语言学考试必备

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1.classification of words(1)variable and invariable wordsvariable words may have inflective changes. Such as follow –follows-followed-following. Invariable words do not have inflective changes. Such as since, when, seldom, through, etc.(2)grammatical words and lexical wordsgrammatical words are those that mainly work for constructing group, phase, clause, clause complex, or even text. Such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns. Lexical words are mainly work for referring to substance, action, and quality.(3)Closed-class words and open-class wordsClosed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, and conjunctions. Open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited, such as auxiliary verbs.(4)Word classA few more word classes have been introduced into grammar, such as particles, auxiliaries, pro-form and determiners.2.Sense relations(1)Synonymy: it is the technical name for the sameness relation. Eg. Buy and purchase, world and universe.(2)Antonymy: it is the name for oppositeness relation. Three are three types: gradable antonymy , complementary antonymy and converse antonymy.(3)Hyponymy: it is of recent creation, is a matter of class membership.3.How many types of morphemes are there in the English language?(1)Free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemes are those that may occur alone, which may make up words by themselves; bound morphemes are those that cannot occur alone, which must appear with at least one different morpheme.(2)Root, affix and stemA root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without destroying its meaning; an affix is the collective term for the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme; a stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes(3)4.what are the design features of human language?(1)arbitrariness (2)duality (3)creativity (4)displacement2、how do you understand the distinction?The description of a language at some point in time is a Synchronic study; the description of a language as it changes through time is a Diachronic study. A synchronic study of language describes a language as it is at some particular point in time, while a diachronic study of language is the study of the historical development of language over a period of time.3、what are the major distinctions?(1) langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community; and parole refers to the realization of langue in actual use. (2) langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to follow while parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (3)langue is abstract; it is not the language people actually use, but parole is concrete; it refers to the naturally occurring language events.(4)langue is relatively stable; it does not change frequently; while parole varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.4、how do you understandChomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his langua ge. This internalized set of rules enables the language users to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambigous. According to Chomsky, performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. Although the speaker’s knowledge of his mother tongue is perfect, his performance may have mistakes because of social and phychological factors such as stress, embarrassment, etc. Chomsky believes that what linguists should study is the competence. Which is systematic, not the performance, which is too haphazard.5、what are the major differences between phonology and phonetics?They differ in their approach and focus. Phonetics is of a general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; how they are produced, how they can be classified. Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular language; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication..6、how many types of morphemes are there in the English language? What are they? There are 3 types of morphemes.(1)free morpheme and bound morpheme(2)root, affix and stem(3)inflectional affix and derivational affix7、what are the main features of the English compounds?Orthographically a compound can be written as one word, two separate words with or without a hyphen in between. Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound, is determined by the last element. Semantically, the meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from the meaning of all its components. Phonetically, the word stress of a compound usually falls on the first element.8、what are endocentric construction and exocentric construction?An endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence, to one of its constituents, which serves as the center, or head, of the whole. A typical example is the three small children with children as its head. The exocentric construction, opposite to the first type, is defined negatively as a construction whose distribution is not functionally equivalent to any of its constitunents. Prepositional phrasal like on the shelf are typical examples of this type. 9、distinguish the two possible meaning of “more beautiful flowers” by means of IC analysisMore beautiful flowers; the IC analysis is a way to dismantle a grammatical construction.10、what are the three kinds of antonym?(1)complementary pairs are antonyms in which the presence of one quality or state signifies the absence of the other and vice versa. Single/married, not pregment/pregnant. There are no intermediate states.(2)gradable pairs are antonyms which allow for a natural, gradual transition between two poles;good/bad, hot/cold. It is possible to be a little cold or very cold, etc. (3)relational opposites are antonyms which share the same semantic features, only the focus, or direction, is reversed; tie/untie, buy/sell, give/receive, teacher/pupil, father/son.11、do you think B is cooperative in the following dialogue? Support your argument with cooperative principle.A: when is the bus coming? B: there has been an accident. Further up the road. Yes, B is cooperative. On the face of it, B’s statement is not an answer to A’s question. B doesn’t say “when”. However, A will immediately interpret the statement as meaning “ I don’t know “ or” I am not sure.” Just assume that B is being “ relevant” and “informative”. Given that B’s answer contains relevant information. Acan work out that “an accident further up the road” conventionally involves “ traffic jams”, and “traffic jam” preludes “bus coming”. Thus, B’s answer is not simply a statement of “when the bus com es”; it contains an implicature concerning “ when the bus comes”.1、arbitrariness：it refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.2、duality：it is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of element of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.3、displacement：t means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present at the moment of communication.4、linguistics：it is usually defined as the science of language or, alternatively, as the scientific study of language.5、phonetics: it is the scientific study of speech sounds. It studies how the speech sounds are produced, transmitted and perceived.6、phonology it is the study of speech sounds that the human voice capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning .7、morphology形态学It is the study of the minimal units of meaning-morphemes and word-formation processes.8、syntax句法It refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language or simply,the study of the formation of sentences 9semantics语义学 it is the study of the meaning of words phrases and sentences 10 pragmatics 语用学it is study of meaning in context 11Psycholinguistics 心理语言学 it investigates the interrelation of language and mind , in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition foe example.12socillinguistics 社会语言学 it is an umbrella term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society,including the social function of language and the social characteristics of its users 13language 语言系统 it is a social bond that constitutes language14parole言语 it is a storehouse filled by the members of a given community through their active use of speaking.10competence it is the ideal user|s knowledge of the rules of his language16performance it is the actual use of language in concrete situations 17phonemes it is the smallest contrastive unit in the sound system of a language 18 minimal pairs it is two words that differ in only one sound it can be used to find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.19allophones it is a phenomenon of variation in the pronuciation of phonemes in different positions 20Allomorph it is any of the variant forms of a morpheme as conditioned by position or adjoining sounds.21closed-class word it is a word whose membership is fixed or limited 22syntax it refers to rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply the study of the formation of sentences 23IC analysis immediately constituent analysis ic analysis for short,refers to the analysis of a sentence in terms of its immediate constituents-word groups ,which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituents of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimate sake of convenience. 26concord (agreement) it is the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specific word classes that stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another ,shall also be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category27entailment it is basically a semantic relation or logical implication 28 proposition it is the result of the abstraction of sentences, which are descriptions of states of affairs and which some writers see as a basic element of sentence meaning . 29 Componential analysis 词的成分分析it define the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantics features 30reference it is what a linguistics form refers to in the real world it is a matter of the relationship between the form and the reality.31morpheme it is the smallest unit of language in regard to the relationship between soundingand meaning , a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning。

