, Boston is a city that offers a unique blend of history, culture, and modernity. Its storied past, vibrant present, and promising future make it a destination that continues to attract visitors and residents from all over the world.。

美国波士顿英文简介

今天我们要学习的旅游英语是有关美国波⼠顿的英⽂简介和美国波⼠顿英⽂导游词我们先看看波⼠顿的英⽂名称是BOSTON，下⾯是有关BOSTON的主要介绍。

Although the metropolitan area of BOSTON has long since expanded to fill the shoreline of Massachusetts Bay, and stretches for miles inland as well, the seventeenth-century port at its heart is still discernible. Forget the neat grids of modern urban America; the twisting streets clustered around Boston Common are a reminder of how the nation started out, and the city is enjoyably human in scale.Boston was, until 1755, the biggest city in America; as the one most directly affected by the latest whims of the British Crown, it was the natural birthplace for the opposition that culminated in the Revolutionary War. Numerous evocative sites from that era are preserved along the Freedom Trail through downtown. Since then, however, Boston has in effect turned its back on the sea. As the third busiest port in the British Empire (after London and Bristol), it stood on a narrow peninsula. What is now Washington Street provided the only access by land, and when the British set off to Lexington in 1775 they embarked in ships from the Common itself. During the nineteenth century, the Charles River marshlands were filled in to create the posh Back Bay residential area. Central Boston is now slightly set back from the water, separated by the hideous John Fitzgerald Expressway that carries I-93 across downtown. The city has been working on routing the traffic underground and disposing of this eyesore (a project a decade in the making known as "the Big Dig"), though the monumental task won't likely be completed before 2004, much to the frustration of locals.There is a certain truth in the charge leveled by other Americans that Boston likes to live in the past; echoes of the "Brahmins" of a century ago can be heard in the upper-class drawl of the posher districts. But this is by no means just a city of WASPs: the Irish who began to arrive in large numbers after the Great Famine had produced their first mayor as early as 1885, and the president of the whole country within a hundred years. The liberal tradition that spawned the Kennedys remains alive, fed in part by the presence in the city of more than one hundred universities and colleges, the most famous of which – Harvard University – actually stands in the city of Cambridge, just across the Charles River, and is fully integrated into the tourist experience thanks to the area's excellent subway system.The slump of the Depression seemed to linger in Boston for years – even in the 1950s, the population was actually dwindling – but these days the place definitely has a rejuvenated feel to it. Quincy Market has served as a blueprint for urban development worldwide, and with its busy street life, imaginative museums and galleries, fine architecture and palpable history, Boston is the one destination in New England there's no excuse for missing。

美国波士顿旅游景点介绍

美国波士顿旅游景点介绍美国波士顿旅游景点介绍导语：马萨诸塞州是美国的一州，正式名称为"马萨诸塞联邦"，位于美国东北，是新英格兰地区的一部分。

在中文中，通常简称"麻州"或"麻省"。

1788年加入联邦，为美国独立时最初13州之一。

世界学府哈佛大学和麻省理工学院都位于该州。

呵呵o(*￣▽￣*)o，麻州于2004年5月17日成为美国第一个允许同性婚姻的州。

波士顿(Boston) 位于美国东北部，是马萨诸塞州的首府，面积125平方公里，人口约62万。

它是马萨诸塞州首府和最大的城市，也是优良的海港城市。

波士顿市与周围的剑桥、昆西、牛顿等诸多市镇一起被称为大波士顿区，总面积约为1.2万平方公里。

波士顿已有360多年的历史，被称为美国“最古老的城市”。

1620年，一批因受宗教迫害的英国清教徒乘坐“五月花”号船，经过长途而艰难的航行，来到马萨诸塞州附近拓居。

因为他们中有许多人来自英国林肯郡的波士顿镇，所以便把他们的定居点用故乡的名字命名。

1632年，波士顿成为马萨诸塞州的首府，由于该城连接各地的道路象车辐一样放射出去，于是还获得了“车毂之城" 的别称。

No. 1 哈佛大学校园Harvard University世界顶尖学府---哈佛。

坐落在波士顿剑桥镇的哈佛大学是美国历史上最悠久的高等学府，也是一所在世界上最富有影响力的学校之一。

建校至今，哈佛大学已培养出八位美国总统和数十位诺贝尔奖获得者，是全球诺贝尔奖得主最多的学校。

古老的校园洋溢着年轻的气息。

这里舒适、安静、悠然。

No.2 麻省理工学院麻省理工学院(简称MIT)位于剑桥镇查尔斯河(Charles River)边，与哈佛大学毗邻，是一所研究型私立大学，也是全球高科技和高等研究的先驱领导大学。

