语言学-期末考试-复习材料
语言学纲要期末复习重点
1、语言学的三大发源地中国、印度、希腊—罗马。
最初的语言学是是为了给遗留下来的政治、哲学、历史、、文学等古典文献作注解，而不是探索语言的规律。
这时候的语言学还不是一门独立的学科。
2、语言符号的特点语言符号具有任意性和线条性的特点。
〔1〕任意性是指语言符号的声音形式和意义内容的结合是任意的，二者没有必然联系。
比方：粤方言中读"人〞，读作[zen]，新会话读作[ngæ n]，开平话有的读作[ngæn] 、[ngin]，台山话读作[ngin]，闽南话读作[n^ng]，但是表达的意义是一样的。
〔2〕线条性指的是语言符号的能指在时间上呈线性排列。
在交际过程中，语言符号只能一个跟着一个按时间顺序出现，形成延续的线性序列，绝不可能在同一时间说出两个符号。
如："庄〞的语音形式就是由zh-u-a-ng四个音素依次出现而形成的。
3、组合关系和聚合关系〔1〕组合关系是指构成线性序列的语言成分之间的构造关系。
即两个或两个以上同一性质的构造单位〔例如音位与音位、词与词等等〕，按照线性的顺序可以前后连接起来的横向关系。
〔2〕聚合关系是指同一构造内一样位置上可以互相替换的语言成分之间的纵向关系。
即在语言的组合构造的*一个位置上能够互相替换的几个具有一样作用〔组合能力〕的单位符号之间的关系。
〔3〕不仅各级语言符号处在这两种根本的关系之中，构造符号的音位和意义同样也处于这两种关系之中。
4、语音四要素〔1〕音高：声音的上下，取决于发音体〔人的发音体是声带〕的振动频率。
音高在语言中的作用：构成声调和语调。
〔2〕音强：声音的强弱，取决于发音体振幅的大小。
对于语音而言，就是由发音时用力的大小决定的。
音强在语言中的作用：构成语调、轻重音。
〔3〕音长：声音的长短，取决于发音体振动持续时间的长短。
音长变化在许多语言中有区别意义的作用。
音长在语言中的作用：构成长短音、轻音。
如英语中的pool[pu:l]〔水池〕与pull[pul]〔拖、拉〕。
语言学纲要期末复习参考资料
导言一、填空题1.语言学是研究语言的学科，语言是语言学的研究对象。
语言学的基本任务是研究人类语言的规律，使人们懂得关于语言的理性知识。
2.中国、印度、希腊—罗马是语言学的三大发源地。
3.我国传统语言学包括文字学、音韵学、训诂学等三门分支学科，合称“小学”。
二、判断题1.综合各种语言的基本研究的成果，归纳成语言的一般规律，这是具体语言学的任务。
（错）2.世界上有几千种语言，有些语言的研究已经比较深入，大部分语言的研究还很不够，甚至还没有人去研究。
（对）三、名词解释1.普通语言学以人类一般语言为研究对象，探究人类语言的起源、发展、本质。
探究人类语言内部结构的共性及普遍规律的语言学门类。
2.应用语言学狭义的应用语言学指语言教学、文字的创制和改革、正音正字、词典编纂等，广义的应用语言学还包括与计算机有关的及其翻译、情报检索、语音识别、自然语言处理等。
3.小学在中国古代，小学先从教授字的形、音、义开始，就把研究文字、训诂、音韵方面的学问统称为小学。
小学一直是经学的一部分，包括音韵学、训诂学、文字学三个分支学科。
第一章一、填空题1.从语言的社会功能上看，语言是人类独有的最重要的交际和思维的工具；从语言的内部结构上看，语言是一套音义结合的符号。
2.文字是建立在语言基础之上的最重要的辅助交际工具，旗语之类是建立在语言和文字基础上的特殊领域的辅助交际工具。
二、判断1.从理论上来说，句子的长度是可以无限的。
（对）2.语言是文字基础上产生的人类最重要的交际工具。
（错）3.文字始终是从属于语言的。
（错）4.思维离不开语言，语言也离不开思维。
（对）5.语言和思维互相依存共同发展。
（对）6.在现代社会，文字比语言更加重要。
（错）7.文字也是人类最重要的交际工具。
（错）8.语言是组成社会的一个不可缺少的因素。
（对）9.会不会说话是人类和动物的根本区别之一。
（对）10．思维能力是全人类共同的，语言是各民族不同的。
（对）11.思维离不开语言，聋哑人不能掌握语言，所以聋哑人不能进行思维。
期末语言学复习重要资料
Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Language design features:1.Arbitrariness 2.Duality3.Productivity4.Displacement5.Cultural transmissionLinguistics is the scientific study of language.The scope of linguistics:phonetics语音学the study of how speech sounds are produced and classified.(Phonetics studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription. ) Phonology音系学the study of how sounds form systems and function to convey meaning(It identifies the set of speech sounds for each language, how they are arranged to form meaningful units, and the function of each sound.)morphology 形态学:the study of the form of words(It identifies the smallest meaningful units in a language which are called morphemes and looks into the ways the morphemes are arranged to form words)syntax 句法学the study of how words and phrases are combined to form sentences(It investigates the rules governing the combination of words into sentences and identifies the permissible sequences in a language and the relationships between elements in sentence structure.)semantics语义学:the study of meaning pragmatics 语用学:the study of meaning in context of use(It looks into the relation between linguistic expressions on the one hand and objects, persons and events to which the words refer on the other. It also studies the ways in which the meaning in a language is structured and distinguishes different types of meaning.)historical linguistics 历史语言学:the study of language change (It is concerned with the historical development of languages and the processes involved in language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages.)Parole 言语---- the realization of langue in actual use. Competence 语言能力---- the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language二Phonetics：A branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription Articulatory phonetics发音语音学----from the speakers’ point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds”;Auditory phonetics声学语音学----from the hearers’ point of view, “how sounds are perceived”;Acoustic phonetics听觉语音学---from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to anotherSpeech organs: three important areas：Pharyngeal cavity ---- the throat; The oral cavity ---- the mouth; Nasal cavity ---- the nose.Phonology音系学Phonology studies the patterning of speech sounds, that is, the ways in which speech sounds form systems and patterns in human languages.Phonetics & phonology：Both are concerned with the same aspect of language----the speech sounds. But they differ in their approach and focus.Phonetics is of general nature; it is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; it aims to answerquestions like: how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they have, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.四Syntax句法学：a branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Morphology形态学refers to the study of the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.Derivational morphemes派生语素---- are affixes added to an existing form to create a word.Inflectional morphemes曲折语素---- the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammatical markers, signifying such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change their syntactic category, never add any lexical meaningMorphological rules：The rules that govern the formation of words。
语言学纲要_期末复习资料（题库）
语言学纲要_期末复习资料（题库）语言学概论试题(1)一、填空１５%1、语言中最单纯、最常用、最原始和最能产的词是根词。
2、语言是人类最重要的交际工具，文字是最重要的辅助交际工具。
3、我国古代学者为读懂古书而建立的训诂学、文字学、音韵学组成了我国的语文学，通称为“小学”。
4、英语属于印欧语系的日耳曼语族的西部语支。
5、语音可以从生理角度分析它的产生方式，从物理角度分析它的表现形式（传递过程），从社会功能角度分析它的功能作用。
6、是否能够独立（自由）运用，是区分词和语素的根本特点。
7、现代大多数国家的拼音文字的字母，大多直接来源于拉丁字母。
8、具有不同功能的三种最基本的语法单位是语素、词、句子。
9、语言发展的主要特点是渐变性和不平衡性。
10、我国宪法（１９８２年）第１９条明确规定“国家推广全国通用的普通话”。
二、选择题１０%1 、中国的传统语文学研究的薄弱环节是（D ）Ａ、文字学Ｂ、语音学Ｃ、词汇学Ｄ、语法学2、汉语属于（B ）Ａ、屈折语Ｂ、词根语Ｃ、多式综合语Ｄ、粘着语3、一种语言中数量最少的是（B ）Ａ、音素Ｂ、音位Ｃ、语素Ｄ、音节4、文字的前身是（C ）Ａ、结绳记事Ｂ、手势Ｃ、图画记事Ｄ、实物记事5、派生词中包含（B ）Ａ、词尾Ｂ、词根Ｃ、虚词Ｄ、根词6、语音和语义结合的最小的语言单位是（C ）Ａ、音素Ｂ、义素Ｃ、语素Ｄ、音位7、汉语单词“忽然”出现的位置是（C ）Ａ、主语位置Ｂ、谓语位置Ｃ、状语位置Ｄ、定语位置8、以下各种语言变体中，属于社会方言的是（D ）Ａ、土话Ｂ、客家话Ｃ、客套话Ｄ、黑话9、下列语素中属于自由语素的是（C ）Ａ、初Ｂ、视Ｃ、人Ｄ、民10、在语言结构的某一环节上能够互相替换，具有某种相同作用的各个单位之间所形成的关系叫（D ）Ａ、转换关系Ｂ、组合关系Ｃ、层级关系Ｄ、聚合关系三、名词解释２０%1、专语语言学: 以具体语言作为研究对象的语言学。
2、组合关系: 指两个以上相连续的语言符号组合而成的线性关系。
扬大语言学期末复习资料
题型：选择题30% 30*1填空题15% 10*1.5名词解释20% 5*4简答题10% 5*2论述题25% 10+15填空题：1.Descriptive linguistics aims to describe and analyse the language people actually use.描写语言学Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behavior in usin g language.规定语言学2.Synchronic linguistics studies a language at some point of time in history.共时语言学Diachronic linguistics describes a language as it changes through time.历时语言学ngue is the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.语言Parole is the realization of langue in actual use.言语4.Derivational morphemes—when they are conjoined to other morphemes a new word isderived.派生词素Inflectional morphemes are morphemes which do not add any lexical meaning, but which represent the concept of tense and aspect.屈折词素5.Polysemy one word with more than one meaning.一词多义6.hyponymy7.Synonymy (different kinds)同义关系Synonyms are words different in sound and spelling but most nearly alike or exactly the same in meaning.[词汇学所学Absolute synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its aspects, that is, both in grammatical meaning and lexical meaning. (composition/compounding复合构词法）Relative synonyms are words which are similar or nearly the same in denotation but embrace different shades of meaning or different degrees of a given quality.（alter, change）] 8.Antonymy (different kinds) --- Words which are opposite in meaning.反义关系Relational antonyms: huaband,wife; teacher,student9.Homonymy(3 kinds) 同音同形异义关系Homonyms are generally defined as words different in meaning but either identical both in sound and spelling or identical only in sound or spelling. (same sound, same spelling, butdifferent words)10.Context includes: background knowledge (knowledge of the world; knowledge specific to thesituation of communication. Knowledge of the language used. 语境，上下文11.A locutionary act is the act of saying something; it is an act of conveying literal meaning.言内行为An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention.言外行为A perlocutionary act is the act resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, orthe change brought about by the utterance. 言后行为12.Widening of meaning /Extension of meaning refers to the process by which a word originallyhad a specialized meaning has now become generalized.Narrowing of meaning is a process by which a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower or specialized sense.13.Speech variety, or language variety, refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by aspeaker or a group of speakers in a given context.言语变体14.Pidgin and Creole皮钦语与克里奥耳语Pidgins are mixed languages used by people who speak different languages for restricted purposes such as trading.（洋泾浜语，皮钦语）When a pidgin has become the primary language of a speech community, and is acquired by the children of that speech community as their native language, it is said to be a Creole. (克里奥耳语, 混合语）Creole (克里奥耳语)When a pidgin becomes a Creole, the original structure is expanded to enable it to fulfill its new functions. The vocabulary is vastly enriched, and new syntactic-semantic concepts developed.Notable examples of Creole: the English-based Creole of Jamaica; the French-based Creole of Haiti.15.Bilingualism: in some speech communities, two languages are used side by side with eachhaving a different role to play; and language switching occurs when the situation changes.Diglossia: a sociolinguistic situation in which two varieties of a language exist side by side throughout the community, with each having a different role to play.双言现象16.Cultural overlap—similarities between cultures due to similarities in natural environmentand human psychology.文化重叠17.Cultural diffusion—through communication, some elements of culture A enter culture B andbecome part of culture B, thus creating cultural diffusion. (For example, borrowed words.)文化扩散名词解释1.Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.nguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.3.Design features of human languageArbitrariness（任意性）refers to one of the design features of language that there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds of language signs.Duality of structure（结构二重性）Language consists of two sets of structures. At the lower level there is a structure of meaningless sounds; at the higher level these sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning.Productivity（能产性）refers to one of the design features of language that humans can understand and produce new sentences that they have never heard before.Displacement（不受时空限制的特性）Language can be used to refer to things which are present or not present, real or imagined matters in the past, present, or future, or in faraway places.Cultural transmission（文化传递性）is one of the design features of language. The details of any language system are not genetically transmitted from generation to generation, but have to be taught and learned.4.Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the soundsthat occur in the world’s languages.语音学5. A phoneme is a phonological unit, it is a unit that is of distinctive value (有区别意义的功能）.It is an abstract unit.音位6.Phonology studies the sound system of a language; it aims to discover how speech sounds ina language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguisticcommunication.音位学7.Morphology is the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words areformed. 形态学8.Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning.词素9.Syntax is the study of how words are combined to form sentences and the rules that governthe formation of sentences. 