语言学考试重点全

语⾔学考试重点全语⾔学重点Semantics1. Sense relation between sentences(简答、语料分析)A.X is synonymous with YX: He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never married all his life.B.X is inconsistent with YX: John is married Y: John is a bachelorC.X entails YX: A boy had broken the window Y: A child had broken the window.D.X presuppose YX: John’s bike needs repairing Y: John has a bikeE.X is a contradictionX: John is neither alive nor deadF.X is semantically anomalousX: The table has had intentions Y: The golf kicked him.2. Sentence Meaning: Katz’s Semantic Theory(essay question)I. Structure of the theory and its aims{Grammatical classification}dictionary (semantic markers) Katz’s theory semant ic informationProjection rules [distinguishers]Universally applicable metalanguageⅡKatz’s dictionary--2 types of semantic information--(semantic markers)语义标记: which are the links binding the vocabulary together and are responsible for the lexical relations;--[distinguisher] 辨义成分: the word-specific semantic information that identifies the lexical items.Ⅲprojection rules--projection rules: to give rules showing how the meanings of lexical items build up into the meaning of phrases and phrases up to sentences.amalgamation process （合并）--PR use trees to structure the amalgamation of word meaning into phrase meaning and phrase meaning into sentence meaning.selection restrictions--AS the PR successively amalgamate readings, the selection restrictions will limit the final output.3. Referential theory (简答)①Linguistic symbols stand for things, the linguistic symbol(word) and the things they refer to are not related directly, the linguistic symbol and the things it stand for are arbitrary. Different linguistic symbols are used in different languages to refer to the same thing. For example, they are related via concept. For the speaker and listener to reach mutual understanding, they have to have the same concept of the target things.②There is a direct relation between linguistic symbol and the concept becauselinguistic symbol symbolizes concept, and linguistic symbol can express concept.③there is a direct relation between things and the concept because concepts are abstract mental representation of the things the physical or imaginary world.4 Proposition:def: the unit of meaning which constitutes the subject-matter of a statement in the form of simple declarative sentence.5. Propositional logic:def: the study of truth conditions for propositions, that is, how the truth of composite proposition is determined by the truth value of its constituent propositions and the connections between them.6. truth value: def: a sentence’s being true or false is called its truth value7. truth value table(简答，给出⼦命题求复合命题，根据⼦命题真假判断复合命Pragmatics1.Pragmatics: the study of the use of the language in communication, particularlythe relationship between sentences and the contexts and the situations in which they are used.2. Speech Act Theory put forward by Austen and Searle(简答, 语料分析)2.1 Austin’s 3-part distinction of speech actSpeech actin utterance as a functional unit in communication. According Austin, an utterance performs 3 acts simultaneously ---locutionary act: ~is the saying of something, which is meaningful and can be understood.---illocutionary act: ~ is the using the utterance to perform a function.---perlocutionary act: the results or effects that are produced by means of saying.2.2 Searle's 2-part distinction theoryAccording Searle, each utterance has two meanings:---propositional meaning: the basic literal meaning an utterance bears, which is conveyed by particular words and structure which an utterance contains.---illocutionary force: the intended effects the utterance or written text has on its listener or reader.--5 types of illocutionary forces（语料分析）1)assertives: sentences that commit the speaker to the truth of something.I guess he had got it.I think the film is moving.2)directive: try to get the listener to do somethingplease give me some advice.My shoes have worn out.3)commissive: committing the speaker to do something.May I help you with the case?4) Expressive: expressing the speaker’s psychological state about something.Congratulations!Thanks.5)declarative: bringing about immediate change in the existing state of affairs.Y ou are fired.Class is over.3.the Cooperative Principle(put forward by Paul Grice).Function/object---CP was theory is an attempt at explaining how a hearer gets from what is said to what is meant, that is, from the level of expressed meaning to the level of implied meaning, conversational implicature, as called by Grice.---In conversational interaction, people work on the assumption that a certain set of rules is in operation unless they receive indications to the contrary. Grice calls this set of rules Cooperative Principle.---make your conversational contribution as such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.合作原则和合作准则的关系---According to this principle, we interpret lang. on the assumption that its sender is obeying CP. And CP is specified as 4 maxims called "cooperative maxims" to help establish what that conversational implicature might be. 遵循原则：quantity, quality, relation, manner4. characteristics of conversational implicatureA. calculabilitythe same words may convey very different implicatures in different circumstances. However, the implicature conveyed in a particular situation is not random. It is possible to spell out the steps a hearer goes though in order to calculate the intended implicature.B.cancellability/ defeasibility--an implicature can be cancelled, which allows the speaker to imply something and then deny that implicature.C.non-detachability--an implicature is attached to the semantic content of what’s said, not to the lin guistic form.--no matter how much you reword an utterance, the implicature remains.D.non-conventionalitythe same words can carry different implicatures on different occasions.4.flouting of maxims1) Quantity(adequate)A. make your contribution as informative as is required (for the current purposes of the exchange)B. do not make your contribution more informative than is required.2) Quality(be true)Try to make your contribution one that is trueA.Do not say what you believe to be falseB.Do not say what for which your lack adequate evidence.3) RelationBe relevant4)Manner(be clear)Be perspicuousA.Avoid obscurity of expressionB.Avoid ambiguity.5.Relevance Theory put forward by Sperber & Wilson (essay question)the notion of relevance--the notion of relevance is defined by two notions: cognitive effects and processing effort.--cognitive effectscognitive effects result from an interaction of new and old information; cognitive effects can be achieved by:1)n ewly presented information may combine with an existing assumption to yield contextual implication. New information is relevant in any context in which it has context implicatures, and that the more contextual implicatures it has, the more relevant it will be.2) newly presented information may strengthen existing assumption. New information is relevant in any context in which it strengthens an existing assumption, and that the more assumption it strengthens, the more relevant it will be.3)newly presented information may contradict or eliminate an existing assumption. New information is relevant in any context in which it contradicts, and leads to the elimination of an existing assumption; the more assumption it eliminates, and the stronger they were, the more relevant it will be.a.Conclusion:new information derived from external stimuli (utterance, sound, sights), or from internal representation (thoughts memories) is relevant to an individual if it yields cognitive effects (combining with existing assumptions to yield contextual implication, contradicting or eliminating an existing assumption, or strengthening an existing assumption).--processing effortDef: processing effort is the mental effort needed to parse an utterance, decide what proposition it is intended to express, and work out its intended cognitive effects in that context.Conclusion: 关联和认知效果的关系relevance of an input to an individual1) other things being equal, the greater the cognitive effects, the greater the relevance.2) other things being equal, the smaller the processing effort to derivethose cognitive effects, the greater the relevance.--In processing information people try to balance cost and rewards—they automatically process each new piece of information in a context where it yields maximal cognitive effects for a minimal processing effort.6. Two principles of relevance--they govern cognition and communication1)cognitive principle of relevance（hearer）Human cognition tends to be geared to the maximization of relevance.2)communicative principle of relevance(speaker)Every act of ostensive（显⽰的）communication communicates a presumption of its own optimal （最佳的the best that is possible）relevance.Language and Cognition1.psycholinguistics:Def: the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce language.2.internal lexicon:Def: The organization of word knowledge in permanent memory is called internal lexicon.3. cohort model--The cohort model in psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics is a model of lexical retrieval first proposed by William Marslen-Wilson in the late 1980s.According to the model, when a person hears speech segments real-time, each speech segment "activates" every word in the lexicon that begins with that segment, and as more segments are added, more words are ruled out, until only one word is left that still matches the input.--spoken word recognition is realized in 3 stages:1)---generating a word initial cohort: a set of lexical candidates is activated on thebase of an acoustic-phonetic analysis of the input in a strict bottom -up fashion.This set of lexical candidates is called word initial cohort.---auditory lexical retrieval begins with the first one or two speech segments, or phonemes, reach the hearer's ear, at which time the mental lexicon activates every possible word that begins with that speech segment.2)the selection stage---As more speech segments enter the ear and stimulate more neurons, causing the competitors that no longer match the input to be "kicked out" or to decrease in activation.--items that are very similar to the signal remain strongly activated, while others will drop off, thus some of the initial candidates in the cohort will progressively eliminated.3)elimination takes place in one of the two ways:--the context of a spoken sentence narrows the initial cohort--The activated cohort will continue to monitor the incoming part of the word.---as more of the phonological information of the word comes in, the cohort narrows down progressively, These processes continue until an instant, called the recognition point,[5]at which only one word remains activated and all competitors have been kicked out. And the word is recognized.4)finally the recognized word is fit into the connected discourse.4. parsingDef: The first step in understanding a sentence. It is a procedure to assign elements of the sentence surface structure to linguistic categories. This procedure is called ~5. Processing steps in word access (Levelt, et al., 1999)1)Conceptualization: to decide the notion/ concept to express.2) To select a word that corresponds to the chosen concept: the speak first select alemma (a syntactic word unit). Several lemmas may be activated competitively at once. Only one lemma is selected as soonas its activation level exceeds the summed activation of all competitors. A checking mechanism ascertains that the selected lemma maps onto the intended concept.3) Morpho-phonological encoding: morphemes corresponding to the selected lemmaare retrieved. The phonological form of the word is generated. First these are decomposed individual segments [p, b, i] or groups of segments (eg., [st] )，which are later syllabified and assigned stress.4) Generation of a phonetic representation: specifying the articulatory gestures to becarried out and their timing.6. . Generation of sentences in spoken language productionGeneration of sentences involves roughly the following steps:Conceptual preparation—deciding what to say--A global planning is generated and then elaborated until a representation of lexical concepts (the message) is reached. Linguistic planning--linguistic planning started using the message as input. Linguistic planning is initiated as soon as the first few lexical concepts are selected, and the rest is prepared later, either during the speech or between parts of the utterance. Generating syntactic structureTwo distinct processes are involved:--functional planning processes: to assign grammatical functions (subject, verb, object, etc.) to lemmas (plan the grammatical functions that the lemmas plays). These processes rely largely on information from message level and syntactic properties of the retrieved lemmas.--positional encoding: to use the lemmas retrieved and their function to generate syntactic structures that capture the dependencies among constituents and their order. Building phonological forms--phonological segments and stress patterns for each word are retrieved from internal lexicon.Conceptual Metaphor Theory1.DomainDef: domain is the basic unit of cognitive organization in CMT2.W orking mechanism of metaphor—cross-domain mappingmapping (映射) from a source domain to a target domain.Metaphor is a fixed pattern of conceptual correspondences across the two conceptual domains, metaphor represents the systematic correspondence or entailments between the source domain and the target domain.。

