机械专业外文翻译(中英文翻译)
机械专业外文文献翻译
翻译部分英文原文High-speed machining and demand for the development ofHigh-speed machining is contemporary advanced manufacturing technology an important component of the high-efficiency, High-precision and high surface quality, and other features. This article presents the technical definition of the current state of development of China's application fields and the demand situation.High-speed machining is oriented to the 21st century a new high-tech, high-efficiency, High-precision and high surface quality as a basic feature, in the automobile industry, aerospace, Die Manufacturing and instrumentation industries gained increasingly widespread application, and has made significant technical and economic benefits. contemporary advanced manufacturing technology an important component part.HSC is to achieve high efficiency of the core technology manufacturers, intensive processes and equipment packaged so that it has a high production efficiency. It can be said that the high-speed machining is an increase in the quantity of equipment significantly improve processing efficiency essential to the technology. High-speed machining is the major advantages : improve production efficiency, improve accuracy and reduce the processing of cutting resistance.The high-speed machining of meaning, at present there is no uniform understanding, there are generally several points as follows : high cutting speed. usually faster than that of their normal cutting 5 -10 times; machine tool spindle speed high, generally spindle speed in -20000r/min above 10,000 for high-speed cutting; Feed at high velocity, usually 15 -50m/min up to 90m/min; For different cutting materials and the wiring used the tool material, high-speed cutting the meaning is not necessarily the same; Cutting process, bladed through frequency (Tooth Passing Frequency) closer to the "machine-tool - Workpiece "system the dominant natural frequency (Dominant Natural Frequency), can be considered to be high-speed cutting. Visibility high-speed machining is a comprehensive concept.1992. Germany, the Darmstadt University of Technology, Professor H. Schulz in the 52th on the increase of high-speed cutting for the concept and the scope, as shown in Figure 1. Think different cutting targets, shown in the figure of the transition area (Transition), to be what is commonly called the high-speed cutting, This is also the time of metal cutting process related to the technical staff are looking forward to, or is expected to achieve the cutting speed.High-speed machining of machine tools, knives and cutting process, and other aspects specific requirements. Several were from the following aspects : high-speed machining technology development status and trends.At this stage, in order to achieve high-speed machining, general wiring with high flexibility of high-speed CNC machine tools, machining centers, By using a dedicated high-speed milling, drilling. These equipment in common is : We must also have high-speed and high-speed spindle system feeding system, Cutting can be achieved in high-speed process. High-speed cutting with the traditional cutting the biggest difference is that "Machine-tool-workpiece" the dynamic characteristics of cutting performance is stronger influence. In the system, the machine spindle stiffness, grip or form, a long knife set, spindle Broach, torque tool set, Performance high-speed impact are important factors.In the high-speed cutting, material removal rate (Metal Removal Rate, MRR), unit time that the material was removed volume, usually based on the "machine-tool-workpiece" whether Processing System "chatter." Therefore, in order to satisfy the high-speed machining needs, we must first improve the static and dynamic stiffness of machine spindle is particularly the stiffness characteristics. HSC reason at this stage to be successful, a very crucial factor is the dynamic characteristics of the master and processing capability.In order to better describe the machine spindle stiffness characteristics of the project presented new dimensionless parameter - DN value, used for the evaluation of the machine tool spindle structure on the high-speed machining of adaptability. DN value of the so-called "axis diameter per minute speed with the product." The newly developed spindle machining center DN values have been great over one million. To reduce the weight bearing, but also with an array of steel products than to the much more light ceramic ball bearings; Bearing Lubrication most impressive manner mixed with oil lubrication methods. In the field of high-speed machining. have air bearings and the development of magnetic bearings and magnetic bearings and air bearings combined constitute the magnetic gas / air mixing spindle.Feed the machine sector, high-speed machining used in the feed drive is usually larger lead, multiple high-speed ball screw and ball array of small-diameter silicon nitride (Si3N4) ceramic ball, to reduce its centrifugal and gyroscopic torque; By using hollow-cooling technology to reduce operating at high speed ball screw as temperature generated by the friction between the lead screw and thermal deformation.In recent years, the use of linear motor-driven high-speed