句法学10.Semantics is the study of meaning in language.语义学11.Pragmatics is the study of language meaning in context; of how speakers of a language usesentences to effect successful communication.语用学12.Sociolinguistics is the field that studies the relation between language and society, betweenthe uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.社会语言学13.Speech community means a group of people who form a community and share the samelanguage or a particular variety of a language.言语社会14.Connotation means the implication of a word apart from its primary meaning.暗含意义nguage acquisition refers to the child’s acquisiti on of the mother tongue, i.e. how the childcomes to understand and speak the language of his community.语言习得16.SLA: second language acquisition二语习得refers to the systematic study of how peopleacquire a second language subsequent to their native language.简答题Who is regarded as the father of modern linguistics?What theory did John Austin raise?1.Saussure (father of modern linguistics, langue and parole)2.Chomsky(transformational-generative grammar转换生成语法, competence and performance, LAD语言习得机制, innatist语法天生主义者theory)3.John Austin (speech act theory言语行为理论)4.Paul Grice (co-operative principle合作原则)5.Sapir and Whorf (linguistic relativity语言相对性)6.Michael Halliday (register语域theory, functional grammar)7. B.F. Skinners (behaviorist theory)8.John Searle (classification of illocutionary acts)论述题In what ways is linguistics helpful to your learning of English or study in general? 150 words After learning linguistics, I know that language acquisition is a result of an interaction between the learner's mental abilities and the linguistic input. Both internal and external factors are important. While we learn the second language or the third or the fourth, we must take both internal factors and external factors into consideration, especially the language aptitude and motivations. If a person's lack of natural ability, his or her effort may seem being wasted in the language study. But for most people, motivations play the crucial role in language acquisition. English major students should try to cultivate the intrinsic motivation which will have us find enjoyment and pleasure in learning the second language not simply learn for functional reasons: to pass an exam, to get a better job, to get a place at university. With fun and interest, I believe I will have more fun while learning English.选择题（PPT上课前复习）nguage is arbitrary in that there is no logical connection between meanings and__.A. wordsB. soundsC. objectsD. ideasnguage is ____in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of newsignals by its users.A. instructiveB. constructiveC. intuitiveD. creativenguage is passed on from one generation to the next through __, rather than by instinct.A. learningB. teachingC. only learningD. both A and B4. A scientific study of language is based on the ___investigation of language data.A. symbolicB. systematicC. thorough5.Traditional grammar regards the ___form of language as primary.A. oralB. writtenC. printed6.The description of a language at some point in time is a ____study.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. comparative7.___ are produced by moving from one vowel position to another through interveningpositions.A. vowelsB. consonantsC. diphthongs8.The sounds produced without the vocal cords vibrating are ___ sounds.A. voicelessB. voicedC. consonantal9. A ___ vowel is one that is produced with the front part of the tongue maintaining thehighest position.A. backB. centralC. front10.__is concerned with all language sounds that occur in th e world’s languages.A. phonologyB. phoneticsC. phonemics11.___aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these soundsaffect meaning in linguistic communication.A. linguisticsB. phoneticsC. phonology12.Th e word “singer” contains two ___.A. phonemesB. allophonesC. morphemes13.____morphemes are those that cannot be used independently but have to be combinedwith other morphemes, either free or bound, to form a word.A. FreeB. BoundC. Affix14.____modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of theoriginal word.A. PrefixesB. SuffixesC. Affixes15.A sentence is considered __when it conforms to the grammatical knowledge in the mind ofnative speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical16.The syntactic rules of any language are __in number.A. largeB. smallC. infiniteD. finite17.The relationship between ‘fruit’ and ‘apple’ is _______.A. homonymyB. hyponymyC. polysemyD. synonymy18.T he pair of words “lend” and “borrow” are _______.A. gradable oppositesB. relational oppositesC. co-hyponymsD. synonyms19.Once the notion of ___was taken into consideration, semantics branched into pragmatics.A. meaningB. contextC. formD. content20.___act is the act resulting from saying something.A. A locutionaryB. An illocutionaryC. A perlocutionaryD. A speech21.The goal of _______is to explore the nature of language variation and language use amonga variety of speech communities and different social situations.A. psycholinguisticsB. sociolinguisticsC. historical linguisticsD. pragmatics22.Black English is a (n) ______ dialect.A. socialB. genderC. ethnicD. individual23.The __variety of diglossia is used for more formal or serious matters.A. formalB. informalC. highD. low24.Black English is probably the most widespread and most familiar ___variety of the Englishlanguage.A. regionalB. ethnicC. socialD. lower25.In normal situations, _____speakers tend to use more prestigious forms than their _____counterparts with the same social background.A. female; maleB. male; femaleC. old; youngD. young; old26.There is a gradation of _____ ranging along a continuum between two extremes of veryformal and very informal.A. dialectB. registerC. variationD. slangBDDBB ABACB CCBAC DBBBC BCCBA B课后练习：1.Decide whether they are true or false: (Syntax)Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.Syntax consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.Major lexical categories equal to the open class.Phrase structure rules provide explanations on how syntactic categories are formed and sentences generated.D-structure is the same as S-structure.2.Based on your own learning experiences, please illustrate to what extent it is necessary tolearn its culture when learning a foreign language.3.Below is a passage from Shakespeare’s Hamlet,King: Where is Pelonius?Hamlet: In heaven, send thither to see.If your messenger find him not there, seek him i’ the other place yourself. But indeed, if you find him not within this month, you shall nose him as you go up the stairs into the lobby.Act IV, scene iiiStudy these lines and identify every different in expression between Elizabethan and Modern English that is evident.4.Try to think of contexts in which following sentences can be used for other purposes thanjust stating facts:a)The room is messy.b)Oh, it is raining!c)The music of the movie is good.d)You have been keeping my notes for a whole week now.5.Point out the grammatical meaning of the inflectional morphemes in these sentences:Sue moves in high-society circles in London.A traffic warden asked John to move his car.We have moved to the new apartment.The tree branches are moving back and forth.Add derivational morphemes to ‘move’. (movement, movable, mover, unmoved)6.Give the phonetic symbol for each of the following sound descriptions:1)Voiced palatal affricate2)Voiceless labiodental fricative3)Voiced alveolar stop4)Front, close, short5)Back, semi-open, long6)Voiceless bilabial stop7.What is a phone? How is it different from a phoneme? How are allophones related to aphoneme?Explain with examples the sequential rule, the assimilation rule, and the deletion rule.8. A boy is named Wang Jingsheng. His name tells us that his family name is Wang, and mostprobably he was born in Beijing.Does this prove that language is not arbitrary?。
语言学期末复习
格，时，体，态，人称等。 25.词的概念意义：也叫理性意义，词汇意义的主体部分，是指说一种语言的人在对现实世 界的认知中形成的共同的主观映像，是认知的成果。 26.词的色彩意义：指词汇主体意义之外，还包涵感情色彩，语体色彩，象征功能等其他与 概念义相关的意义。 27.隐喻：引申的两种形式之一，建立在两个意义所反映的现实现象的某种相似的基础上。 其相似可以是外形的相似，某种性质的相似等等，认知语言学的莱可夫和约翰逊把隐喻分为 实体，结构和空间三种。 28.派生意义：词义中由本义衍生出来的意义。 29.词的中心意义：多义词在语言的发展过程中，某一个意义可能会占据中心地位，语言学 中把这种意义叫做中心意义，是就多义词在某个时代的各个意义的关系说的。 30.转喻：引申的两种形式之一，其基础不是现实现象的相似，而是两类现实现象之间存在 着某种联系，这种联系在人们的心目中经常出现而固定化，因而可以用指称甲类现象的词来 指称乙类现象。 31.词的语义特征：某一小类词中所特有的能对其所在格式起制约作用的并足以区别于其他 小类词的语义要素。 32.语义场：具有相同的语义特征的词义所构成的集合叫做语义场，同一义场内的词义相互 有一定的制约关系，体现了词义的结构系统性。 33.构词法：同一个词在造句时因其句法位置的差异而发生的不同变化，语言学家把专门研 究词形变化现象和规则的学问称为词形学通常简称为构词法。 34.语义角色：句中名词和动词有不同的语义关系，语义学中称之为“语义角色”，是可以涵 盖许多句子动-名关系的抽象角色，如施事，受事，工具等。 35.蕴涵：通俗地说，句子真值的蕴涵关系就是，从一个句子的句义一定可以推导出另一个 句子的句义，反向推导却不成立。 36.预设：通俗地说，如果一个句子的肯定和否定两种形式都以另一句子的肯定式为前提， 则另一句子是该句的预设。 37.语境：语言出现的环境，包括三个方面：话语的物理语境，又叫做“言谈现场”；话语语 境；说话人和受话者的背景知识。 38.话题：一个句子中句义信息所关涉的那个实体是句子的“话题”。 39.说明：针对话题展开的句子其它部分是“说明”。 40.焦点：从信息的角度看，句子中的新信息是说话者所传递信息的重点所在，是说话者认 为受话者不知道因此希望受话者特别关注的部分。 41.会话合作原则：它是指交际双方为使会话合作顺利进行，以达到共同的沟通目的而必须 相互配合，共同遵循的某些准则。它具体包括：量的准则（指所提供的信息的量），质的准 则（所说的话力求真实），关系准则（所说的话是相关的），方式准则（清楚明白说出要说的 话）。 42.言语行为：人们说出的话是一种社会行为，本身也构成新的人类经验，与现实世界中的 其他人，物，现象，事件有着“行为-效力”的关联。这些是语言在另一层次上的意义。语 言行为可以分为三个环节，分别是言内行为，言外行为和言后行为。言语行为可以分为不同 的类型，如阐释，命令，请求，询问等等。 43.社会方言：根据社会因素而区分的社团与语言特点相关，因此这些社会社团又被称为不 同的“言语社团”。各个言语社团的语言是在全民语言基础上产生的各有自己特点的语言分 支或语言变体，这就是所谓社会方言。 44.地域方言：从同一语言分化出来的地域分支，如果处于不完全分化的社会条件和同一语
语言学概论考试资料(期末考试笔记资料)
绪论一、语言学的概念（一）以语言为研究对象的科学，研究探索语言的性质、结构和发展规律：语言的性质：1、人类最重要的交际工具；2、人类的思维工具；3、符号系统。
语言的结构：1、由语音（外在形式）[+载体：文字]、意义（内容）统一构成。
语言的发展：怎样产生？有哪些演变规律？历史发展的情况。
（二）语言学的对象——语言“任何语言”：横向研究——包括书面语、口语和外语；纵向研究——包括“活”语言和“死”语言；从结构上说，语言学研究包括语音、词汇、语法、语义和文字等方面。
四、语言学的三大发源地中国、印度、希腊——语文学五、语言学的分类1、理论语言学包括（1）、专语语言学——是以某一种具体的语言为研究对象的语言学。
它又包括共时语言学和历时语言学；（2）、普通语言学——是以人类一般语言为研究对象，研究人类语言的性质、结构特征、发展规律，是综合众多语言的研究成果而建立起来的语言学的重要理论部分。
2、应用语言学——是将语言学的基本原理同有关学科结合起来研究问题而产生的新的学科。
ppt5六、什么是文言和文言文？文言是我国“五四”以前通行的书面语，文言文是用文言写成的文章或著作。
七、什么是“小学”？是指我国传统的语文学，包括文字学、音韵学、训诂学三方面的内容。
八、古代的语言研究和今天的语言研究有哪些不同？第一，研究的对象不同。
古代：主要以书面语为主要研究材料，不重视口头语言的研究；现代：十分重视口语的研究。
第二，研究目的不同。
古代：主要给政治、哲学、宗教、历史、文学方面的经典著作作注解；现代：主要是分析语言的结构，以探索语言发展的共同规律。
第三，地位不同。
古代：还不是独立的学科，处于附属地位，现代：一门独立的学科，产生了许多边沿性学科。
九、语言学在科学体系中的地位1、语言交际过程分为五阶段：编码：发话人利用词语组织语句，发送：把思维成果变成话语通过发音器官表达出来，传递：通过空气振动成声波，把话语传达给受话人，接收：受话人利用听觉器官感知对方所说的话，解码：经过大脑把声波还原成语言，理解对方话语的含义，从而完成信息传递接受。
语言学期末复习资料
语⾔学期末复习资料语⾔学复习纲要说明：1.此份材料最多只考80%，还有20%不在范围内2.请务必结合教材复习，例⼦没列举的请看教材3.匆忙整理，答案有不够完整的，请⾃⾏补充更正4.语⾔学太抽象请保证有充⾜的时间来复习祝⼤家考试顺利加油1、语⾔的作⽤是什么？) 语⾔是⼈类最重要的交际⼯具。
⼈类传递信息，进⾏交际和交流思想，除了使⽤语⾔外，还可以使⽤⽂字、旗语、红绿灯、电报代码、数学符号以及⾝势、表情等，在⼀定场合使⽤，可以弥补语⾔的⼀些不⾜，但是这些交际⼯具使⽤范围有限，有的仅⽤于特定的范围，最重要的是，这些交际⼯具，都离不开语⾔，都是在语⾔的基础上产⽣的，是辅助语⾔进⾏交际的，没有语⾔，这些⼿段的存在没有任何意义。
（即为什么说语⾔是⼈类最重要的交际⼯具。
）2) 语⾔是⼈类的思维⼯具。
语⾔不但是⼈类的交际⼯具，同时也是⼈类思维的⼯具，是认识成果的贮存所。
思维过程离不开语⾔，需要借助语⾔来进⾏⽐较、分析、综合等⼀系列活动，需要借助语⾔来形成思想，利⽤语⾔把它储存在头脑中，再借助语⾔把思想表达出来，传达给听话⼈，同时使听话⼈产⽣思想。
⽽且⼈类思维的成果－概念，还可以通过词语固定下来。
总之，思维活动的过程不可能离开语⾔⽽单独进⾏，思维离不开语⾔，必须借助语⾔材料才能进⾏。
语⾔也离不开思维，⼆者是互相依存，共同发展的。
（即语⾔和思维的关系）2、为什么说语⾔是⼈类最重要的交际⼯具？1) 语⾔存在于说话和所说出来的话中，说明语⾔在社会⽣活中具有⾮常重要的作⽤，因为不会说话⼈就失去了它的本质，与动物⽆异。
⼈们⽤语⾔进⾏交际，交流思想，以便在认知现实、改造现实的过程中协调相互之间的⾏为，以取得最佳的效果。
所以，语⾔是⼈们的⼀种交际⼯具。
2) ⼈类的交际⼯具不⽌语⾔⼀种，其它如⽂字、⼿势表情等也都能实现交际的任务，也是交际⼯具，但它们与语⾔相⽐重要性就要差多了。
根本上说⼈类各种辅助性交际⼯具，都是在语⾔基础上制定的，没有语⾔基础，这些⼯具也就失去了存在的意义。
语言学基础期末复习提纲(整理版)
题型：填空题10，20%；选择题10，20%；判断4，20%（3句话解释原因）；简答3，18%（四句话作答）；论述1，22%（1/4页纸作答）。
导论1、中国、印度和希腊-罗马在传统语言文学的研究上都取得了辉煌的成就，是语言学的三大发源地。
2、中国传统语言研究主要抓住汉字，分析它的形体，探求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵和训诂之学，也就是中国传统的语文学。
3、历史比较语言学标志着语言学不再是其他学科的附庸，已经发展成为一门独立的学科。
4、20世纪初，瑞士语言学家索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》中提出观点，语言学从此成为一门现代学科。
5、理论语言学，也称普通语言学，是关于语言的一般规律的理论研究。
第一章语言的功能1、语言是一种社会现象，和人类社会有着紧密联系。
2、语言的社会功能中最基本的是信息传递功能。
3、如果一个病人大脑左半球发生损伤，他尽管说不出医院的名称、病房、床号，却能找得到。