语言学考试题库及答案

语言学考试题库及答案一、选择题1. 语言学研究的核心对象是什么？A. 语言的起源B. 语言的结构C. 语言的演变D. 语言的使用答案：B2. 下列哪一项不是语言的组成部分？A. 语音B. 语法C. 语义D. 逻辑答案：D3. 索绪尔将语言符号分为哪两个部分？A. 符号和意义B. 能指和所指C. 语音和语义D. 形式和内容答案：B二、填空题1. 语言是______的，它由______和______构成。

答案：符号系统；形式；内容2. 语言的______功能是指人们通过语言进行交流的能力。

答案：交流3. 语言的______功能是指语言能够表达思想和情感的能力。

答案：表达三、简答题1. 简述语言和言语的区别。

答案：语言是指一种抽象的符号系统，它包括语音、语法、语义等规则和结构；言语则是指个人使用语言进行交流的具体行为。

2. 描述索绪尔的“能指”和“所指”概念。

答案：索绪尔认为语言符号由“能指”和“所指”两部分组成。

“能指”指的是语言符号的声音形式，而“所指”指的是符号所代表的概念或意义。

四、论述题1. 论述语言的任意性原则及其对语言学习和教学的影响。

答案：语言的任意性原则指的是语言符号的声音形式和它所代表的概念之间没有必然的联系。

这一原则对语言学习和教学有着深远的影响，因为它意味着学习者需要记忆每个符号的声音和意义之间的联系，而不能依赖于逻辑或直观的关联。

这对语言教学提出了挑战，要求教师设计有效的教学方法来帮助学生记忆和理解这些任意的联系。

2. 分析语言的交际功能及其在现代社会中的重要性。

答案：语言的交际功能是指语言作为交流工具，使人们能够传递信息、表达情感和进行社会互动。

在现代社会，随着全球化和信息技术的发展，语言的交际功能变得尤为重要。

有效的沟通能够促进国际合作、文化交流和商业交易，同时也有助于解决社会冲突和增进理解。

因此，掌握一门或多门语言对于个人和社会的发展至关重要。

语言学考试要点考试重点

Chapter 1 Introduction1. What is linguistics? Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.The scope of linguistics:(1 ). phonetics 语音学；phonology 音位学；morphology 形态学；syntax 句法学；pragmatics 语用学(2). sociolinguistics 社会语言学；psycholinguistics 心理语言学；applied linguistics应用语言学3.Some important distinction in linguistics(1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描述性与规定性①If a linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use,it is said to be descriptive;②If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for” correct and standard” behaviorin using language, . to tell people what they should say and what they should notsay, it is said to be prescriptive.(2)Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历时性①A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, thepresent) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.②Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.(2)Langue & parole 语言与会话①Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of aspeech community.②Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.(4)Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用①A language user's unconscious knowledge about the system of rules is called hislinguistic competence.②Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.(5)speech and writing 语言与文字Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.(6)traditional grammar and modern linguistic 传统语法与现代语言学4.Definition of language:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system, ., elements of language are combined according to rules.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistics symbol and what the symbol stands.Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific.5.Design features of language6.(1) Arbitrariness 任意性refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no naturalrelationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)(2) Productivity(creativity)能产性Language is productive in that it makes possible theconstruction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(3) duality双重性The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of theprimary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(4) displacement移位性Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, eventsand concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.(5)cultural transmission 文化传承性7.Functions of language(1) referential (to convey message and information),(2) poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),(3) emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),(4) conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests),(5) phatic (to establish communion with others)(6) metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).①Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational)②Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age,sex, language, background, accent, status)③Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions.(name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare)④. Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establisha comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factualcontent. (health, weather)⑥Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)⑦Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself.8.9.Chapter 2 Phonology1.Phonetics（语音学）is the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with allthe sounds that occur in the world’s languages.Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.2.Orthographic representation of speech sounds：broad transcription（宽式标音）and narrow transcription（严式标音）A broad transcription（宽式标音）is the transcription with letter-symbols only.A narrow transcription（严式标音）is a transcription with letter symbols together withdiacritics.3.Phonology（音位学）is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.4.The differences between phonetics and phonology:（语音的正字表征）①Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But theydiffer in their approach and focus.②Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all humanlanguages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ fromeach other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.③Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.5.Phone（音素）, phoneme（音位）, allophone（音位变体）A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce duringlinguistic communication are all phones.A phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not aparticular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context6.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.（音位对立，互补分布，最小对立体）7.Some rules of phonology（音位学规则）Sequential rules 序列规则Assimilation rule 同化规则Deletion rule省略规则8.Suprasegmental features （超音段特征）：stress重音，tone音调，intonation语调9.10.Chapter 3 Morphology1.Classification of words（1）Variable vs. invariable words:可变词类和不可变词类Variable words: One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains constant follow, follows, following, followed; mat, matsInvariable words: those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings.（2）Grammatical words vs. lexical words:语法词类和词汇词类Grammatical words: express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronounsLexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.（3）Closed-class words vs. open-class words:封闭词类和开放词类Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.Open-class: A word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbsGrammatical---lexical words closed-class---open-class words2.Morphere(词素)：the minimal meaningful unit of language.3.Linguistics use the term morphology to refer the part of the grammar that is concerned withword formation and word structure.4.Free morpheme & bound morpheme(自由语素和黏着语素)A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme; a morpheme thatmust be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.5.The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.(词素变体)6.Inflectional affix & derivational affix(屈折词缀和派生词缀)pound: those words that consist of more than one free morphemes, the way to join twoseparate words to produce a single form.In compounds, the lexical morphemes can be of different word classes.pounds can be further divided into two kinds:the endocentric compound (向心复合词) the exocentric compound(离心复合词)9.Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; eg self-control:a kind of control armchair: a kind of chair10.Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, egscarecrow: not a kind of crow breakneck: not a kind of neck11.Chapter 4 Syntax1.What is Syntax （句法）?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences. 句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2.Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:relations of position 位置关系relations of substitutability 替代关系relations of co-occurrence 同现关系3.4.5.Chapter 5 Semantics1.What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2.The conceptualist view①The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form andwhat it refers to . between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.②This is illustrated by the classic semantic triangle or triangle of significance suggested byOgden and Richard.Thought/reference/conceptSymbol/form referencentword/phrase/sentence③The symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements (words and phrases);Thereferent refers to the object in the world of experience;Thought or reference refers to concept.The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with theform of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from thispoint of view is the meaning of the word.3.The contextualismMeaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:Situational context: spatiotemporal situationLinguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.4.BehaviorismBehaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.5.Lexical meaningSense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.6.Major sense relations（1）Synonymy 同义词①Dialect synonymy 方言同义词②Stylistic synonymy 文体同义词③Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning④Collocational synonyms⑤Semantically different synonyms（2）Antonym 反义词①Gradable antonyms 等级反义词②Complementary antonyms 互补反义词③Relational opposites 关系反义词（3）Polysemy 一词多义（4）Homonymy 同形异义词（5）Hyponymy 上下义关系①Superordinate 上义词②Hyponyms下义词ponential analysis 成分分析法——a way of analyze lexical meaningIt is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.8.。

语言学考试题

语言学考试题一、选择题1. 下列哪个是语言学的基本研究对象？A. 数字B. 文字C. 语言D. 音乐2. 哪位学者提出了语言功能理论？A. #德维特B. 萨普尔斯C. 赫尔德D. #哈尔德格尔3. 语言学的分类方法通常可以分为几大类？A. 3B. 4C. 5D. 24. “语言符号”中包括哪些要素？A. 声音B. 符号C. 拼写D. A、B5. 在语法范畴中，“动宾关系”是指什么？A. 主语和谓语之间的语法关系B. 主语和宾语之间的语法关系C. 宾语和谓语之间的语法关系D. 主语和动词之间的语法关系二、填空题6. 语言学中研究音素的学科是---。

7. 没有逻辑意义的音节称为---。

8. 语音学的基本单位是---。

9. 下列哪个不是语言学的分支学科？10. 一种语言中声母、韵母和声调三者综合的组合称为---。

三、简答题11. 请简要说明音韵学和语音学的区别。

12. 什么是“方言”，方言和语言的关系是什么？13. 什么是语法，语法的作用是什么？14. “文字和语言的关系”是语言学中一个重要问题，请简述你对这个问题的理解。