MIT离哈佛有两个地铁站，都在红线上。

很多公交车都经过两个大学。

MIT的校园比哈佛大很多……截至2015年，先后有84位诺贝尔奖获得者曾在此工作与学习，被誉为“世界理工大学之最”。

Boston 波士顿简介旅游英文

Maple syrup
Indian pudding
Entertainment
• Hatch Shell
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波士顿--关于制造业回流美国的问题(英文)

Made in America, AgainWhy Manufacturing Will Return to the U.S.AUGUST 25, 2011by Harold L. Sirkin, Michael Zinser, and Douglas Hohner For more than a decade, deciding where to build a manufacturing plant tosupply the world was simple for many companies. With its seemingly limitless supply of low-cost labor and an enormous, rapidly developing domestic market, an artificially low currency, and significant government incentives to attract foreign investment, China was the clear choice.Now, however, a combination of economic forces is fas t eroding China’s cost advantage as an export platform for the North American market. Meanwhile, the U.S., with an increasingly flexible workforce and a resilient corporate sector, is becoming more attractive as a place to manufacture many goods consumed on this continent. An analysis by The Boston Consulting Group concludes that, by sometime around 2015—for many goods destined for North Americanconsumers—manufacturing in some parts of the U.S. will be just aseconomical as manufacturing in China. The key reasons for this shift include the following:∙Wage and benefit increases of 15 to 20 percent per year at the average Chinese factory will slash China’s labor-cost advantage over low-cost states in the U.S., from 55 percent today to 39 percent in 2015, when adjusted for the higher productivity of U.S. workers. Because labor accounts for a small portion of a product’s manufacturing costs, the savings gained from outsourcing to China will drop to single digits for many products.∙For many goods, when transportation, duties, supply chain risks, industrial real estate, and other costs are fully accounted for, the cost savings of manufacturing in China rather than in some U.S. states will become minimal within the next five years.∙Automation and other measures t o improve productivity in China won’t be enough to preserve the country’s cost advantage. Indeed, they will undercut the primary attraction of outsourcing to China—access to low-cost labor.∙Given rising income levels in China and the rest of developing Asia, demand for goods in the region will increase rapidly. Multinational companies are likely to devote more of their capacity in China to serving the domesticChinese as well as the larger Asian market, and to bring some production work for the North American market back to the U.S.∙Manufacturing of some goods will shift from China to nations with lower labor costs, such as Vietnam, Indonesia, and Mexico. But these nations’ ability to absorb the higher-end manufacturing that would otherwise go to China will be limited by inadequate infrastructure, skilled workers, scale, and domestic supply networks, as well as by political and intellectual-property risks. Low worker productivity, corruption, and the risk to personal safety are addedconcerns in some countries.This reallocation of global manufacturing is in its very early phases. It will vary dramatically from industry to industry, depending on labor content,transportation costs, China’s competitive strengths, and the strategic needs of individual companies. But we believe that it will become more pronounced over the next five years, especially as companies face decisions about where to add future capacity. While China will remain an important manufacturingplatform for Asia and Europe, the U.S. will become increasingly attractive for the production of many goods sold to consumers in North America.This report, the first in a series, examines the economic trends that point to a U.S. manufacturing renaissance. It also explores the strategic implications of the shifting cost equation for companies engaged in global sourcing.∙The U.S. “Decline” and Renaissance in Perspective∙The death of American manufacturing has been foretold many times in the past four decades. As the only major industrialized nation notleveled by World War II, the U.S. accounted for around 40 percent ofthe world’s manufactured goods in the early 1950s. But then, fueled bya relentless wave of imports from a reconstructed Europe andeventually from Japan, the U.S. experienced a dramatic loss of marketshare in industries such as color TVs, steel, cars, and computer chips.In the 1970s and 1980s, fears of the loss of U.S. industrialcompetitiveness were particularly acute, prompting a widespreaddebate over whether the nation should adopt a “Japan Inc.”-styleindustrial policy and teach its schoolchildren to speak Japanese. Thencame the rise of such East Asian Tigers as South Korea and Taiwan,which led to a massive transfer of production of labor-intensive goods,including apparel, shoes, and toys, and then of much of the U.S.computer and consumer-electronics manufacturing industry.