相反，如果大脑右半球受损，尽管能找到医院的名称、病房、床号，却找不到，能说出家的位置却找不到，这说明语言功能存在大脑左边。
4、儿童学习语言的过程是考察语言与思维关系的一条很好途径。
5、儿童语言的习得一定具有先天生理基础，也离不开外界的社会条件。
6、儿童语言能力的开发还有时间的限制，最迟到十二三岁，如果在此之前没有机会学习语言，那么之后其语言习得和心智发展的潜能就失去了。
十二三岁是语言习得的关键时期，之一临界期的分工时间也是一致的。
第二章语言是符号系统1、符号包含形式和意义两个方面。
（能指形式，形指意义，符号构成的两个方面，语言学上通常用形式和意义来表述。
形式也叫能指，是符号的外壳，是可以被人的感觉器官感知的，因而形式具有物质性。
意义也叫所指，是符号形式所代表的内容，也就是现实现象事物。
）2、符号的形式和意义之间是没有本质上、自然属性上的必要联系，在这一点上符号和隐含某种信息的自然的征候不同。
3、语言符号的任意性和线条性，是20世纪初瑞士的语言学家家得·索绪尔作为语言符号的基本性质提出来的。
英语语言学期末复习宝典
LinguisticsChapter 1 Language and LinguisticsLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.Features of language: displacement, arbitrariness, productivity/creativity, cultural transmission, duality, discreteness不连续性1.1考论述①language is systematic. In natural verbal communication, people can learn and use alanguage consistently. This shows that language is systematic. This property is usually claimed to be unique to humans.②language is symbolic. As we know, people use signs to communicate, which means that language involves signs. The conception of sign through has evolved through a long history of philosophical discussions, dating to the Middle Age.③language is arbitrary. (convention) Arbitrariness does not mean that everything about language is unpredictable. The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning.④language is primarily vocal. All languages use sounds. Children learn to speak before they learn to read and write; children automatically learna language as they grow up; the spoken form came earlier than the written in human history; writingis based on speech; people use spoken language more often than writing⑤language is human specific. There are certain characteristics of human language that are not found in the communication systems of any other species. Although most animals are assumed to communicate in some way, they convey limited information and only express emotions such as fear and warnings.⑥language is used for communication. Language is the result of our communicative needs. Itsattractiveness comes from its social utility. Language enables us to communicate our general attitudes toward life and others.1)language is systematicEach human language is organized into two basic systems, a system of sounds and a system of meanings. This is called the duality of language.Linguistics is concerned not only with characteristics of the two systems but also with their relationship.Sounds are units which combine to make words or parts of words, different sequences of sounds have difference in meaning. Elements have no meaning themselves. The number of words in a language is relatively finite but their possible combination can be infinite.In a language we can find agreed-upon sound-meaning relations and agreed-upon sequences.These principles can be called rules. These rules make up the syntax of the language.2)language is symbolicLanguage involves signs whose conception can be date back to the Middle Ages. There has been a discipline to study the working of signs, Sassure calls it “semiology”, and Peirce terms it “semiotics”.Charles Peirce views semiotics as a branch of logic and philosophy. Signs are divided into natural signs and conventional signs. Signs are ubiquitous in human society and can be categorized into three major types: icon象征符, index标记符and symbol代码符.3)language is arbitraryAccording to Saussure, the linguistic signs unites, not a thing and a name, but a concept and a sound-image. The sound-image is not the material sound but the psychological imprint of the sound, the impression it makes on our senses.考判断Arbitrary does not mean that everything about language is unpredictable but that human languages use neutral symbols. Concept and sound-image are replaced by signified所指and signifier能指respectively. The most arbitrary level of language is that of the distinctive units ofsound. It is because sound units are distinctive. Syntax句法is less arbitrary than words. Words are arbitrary in form, but they are not random in their use.4)language is primarily vocalVerbal communication can involve various forms. Speech and writing are the most common. The primary medium of language is sound. Writing is based on speaking and can influence speaking.Writing systems represent some levels of the spoken language, such as distinct words, syllables, or sounds.5)language is human specific (purely human)Human language is generally said to be different from animal communication in the following aspects:nguage has the ability to refer to things far removed in time and space.2.Humans have the ability to produce and understand an indefinite无限期的，不明确的numberof novel utterance.（openness or productivity）3.Learning is much more important as a factor in human language than in animal communication.nguage is complex in its structure.5.Animal communication systems are closed, whereas human languages are open-ended.6.According to speech act theory, humans can perform acts with language just as they can withobjects of different kinds.6)language is used for communicationA conversation s assumed to be a pattern of two-way communication.1.2The functions of language: general functions of language; metafunctions of language元功能.1)General functions of languagePhysiological function（or emotive/expressive function）, phatic function交际功能（creating or maintaining social relationship between speakers）, recording function, identifying function, reasoning function(as a tool of thought), communication function, pleasure function(or recreational function)……Informative function, performative function施为功能（ppt补充）2)Metafunctions of languageIdeational function 概念功能:Divide into experimental function and logical function; as a symbolic code to represent the world around usInterpersonal function 人际功能:The participatory function of language/enable the speakers (writers) and the listeners (readers) maintain interactions and thus enact a social and intersubjective relationshipTextual function 语篇功能: represent the speaker‟s text-forming potential. Relates our abilities to construct texts out of our utterances and writings.1.3The origin and classification of language1)The origin of language(divine source, the natural-sound source, evolutionary source)The belief that all languages originated from a single source is found in Genesis. Many scientists today believe that man arose in many different places of the world.Three broad categories of the origin of language: creation, evolution and invention.Creation/Divine Origin: almost every religion has stories about how man received language from God. But it is impossible for man to name things without acquiring languageEvolution：Man evolved from lower forms of life. Language evolved as an adjunct to early communicationInvention: believe that there is natural connection between the forms of language and the essence of things. (onomatopoetic words)2)Language families语系Two main ways of classifying languages: genetic classification and typological classification (group language into structural types, on the basis of phonology, grammar, or vocabulary---isolating, infecting屈折语, agglutinating 黏着语language)1.4What is linguistic ( Phonetics. Phonology. Morphology. Semantics. Pragmatics. Syntax)1)to do with sounds, vocabulary, grammar, meaning and historical development of language.The main purpose of linguistics is to develop a general theory of language and theories on aspects of language.2)语言by all members of a community of speakers.(social, conventional side of language, collective body of knowledge, abstract knowledge)Parole言语is the particular realization of language. (individualized speech, the use of language in utterance, concrete)Prescriptive陈述的and descriptive 描述的：Linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive.Prescriptivism describe what should be in language, but descriptivism describes the way people actually speak and write their language.---what is in the language.synchronic 共时and diachronic历时:Synchronic study refers to the description of a particular state of a language at a single point of time.Diachronic study refers to the description of the historical development of a language. (two or more than two states of language over decades or centuries)speech and writing:language is primarily vocal. No community has a written form only. Linguistics has stressed the priority of speech---the spoken first, then the writtenSpeech has the restriction of both time and space. Without writing, human progress would be extremely slow.With modern technology, the distinction between speech and writing is being blurred.syntagmatic and paradigmatic:Syntagmatic relation refers to the relations between units which combine to form sequences.(re+write)Paradigmatic relation refers to oppositions which produce distinct and alternative terms (foot-feet) competence and performance:Competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as system of abstract formal relations.Performance refers to the infinite varied individual acts of verbal behavior with their irregularities, inconsistencies and errors.Chomsky sees the linguist‟s task as primarily describing competence because performance is impossible without competence.functionalism and formalism.For Chomsky, competence is not a social but a psychological phenomenon, not a shared generality but a genetic endowment in each individual.1.5The scope of linguistics1)Use of linguisticsPragmatics, anthropological linguistics, psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, neurolinguistics 神经语言学, applied linguistics, computational linguistics.2)Recent developments考小题Corpus linguistics, discourse analysis, cognitive linguistics, systemic functional grammar.Chapter 2 phonetics and phonology1.1production of sounds1)scope of phoneticsMaking sounds consists three stages: the production of the message, the transmission of the message, and the reception of the message.Phonetics is composed of three separate fields:articulatory phonetics, acousctic phonetics, auditory phonetics.2)articulation of sounds发音V oice: sound may be either voiced or voiceless.Two perspectives to examine how sounds are articulated:manner of articulation & place of articulationManner of articulation: plosives and nasal stops; fricatives; affricates; approximants; trills and taps Place of articulation: bilabial; dental; post-alveolar; retroflex; uvular; glottal; labiodental; alveolar;palatal; velar; pharyngealV owels:The primary criteria for the classification of vowels are: 1) the distance between the top of the tongue and the roof of the mouth 2) the retraction and extension of the tongue. A secondary criterion is the rounding of the lips.the height of the tongue raising---high, mid, lowthe position of the highest part of the tongue---front, central, backthe length or tenseness of the vowel---lax or tensethe shape of the lips ---rounded, unrounded3)characteristics of English speech soundsEnglish vowel s: There are 7 short vowels, 5 long vowels, 8 diphthongs双元音, and 5 trip thongs 三元音.P5 monophthongs单元音English consonant s: consonants are usually classified according to their place of articulation and manner of articulation. English is said to have 24 consonants: 6 plosive consonants,9 fricatives 摩擦音, 2 affricates塞擦音, 3 nasals 鼻音, 3 approximants and 1 lateral consonant. P534)the transcription of soundsA phonetic alphabet can represent speech in the form of segments, or individual speech sounds. Aphonetic transcription is an economical means for capturing sounds on paper. The best-known system, the International Phonetic