15. 请简要介绍语言学的研究方法有哪些？四、论述题16. 语言是人类最重要的交流工具之一，请说明语言对个体和社会的重要性。

17. 语言学的发展历程是怎样的？过去、现在和未来的语言学会有怎样的发展趋势？18. 请解释语言与文化之间的关系，并谈谈语言多样性对世界文化的重要影响。

以上便是本次语言学考试题的全部内容，请同学们认真地完成每一道题目，祝大家取得优异的成绩！。

语言学考试要点

语言学考点一、导言1、语言学研究分两个阶段：传统语言学（语文学）阶段和现代语言学阶段。

传统语言学特点：主要以书面语为主要研究材料，给政治、哲学、宗教、历史、文学方面的经典著作作注解；始终处于附属地位，不能形成独立的科学。

现代语言学特点：较重视口语研究，如制定语言规范，确立共同语的各方面标准等；研究目的主要是分析语言的结构，以此探讨语言发展的共同规律；现代语言学已经发展成为一门独立的学科。

传统语文学的三个中心：印度传统、希腊（解读经文的需要→梵语语言的研究起步早→“声明学”）－罗马传统（希腊语研究和古拉丁语研究）和中国传统——“小学”（文字学、音韵学和训诂学）。

现代语言学流派：历史比较语言学、结构主义语言学和转换生成语言学。

2、语言学的分科：（1）功能角度：理论语言学和应用语言学（2）具体研究对象：普通（一般）语言学和个别（专语、具体）语言学。

（3）研究时段：共时语言学和历时语言学（4）研究方法：描写语言学和对比语言学（5）研究对象的状态：静态语言学和动态语言学（6）研究角度和范围：微观语言学和宏观语言学二、语言的功能与语言符号1、为什么人类能掌握语言，而动物不能。

1)语言能力是人类特有的掌握语言需要发达的头脑和灵活的发音器官，即要有高度的抽象思维能力和灵巧的发音能力。

动物只是能模仿，具备初级思维的能力，能通人性，但它们仍然学不会人类的语言。

人类高度的抽象思维能力和灵巧的发音能力是在长期的劳动中形成的。

2)人类的语言和动物的“语言”有着根本的区别①人类语言单位明晰——动物的“语言”浑沌一片②人类语言符号具有完全的任意性——动物的“语言”的任意性受到很大的局限。

③人类语言符号结构有二层性——动物的“语言”没有结构可言。

④人类的语言是开放的——动物的“语言”是封闭的。

⑤人类的语言存在于社会——动物的“语言”是先天的。

2、为什么说语言是人类最重要的交际工具？（1）语言是交际工具。

语言是人与人之间的了解的纽带，只要有人群活动的地方就需要语言，人们用它进行交际，交流思想，以便在认知现实、改造现实的过程中协调相互之间的行为，以取得最佳的效果。

语言学考试试题及其答案

语言学考试试题及其答案一、填空１５%1、语言中最单纯、最常用、最原始和最能产的词是根词。

2、语言是人类最重要的交际工具，文字是最重要的辅助交际工具。

3、我国古代学者为读懂古书而建立的训诂学、文字学、音韵学组成了我国的语文学，通称为“小学”。

4、英语属于印欧语系的日耳曼语族的西部语支。

5、语音可以从生理角度分析它的产生方式，从物理?角度分析它的表现形式（传递过程），从社会功能角度分析它的功能作用。

6、是否能够独立（自由）运用，是区分词和语素的根本特点。

7、现代大多数国家的拼音文字的字母，大多直接来源于拉丁字母。

8、具有不同功能的三种最基本的语法单位是语素、词、句子。

9、语言发展的主要特点是渐变性和不平衡性。

10、我国宪法（１９８２年）第１９条明确规定“国家推广全国通用的普通话”。

二、单项选择题（本大题共26小题，每题1分）1、下列关于“语言”和“言语”的表述中，不正确的一项是【】A.语言是社会的，言语是个人的B.语言是主要的，言语是从属的C.语言是抽象的，言语是具体的D.语言是书面的，言语是口头的答案：D2、下列关于一般语汇总体特点的表述中，正确的一项是【】A.构词能力强B.使用范围窄C.产生历史长D. 大多很稳定答案：B 解析：根据词在语汇系统中的重要程度，可以分为基本语汇和非基本语汇（一般语汇）两大类。

ACD三项都属于基本语汇的特点。

3、区分“单纯词”和“合成词”所依据的是【】A.词的音节数量B.词的语素数量C.词的音形关系D.词的地位用途4、语法规则的“系统性”是指【】A.对语言的结构和成分进行类的概括B.相同规则可在一个结构里重复使用C.语法规则之间可以相互推导和解释D.语法规则的发展变化过程十分缓慢答案：C 解析：ABD三项分别对应的是语法规则的“抽象性”、“递归性”、“稳定性”。

5、语音的四个物理要素中，区别不同的意义起着最为重要的作用的是【】A、音高B、音强C、音长D、音色6、元音和辅音本质区别是【】A、元音的发音可以延长，辅音不可以B、元音发音响亮，辅音不响亮C、元音发音时气流不受阻，辅音一定受阻D、发元音时，发音器官的各个部分均衡紧张；辅音则不然7、[ε]的发音特征是【】A、舌面前高不圆唇B、舌面后高不圆唇C、舌面前半高不圆唇D、舌面前半低不圆唇8、下列关于语义民族性的表述中，正确的一项是【】A.词义上的民族特点并不明显B.词的多义化不受民族特点的制约C.不同的民族语言在词的理性意义上并无差异D.不同的民族语言在词的非理性意义上会有所不同答案：D解析：不同民族对客观事物的认识不同，因而语义的民族特点也不同，词的多义化也会受制约，非理性意义也会有所不同，比如汉语中“狗”字常含贬义，像“走狗”；可在英语里，“dog”常含褒义，像“a lucky dog”（幸运儿）。

语言学必背

1 语言学概论笔记第一章：语言和语言学一、识记内容。

1、口语：语言的客观存在形式首先是有声的口头语言。

2、书面语：文字出现以后，语言的第二种客观存在形式。

3、符号：指的是根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的这种实体和意义的结合体。

4、能指：语言符号的物质实体能够指称某种意义的成分。

5、所指：也就是“能指成分”，即特定的物质实体，所指的意义内容。

6、聚合关系：在同一个位置上可以互相替换出现的各个语言单位处在互相可以联想起来的关系之中，因而聚合成为一个类。

7、组合关系：组合关系体现为一个语言单位和前一个语言单位或后一个语言单位，或和前后两个语言单位之间的关系，也体现了部分与整体之间的关系。

8、语言学：是研究语言的科学。

9、普通语言学：语言学界把研究人类社会的语言这种社会现象的一般理论。

10、理论语言学：把研究某种具体语言的语言学称为汉语语言学或英语语言学等等，把侧重理论探讨的称为理论语言学。

11、应用语言学：把侧重语言学理论和成果的实际应用。

12、传统语言学：一般泛指20世纪以前的语言学，特别是指索绪尔开创的结构主义语言学以前的语言学。

13、结构主义语言学：索绪尔创立的语言学可以称为“结构主义语言学”，至于我国内常说的“结构主义语言学”、“结构主义语法”，往往只是指在国外影响较大并且我国语言学界比较熟悉的美国结构主义描写语言学，那只是当代结构主义语言学的一个流派，并不等于受索绪尔影响的整个结构主义语言学。