∙The U.S. suffered through many painful adjustments to thesechallenges. Unlike most nations, however, it quickly ripped off theBand-Aid and allowed industry to adapt. Factories closed, companiesfailed, banks wrote off losses, and workers had to learn new skills. ButU.S. industry and the economy responded with surprising flexibility and speed to reemerge more competitive and productive than ever. By thelate 1990s, American companies dominated the world in high-valueindustries such as microprocessors, aerospace, networking equipment, software, and pharmaceuticals. Manufacturing investment, output, and employment surged.∙It may not be obvious yet, but the U.S. manufacturing sector is today in the midst of a similar process of readjustment in response to perhaps its greatest competitive threat ever—the rise of China. Since opening itsdoors to foreign investment and trade, China has offered a virtuallyunbeatable combination of seemingly limitless cheap labor (less than $1 per hour), a growing pool of engineers, a fixed currency, and localgovernments willing to offer inexpensive land, free infrastructure, andgenerous financial incentives.∙In the decade since it entered the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001, China has essentially become the default option for companieswishing to outsource production in order to lower costs. From 2000 to2009, China’s exports leapt nearly fivefold, to $1.2 trillion, and its sh are of global exports rose from 3.9 percent to 9.7 percent, according toUnited Nations Conference on Trade and Development data. Thesedevelopments occurred in a remarkable breadth of industries, fromlabor-intensive assembly work to heavy industry and high-tech. China’s portion of global apparel exports increased from 17.4 percent to 32.1percent, for example. Its share of the world export market for furnituresoared from 7.5 percent to 25.9 percent, for ships from 4.1 percent to19.6 percent, for telecom equipment from 6.5 percent to 27.8 percent,and for office machines and computer equipment from 4.9 percent to32.6 percent. In the U.S., meanwhile, the loss of some 6 millionmanufacturing jobs and the closure of tens of thousands of factoriesover the past decade has fanned frequent warnings of a manufacturing crisis.The Tide Is TurningOnce again, however, predictions of the demise of American manufacturing are likely to prove wrong. The U.S. manufacturing sector remains robust. Output is almost two and a half times its 1972 level in constant dollars, even though employment has dropped by 33 percent. Despite the recent wave of outsourcing to China, the value of U.S. manufacturing output increased byone-third, to $1.65 trillion, from 1997 to 2008—before the onset of therecession—thanks to the strongest productivity growth in the industrial world.Although China accounted for 19.8 percent of global manufacturing valueadded in 2010, the U.S. still accounted for 19.4 percent—a share that hasdeclined only slightly over the past three decades.The conditions are coalescing for another U.S. resurgence. Rising wages,shipping costs, and land prices—combined with a strengthening renminbi—are rapidly eroding China’s cost advantages. The U.S., meanwhile, is beco ming a lower-cost country. Wages have declined or are rising only moderately. The dollar is weakening. The workforce is becoming increasingly flexible.Productivity growth continues.Our analysis concludes that, within five years, the total cost of production for many products will be only about 10 to 15 percent less in Chinese coastalcities than in some parts of the U.S. where factories are likely to be built.Factor in shipping, inventory costs, and other considerations, and—for many goods destined for the North American market—the cost gap betweensourcing in China and manufacturing in the U.S. will be minimal. In somecases, companies will move work to inland China to find lower wages. But this will not be an attractive option in many industries. Chinese cities in the interior provinces lack the abundance of skilled workers, supply networks, and efficient transportation infrastructure of those along the coast, offsetting much of the savings afforded by slightly lower labor costs.When all costs are taken into account, certain U.S. states, such as SouthCarolina, Alabama, and Tennessee, will turn out to be among the leastexpensive production sites in the industrialized world. As a result, we expect companies to begin building more capacity in the U.S. to supply North America.The early evidence of such a shift is mounting.∙NCR moved production of its ATMs to a plant in Columbus, Georgia, that will employ 870 people by 2014.∙The Coleman Company is moving production of its 16-quart wheeled plastic cooler from China to Wichita, Kansas, owing to rising Chinesemanufacturing and shipping costs.∙Ford Motor Company is bringing up to 2,000 jobs back to the U.S. in the wake of a favorable agreement with the United Auto Workers that allows the company to hire new workers at $14 per hour.∙Sleek Audio has moved production of its high-end headphones from Chinese suppliers to its plant in Manatee County, Florida.