Alphebet (IPA), has been developing since 1888. This system of transcription attempts to represent each sound of human speech with a single symbol. There are two kinds of transcription: narrow transcription and broad transcription.1.21)definition of phonemesThe segments of an underlying representation are called phonemes. Phonemes equal distinctive sounds. Phoneme is the minimum phonetic unit that is not further analyzable into smaller units.Human languages use a large number of orally transmitted units called phonemes.2)minimal pairs最小语音主力: a pair of phonemes is also known as a minimal pair. When twodifferent forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are called minimal pairs. For instance, deed and seed. Phonemic distinctions can occur in any position within a word. The substitution of one feature for another does not result in a change in meaning. Thus, we say that the sounds or features in question are in free variation. Thus, we say that the sounds or features in question are in free variation.3)Distinctive features are often shown in the form of a binary opposition. The features can be shown as either present [+] or absent [-]. Most distinctive features are binary, that is, they can have only one of two values--plus or minus. [s] is [-voiced] and [z] is [+voiced]1.3refer to the set of sounds that occur in a given language, the permissibleIt is highly unlikely that any two languages have exactly the same sound pattern.1）sequential constraints（语音）序列的限制All languages have constraints on the permitted sequences of phonemes, though different languages have different constraints. The phonological system determines which phonemes can begin a word, end a word, and follow each other.2）★complementary distribution互补性分布When two or more sounds never occur in an identical phonemic context or environment, they are said to be in complementary distribution. The aspirated and the unaspirated phones(pea [Ph] and speed [P; hit and sing [h][n])are in complementary distribution. According to Wardhaugh, phonetically similar sounds in complementary distribution are allophones音位变体of a single phoneme.1.4suprasegmental features 超音段特征of a center which has little or no obstruction to airflow and which sounds loud; before and after this center there is greater obstruction to airflow and/or less sound. According to Roach, a minimum syllable is a single vowel in isolation.Structurally, the syllable may be divided into three parts: the onset, the peak(vowel), and the coda.首音，音核，音节尾。
语言学-期末复习资料-整理版
Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
语言学复习资料附答案（完整）
语言学复习资料附答案（完整）语法范畴：词形变化表现的语法意义的聚合叫做“语法范畴”。
语法范畴就是词形变化所表达的语法意义的类。
常见的语法范畴主要性、数、格、体、时、态、级等，俄语、德语、法语中的某些词有性的区分。
文字：是指语言的视觉符号性质，是为了记录语言而发明的一种书写符号系统，是在语言的基础上产生的。
文字有音，形，义三部分。
音位变体：处在互补关系中的相似的音素彼此不对立，即不起区别词的语音形式的作用，我们可以把它们归并为一个音位。
如果他们被归为一个音位，则处于互补关系中的各个音素就被看作同一个音位在不同的位置上的代表，是同一个音位的不同的变异形式，所以我么把它们叫做音位变体。
音位变体可以分为“自由变体”和“条件变体”组合关系：符号和符合组合起来，形成高一级的结构，处于高一级结构中的各个符号，称为结构的成份，结构中的各个成分的关系称为组合关系。
聚合关系：如果一些语言符号或更大的单位在结合的某一环节上能够互相替换并且替换后结构关系不会改变，那么这些符号在结构中就具有某种相同的作用，它们自然地聚集成群，它们彼此的关系叫做聚合关系。
直接组成成分：句子是按照一定的规则一层一层组合起来的。
每一层中直接组合起来构成一个更大的语法单位的两个组成成分叫做直接组成部分。
洋泾浜：是当地人在和外来的商人，水手，传教士等打交道的过程中学来的一种变了形的外语。
是当地人没有学好的外语，是外语在当地语言的影响下出现的变种。
“洋泾浜”的共同特点是：语音经过当地语言音系的适当改造，语法规则减少到最低限度，词汇的项目比较少，往往要借助于迂回曲折的总说法指称事物。
“洋泾浜”是一定社会条件下的产物，只有口头形式，用于和外国人交往的特殊场合，没有人把它看作母语作为第一语言。
语言和言语语言的交际功能就是通过言语形式来实现的。
语言学中把对语言的运用及其成果成为言语，通俗点讲言语就是说话（或写作）和所说（所写）的话语言是从言语中概括出来的的为社会所公认的词语和规则的总和。
语言学复习资料
1、第一章2、语言学，是研究语言的科学。
语言是语言学的研究对象。
3、语言是人类最重要的交际工具。
语言学的基本任务是研究语言的规律，使人们懂得关于语言的理性知识。
4、中国、印度、希腊-罗马具有悠久的历史文化传统，是语言学的三大发源地。
5、语言研究的任务也只是给古代流传下来的政治、哲学、宗教、历史、文学等方面的经典作注解，而不是探索语言的规律。
6、人们抓住汉字、分析它的形体，讲求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵、训诂的我国传统语文学。
7、从研究古代经典中的书面语的语文学发展到全面研究语言的语言学，是语言研究的深刻转折。
8、语言本身的构造很复杂，可以分为语音、词汇和语义、语法三个部分。
9、综合各种语言的基本研究的成果，归纳成语言的一般规律，这是理论语言学的任务。
10、语言活动深入人类社会生活的一切领域，只要有人活动的地方就需要语言。
语言不仅与社会科学，而且还和很多的自然科学发生了密切的关系。
11、语言进行交际的过程可以分为：编码—发送—传递—接收—解码，五个阶段。
12、语言学既是一门古老的科学，又是一门年轻的科学，既与社会科学有密切的关系，也与自然科学有密切的关系。
它的研究成果越来越为其他学科所关心、所运用。
它在整个科学体系中占有重要的地位。
13、话的长短差别很大。
短可以只有一个词，长可以长到无止境。
例如，在一定的环境中，“看”就可以是一句话，表达一个完整的意思。
但这种现象不典型。
说话通常是把几个词按照一定的顺序组合起来，造出一句话。
如看。
看书。
看一本书。
看一本有趣的书......不论多长的句子，我们都可以加上一些成分，使它更长。
当然实际说话的时候，句子是不会太长了。
因为说话的人说到后来会忘记前面说过的内容。
14、句子的数目无限，每句话又可以拉得很长。
事实告诉我们：无限的句子中包含着有限的词和为数不多的规则，学话就是掌握这套材料和规则。
15、每个人说话是自由，想什么时候说就什么时候说，想说什么就说什么，但说话时选择什么材料，遵循什么规则是不自由的，必须服从社会的习惯。
语言学期末考试复习(英语专业).doc
LinguistsFerdinand de Saussure: Course in General LinguisticsEdward Sapir: Language: An Introduction to the Study of SpeechNoam Chomsky: Syntactic StructuresJohn Lyons: Language and LinguisticsR. H. Robins: General LinguisticsStuart C. Pool: An Introduction to LinguisticsWhat is language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.System: Elements of language are combined according to rules.Arbitrary: no close connection between a word and the object it refers to. Vocal: all human languages have sound and speech.Symbolic: Words are associated with objects, actions, ideas, concepts etc. by nothing but convention.Human: language is human specific.Design Features of LanguageArbitrarinessDualityCreativityDisplacementArbitrariness: --The forms of language signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (Saussure)--Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words.--Language has 2 levels of structures: sounds & meanings.-A small number of sounds can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning.--The units of meanings can be grouped and regrouped into an infinite number of sentences, (lyons)Creativity:-We can understand and create sentences that we never heard before.--It comes from 2 features: duality & recursiveness (递归性) Displacement: People can use language to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.What is linguistics: Linguistics is the scientific study of language.The sounds and the sound system orpatternsMain branches of linguisticsPhonetics （语音学）、Phonology （音系学）- Morphology （形态学）：the structure of wordsSyntax （句法学）：the structure of phrases and sentencesSemantics （语义学）：the meaning of words and sentencesPragmatics （语用学）：the way language is used to communicate Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive vs. Prescriptive 描写式 VS 规定式Synchronic vs. Diachronic 共时性 VS 历时性Langue vs. Parole 语言 VS 言语Competence and Performance 语言能力&语言运用Etic vs. Emic 非位学（素学）VS 位学 Descriptive vs. PrescriptiveDescriptive: how things arePrescriptive: how things ought to beModern linguistics is mostly descriptive, not prescriptive. Why?--Objective description helps to see the nature of language.--Language changes through time.Svnchronic vs. Diachronic （Saussure ）Synchronic Study: the study of language in a fixed instant, take language as unchanged.Diachronic Study: the study of language through the course of its historyLangue vs. Parole (Saussure)Language: the linguistic competence of the speaker, abstract, stable, systematic Parole: the exact way of speaking, specific and changeableSaussure's purpose to distinguish 'langue' and 'parole': To discover the regularities governing the actual use of language and make them the subjects of the study of linguistics.Competence and Performance (Chomsky)Competence: A language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situations.How is Saussure's distinction between langue and parole similar to and different from Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance?--Similarities: both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. Saussure's parole and Chomsky's performance are essentially the same thing.-Differences: Saussure's notion of language is a matter of social conventions, and Chomsky looks at language from a psycholoRical point of view. Thus, langue is quite different from competence.Etic vs. Emic (Pike)Chapter 2Major branches of phonetics：1.Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学)2.Auditory phonetics (听觉语音学)3.Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学)Phone [ ] Phoneme / /The IPAInternational Phonetic AssociationInternational Phonetic Alphabet (the IPA chart) was published in August 1888. Consonants and vowelsRP: Received English (BBC English, Oxford English, King's / Queen's English) GA: General AmericanIn what ways consonants differ from vowels?1)Air-stream in Articulation--consonants (24): the flow of air comes out with some obstructions.--vowels (20): the flow of air comes out freely2)Function: --consonants are used to separate the vowels. --vowels are used to help the speech organs to get from one consonant position to the next. Consonants[p] voiceless bilabial stop[b] voiced bilabial stop[s] voiceless alveolar fricative[z] voiced alveolar fricativeVowelsCoarticulation and Phonetic TranscriptionCoarticulation: Sounds continually show the influence of their neighbors.E.g. map, lambAnticipatory coarticulation 先期协'同发音lambPerseverative coarticulation 后滞协'同发音map[p] is aspirated in peak and unaspirated in speak.This aspirated voiceless bilabial stop is thus indicated by the diacritic h, as [p h], whereas the unaspirated counterpart is transcribed as [p].Broad transcription [ ] Narrow transcription / / or []Phone and PhonemeA phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don't, e.g. [tin— [t] [i] [n]A phoneme can be defined as a minimal unit of sound that can distinguish words of different meanings. E.g. [tin] [din] 9 /t/ /d/ 9 tin dinDifferences Between Phone & PhonemeMinimal Pairs: e.g. "pat" "bat”, “pig" "big”Allophone: the phonetic variants of a phoneme, e.g. the 2 allophones of the same phoneme /p/ are [p h] as in pin and [p] in spin.SuprasegmentalsSuprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments.The principal suprasegmentals are: syllable, stress, tone, intonationThe syllable structureoMonosyllabic word: cat, dogPolysyllabic word: festival, transplantOpen syllable: a syllable without coda, bar, tieClosed syllable: a syllable with coda, bard, tiedChapter 3 LexiconWhat is word?Definition: It is a unit of expression that native speakers may recognize by intuition, whether in spoken or written form.Identification of wordsStability: the internal structure is the most stable e.g. chairman namirahc Relative uninterruptibility: new elements can not be inserted into a word e.g. dis appoint mentA minimum free form (Bloomfield):maximum 9 sentenceminimum 9 wordClassification of words1)Variable vs. Invariable Words:Variable words: write, writes, writing, wrote, written; cat, cats. (n. v.) Invariable words: since, when, seldom, through, etc.2)Grammatical vs. Lexical Words:Grammatical/Function words: conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns. Lexical/Content words: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.3)Closed-class vs. Open-class Words:Closed-class words —grammatical words): New members cannot normally be added, e.g. pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliaries.Open-class words (=lexical words): New members can be added, eg nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.4)Word class: known as Parts of Speech (词性)in traditional grammar, noun, verb, adjective, adverb, preposition, pronoun, conjunction, interjection, article, etc.Some new word class: -Particles (小品词):Infinitive "to",Negative "not”,Subordinate units in phrasal verbs“get by”, “look back”, etc.-Auxiliaries: do, have-Modal verbs: can, will, may, must, etc.