二、领会内容（不用识记，大体知道即可）1、言语交际是一个编码和解码的过程。

答：人要说话所需要的因素：生活经历、社会环境、当前处理的问题、社会问题、文化问题、哲学问题、逻辑问题。

人要接受语言所需要的因素：组织与分析的能力、心理、生理问题；发音、听音的器官和神经网络及机制和能力；复杂的生理和物理问题。

总之一句话，言语交际是通过许多因素对语言进行编码和解码的过程，言者编码，听者解码。

语言学考试纲要

语言学考试纲要第一部分，老师重点一．名词解释（需举例子）1．语言：语言是一个音义结合的符号系统，是人类独有的、最重要的交际工具，同时也是思维工具。

2．语音：自然界的声音是无限多的，语音不过是无限多的声音中的一种。

人类能发出的声音也是多种多样的，但只有那些用来区别意义的声音才是真正的语音音素3．音素：从语音的自然属性角度划分出来的最小语音单位。

是用对比的方法从音节中切分出来的。

音素的不同取决于音质的不同，i和ü音质不同，所以是两个音素。

4.文字：“文字”一词有两个意思，一是指一个个的字，一是指记录语言的文字符号的体系。

文字是语言的“意与声之迹”，是在语言的基础上产生的，是语言的书写符号。

5.国际音标：国际语音学会1888年制定并开始使用的一套音标符号，是目前世界上最通行的记录音素的符号。

其制定的基本原则是：一个音素只用一个音标表示，一个音标只表示一个音素。

6.音位：音位是特定语言或方言中具有区别词的语音形式进而区别意义作用的最小语音单位。

分音质音位和非音质音位两种类型。

7.语素：语素是语言单位中最小的音、义结合体，也是最小的语法单位。

根据是否直接成词可分为成词语素、不成词语素两种；根据是否具有词汇意义分实语素和功能语素两类。

8.词缀：词缀是只能粘附在词根上构成新词的语素，它本身不能单独构成词。

粘附在词根前面的词缀称为前缀，粘附在词根后面的词缀称为后缀，插入词根中间的词缀称为中缀。

如汉语的“第一”的“第”“老师”的“老”9.本义：多义词的多个义项中有历史可查的最初的意义叫做本义。

多义词的本义是产生这个词的其他意义的基础。

如，战士打仗必须使用兵器，因此“兵”衍生出“拿兵器的人”，即“兵士”的意义：“所以进兵者，欲王令楚割东国以与齐也”（《战国策·四周》）。

“兵器”和“拿兵器的人”是用于战争的，于是“兵”又衍生出“战争”“军事”的意义：“有宠而好兵，公弗禁。

” （《左传·隐公三年》）10.派生义：多义词中由本义衍生出来的意义叫做派生意义。

语言学：语言学概论考试资料一

语言学：语言学概论考试资料一1、多选义素分析的作用和优点有（）A.可以简洁地说明词义结构B.有客观的分析标准C.有助于语义描写的形式化D.几十个义素便可以描写整个词义系统E.有助于描写和说明词语的组（江南博哥）合条件正确答案：A ,C,E2、单选、关言获得的原因，下列学说中偏重于内部条件解释的是OA.模仿说B.天赋说C.强化说D.刺激反应说正确答案：B3、名词解释语言类型学正确答案：也称为类型语言学。

是研究人类各种语言的特征并进行分类的学科。

它主要从跨语言（或方言）的角度观察研究人类语言，通过跨语言比较寻求或验证语言共性，再以语言共性为背景揭示具体语言的特点，并将人类的语言归纳为若干类型。

属于熟语（固定短语）的有（） D 、“的”字短语正确答案：B5、名词解释词义正确答案：词义是同词的语音形式结合在一起的人们对一定对象的概括反映和主观态度。

6、单选产生与18世纪末叶19世纪初叶的语言学被称为OA 、结构主义语言学B 、历史比较语言学C 、社会语言学D 、功能语言学正确答案：B参考解析：结构主义语言学、社会语言学、功能语言学都是19世纪末或20世纪产生的。

7、问答题举例说明语言发展的渐变性和参差性。

正确答案：普通语言的发展规律具有渐变性和参差性两大特点。

①渐变性选语名语单述专短、、、、 4 A B C语言结构系统只能按照量变到质变的规律逐渐地变化，采取渐变的而不是突变的方式。

语言的渐变性说明：语言系统是变化的，这种变化是缓慢的，而不是爆发的。

这两点都是由语言的发展与稳定决定的，一方面是由于社会的需要，另一方面是由于语言内部的原因。

②参差性语言结构系统的各要素发展的速度是不整齐的。

语言是一个相对平衡的差异系统，各结构要素的各个单位都在这个系统中取得一定的价值。

但这个系统并非是一成不变的，其中的各个要素会出现参差不齐的变化：非基本词汇及其语义发展得最快，社会上有什么风吹草动，都可以中得到反映，语音变化较慢，最慢是语法。

语言学考试要点考试重点

C h a p t e r1I n t r o d u c t i o n1. What is linguistics? Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.The scope of linguistics:(1 ). phonetics 语音学；phonology 音位学；morphology 形态学；syntax 句法学；pragmatics 语用学(2). sociolinguistics 社会语言学；psycholinguistics 心理语言学；applied linguistics应用语言学3.Some important distinction in linguistics(1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描述性与规定性①If a linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to bedescriptive;②If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for” correct and standard” behavior in using language,i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.(2)Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历时性①A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point ofobservation. Most grammars are of this kind.②Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.(2)Langue & parole 语言与会话①Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.②Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.(4)Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用①A language user's unconscious knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.②Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.(5)speech and writing 语言与文字Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.(6)traditional grammar and modern linguistic 传统语法与现代语言学4.Definition of language:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistics symbol and what the symbol stands.Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific.5.Design features of language6.(1) Arbitrariness 任意性refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to theirmeaning. (sounds and meanings)(2) Productivity(creativity)能产性Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction andinterpretation of new signals by its users.(3) duality双重性The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level arecomposed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(4) displacement移位性Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and conceptswhich are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.(5)cultural transmission 文化传承性7.Functions of language(1) referential (to convey message and information),(2) poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),(3) emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),(4) conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests),(5) phatic (to establish communion with others)(6) metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).①Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational)②Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age, sex, language, background,accent, status)③Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions. (name, promise,apologize, sorry, declare)④. Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establish a comfortablerelationship or maintain social contact between people without any factual content. (health, weather)⑥Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)⑦Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself.Chapter 2 Phonology1.Phonetics（语音学）is the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds thatoccur in the world’s languages. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.2.Orthographic representation of speech sounds：broad transcription（宽式标音）and narrow transcription（严式标音）A broad transcription（宽式标音）is the transcription with letter-symbols only.A narrow transcription（严式标音）is a transcription with letter symbols together with diacritics.3.Phonology（音位学）is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.4.The differences between phonetics and phonology:（语音的正字表征）①Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approachand focus.②Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims toanswer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.③Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.5.Phone（音素）, phoneme（音位）, allophone（音位变体）A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguisticcommunication are all phones.A phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, butit is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context6.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.（音位对立，互补分布，最小对立体）7.Some rules of phonology（音位学规则）Sequential rules 序列规则Assimilation rule 同化规则Deletion rule省略规则8.Suprasegmental features （超音段特征）：stress重音，tone音调，intonation语调Chapter 3 Morphology1.Classification of words（1）Variable vs. invariable words:可变词类和不可变词类Variable words: One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains constant follow, follows, following, followed; mat, matsInvariable words: those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings. （2）Grammatical words vs. lexical words:语法词类和词汇词类Grammatical words: express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns Lexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.（3）Closed-class words vs. open-class words:封闭词类和开放词类Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.Open-class: A word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs Grammatical---lexical words closed-class---open-class words2.Morphere(词素)：the minimal meaningful unit of language.3.Linguistics use the term morphology to refer the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formationand word structure.4.Free morpheme & bound morpheme(自由语素和黏着语素)A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme; a morpheme that must be attached toanother one is a bound morpheme.5.The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.(词素变体)6.Inflectional affix & derivational affix(屈折词缀和派生词缀)pound: those words that consist of more than one free morphemes, the way to join two separate words toproduce a single form.In compounds, the lexical morphemes can be of different word classes.pounds can be further divided into two kinds:the endocentric compound (向心复合词) the exocentric compound(离心复合词)9.Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; eg self-control: a kind of controlarmchair: a kind of chair10.Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, eg scarecrow: not a kind ofcrow breakneck: not a kind of neckChapter 4 Syntax1.What is Syntax （句法）?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences. 句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2.Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:relations of position 位置关系relations of substitutability 替代关系relations of co-occurrence 同现关系Chapter 5 Semantics1.What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2.The conceptualist view①The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e.between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.②This is illustrated by the classic semantic triangle or triangle of significance suggested by Ogden and Richard.Thought/reference/conceptSymbol/form referencentword/phrase/sentence③T he symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements (words and phrases);Thereferent refers to the object in the world of experience;Thought or reference refers to concept.The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word inthe minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of theword.3.The contextualismMeaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with languagebehavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:Situational context: spatiotemporal situationLinguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.4.BehaviorismBehaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.5.Lexical meaningSense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.6.Major sense relations（1）Synonymy 同义词①Dialect synonymy 方言同义词②Stylistic synonymy 文体同义词③Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning④Collocational synonyms⑤Semantically different synonyms（2）Antonym 反义词①Gradable antonyms 等级反义词②Complementary antonyms 互补反义词③Relational opposites 关系反义词（3）Polysemy 一词多义（4）Homonymy 同形异义词（5）Hyponymy 上下义关系①Superordinate 上义词②Hyponyms下义词ponential analysis 成分分析法——a way of analyze lexical meaningIt is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.。