∙Peerless Industries will consolidate all manufacturing of audio-visual mounting systems in Illinois, moving work from China in order to achieve cost efficiencies, shorter lead times, and local control over manufacturingprocesses.∙Outdoor Greatroom Company moved production of its fire pits and some outdoor shelters from China to the U.S., citing the inconvenience ofhaving to book orders from Chinese contractors nine months in advance.The reallocation of production is still in its early stages, but we believe it will accelerate in the years ahead. The impact of the changing cost equation will vary from industry to industry. Products in which labor accounts for a small portion of total costs and in which volumes are modest, such as auto parts, construction equipment, and appliances, will be among those that companies reevaluate in terms of their options for supplying the North American market.But the manufacture of goods with relatively higher labor content that areproduced in high volumes will likely remain in China. Finally, companies that make mass-produced, labor-intensive products, like apparel and shoes, may move production from China to other low-cost nations. (We will assess the implications of the new manufacturing math for specific industries in thesecond report in this series.)These trends do not suggest that Chinese manufacturing will decline or that multinational companies will shut their mainland plants. More Chineseproduction capacity will be devoted to supplying the country’s enormousdomestic market, which is gaining millions of new middle-class households each year, as well as other growing economies in Asia. In addition, China will continue to remain a low-cost supplier to Western Europe. And China willremain competitive in industries that have developed strong “clusters ofexcellence” and that have an immense installed base of production capacity and component and material suppliers.This means that when it comes to building new production capacity,companies will likely choose to explore alternatives instead of automatically opting for China. Over the next five years, we believe that the U.S. will be the optimal choice for many manufacturing investments aimed at serving the North American market.The New Manufacturing MathA combination of factors is starting to dramatically shift the manufacturing cost equation in favor of the U.S.China's Rising WagesRising labor rates have been a fact of life in Chinese factories for years. Average wages leapt by 150 percent from 1999 through 2006, for example, a period in which China emerged as the world’s workshop for a range of industries. Those increases started from a low base, but now the tipping point is in sight. For one thing, wage growth has accelerated much faster than productivity growth. From 2000 through 2005, pay and benefits for the average Chinese factory worker rose by 10 percent annually. (See Exhibit 1.) From 2005 through 2010, wage hikes averaged 19 percent per year, while the fully loaded cost of U.S. production workers rose by only 4 percent. The last few years have been especially volatile in China. In 2010, the giant contract manufacturer Foxconn International, which employs 920,000 people in China alone, doubled wages at its immense Shenzhen campus following a string of worker suicides. After a factory supplying Honda was hit by strikes last year, wages rose by 47 percent. Minimum wages rose by more than 20 percent in 20 Chinese regions, and by up to 30 percent in Sichuan province.BCG’s research projects that over the next five years, the fully loaded cost of Chinese workers in the Yangtze River Delta, which includes Shanghai and the provinces of Zhejiang and Jiangsu, will rise by an annual average of 18 percent, to about $6.31 per hour. This region has the highest manufacturing output in the country and is the heart of such high-skilled industries as automobiles and electronics. Chinese compensation packages will then be equal to about 25 percent of what skilled workers are earning in themanufacturing states of the southern U.S. While this gap may still seem huge, consider that factory workers in the Yangtze River Delta averaged only 72 cents per hour in 2000, compared with $15.81 per hour in the U.S. South.It is also possible that this trend will accelerate. Chinese labor organizations are gaining a greater ability to demand higher wages and benefits from foreign companies. The government is enacting new labor laws that give greater rights to workers, requiring, for example, that companies pay laid-off workers one month’s salary in severance for every year that they worked.Productivity Insufficient to Offset Wage IncreasesOne common belief is that rising Chinese productivity will compensate for rising wages. Indeed, manufacturing output per worker in China has improved by an average of 10 percent per year over the past decade, nearly five times the pace of U.S. productivity growth. Although we forecast that Chinese productivity growth