-Pro-form-DeterminersPre-determiners (coverage): all, both, twice, one-fifth, etc.Central- determiners (所指):this, that, every, my, etc.Post-determiners (cardinal numerals, ordinal numerals, general ordinals and quantifiers): last, past, many, little, etc.Morpheme and MorphologyMorpheme: the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, its meaning will change if further divided. E.g. dis appoint ment (3)Morphology: the study of word-formation (the internal structure of words).A phoneme is the basic unit in the study of phonology; a morpheme is the basic unit in the study of morphology.(1)Free morphemes & Bound morphemes-Free morphemes: those that may constitute words by themselves, e.g. boy, girl, table, nation.Content words (open-class words)Function words (close-class words)Compounds: polymorphemic words consisting wholly of free morphemes, e.g.mooncake-Bound morphemes: those that cannot occur alone, e.g. -s, -ed, dis-, unBound morphemes are mainly affixes.(2)Root, affix and stemRoot: the free morpheme inside of the wordE.g. friend as in unfriendlinessAffix: the type of morpheme that can be used only when added to another morpheme.prefix (dis-, un-)suffix (-en, -ify) andlnfix( feet, goose)Stem: any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.E.g. friend (friends), friendship (friendships)(3)Inflectional and Derivational AffixInflectional affixes (all are suffix): number, tense, degree (-er. -est), and case(-s') Derivational affixes: e.g. -tion, -ness, un-, en-, -less etc.Inflection and Word FormationInflection: adding inflectional affix, such as number, person, case, (tables, opens, boy's ) do not change the grammatical class of the stemsDerivation (a relationship between roots and affixes):lengthen, foolish, (word class changed)nonsmoker, disobey (word class unchanged)Word FormationCompounds: to join two or more separate words to produce a new word. Endocentric & Exocentric compounds向心复合词和离心复合词Endocentric: one element serves as the head, the relationship of "a kind of〃E.g. self-control: a kind of control; armchair: a kind ofchairExocentric: there is no head, so not a relationship of "a kind of something"E.g. scarecrow: not a kind of crow; breakneck: not a kind of neckWritten forms of compounds-Solid: blackboard, teapot, bodyguard-Hyphenated: wedding-ring, wave-length -Open: coffee table, washing machine Chapter 4Immediate Constituent Analysis (IC Analysis)the girl (NP)ate the apple (VP)The girl ate the apple (S)The girl ate the appleIf two constituents B (the girl) and C (ate the apple) are jointed to form a higher constituent A (here a sentence S), then B and C are said to be the immediate constituents of A.Syntactic FunctionNames of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicators, modifiers, complements, etc.Subject: "what the sentence is about" (i.e., topic)John was bitten by a dog.u grammatical subject" (John) and 'logical subject" (a dog)Predicator: verb or verbs included in a predicate, it usually expresses actions, processes, and states that refer to the subject.Object:Direct Object and Indirect ObjectMother gave my sister a doll.IO DOThe accusative case （受格）for direct objectThe dative case （与格）for indirect objectObject can become subjectJohn broke the glass. 9 The glass was broken by John.Peter saw Jane. 9 Jane was seen by Peter.Category-Number: singular, dual, pluralIn Englishnouns: dog, dogspronouns and verbs: He laughs: They laugh; this man: these men.-Gender: contrasts as "masculine : feminine : neuter", "animate : inanimate", etc. In English gender only in pronouns and nouns:he: she: itprince: princess author: authoress-Case: teacher: teacher'swith/ to a manJohn kicked Peter: Peter kicked John-Agreement:a pronoun agrees with its antecedent: Whose is this pen? --Oh,Ji's the one I lost.a verb agrees with its subject: Each person has one coin.number between nouns and verbs:This man runs. The bird flies.These men run. These birds fly.Chapter 5 Meaning (semantics)SemanticsDefinition: Semantics is the study of meaning in language.Geoffrey Leech. Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning: Conceptual meaning 9 DenotationConnotative meaning 、9 Connotation (unstable, vary according to culture)Social meaningAffective meaning > Associative meaningReflected meaningJCollocative meaningThematic meaningDenotation & ConnotationE.g. words with the same denotation, but differ in the connotative meanings: politician (derogatory)statesman (favorable)The Referential TheoryReferential theory: the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stand for.Leech's conceptual meaning has 2 sides:Sense (Connotation): the abstract properties of an entity;Reference (Denotation): concrete entities;Concept: the abstract thing, no entity.Every word has a sense, but not every word has a reference. E.g. "but ", “if”, “God”,“dragon”.Sense Relations--Synonymy:buy/purchaseautumn/fall flat/apartmenttube/underground--Antonymy(1) Gradable antonymy (degree)分级反义词good ---------------------- badlong ----------------------- shortbig ------------------------- small(2) Complementary antonymy (Not A = B; not B= A)互补反义词一个个体的两种情况alive : dead odd : evenmale : female pass : failpresent: absent boy : girlinnocent: guilty hit: miss⑶Converse antonymy回转反义词两方两个事物buy : sell teacher: studentlend : borrow above : belowgive : receive before : afterparent: child host: guesthusband : wife employer: employeeChapter 8 Language in Use (Pragmatics)Definition of Pragmatics:The study of language in use.The study of meaning in context.The study of speakers' meaning, utterance meaning, & contextual meaning. Utterance Meaning vs. Sentence MeaningSentence meaning: What does X mean?Utterance meaning: What do you mean by X?Contextual Meaning: meaning in contextSpeech Act TheoryJohn Austin (1911-1960)How to Do Things with Words (1962)Speech acts: actions performed via utterancesIllocutionary Act TheoryJohn Searle (1932-)Speech acts can be analyzed on 3 levels:the locutionnary act 发话行为the illocutionnary act 行事行为the perlocutionnary act取效行为/言后行为E.g.lIt's cold here.Locutionary act: the literal meaning, the sentenceIllocutionary act: a request of the hearer to shut the window.Perlocutionary act: the hearer's shutting the window or his refusal to shut it. E.g.2Conversations between The illocutionary act:husband and wife:H: That's the phone. 9 Not describing something. Just making a request of his wife to go and answer the phone.W: I'm in the bathroom.— Not describing her action in the bathroom, just (i) a refusal to comply with the request and (ii) issuing a request of her husband to answer it.H : Okay. 9 Accepting his wife's refusal and accepther request, meaning "all right, \'\\ answer it."Conversational ImplicatureHerbert Paul GricePeople do not usually say things directly but tend to imply them.The Cooperative Principle (CP)A speaker can mean a lot more than what he says, most the time the hearer could understand that, then the problem is how the speaker can convey more than what is said and how the hearer can arrive at the speaker's meaning. Grice believed there exists a set of mechanisms governing the production and comprehension of these utterances, this is what he called the Cooperative Principle. (CP)Grice introduced 4 categories of maxisms:--Maxim of Quality:Do not say what you believe to be false.Do not say something if you lack adequate evidence;--Maxim of Quantity: no more, no less--Maxim of Relation: Be relative.--Maxim of Manner: Be perspicuous.Pragmatics violates CP. Since CP is regulative, CP can be violated.Violation of CP and its maxims leads to conversational implicature. 会话含义E-g.He is made of iron.CP (quality) > He is strong-willed.He (lecturer) is a good cook.CP (relation'The lecturer is no good.Violation of the maxims (Quantity)1.No lessA:昨天上街买了些什么？B:就买了些东西。
滨州学院语言学概论期末复习题及参考答案
2023年下学期语言学概论（考试课）复习资料、多项选择题1元音[A]是。
(1分）A前元音B.央元音C低元音D不圆唇元音答案：BCD2非音质要素是指(1分）A.音色B音高C音强D音长答案：BCD3.固定词组的显著特点是。
(1分）A来源的多样性B运用的普遍性C.结构的定型性D意义的完整性答案：CD4常见的附加意义有。
(1分）A感情意义B.比喻义C语体意义D联想意义答案：ACD5依据句子的表述功能，可以将句子分为。
(1分）A.陈述句B疑问旬C祈使句D感叹句答案：ABCD6.同基本词汇相比，一般词汇的特点是。
(1分）A多义性B.不一定是全民常用的，使用的范围和复现的频率不及基本词汇C.缺乏历史稳固性，发展变化较快D数量庞大，成分庞杂答案：BCD7词典的编纂的三个步骤分别是。
(1分）A.选词B.注释C编排D检索答案：ABC8语义场的类别有(1分）A联想义场B同义义场C反义义场D多义义场答案：ABCD9词义引申的途径是(1分）A夸张B比喻C拟人D借代答案：BD10语义历史演变的原因是(1分）A语音的发展B社会生活的发展变化C人的认识能力的提高D语言单位内部的矛盾答案：BCD11语言和言语的联系是。
(1分）A语言存在千言语之中，言语是语言存在的形式。
B语言是对言语的规范。
C语言和言语都具有个人因素。
D语言是从言语中概括出来的，没有言语就无所谓语言。
答案：ABD12普遍语言发展规律的特点是(1分）A突变性B多样性C渐变性D参差性答案：CD13造成语音音质不同的原因有(1分）A发音体不同B发音方法不同C发音时间长短不同D共振腔的形状不同答案：ABD14诀定每个辅音的特性的是(1分）A气流的强弱B形成阻碍的具体部位C具体的发音方法D是否形成阻碍答案：BC15常见的表达语法结构意义的语法手段有。
(1分）A选词B词序C.虚词D词形变化答案：ABCD16人与人在语言交际中要遵守合作原则，合作原则包括。
(1分）A量的准则B质的准则C相关准则D方式准则答案：ABCD17诀定辅音发音不同的是。
语言学期末复习资料
Chapter 1 Language and Linguistics•The nature of language1. How to define language?1) Edward Sapir: Language is a purely human and non-instinctive method of communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by means of a system of voluntarily produced symbols.2) H. Bussmann: Language is a vehicle for the expression or exchange of thoughts, concepts, and information as well as the fixing and transmission of of experience and knowledge. It is based on cognitive processes, subjects to societal factors and subject to historical change and development.3) David Crystal: The discussion may be summarized by referring to language as human vocal noise (or the graphic representation of this noise in writing) used systematically and conventionally by a community for purpose of communication.2. The unique properties of human languageThere have been a number of attempts to determine the defining properties of human language, and different lists of features can be found. We shall take six of these features and describe how they are manifested in human language.•displacementHuman language users are perfectly capable of producing messages referring to past and future time, and to other locations. This property of human language is called displacement. It allows the users of language to talk about things and events not present in the immediate environment. Animal communication is generally considered to lack this property. This property enables us to talk about things and places whose existence we cannot be sure of. We can refer to mythical creatures, demons, fairies, angels, Santa Claus, and recently invented characters such as Superman. It is this property that allows the human, unlike any other creature, to create fiction and to describe possible future worlds.•ArbitrarinessIt is generally the case that there is no …natural‟ connection between a linguistic form and its meaning. A linguistic form, for example, the English word “dog” has no natural or …iconic‟relationship with that four-legged creature. Recognizing this general fact about language leads us to conclude that a property of linguistic signs is their arbitrary relationship with the objects they are used to indicate.There are of course, some words in language which have sounds which seem to …echo‟ the sounds of objects or activities. English examples might be cuckoo, crash, whir, squelch, which are onomatopoeic word. In most languages, however, these words are relatively rare, and the vast majority of linguistic expressions are in fact arbitrary.•ProductivityIt is a feature of all language that novel utterances are continually being created. A child learning language is especially active in forming and producing utterances which heor she has never heard before. With adults, new situations arise or new objects have to be described, so the language-users manipulate their linguistics resources to produce new expressions and new sentences. This property of human language has been termed productivity (or creativity). It is an aspect of language which is linked to the fact that the potential number of utterances in any human language is infinite.