语言学考试要点考试重点

语言学考试要点考试重点Pleasure Group Office【T985AB-B866SYT-B182C-BS682T-STT18】Chapter 1 Introduction1.What is linguistics Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study oflanguage.2.The scope of linguistics:(1 ). phonetics 语音学；phonology 音位学；morphology 形态学；syntax 句法学；pragmatics 语用学(2). sociolinguistics 社会语言学；psycholinguistics 心理语言学；applied linguistics应用语言学3.Some important distinction in linguistics(1)Descriptive vs. prescriptive 描述性与规定性①If a linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use,it is said to be descriptive;②If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for” correct and standard” behaviorin using language, . to tell people what they should say and what they should notsay, it is said to be prescriptive.(2)Synchronic vs. diachronic 共时性与历时性①A synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but notnecessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammarsare of this kind.②Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.(2)L angue & parole 语言与会话①Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all themembers of a speech community.②Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.(4)Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用①A language user's unconscious knowledge about the system of rules iscalled his linguistic competence.②Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.(5)speech and writing 语言与文字Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.(6)traditional grammar and modern linguistic 传统语法与现代语言学4.Definition of language:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system, ., elements of language are combined according to rules.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistics symbol and what the symbol stands.Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human-specific.5.Design features of language6.(1) Arbitrariness 任意性 refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationshipto their meaning. (sounds and meanings)(2) Productivity(creativity)能产性Language is productive in that it makes possible theconstruction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(3) duality双重性The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of theprimary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.(4) displacement移位性 Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, eventsand concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.(5)cultural transmission 文化传承性7.Functions of language(1) referential (to convey message and information),(2) poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),(3) emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),(4) conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests),(5) phatic (to establish communion with others)(6) metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).① Informative(信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational)② Interpersonal(人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age, sex,language, background, accent, status)③ Performative(施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions.(name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare)④. Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.⑤Phatic communion(寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establisha comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factualcontent. (health, weather)⑥ Recreational function(娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)⑦Metalingual function(元语言功能): to talk about language itself.8.9.Chapter 2 Phonology1.Phonetics（语音学） is the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with allthe sounds that occur in the world’s languages.Phonetics studies how speech sounds areproduced, transmitted, and perceived.2.Orthographic representation of speech sounds：broad transcription（宽式标音）and narrow transcription（严式标音）A broad transcription（宽式标音）is the transcription with letter-symbols only.A narrow transcription（严式标音）is a transcription with letter symbols together withdiacritics.3.Phonology（音位学）is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.4.The differences between phonetics and phonology:（语音的正字表征）①Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But theydiffer in their approach and focus.②Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all humanlanguages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.③Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.5.Phone（音素）, phoneme（音位）, allophone（音位变体）A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce duringlinguistic communication are all phones.A phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not aparticular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context6.Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair.（音位对立，互补分布，最小对立体）7.Some rules of phonology（音位学规则）Sequential rules 序列规则Assimilation rule 同化规则Deletion rule省略规则8.Suprasegmental features （超音段特征）：stress重音，tone音调，intonation语调9.10.Chapter 3 Morphology1.Classification of words（1）Variable vs. invariable words:可变词类和不可变词类Variable words: One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains constant follow, follows, following, followed; mat, matsInvariable words: those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings.（2） Grammatical words vs. lexical words:语法词类和词汇词类Grammatical words: express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronounsLexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.（3）Closed-class words vs. open-class words:封闭词类和开放词类Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.Open-class: A word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbsGrammatical---lexical words closed-class---open-class words2.Morphere(词素)： the minimal meaningful unit of language.3.Linguistics use the term morphology to refer the part of the grammar that is concerned withword formation and word structure.4.Free morpheme & bound morpheme(自由语素和黏着语素)A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme; a morpheme thatmust be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.5.The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.(词素变体)6.Inflectional affix & derivational affix(屈折词缀和派生词缀)pound: those words that consist of more than one free morphemes, the way to join twoseparate words to produce a single form.In compounds, the lexical morphemes can be of different word classes.pounds can be further divided into two kinds:the endocentric compound (向心复合词) the exocentric compound(离心复合词)9.Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; eg self-control:a kind of control armchair: a kind of chair10.Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of something”, eg scarecrow:not a kind of crow breakneck: not a kind of neck11.Chapter 4 Syntax1.What is Syntax （句法）Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences. 句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则2.Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:relations of position 位置关系relations of substitutability 替代关系relations of co-occurrence 同现关系3.4.5.Chapter 5 Semantics1. What is SemanticsSemantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences.语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2.The conceptualist view①The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form andwhat it refers to . between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.②This is illustrated by the classic semantic triangle or triangle of significance suggested byOgden and Richard.Thought/reference/conceptSymbol/form referencentword/phrase/sentence③The symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements (words and phrases);Thereferent refers to the object in the world of experience;Thought or reference refers to concept.The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with theform of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from thispoint of view is the meaning of the word.3.The contextualismMeaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linkedwith language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:Situational context: spatiotemporal situationLinguistic context: the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation.4.BehaviorismBehaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it andthe response it calls forth in the hearer”.5.Lexical meaningSense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are tworelated but different aspects of meaning.Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection ofall the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect ofmeaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with therelationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.6.Major sense relations（1）Synonymy 同义词①Dialect synonymy 方言同义词②Stylistic synonymy 文体同义词③Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning④Collocational synonyms⑤Semantically different synonyms（2）Antonym 反义词①Gradable antonyms 等级反义词②Complementary antonyms 互补反义词③Relational opposites 关系反义词（3）Polysemy 一词多义（4）Homonymy 同形异义词（5）Hyponymy 上下义关系①Superordinate 上义词②Hyponyms下义词ponential analysis 成分分析法——a way of analyze lexical meaningIt is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning.The approachis based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components,called semantic features.8.。

语言学考试试题及答案

语言学考试试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共20分）1. 语言学是研究语言的科学，它包括以下哪些分支学科？A. 语音学B. 语法学C. 语义学D. 所有选项答案：D2. 下列哪个术语不是语言学的分支？A. 社会语言学B. 心理语言学C. 神经语言学D. 化学语言学答案：D3. 语言的最小意义单位是什么？A. 音素B. 词素C. 词D. 句子答案：B4. 以下哪个选项是语言的语音属性？A. 音高B. 音长C. 音色D. 所有选项答案：D5. 语言的语法规则可以是：A. 显性的B. 隐性的C. 两者都是D. 两者都不是答案：C6. 以下哪种语言现象不属于语言变异？A. 方言B. 社会方言C. 语言接触D. 语言消亡答案：D7. 语言的演变通常被认为是：A. 随机的B. 有目的的C. 无意识的D. 有意识的答案：C8. 语言接触可能导致：A. 语言融合B. 语言分离C. 语言借用D. 所有选项答案：D9. 语言的语用学研究的是：A. 语言的语境B. 语言的功能C. 语言的意义D. 所有选项答案：D10. 以下哪个术语不属于语义学研究的范围？A. 语义场B. 语义角色C. 语义关系D. 音位学答案：D二、填空题（每题2分，共20分）1. 语言的______属性包括音高、音长和音色。