system of up to'' Such feed system has removed the motor from workstations to Slide in the middle of all mechanical transmission links, Implementation of Machine Tool Feed System of zero transmission. Because no linear motor rotating components, from the role of centrifugal force, can greatly increase the feed rate. Linear Motor Another major advantage of the trip is unrestricted. The linear motor is a very time for a continuous machine shop in possession of the bed. Resurfacing of the very meeting where avery early stage movement can go, but the whole system of up to the stiffness without any influence. By using high-speed screw, or linear motor can greatly enhance machine system of up to the rapid response. The maximum acceleration linear motors up to 2-10G (G for the acceleration of gravity), the largest feed rate of up to 60 -200m/min or higher.2002 world-renowned Shanghai Pudong maglev train project of maglev track steel processing, Using the Shenyang Machine Tool Group Holdings Limited McNair friendship company production plants into extra-long high-speed system for large-scale processing centers achieve . The machine feeding system for the linear guide and rack gear drive, the largest table feed rate of 60 m / min, Quick trip of 100 m / min, 2 g acceleration, maximum speed spindle 20000 r / min, the main motor power 80 kW. X-axis distance of up to 30 m, 25 m cutting long maglev track steel error is less than 0.15 mm. Maglev trains for the smooth completion of the project provided a strong guarantee for technologyIn addition, the campaign machine performance will also directly affect the processing efficiency and accuracy of processing. Mold and the free surface of high-speed machining, the main wiring with small cut deep into methods for processing. Machine requirements in the feed rate conditions, should have high-precision positioning functions andhigh-precision interpolation function, especially high-precision arc interpolation. Arc processing is to adopt legislation or thread milling cutter mold or machining parts, the essential processing methods. Cutting Tools Tool Material developmenthigh-speed cutting and technological development of the history, tool material is continuous progress of history. The representation ofhigh-speed cutting tool material is cubic boron nitride (CBN). Face Milling Cutter use of CBN, its cutting speed can be as high as 5000 m / min, mainly for the gray cast iron machining. Polycrystalline diamond (PCD) has been described as a tool of the 21st century tool, It is particularly applicable to the cutting aluminum alloy containing silica material, which is light weight metal materials, high strength, widely used in the automobile, motorcycle engine, electronic devices shell, the base, and so on. At present, the use of polycrystalline diamond cutter Face Milling alloy, 5000m/min the cutting speed has reached a practical level. In addition ceramic tool also applies to gray iron of high-speed machining; Tool Coating : CBN and diamond cutter, despite good high-speed performance, but the cost is relatively high. Using the coating technology to make cutting tool is the low price, with excellent mechanical properties, which can effectively reduce the cost. Now high-speed processing of milling cutter, with most of the wiring between the Ti-A1-N composite technology for the way of multi-processing, If present in the non-ferrous metal or alloy material dry cutting, DLC (Diamond Like Carbon) coating on thecutter was of great concern. It is expected that the market outlook is very significant;Tool clamping system : Tool clamping system to support high-speed cutting is an important technology, Currently the most widely used is a two-faced tool clamping system. Has been formally invested as a commodity market at the same clamping tool system are : HSK, KM, Bigplus. NC5, AHO systems. In the high-speed machining, tool and fixture rotary performance of the balance not only affects the precision machining and tool life. it will also affect the life of machine tools. So, the choice of tool system, it should be a balanced selection of good products.Process ParametersCutting speed of high-speed processing of conventional shear velocity of about 10 times. For every tooth cutter feed rate remained basically unchanged, to guarantee parts machining precision, surface quality and durability of the tool, Feed volume will also be a corresponding increase about 10 times, reaching 60 m / min, Some even as high as 120 m / min. Therefore, high-speed machining is usually preclude the use of high-speed, feed and depth of cut small cutting parameters. Due to the high-speed machining cutting cushion tend to be small, the formation of very thin chip light, Cutting put the heat away quickly; If the wiring using a new thermal stability better tool materials and coatings, Using the dry cutting process for high-speed machining is the ideal technology program. High-speed machining field of applicationFlexible efficient production lineTo adapt to the needs of new models, auto body panel molds andresin-prevention block the forming die. must shorten the production cycle and reduce the cost of production and, therefore, we must make great efforts to promote