•cultural transmissionWhile you may inherit brown eyes and dark hair from your parents, you don not inherit their language. You acquire a language in a culture with other speakers (also including your parents) and not from parental genes. Any infant born to Chinese parents (who have never left China and speak only Chinese), which is adopted and brought up from birth by English speakers in the United States, may have physical characteristics inherited from its former parents, but it will inevitably speak English.This process whereby language is passed on from one generation to the next is described as cultural transmission. While it has been argued that humans are born with an innate predisposition to acquire language, it is clear that they are not born with the ability to produce utterances in a specific language, such as English.•DualityLanguage is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. This property is called duality. In terms of speech production, we have the physical level at which we can produce individual sounds, like n, b and i. As individual sounds, none of these discrete forms has any intrinsic meaning. When we produce those sounds in a particular combination, as in bin, we have another level producing a meaning which is different from the meaning of combination in nib. So, at one level, we have distinct sounds, and, at another level, we have distinct meanings.This duality of levels is, in fact, one of the most economical features of human language, since with a limited set of distinct sounds we are capable of producing a large number of sound combinations which are distinct in meaning.•DiscretenessThe sounds used in language are meaningfully distinct. For example, the difference between a b sound and a p sound is not actually very great, but when these sounds are part of a language like English, they are used in such a way that the occurrence of one rather than the other is meaningful. The fact that the pronunciation of the form pack and back leads to a distinction in meaning can only be due to the difference between the p and b sounds in English. This property of language is described as discreteness.•These six properties of displacement, arbitrariness, productivity, cultural transmission, duality and discreteness may be taken as the core features of human language. Human language does of course have many other properties, but these are not uniquely human characteristics.•The use of the vocal-auditory channel, for example, is certainly a feature of humanspeech. Human linguistic communication is typically generated via the vocal organs and perceived by the ears.•Any speaker or sender of a linguistic signal can also be a listener or receiver, this property is called reciprocity.•The nature of human language1) Language is systematic2) Language is symbolic3) Language is arbitrary4) Language is primarily vocal5) Language is human specific6) Language is used for communication•Exercises about the nature of language1) The form of linguistic signs bear no natural resemblance to their meaning.2) The linguistic sign unites a thing and a name.3) The combination of a concept and a sound-image is called a sign.4) Concept and sound-image may be also called signified and signifier respectively.5) Each human language is organized into two basic systems: a system of sounds and a system of meanings.6) Language is a symbolic system in the sense that there is no or little connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer.7) The primary medium of language is its writing system.8) People use the spoken form more frequently than writing as a basic form of verbal communication.9) When describing spoken language, we generally recognize three kinds of units: sounds, syllables, and words.10) Every sentence of a human language has a complex grammatical structure and consists of a linear string of words.•1.2 Functions of language•The fact that language functions in our society makes it possible to view language in terms of the social function it serves.•Malinowski (1923) regards language as not a self-contained system, but as entirely dependent on the society in which it is used. In his view, three major functions of language are distinguished:(1) the pragmatic function: language as a form of action(2) The magical function: language as a means of control over environment(3) the phatic function: language as a means to help establish and maintain social relationsGenerally speaking, the functions of language can be categorized into general functions and metafunctions (元功能).General functions refer to the particular individual uses of language while metafunctions refer to the more general purposes underlying language use.•emotive (expressive) functionAccording to some investigations, though the conveying of some information occurs in most uses of language, it probably represents not more than 20 percent of what takes place in verbal communication. According to David Crystal, it is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress. (for example, swear words, When you realize you have forgotten an important appointment, what will you probably utter?•phatic functionThe notion of phatic communion is coined by Marlinowski, who holds that language can serve the function of creating or maintaining social relationship between speakers. We often use language for no other reason than simply to express our willingness to be sociable. No factual content is involved. ( what are the distinctive phatic communion examples in English and Chinese?)•informative functionAnother name for informative function is ideational function, mainly used in the framework of functional grammar. Halliday notes that “ language serves for the expression of …content‟: that is, of the speaker‟s experience of the r eal world, including the inner world of his own consciousness.•performative function (施为功能）The performative function is primarily to change the social status of those persons involved, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, etc. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized. ( Think of the western style of marriage, what will the priest say to the bride and bridegroom in the wedding ceremony?)•recreational functionA large part of the pleasure we derive from language comes from the successful exploitation of linguistic novelty at different levels, such as the sound level (alliteration: s ing a s ong of s ixpence), at the semantic level (puns in advertisements).•Metafunctions of languageHalliday(1978, 1994) conceives of language as social semiotic, that is to say, language is a system of signs developed to express social meanings. Accordingly, he distinguishes three metafunctions for language.1) ideational function （概念功能）Ideational function refers to the function of language to construe （识解）the experience of the world that is around and inside us. It is through this function that language allows us to conceptualize the experience of the world.•Interpersonal functionInterpersonal function of language means the function which enables the speakers(writers) and the listeners (readers) maintain interactions and thus enacts a social and intersubjective relationship.•interpersonal function embodies all use of language to express social and personal relationships•textual functionTextual function enables the other two functions to operate and it represents the speaker‟s text-forming potential.it refers to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken and written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random list of sentencesCompare the following clauses:a. His teacher persuaded him to continue.b. It was his teacher who persuaded him to continue.c. His teacher is the one who persuaded him to continue.d. The one who persuaded him to continue is his teacher.e. What his teacher did was persuade him to continue.•1.3 The Origin and Classification of Language•The divine sourceAccording to one view, God created Adam and “whatever Adam called every living creature, that was the name thereof” (Genesis 2: 19).Alternatively, following a Hindu tradition, language came from the goddess Sarasvati, wife a Brahma, creator or the universe. In most religions, there appears to be a divine source who provides humans with language.•The natural-sound sourceA quite different view of the beginning of human speech is based on the concept of …natural sounds‟. The suggestion is that primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard around them. When a flying object made a CUCKOO sound, that natural sound was adopted to refer to that object. The fact that all modern languages have some words with pronunciations which seem to …echo‟ naturally occurring sounds could have be used to support this theory.In English, in addition to cuckoo, we have splash, bang, boom, rattle, buzz, hiss, screech. While it is true that a number of words in any language are onomatopoeic, it is hard to see how most of the soundless, not to mention abstract entities in our world could have been referred to in a language that simply echoed natural sounds.•Evolutionary sourceThose who believe in evolutionary theory tend to believe that man evolved from lower form of life. Language, too, evolved as an adjunct to early communication(pointing, gesturing, grunting, imitation of animal sounds,etc.). According to this theory, focus is mainly on the biological basis of the formation and development of human language.•physiological adaptationHuman teeth, lips, mouth, tongue, larynx (喉), pharynx (咽腔), brain (lateralized) •Language familiesThere is no agreed total for the number of languages spoken in the world today. Most reference books give a figure of 5,000 to 6,000, but estimates have varied from 3,000 to 10,000.Estimating the number of speakers of a living language is, if anything, more complicated than estimating the number of languages. Speaker estimates for the world‟s top 5 languages (given in million) are as follows,•1. Mandarin Chinese (726)•2. English (427)•3. Spanish (266)•4. Hindi (182)•5. Arabic (181)The first scientific attempts to discover the histor y of the world‟s languages were made at the end of the 18th century. Scholars began to compare groups of languages in a systematic and detailed way, to see whether there were correspondences between them. If these could be demonstrated, it could be assumed that the languages were related---in other words, that they developed from a common source, even though this might no longer exist.•Latin (pater)Italian Spanish French Portuguese(padre) (padre) (père) (pai)As indicated in the above diagram, French, Spanish, Italian and other Romance Languages were clearly descended from Latin. Roman Languages are part of the wider INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGE group.•Types of linguistic classificationThere are two main ways of classifying languages: genetic and typological.Genetic classification: This is a historical classification, based on the assumption that languages have diverged from a common ancestor. It uses early written remains as evidence, and when this is lacking, deductions are made using the comparative method to enable the form of the parent language to be reconstructed•typological classificationThis is based on a comparison of the formal similarities which exist between languages. It is an attempt to group languages into structural types, on the basis of phonology, grammar, or vocabulary, rather than in terms of any real or assumed historical relationship. For example, it is possible to group languages in terms of how they use sounds-how many and what kinds of vowels they have, whether they use tones, and so on.