答案：语音2. 语言的______属性包括语法、词汇和语义。

答案：结构3. 语言的______属性涉及语言的社会和文化方面。

答案：社会4. 语言学中的______理论认为语言是一系列规则的集合。

答案：形式主义5. 语言的______是语言学研究的基础单位。

答案：句子6. 语言的______是指语言在不同社会群体中的变体。

答案：变异7. 语言的______是指语言在不同地理区域的变体。

答案：方言8. 语言的______是指语言在不同时间的演变。

答案：历史9. 语言的______是指语言在不同语境中的使用。

答案：语用10. 语言的______是指语言的抽象意义。

语言学考试必备

一、名词解释：5*2=10分1.音位：音位是具体语言或方言在一类发音中从能否区别词或语素的角度划分或归并出来的最小的语音形式。

2.语流音变：在语流这一活动的言语的声音里，有一种共时的变化的现象特别值得注意，那就是语流音变。

语言单位的读音进入言语之后，其中一个音受到前后音或者说话各种因素的影响而在发音上产生某种变化。

3.语义指向：语义指向是从语义平面揭示句法成分之间的关系，是指向句法结构中某一成分在语义平面上支配或说明的方向。

4.组合关系：语言符号与符号之间按照一定的规则组成的言语链条关系，叫组合关系。

组合关系是一种现实的、有顺序、可数的横向关系；聚合关系是一种联想的、无顺序、不易精确数出来的纵向关系。

5.语法范畴：把不同的形式所表示的同一类语法意义进行归类所得出的类，就是语法范畴。

二、填空：30*1-30分1、传统语义学包括：文字学音韵学训诂学2、语言符号的系统性及其特点（1）音义结合的符号：语音是其形式，语义是其内容。

（2）语言符合的形式和其所代表的的事物具有约定俗称性。

特点：任意性，线条性3.谁是现代语言学之父及他的代表作：索绪尔《普通语言学教程》。

4.语音四要素：音高、音强、音长、音质。

5、语义演变的结果：语义的扩大、语义的缩小、词义的转移。

6.语义三角：词义、语音、客观事物之间处于一种三足鼎立、相互制约、相互作用的关系之中。

7、基本词汇的特点：全民常用性、稳定性、能产性8、反义词的分类：互补对立、两极对立和关系对立9、语素和词的区别：•语素是语言中不能独立运用的最小的音义结合体。

•语素和词的区分就在于能否独立运用。

10、词义演变途径：比喻和借代11、文字的分类：1. 表意文字和表音文字，2. 表单位文字，3. 自源文字和借源文字三、选择5*1-5分1、语音四要素，辅音，舌根音，元音，前元音，2、语义场分类•（1）同义义场：绝对同义义场和相对同义义场；（2）反义义场 a. 互补对立义场，b. 两极对立义场，c. 关系对立义场；（3）多义义场；（4）联想义场：分类联想、部分联想和描绘联想三种。

语言学测试题及答案

语言学测试题及答案
1. 语言学是研究什么的学科？
A. 语言的起源
B. 语言的结构
C. 语言的使用
D. 语言的演变
答案：B
2. 下列哪项不是语言学的分支？
A. 语音学
B. 句法学
C. 语义学
D. 心理学
答案：D
3. 请解释“语言”和“方言”的区别。

答案：语言是指具有独立语法和词汇系统的交流工具，通常与国家或民族相关联；方言则是语言内部的变体，通常与地域相关，但不具备独立的语法和词汇系统。

4. 什么是“音位”？
答案：音位是指语言中能够区分意义的最小语音单位。

5. 请列举三种语言的书写系统。

答案：汉字（汉语）、字母（英语）、西里尔字母（俄语）。

6. 以下哪个术语用于描述语言的演变？
A. 语言变化
B. 语言发展
C. 语言演化
D. 语言进化
答案：C
7. 什么是“词汇语义学”？
答案：词汇语义学是研究词汇意义及其变化的语言学分支。

8. 请解释“语法”。

答案：语法是一套规则，用于指导语言中单词的组合和排列，以形成意义完整的句子。

9. 什么是“社会语言学”？
答案：社会语言学是研究语言与社会结构、文化、身份和权力之间关系的学科。

10. 请列举两种语言的方言。

答案：普通话（汉语方言）、西班牙语（西班牙方言）。

语言学概论试题及答案（考试必备）

语言学概论试题及答案A语言学概论试题及答案一、填空题、（每空1分，共15分）1、（）的建立，使语言学摆脱了过去的附庸地位，成为一门独立发展的科学。

2、语言符号的形式是（），语言符号的内容是（）3、一个音节可以没有起音和（），但决不可缺少（）。

4、方言词是诣（）。

5、附加在词根上，一般表示附加性词汇意义的语素叫（）。

6、交际的基本单位是（）。

7、语法手段可以分力两大类型：（）和（）。

8、语言发展有两个特点：（）和（）。

9、根据语言的亲属关系对语言的分类叫做（），也叫做（）。

10、文字起源于（记事的图画）。

二、单选题（在本题的每一小题的备选答案中，只有一个答案是正确的，请把你认确答案的题号，填入题干的括号内。

多选不给分。

每题1分，共15分）1、社会语言学属于（）①理论语言学②广义应用语言学③普通语言学④狭义应用语言学2、元音［］的名称是（）①舌尖后高圆唇元音②舌尖前高圆唇元音③舌尖后高不圆唇元音④舌尖前高不圆唇元音3、下列汉字的读音中，包含有三合元音的是（）①邮②欧③玩④农4、汉语普通话音节结构（）①最长由三个音素组成②最长由四个音素组成③最长由五个音素组成④最短由两个音素组成5、下列词中，属于单纯词的是（）①玻璃②黑扳③语言④红旗6、下列词中，属于复台词的是（）①傻子②席子③天子④椅子7、下列词组中，属于多义的是（）①两只学生送的花瓶②两位学生送的花瓶③两只学生送的花篮。

④两个学生送的花篮8、下列词中粗体的成分，属于同音关系的是（）①杜鲁门——杜绝②负荆一负担③忽然－－突然④花朵——浪花9、英语的‘foot”（脚，单数）变为“feet”（脚，复数）运用的语法手段是（）①附加②异根③内部屈折④重叠10、汉语普通话中的：“卡通片”中的“卡”是一个（）①语素②音节③前缀④词11、汉语中的：“了、着、过”在古代具有实实在在的词汇意义，到现代变成只表语义的助词，这属于（）①异化②类化③新语法范畴的形成④实词虚化12、下列语言中属于粘着语的是（）①苗语②越南语③俄语④日语13、在一种语言内部划脑言时，最主要的依据是（）①语法②语义③语音④词汇14、下列词的词义，属于词义缩小的是（）①“皮”原指兽皮②“涕”原指眼泪③“瓦”原指一切烧好的上器④“江”原捐“长江”15、人类几种古老文字的原始字形，都是（）①象形的②会意的③表音的④形声的三、多选题（在本题的每一小题的备选答案中，正确答案有三个或三个以上多请把为正确答案的题号，填入题干的括号内。

语言方面考试题及答案

语言方面考试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共20分）1. 下列哪个选项是“语言”的英文翻译？A. LanguageB. LiteratureC. CommunicationD. Expression答案：A2. “语言学”是一门研究语言的科学，它的英文是：A. LinguisticsB. PhilologyC. PhoneticsD. Lexicography答案：A3. 在语言学中，“音素”是指：A. 语音的最小单位B. 语言的最小单位C. 语义的最小单位D. 语法的最小单位答案：A4. 以下哪个词不是动词？A. 走B. 跳C. 跑D. 书5. “语法”是研究语言中词的：A. 意义B. 结构C. 使用D. 发展答案：B6. 下列哪个选项是“同义词”的正确定义？A. 意义相反的词B. 意义相近的词C. 形式相同的词D. 来源相同的词答案：B7. “词汇”在语言学中通常指的是：A. 语言的规则B. 语言的发音C. 语言的词汇量D. 语言的书写答案：C8. “语义学”是研究语言的：A. 声音B. 意义C. 形式D. 语法答案：B9. “句法”是研究句子的：B. 结构C. 发音D. 词汇答案：B10. “修辞学”主要研究的是：A. 语言的发音B. 语言的书写C. 语言的表达方式D. 语言的规则答案：C二、填空题（每题2分，共20分）1. 语言学的主要分支包括语音学、语法学、语义学和______。

答案：词汇学2. 语言的三个基本功能是表达、______和交际。

答案：描述3. 在语言学中，“语用学”是研究语言在特定语境中的______。

答案：使用4. “方言”是指一个语言内部的______。

答案：变体5. “双语”是指一个人能够流利地使用______种语言。

答案：两6. “翻译”是指将一种语言的文本转换为______语言的文本。

答案：另一种7. “语音学”是语言学的一个分支，它研究的是语言的______。

语言学考试要点(考试重点整理)