will remain impressive, at 8.5 percent annually over the next five years, output per worker will increase at only half the pace of the rise in wages. (See Exhibit 2.) This means that productivity-adjusted costs are rising, which in the past was not always the case.Add in the difference in productivity itself, and the cost gap between Chinese and U.S. manufacturing shrinks much further. Adjusted for output per worker, the average cost of Chinese labor was 22 percent that of U.S. labor in 2005. By 2010, average Chinese labor costs had risen to 31 percent of the U.S. level. Although the Yangtze River Delta is more productive than other regions in China, the gap in wages is quickly closing there as well. The hourly Chinese factory wage adjusted for productivity was $8.62 in the region in 2010, compared with $21.25 in the U.S. South. In 2015, labor adjusted for productivity will cost $15.03 an hour in the Yangtze River Delta, compared with a projected $24.81 in the U.S. South.While it may appear that Chinese wages are still much lower, keep in mind that labor is only part of the cost of making a product. The labor content ranges from only about 7 percent for products like video cameras to about 25 percent for a machined auto part. When transportation, duties, and other costs are included, not to mention the expected continued appreciation of China’s currency, companies may find that any cost savings to be gained from sourcing in China may not be worth the time and myriad risks and headaches associated with operating a supply chain extending halfway around the world. To illustrate how the math is changing, let’s look at a hypothetical part for a car assembled in the U.S. One option is to make the part in the U.S. South—say, in South Carolina. The alternative is to make it in the Yangtze River Delta. (See Exhibit 3.)In 2000, it would have made economic sense to source the part in China, where wages were about 20 times lower. Now fast-forward to 2015. The U.S. labor cost for the part will come to $3.31. At a factory in the Yangtze River Delta, workers will still be earning only one-quarter of their U.S. counterparts’ wages. However, even with massive productivity improvements, output per worker at the Chinese factory will be only 42 percent that of a southern U.S. plant. So the Chinese labor cost for the part will be $2.00, bringing the savings down to 39 percent. Moreover, since labor represents approximatelyone-quarter of the total cost of making the part, the total savings will shrink further, to less than 10 percent.Thus, the cost savings, if any, are unlikely to be enough to justify outsourcing the part to China, once all the other costs and risks are taken into account. If this trend continues through 2020, say, the equation might even reverse itself completely—with manufacture in the U.S. being cheaper even before those added costs are considered.The Limits of AutomationIt might seem that greater investment in automation would solve the problem of C hina’s lower productivity. Multinational companies would merely have to install the same equipment used in their factories at home. That, however, would undercut the chief competitive advantage of manufacturing in China—low labor costs. Automation reduces a product’s labor content. Despite the greater productivity that automation would afford, China’s total cost advantage over the U.S. would likely not increase significantly as a result. Take a kitchen appliance for which labor accounts for 20 percent of the cost. (See Exhibit 4.) In 2005, the product’s labor cost in a typical Chinese factory would have been 61 percent lower than in the U.S., and the total cost before supply chain costs would have been about 21 percent lower, accounting for productivity differences. By 2015, higher Chinese wages will have shrunk that total cost advantage to 13 percent. Now assume that the factory in China installs production lines identical to those in the U.S. and that it achieves the same level of productivity. Because of the reduced labor content of the appliance and the costs of operating the advanced factory, the total savings from manufacturing in China would improve only slightly, to 15 percent, according to our analysis. Again, that is before shipping, duties, inventory costs, and other expenses. For such an appliance intended for sale in North America, many companies would probably decide to build it domestically.Other ExpensesLabor isn’t the only part of China’s changing cost equation. The cost of electricity has surged by 15 percent since 2010. Rising prices for imported thermal coal and an end to preferential rates for high-energy-consumingbusinesses are also pushing up utility rates for industry, which consumes 74 percent of China’s electricity.In addition, industrial land is no longer cheap in China. In fact, commercial prices are dramatically higher than in most of the U.S. For example, industrial land costs $11.15 per square foot in the coastal city of Ningbo, $14.49 in Nanjing, $17.29 in