•The earliest typologies were in the field of morphology, according to which, three main linguistic types were recognized.Isolating, analytic , languages （孤立语）A language in which word forms do not change, and in which grammatical relations are shown by word order and the use of function words. Chinese and Vietnamese are clear cases.For example: júzi wŎchi leorange I eat (F W)wŎchi guo júzi leI have eaten the orange.•agglutinating language (粘着语）A language in which various affixes may be added to the stem of a word to add to its meaning or to show its grammatical function.For example, in Swahili (斯瓦希里语）, wametulipa “they have paid us” consists of :wa –me –tu –lipathey perfective us paymarker•What sort of language is English?English is a Germanic language, according to the generic method of classification. But from other points of view, the picture alters. Culturally, it displays many similarities with Romance, in view of the large number of loan words it has taken in from French and Italian, and the way these languages have even exercised some influence on grammar and phonology.•From a typological viewpoint, English is in fact more similar to an isolating language like Chinese than Latin: there are few inflectional endings, and word-order changes are the basis of the grammar.•Three-in-oneIsolating: The boy kill ask the girl.The girl will ask the boy.inflecting: The biggest boys have been asking.Agglutinating: anti-dis-establish-ment-arian-ism. (disestablish: 废除英国国教的法定地位）arian: believing in, practising.utilitarian•inflecting language (屈折语）Grammatical relationships are expressed by changing the internal structure of the words-typically by the use of inflectional endings which express several grammatical meanings at once. Latin, Greek, and Arabic are clear cases. For example, the –o ending of Latin amo…I love‟ simaltaneously expresses that the form is in the first person singular, present tense, active, and indicative.•1.4 What is Linguistics•Definition of linguisticsLinguistics is usually defined as the science of language, or alternatively, as the scientific study of language.As a science, linguistics now has a set of established theories, methods and sub-branches.•Main branches of linguisticsIt is generally agreed that linguistics should include at least five parameters, namely, phonologic, morphologic, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic. The following are the main branches of linguistics.phonetics: Phonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sounds of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds.•phonology: Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shapes of syllables. It deals with the sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure. A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning.Phonetics is the study speech sounds that human voice is capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning.•Morphology: Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning-morphemes and word-formation processes. Although many people conceive of words as the basic meaningful elements of a language, many words can be broken down into still smaller units, called morphemes.•syntaxSyntax is concerned itself with the structure and ordering of components within a sentence. The word …syntax‟ originally came from Greek and literally meant…arrangement‟.( This is the dog that chased the cat that killed the rat that stolen corn from the barn …)•semanticsSemantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and sentences. In semantic analysis, there is always an attempt to focus on what the words conventionally mean, rather than on what a speaker might want the words to mean on a particular occasion. Therefore linguistic semantics deals with the conventional meaning conveyed by the use of words and sentences of a language.•pragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation.In theory, we can say anything we like. In practice, we follow a large number of social rules that constrain the way we speak. There is no law that says we must not tell jokes during a funeral, but it is generally …not done‟.Indirect speech actI‟d be grateful if you‟d shut the door.Could you shut the door?Would you mind shutting the door?It‟d help to have the door shut.It‟s getting cold in here.Shall we keep out the draught?Now, Jane, what have you forgotten to do?Shut the door!•Important Distinctions in Linguistics•Langue vs ParoleA ter m introduced in de Saussure‟s Course in General Linguistics to distinguish between language (Fr. Langue) as an abstract system of signs and rules, and the spoken word (Fr. Parole) as the concrete realization of language as it is used. Langue is characterized as a static system of symbols with broad (social) value, due to the invariant and functional nature of its elements. Instances of parole are based on this system of langue and vary according to register, age, dialect, among other factors.•competence vs performanceChomsky‟s postulated dichotomy between general linguistic ability and individuallanguage use, which is connected to de Saussure‟s distinction langue vs parole. Competence is that knowledge about the native language which is acquired along with the language used by an ideal speaker/listener of a homogeneous speech community. Due to an infinite inventory of elements (sounds, words) and syntactic rules, the speaker can theoretically produce and understand in infinite number of utterances.•Performance refers not only to this, but also to the ability of the speaker to pass judgment on the grammaticality of sentences, on ambiguity, and paraphrases. The goal of transformational grammar is to formulate a grammar that illustrates as truly as possible the ability of a speaker‟s competence, and at the same time to offer a hypothesis about language acquisition. Whereas the term …performance‟ (Chomsky) and …parole‟ (de Saussure) can be used almost interchangeably, their counterparts …competence‟ a nd …langue‟ are quite different from each other. …Langue‟ is a static system of signs, whereas competence is understood as a dynamic concept, as mechanism that will generate language endlessly.•Diachrony (diachronic) vs synchrony (synchronic)Synchrony refers to a state fixed in time, while diachrony refers to changing states of a language between different time periods.On the one hand, language is a system whole parts can and must be considered in their synchronic solidarity, and thus, synchronic facts affect the system as a whole and therefore always significant. On the other hand, the diachronic phenomenon is the evolution of the system.While descriptive synchronic research investigates the relationship of individual elements to a balanced linguistic system that can be described structurally, historically oriented diachronic investigation can only address the replacement of single elements by other elements,or the change of individual elements. (semantic and phonological change, examples)Elevation: Old English cniht …boy, servant‟ knightDegeneration: Old English cnafa …boy, servant‟ knaveNarrowing:Old English mete …food‟ meat …edible flesh‟Widening:Old English bridde …young birdling‟ birdPhonetic change:Old and Middle English [e:] has changed to modern [i:] in heel, steel, geese, queen•syntagmatic vs paradigmaticA syntagm is a structurally significant combination of two or more units in a language. For example, a syntagm may consist of two or more morphemes forming aword, e.g.re- + write = rewriteor combinations of words forming phrases, clauses and sentences, e.g.the + train + is + leaving + now•Syntagmatic relations are the relationship that linguistic units (e.g. words, clauses) have with other units because they may occur together in a sequence. For example, a word may be said to have syntagmatic relations with the other words which occur in the sentence in which it appears, but paradigmatic relations with words that could be substituted for it in the sentence.For example:I gave Tracy the bookpassedhandedthrew•prescriptive vs descriptivePrescriptive grammar is a grammar which states rules for what is considered the best or most correct usage. It is often based not on descriptions of actual usage but rather on the grammarian‟s views of what is best (based on the language of poets, writers, and scholars). Many traditional grammars of this kind.Descriptive grammar is a grammar which describes how a language is actually spoken and written , and does not state or prescribe how it ought to be spoken or written.•writing vs speechWriting and speech are now seen as alternative, …equal‟ systems of linguistic expression, and research has begun to investigate the nature and extent of the differences between them.Most obviously, they contrast in p hysical form: speech uses …phonic substance‟, typically in the form of air-pressure movements; writing uses …graphic substance‟, typically in the form of marks on a surface.Points of contrast1) The permanence of writing allows repeated reading and close analysis.2) The participants in written interaction cannot usually see each other, and thus cannot rely on the context to help make clear what they mean, as they would when speaking.3) Written language displays several unique features, such as punctuation, capitalization, spatial organization, color, and other graphic effects4) Grammatical and lexical differences are also important. Written language tends to be more formal than spoken language and is more likely to provide the standard the society values.•functionalism vs formalismThe basic assumptions of functional grammar is that linguistics phenomena cannot be explained without examining their function. Thus functional grammar offers an alternative to structuralist attempts at describing linguistic phenomena formally ( i.e. the autonomy of syntax)•semantic roles:•a. The farmer killed the duckling. Agent Patient•b. The rock broke the window. Instrument Patient•c. The lawyer received the summons. Recipient Theme•d. Many tourists saw the accident. Experiencer Stimulus•e. Sally presented Bill with the award. Agent Recipient•f. The mugger robbed Sam of $50. Agent Source•g. The clown amused the child. Agent Experiencerformalist approach: NP1 + V + NP2•a. The duckling was killed by the farmer.•b. The window was broken by the rock•c. The summons was received by the lawyer.•d. The accident was seen by many tourists.•e. Bill was presented with the award by Sally.•f. Sam was robbed of $50 by the mugger.•g. The child was amused by the clown.NP2 + auxiliary + VPP + by + NP1Chapter 2 Phonetics and Phonology✹All the sounds we make when we speak are the natural result of muscles contracting. The muscles in the chest that we use for breathing produce the flow of air that is needed for almost all speech sounds; muscles in the larynx produce many different modifications in the flow of air from the chest to the mouth. After passing through the larynx, the air goes through what we call the vocal tract, which ends at the mouth and nostrils.✹Here the air from the lungs escapes into the atmosphere. In order to learn how the sounds of speech are produced it is necessary to become familiar with the different parts of the vocal tract. These different parts are called articulators, and the study of themis called articulatory phonetics.