Chapter 1 Introduction1. What is linguistics? Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. The scope of linguistics:(1 ). phonetics 语音学；phonology 音位学；morphology 形态学；syntax 句法学；pragmatics 语用学(2). sociolinguistics 社会语言学；psycholinguistics 心理语言学；applied linguistics 应用语言学3. Some important distinction in linguistics(1) Descriptive vs. prescriptive描述性与规定性①If a linguistics study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use,it is said to be descriptive;②If the linguistics study aims to lay down rules for”correct and standard”behaviorin using language, i.e. to tell people what they should say and what they shouldnot say, it is said to be prescriptive.(2)Synchronic vs. diachronic共时性与历时性①A synchronicdescription takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, thepresent) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.②Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.(2) Langue & parole 语言与会话①Language refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of aspeech community.②Parole refers to the realization of language in actual use.(4)Competence and performance 语言能力与语言运用①A language user's unconsciousknowledge about the system of rules is called hislinguistic competence.②Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.(5)speech and writing 语言与文字Speech and writing are the two major media of communication.(6)traditional grammar and modern linguistic 传统语法与现代语言学4. Definition of language:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language is a system, i.e., elements of language are combined according to rules.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between a linguistics symbol and what the symbol stands.Language is vocal because the primary medium for all languages is sound.The term “human”in the definition is meant to specify that language is hum-asnpecific.5. Design features of language6. (1) Arbitrariness 任意性refers to the forms of linguistic signs bear no naturalrelationship to their meaning. (sounds and meanings)(2) Productivity(creativity) 能产性Language is productive in that it makes possible theconstruction and interpretation of new signals by its users.(3) duality 双重性The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of theprimary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levelshas its own principles of organization.(4) displacement 移位性Human Languages enable their users to symbolize objects, eventsand concepts which are not present (in time and space) at moment of communication.(5)cultural transmission 文化传承性7. Functions of language(1) referential (to convey message and information),(2) poetic (to indulge in language for its own sake),(3) emotive (to express attitudes, feelings and emotions),(4) conative (to persuade and influence others through commands and requests),(5) phatic (to establish communion with others)(6) metalingual (to clear up intentions and meanings).①Informative( 信息功能): to give information about facts. (ideational)②Interpersonal( 人际功能): to establish and maintain social status in a society.(age,sex, language, background, accent, status)③Performative( 施为功能) : language is used to do things, to perform certain actions.(name, promise, apologize, sorry, declare)④. Emotive/Expressive (情感功能): to express feelings and attitudes of the speaker.⑤Phatic communion( 寒暄交流) : to use small and meaningless expressions to establisha comfortable relationship or maintain social contact between people without any factualcontent. (health, weather)⑥Recreational function( 娱乐): the use of language for sheer joy. (lyrics, poetry)⑦Metalingual function( 元语言功能): to talk about language itself.8.9.Chapter 2 Phonology1. Phonetics（语音学）is the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with allthe sounds that occur in the world ’lasnguages. Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced, transmitted, and perceived.2. Orthographic representation of speech sounds：broad transcription （宽式标音）and narrow transcription （严式标音）A broad transcription （宽式标音）is the transcription with letter-symbols only.A narrow transcription （严式标音）is a transcription with letter symbols together withdiacritics.3. Phonology（音位学）is the study of the sound patterns and sound systems of languages.4.The differences between phonetics and phonology（: 语音的正字表征）①Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But theydiffer in their approach and focus.②Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all humanlanguages; it aims to answer questions like: how they are produced, how they differ fromeach other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc. ③Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.10. Phone（音素）, phoneme（音位）, allophone（音位变体）A phone---- a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce duringlinguistic communication are all phones.A phoneme---- is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not aparticular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context11. Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution and minimal pair. （音位对立，互补分布，最小对立体）12. Some rules of phonology（音位学规则）Sequential rules 序列规则Assimilation rule 同化规则Deletion rule 省略规则13. Suprasegmental features （超音段特征）：stress重音，tone 音调，intonation 语调14.15.Chapter 3 Morphology5.Classification of words（1）Variable vs. invariable words: 可变词类和不可变词类Variable words: One could find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms; on the other hand, part of the word remains constant follow, follows, following, followed; mat, matsInvariable words: those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello . They do not have inflective endings.（2）Grammatical words vs. lexical words: 语法词类和词汇词类Grammatical words: express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronounsLexical words: have lexical meanings, those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.（3）Closed-class words vs. open-class words:封闭词类和开放词类Closed-class: a word whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc.Open-class: A word whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbsGrammatical---lexical words closed-class---open-class words6. Morphere( 词素)：the minimal meaningful unit of language.7. Linguistics use the term morphology to refer the part of the grammar that is concerned withword formation and word structure.8. Free morpheme & bound morpheme( 自由语素和黏着语素)A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme; a morpheme thatmust be attached to another one is a bound morpheme.9. The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs.( 词素变体)10. Inflectional affix & derivational affix(屈折词缀和派生词缀)11. Compound: those words that consist of more than one free morphemes, the way to join twoseparate words to produce a single form. In compounds, the lexical morphemes can be ofdifferent word classes.16. Compounds can be further divided into two kinds:the endocentric compound ( 向心复合词) the exocentric compound( 离心复合词)17. Endocentric : one element serves as the head, the relationship of sel“f-c a o n k t i r n o d l:of ”; ega kind of control armchair: a kind of chair18. Exocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of “akind of something ”e,gscarecrow: not a kind of crow breakneck: not a kind of neck19.Chapter 4 Syntax12. What is Syntax （句法）?Syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined toform sentences. 句法就是研究语言的不同成分组成句子的规则13. Syntactic relations can be analyzed into three kinds:relations of position 位置关系relations of substitutability 替代关系relations of co-occurrence 同现关系14.15.16.Chapter 5 Semantics1. What is Semantics?Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences. 语义学是研究单词、短语和句子的意义的学科2.The conceptualist view①The conceptualist view holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form andwhat it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation ofmeaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.②This is illustrated by the classic semantic triangle or triangle of significance suggested byOgden and Richard.Thought/reference/conceptSymbol/form referencentword/phrase/sentence③The symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements (words and phrases);Thereferent refers to the object in the world of experience;Thought or reference refers to concept.The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with theform of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from thispoint of view is the meaning of the word.20. The contextualismMeaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context —elements closely linkedwith language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:Situational context: spatiotemporal situationLinguistic context: the probability of a word -occurrence ’o r csoclloocation.21. BehaviorismBehaviorists attempted to define meaning as the situation“in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer ”.22. Lexical meaningSense and reference are both concerned with the study of word meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized. It is the aspect ofmeaning dictionary compilers are interested in.Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.23. Major sense relations（1）Synonymy 同义词①Dialect synonymy 方言同义词②Stylistic synonymy 文体同义词③Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning④Collocational synonyms⑤Semantically different synonyms（2）Antonym 反义词①Gradable antonyms 等级反义词②Complementary antonyms 互补反义词③Relational opposites 关系反义词（3）Polysemy 一词多义（4）Homonymy 同形异义词（5）Hyponymy 上下义关系①Superordinate 上义词②Hyponyms 下义词24. Componential analysis 成分分析法—— a way of analyze lexical meaningIt is a way proposed by the structural semanticists to analyze word meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features.25.26.。

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1.Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can be called design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1) ArbitrarinessArbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.2) DualityDuality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.3) CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.4) DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of conversation.2.Functions of language1 InformativeThe informative function means language is the instrument of thought and people often use it to communicate new information.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, theblessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and thecursing of enemies.4 Emotive functionThe emotive function is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for oragainst someone or something.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day,etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without anyfactual content.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling or a chanter’s chanting.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself.E.g. I can use the word “book”3. What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language or the science of language.4. What is language?Language is a means of verbal communication. It is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.5. Phonetics and Phonology1) Phonetic studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is now speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speed sounds, words and connected speech.2) Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.3) Phonetics is the study of speech sounds that human voice is capable of creating whereas Phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning. The first focuses on chaos while the second focuses on order.6. Consonants and V owelsConsonants are produced by a closure in the vocal treat, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction。

By contract, a vowel is produced without such “stricture” so that “air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or nose”. The distinction between vowels and consonants lies in the obstruction of airstream.7. 一、The manner of Articulation（发音方式）1) Stop (or plosive)2) Nasal鼻音3）Fricative 擦音4）Approximant 近音5）Literal 边音6）Trill 颤音7）Tab, Flap 触音和闪音8）Affricate 塞擦音二、The place of Articulation 发音部位1）Bilabial 双唇音2）Labiodentals 唇齿音3）Dental 齿音4）Alveolar 齿龈音5）Postalveolar 齿龈后音6）Retroflex 卷舌音7）Palatal 硬腭音8）Velar 软腭音9）Uvular 小舌音10）Pharyngeal三、V owels 元音1）unrounded vowels 展唇元音2）rounded vowels 圆唇元音3）palatal approximate 软腭近音4）alveolar lateral 齿龈边音8.语素和形态学Morpheme and MorphologyMorpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that can't be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical, while Morphology is systematic study of morpheme.语素的分类Types of Morphemes（1）Free morphemes and bound morpheme（2）Root, affix and stem自由词根=Free root morphemes=black, blackbird, blacksmith粘附词根=Bound root morphemes=receive-ceive permit-mit maintain-tain incur-cur自由粘着词素=Free and Bound variants=sleep, slept; child, children.9. AntonymyAntonymy is the name for oppositeness relation. There are three main subtypes: gradable antonymy, complementary antonymy, and converse antonymy.(等级反义关系，互补反义关系和反向反义关系)(1)Gradable antonymyFeatures: a. The numbers of a pair differ in terms of degree.b. Antonyms of this kind are graded against different norms.(反义词规范岁场合变化。

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