Shanghai, and $21 in Shenzhen. The national average is $10.22 per square foot. Industrial land in Alabama, by contrast, costs only $1.86 to $7.43 per square foot; in Tennessee and North Carolina, the price ranges from $1.30 to $4.65. To secure low real-estate costs in China, companies will need to move inland. But in so doing, they will incur higher transportation costs and lose some of the benefits of being part of the industrial clusters that have grown up in the major coastal cities.Transpacific shipping rates are going up, too. While ocean freight remains inexpensive, the doubling of bunker-fuel prices since early 2009 is causing rates to increase. Rising oil prices, a falloff in new shipbuilding, and a projected shortage in container port capacity in 2015 are expected to boost ocean freight rates.The steady appreciation of the renminbi against the U.S. dollar, meanwhile, is further increasing the price of Chinese exports to the U.S. We expect that trend to continue.Finally, there are the many costs and headaches of relying on extended supply chains. These include inventory expenses, quality control problems, unanticipated travel needs, and the threat of supply disruptions due to port closures or natural disasters. With China, there are added concerns about intellectual-property theft and trade disputes that result in punitive duties. In response to a petition by the United Steelworkers, for instance, the U.S. in 2010 began investigating subsidies of Chinese green-technology products, such as wind turbines and solar panels, for possible unfair trade practices. In September 2009, the U.S. imposed extra duties of 25 to 35 percent on certain Chinese car and truck tires under a WTO “safeguard” provision that allows countries to curb surges of Chinese imports that cause market disruptions. Other Low-Cost CountriesIt might seem reasonable for many companies to look for sourcing opportunities in other low-cost nations and to shift much of their export manufacturing from China to these cheaper locations. Fully loaded hourly manufacturing wages average $1.80 in Thailand, 49 cents in Vietnam, 38 cents in Indonesia, and 35 cents in Cambodia. There has already been asignificant transfer of work in apparel, footwear, sporting goods, and other labor-intensive products to South and Southeast Asia.Other low-cost nations won’t be able to absorb all the export manufacturing that is likely to leave China, however. A simple reason is that there is no replacement for China’s labor force. China not only has the world’s largest population (1.34 billion), it also has the highest proportion of able-bodied adults in the workforce (84 percent). Twenty-eight percent of those workers are employed by industry, far more than in Southeast Asia, indicating that China has an estimated 215 million industrial jobs. That is approximately 58 percent more than the industrial workforce of all of Southeast Asia and India combined. Chinese workers are also more productive than workers in other low-cost nations. Vietnamese workers earn only 25 percent of what their Chinese counterparts earn, but Chinese workers are significantly more productive, which mitigates much of the labor savings advantage. What’s more, as labor markets grow tighter, wages are rising fast in low-cost Asian nations, as well. Nor can many other low-cost nations match the first-rate infrastructure, skilled talent pool, well-developed supply networks, and worker productivity of China’s coastal industrial zones. Add to that the advantageous treatment by Chinese bureaucracies, from the central government down to the villages, which have showered foreign investors in targeted industries with incentives and have speedily cut through red tape. Indeed, for the manufacturing world, China has been the opposite of a perfect storm, offering a total package unlikely to be matched by any other low-cost nation.Mexico, on the other hand, has the potential to be a big winner when it comes to supplying North America. It has the enormous advantage of bordering the U.S., which means that goods can reach much of the country in a day or two, as opposed to at least 21 days by ship from China. Goods imported from Mexico can also enter duty-free, thanks to the North American Free Trade Agreement. In addition, by 2015, wages in Mexico will be significantly lower than in China. In 2000, Mexican factory workers earned more than four times as much as Chinese workers. After China’s entry into the WTO in 2001, however, maquiladora industrial zones bordering the U.S. suffered a large loss in manufacturing. Now that has changed. By 2010, Chinese workers were earning two-thirds as much as their Mexican counterparts. By 2015, BCG forecasts that the fully loaded cost of hiring Chinese workers will be 25 percent higher than the cost of using Mexican workers.Mexico’s gains will be limited, however, especially in higher-value work now done in China. Because of concerns over personal safety, skill shortages, andpoor infrastructure, many companies will