✹V oicing （发声类型）Sounds may be either voiced or voiceless, that is, the vocal fords are either vibrating or not. All languages have both voiceless and voiced sounds contrasting in their phonological systems. In English, for example, all vowels are voiced, as are the following consonants: [d, b, d✞, m, n, ☠, z, ✞, ●, r, w, j].✹According to Ball & Rahilly (1999: 34), English has more voiced than voiceless sounds, and analyses of sample spoken texts of English reveal that voiced sounds are in general three times more common than voiceless ones.✹When describing individual sound segments, phoneticians often employ two perspectives to examine how sounds are articulated: manner of articulation and place of articulation.✹Manner of articulationThe manner of articulation is very important during the production of sounds. Based on manner of articulation, there are the following types:plosives （爆破音）: p, b, t, d, k, g.fricatives （摩擦音）: f, v, , ❆, s, z, ☞, ✞,haffricates （塞擦音）: ♦☞, ♎✞nasals （鼻音）: ❍, n, ☠other consonants: l, r, , w✹Place of articulationThe place of articulation is another way to observe how sounds are articulated. When describing the place of articulation, we usually consider the place within the vocal tract where the articulators form a structure.Sounds can be made anywhere from the very front of the oral cavity （口腔）using the two lips, back through the oral cavity and into the pharynx （咽腔）, and as far down as the glottis （声门）.✹Usually, the names of the places of articulation are derived from the division of the vocal tract. Below we shall look at the terms that have normally been restricted to consonants.bilabial （双唇音）: p, b, mdental （齿音）: , ❆post-alveolar （后齿龈音）: ♦☞, ♎✞glottal （声门音）: hlabiodental （唇齿音）: f, valveolar （齿龈音）: t, d, n, s, z, lpalatal （腭音）: j✹vowel and consonant。
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一、选择（20个）二、判断（10~20个）三、填空（5分）四、词语解释（3个，各5分）五、简答（2个，各10分；其中一个是语用学）六、句子分析（4个）IC analysis 是倒着的树形图Chomsky 是有S, NP,VP…与其中的树形图。
1. Phonetics & Language Introduction:1. There is no logical connection between meaning and sounds. A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. This is __B____one of the design features of language.A. dualityB. arbitrarinessC. productivityD. displacement2. Language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is __B__ . It makes people possible to talk everything within his knowledge.A. dualityB. arbitrarinessC. productivityD. displacement3. __C___ refers to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one‟s native language, including those that he has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation.A. dualityB. arbitrarinessC. productivityD. displacement4. ___D__ refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. The dog couldn‟t be bow-wowing sorrowfully for some lost love or a bone to be lost.A. dualityB. arbitrarinessC. productivityD. displacement5. ___D___ means language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but the linguistic system must be learnt anew by each speaker.A. dualityB. ArbitrarinessC. interchangeabilityD. cultural transmission6. ___C___ means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.A. dualityB. ArbitrarinessC. interchangeabilityD. cultural transmission7. To say “How are you. ”“Hi”to your friends is the ___C____of language.A. directive functionB. informative functionC. phatic function (adj. 交流感情/交际应酬的)D. interrogative function8. “Tell me the result when you finish.”If you want to get your hearer to do something, you should use the ___B__ function of language.A. directive functionB. informative functionC. phatic functionD. interrogative function9. A linguist regards the changes in language and language use as _____.A. unnaturalB. something to be fearedC. natural C. abnormal10. A linguist is interested in _______.A. speech sounds onlyB. all soundsC. vowels only C. consonants only11. Which of the following sounds is a voiceless bilabial stop?A. [t]B. [m]C. [b]D. [p]12. Which of the following sounds is a voiced affricate?A. [y]B. [t∫]C. [z]D. [dЗ]13. Which of the following sounds is a central vowel?A. [ ə ]B. [ i ]C. [ou]D. [a: ]14. In the following sounds , ______ is a palatal fricative ?A. [ s ]B. [∫]C. [ l ]D. [θ]15. In the following sounds , ______ is a voiceless affricative ?A. [dЗ]B. [ v ]C. [t∫]D. [θ]16. In English if a word begins with a [ l ] or [ r ],then the next sound must be a ____.A. fricativeB. nasal soundC. semi-vowelD. vowel17. Of the “words”listed below, _____ is not an English word ?A. [r∧b ]B. [ læ b ]C. [məsta:∫]D. [lmæp]18. _____ are produced when the obstruction created by the speech organs is total and audibly released.A. Back vowelsB. StopsC. Fricatives C. Glides19. The International Phonetic Association devised the INTERNATIONAL PHONETIC ALPHABET in ______.A. 1965B. 1957C. 1888D. 178820. ____ is a phonological unit , and it is a unit that is of distinctive value.A. PhoneB. PhonemeC. AllophoneD. SoundII. Tell which statements are true or false.1. [ f ] is a dental consonant.2. Phonology studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methodsfor their description, classification and transcription.3. Phoneme is a phonological unit.4. Phone is a phonetic unit.5. When we study the different [ p ]’s in “[ pit ], [tip ], [spit ]”, they are similarphones which belong to phonetics.6. But the three [ p ] belong to the different phoneme / p /.7. The three / p / are allophones.8. ‘peak’is aspirated , phonetically transcribed as [ph]; ‘speak’isunaspirated （不送气的）phonetically[ p=].9. [ph ], [p=] do not belong to the same phoneme / p /.10. [p h] and [ p=] are two different phones, and are variants of the phoneme / p /,which is called ALLOPHONES of the same phoneme.key: BACDD CCACA DDABC DDBCB FFTTT FTTFTI. Choose the best choice(语音)1. Which is a voiced bilabial stop?A. [m]B. [v]C. [p]D. [b]2. Which is a voiceless affricate?A. [w]B. [f]C. [t∫]D. [n]3. Which is monophothong?A. [i]B. [au]C. [ai]D. [ei]4. Which is a voiceless bilabial stop?A. [p]B. [m]C. [b]D. [t]5. Which is a voiced affricate?A. [j]B. [z]C. [t∫]D. [dЗ]6. Which is a central vowel ?A. [i]B. [ə:]C. [ou]D. [a:]7. In English if a word begins with [l] or [r] , then the next sound must be a ____.A. fricativeB. nasal soundC. semi-vowelD. vowel8. Which is a palatal fricative?A. [s]B. [k]C. [∫]D. [l]9. Which is not a English word?A. [r ٨b]B. [læb]C. [sta:∫]D. [ lmæp]10. Which is a unaspirate?A. skyB. killC. likeD. kite2. Semantics 练习1._______ is not included in Leech‟s associative meaning.A. Connotative meaningB. Social meaningC. Collocative meaningD. Thematic meaning2. Among Leech‟s seven types of meaning is concerned with the relationship betweena word and the thing it refers to _______.A. conceptualB. affectiveC. reflectedD. thematic3. According to the referential theory, a word is not directly related to the thing it refers to. They are connected by ______.A. meaningB. referenceC. conceptD. sense4.”Big” and “Small” are a pair of ______ opposites.A. complementaryB. gradableC. completeD. Converse5. The pair of words “lend” and “borrow” are ______.A. gradable opposites B, converse opposites C. co-hyponyms D. synonyms6. A word with several meaning is called ______ word.A. a polysemousB. a synonymousC. an abnormalD. a multiple7. The semantic compone nts of the word “gentleman” can be expressed as ___.A. +animate, +male, +human, -adultB. +animate, +male, +human, +adultA. +animate, -male, +human, -adult D. + animate, -male, +human, +adult8. _____ is a phrase which can only be understood as a unit, not as a summation of themeaning of each constituent word.A. CollocationB. IdiomC. Semantic componentD. Synonym9. In the triangle advanced by Ogden and Richards, “thought or reference” is____A. word, sentenceB. the objectC. conceptD. symbol10. A linguistic is interested in _____.A. What is said.B. What is right both in syntax and in semantics.C. What is grammaticalD. What ought to be said.11. The pair of words “lend” and “borrow” are _____.A. gradable oppositesB. relational oppositesC. synonymsD. co-hyponyms12. Nouns, verbs, and adjectives can be classified as _____.A. Lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words13. What is t he meaning relationship between the two words “flower/tulip” ?A. PolysemyB. HomonymyC. HyponymyD. Antonymy14. The words “railway” and “railroad” are _____.A. synonyms differing in emotive meaningB. dialectal synonymsC. collocationally-restricted synonymsD. synomyms differing in styles15. The pair of words “wide/narrow” are called____.A. gradable oppositesB. complementary antonymsC. co-hyponymsD. relational opposites16. Which of the following two-term sets shows the feature of complementaries?A. single/marriesB. lend/borrowC. hot/coldD. old/youngDACBB _BBBB BACBA AII. Answer the questions with “Yes”or “No” .1.Is reference tied to a particular time and place? Y2.Every word in a language can find at least one referent in the objective world. ?N3.Can different expressions have the same referent? Y4.Can reference be applied to words such as “and” ,”very” in English? NIII.State the following sentences “True” or “False”.1. Sense is regarded as a kind of intra-linguistic relationship. T2. In most cases, “sense” and “meaning” are different terms for the same thing. T3. Every word has its own sense. F4. A word may have several different senses and several words may have the samesense. T5. Extension, like denotation, is a kind of relation between elements and theobjective world. T6. Extension can only be applied to the things at present. F7. The relation between extension and intension is the same as that betweendenotation and sense. T8. People of different cultures may choose different prototype for the same predicate,e.g. …bus‟. T9. All the words in a language can be used to refer , but only some have sense. F10. Two synonymous words must be identical in sense in every dimension. F11. There are very few perfect synonyms in a language. T12. Entailment is more inclusive than paraphrase. T13. Almost every word in a dictionary is polysemic. T14. Dry and wet are a pair of gradable antonyms. T15. Innocent and guilt are a pair of relative antonyms. F Complementary16. The relationship between the Argument and Predicate is Subject to predicate.F17. The meaning of each expression can be defined in terms of its semanticcomponents so as to contrast with the meaning of all the expressions in the same language. T18. The proposition of a sentence may be more simply stated as a verb and a selection of case ---categories. T19. According to case grammar, the part of proposition in a sentence is a tensed set of relationships between a verb and a noun phrase ( or noun phrases).4. Exercises to Chapter 4 SyntaxI. General view of syntax1. Syntax: studies the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences.2. gender: as masculine, feminine, neuter, or animate, and inanimate.3. case: the syntaxtic relationship between words. Teacher‟s , kiss him宾格，主格，与格，芬兰语有15种格4．Concord: agreement: a syntactic relationship agree with each other.5. Government : A word determines the form of others.支配关系6. langue and paroleLangue: abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speechcommunity. StabilityParole: actual speech7. signified (concept) and signifier (sound image)1. 所指 2 能指之间的关系是任意的8. syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSyntagmatic: what precedes or follows9. synchronic and diachronic linguistics10. “Rheme” “Theme”负载交际能力最小的是主位。