keep manufacturing high-end products in the U.S.The Role of Government IncentivesGovernments in Asia and Europe have used generous financial incentives to persuade multinational companies to build high-tech plants in targeted industries. Frequently they offered terms that the U.S. could not match, such as ten-year holidays from corporate taxes, cash grants, and cheap loans. In recent years, the federal government and many states have closed the gap with aggressive incentive packages, making the U.S. more competitive in the chase for manufacturing facilities. GlobalFoundries, for example, is receiving $1.3 billion in cash reimbursements and tax breaks over the next 15 years from the State of New York to build a $4.2 billion state-of-the-art silicon-wafer plant in Malta, New York, and Nissan received a $1.45 billion loan under the Advanced Technology Vehicles Manufacturing Program managed by the U.S. Department of Energy that covered most of the company’s $1.8 billion investment in a new plant in Tennessee.While government subsidies won’t make a major difference in determining whether a plant is built in the U.S. instead of in Asia, they can make the decision easier at a time when other cost factors are shifting in favor of the U.S.China’s Manufacturing FutureA U.S. resurgence will not diminish China’s role as a global manufacturing power. The n ation’s immense domestic market, installed base across a range of capital-intensive industries, and pool of skilled talent guarantee that it will be a rising force in a range of manufacturing sectors.Instead of pulling out of China, most multinational companies will orient more of their production to serve China and the rest of a growing Asia. In nominal terms, China’s economy is projected to be about two-thirds the size of the U.S. economy by 2015. It is already slightly larger than Japan’s and will be nearly twice as big in another five years. Disposable income is expected to grow by 230 percent, to $5.57 trillion. Over the next five years, China will add nearly 90 million households earning at least $9,000 per year.China also will continue to be a major low-cost export base for Western Europe, even though the wage gap will narrow significantly. In 2010, fully loaded wage costs adjusted for productivity in the Yangtze River Delta were 25 percent of those in Western Europe. In 2015, wages in the region will be only 38 percent of those in Western Europe. This change will probably not be enough togenerate a tipping point, so Europe will continue to rely on China as a primary source of manufactured products five years from now.The Implications for CompaniesThe shifting cost structure between China and the U.S. will present more manufacturing and sourcing choices. For many products that have a high labor content and are destined for Asian markets, manufacturing in China will still make sense because of technological leadership or economies of scale. But China should no longer be treated as the default option.Companies should undertake a fresh, rigorous, product-by-product analysis of their global supply networks that takes into account the total cost of production. Rather than fixate on labor rates, this analysis should factor in worker productivity, transit costs, time-to-market considerations, logistical risks, energy costs, and other expenses in a range of scenarios. Companies should also make sure that their supply chains are flexible, dynamic, and globally balanced, providing the leeway to shift production and sourcing to other locations when the time is right. And they should weigh the many intrinsic advantages of locating manufacturing close to consumers, such as the ability to more quickly get products into the hands of customers, replace depleted inventory of popular items, and make design changes in response to market trends or customer demands.In some cases, companies may find that now is the time it makes tactical sense to move some production away from China and into the U.S., Mexico, or Southeast Asia. Manufacturers that remain in China for economic or strategic reasons will have to find dramatic ways to improve efficiency if they are to preserve current levels of profitability in the face of double-digit annual wage hikes.More-strategic decisions will have to be made when the time comes to consider where to build new manufacturing capacity to serve markets outside of China. Our analysis suggests that the U.S. will become an increasingly attractive option, especially for products consumed in North America. As long as it provides a favorable investment climate and flexible labor force, the U.S. can look forward to a manufacturing renaissance.Authors and AcknowledgmentsAcknowledgmentsThis report would not have been possible without the efforts of Justin Rose, Chris Erickson, and Jonas Bengtson of BCG’s project team. The authors also would like to thank David Fondiller, Lexie Corriveau, Beth Gillett, and Mike Petkewich for their guidance and interactions with the media, Pete Engardio for his。