the production of high-speed die in the process. SAIC affiliated with the company that : Compared to the past, finishing, further precision; the same time, the surface roughness must be met, the bending of precision, this should be subject to appropriate intensive manual processing. Due to the extremely high cutting speed, and the last finishing processes, the processing cycle should be greatly reduced. To play for machining centers and boring and milling machining center category represented by the high-speed machining technology and automatic tool change function of distinctions Potential to improve processing efficiency, the processing of complex parts used to be concentrated as much as possible the wiring process, that is a fixture in achieving multiple processes centralized processing and dilute the traditional cars, milling, boring, Thread processing different cutting the limits of technology, equipment and give full play to the high-speed cutting tool function, NC is currently raising machine efficiency and speed up product development in an effective way. Therefore, the proposed multi-purpose tool of the new requirements call for a tool to complete different partsof the machining processes, ATC reduce the number of ATC to save time, to reduce the quantity and tool inventory, and management to reduce production costs. More commonly used in a multifunctional Tool, milling, boring and milling, drilling milling, drilling-milling thread-range tool. At the same time, mass production line, against the use of technology requires the development of special tools, tool or a smart composite tool, improve processing efficiency and accuracy and reduced investment. In the high-speed cutting conditions, and some special tools can be part of the processing time to the original 1 / 10 below, results are quite remarkable. HSC has a lot of advantages such as : a large number of materials required resection of the workpiece with ultrafine, thin structure of the workpiece, Traditionally, the need to spend very long hours for processing mobile workpiece and the design of rapid change, short product life cycle of the workpiece, able to demonstrate high-speed cutting brought advantages.中文译文高速切削加工的发展及需求高速切削加工是当代先进制造技术的重要组成部分，拥有高效率、高精度及高表面质量等特征。
机械外文翻译中英文
翻译：英文原文Definitions and Terminology of VibrationvibrationAll matter-solid, liquid and gaseous-is capable of vibration, e.g. vibration of gases occurs in tail ducts of jet engines causing troublesome noise and sometimes fatigue cracks in the metal. Vibration in liquids is almost always longitudinal and can cause large forces because of the low compressibility of liquids, e.g. popes conveying water can be subjected to high inertia forces (or “water hammer”) when a valve or tap is suddenly closed. Excitation forces caused, say by changes in flow of fluids orout-of-balance rotating or reciprocating parts, can often be reduced by attention to design and manufacturing details. Atypical machine has many moving parts, each of which is a potential source of vibration or shock-excitation. Designers face the problem of compromising between an acceptable amount of vibration and noise, and costs involved in reducing excitation.The mechanical vibrations dealt with are either excited by steady harmonic forces ( i. e. obeying sine and cosine laws in cases of forced vibrations ) or, after an initial disturbance, by no external force apart from gravitational force called weight ( i.e. in cases of natural or free vibrations). Harmonic vibrations are said to be “simple” if there is only one frequency as represented diagrammatically by a sine or cosine wave of displacement against time.Vibration of a body or material is periodic change in position or displacement from a static equilibrium position. Associated with vibration are the interrelated physical quantities of acceleration, velocity and displacement-e. g. an unbalanced force causes acceleration (a = F/m ) in a system which, by resisting, induces vibration as a response. We shall see that vibratory or oscillatory motion may be classified broadly as (a) transient; (b) continuing or steady-state; and (c) random.Transient Vibrations die away and are usually associated with irregulardisturbances, e. g. shock or impact forces, rolling loads over bridges, cars driven over pot holes-i. e. forces which do not repeat at regular intervals. Although transients are temporary components of vibrational motion, they can cause large amplitudes initially and consequent high stress but, in many cases, they are of short duration and can be ignored leaving only steady-state vibrations to be considered.Steady-State Vibrations are often associated with the continuous operation of machinery and, although periodic, are not necessarily harmonic or sinusoidal. Since vibrations require energy to produce them, they reduce the efficiency of machines and mechanisms because of dissipation of energy, e. g. by friction and consequentheat-transfer to surroundings, sound waves and noise, stress waves through frames and foundations, etc. Thus, steady-state vibrations always require a continuous energy input to maintain them.Random Vibration is the term used for vibration which is not periodic, i. e. has no made clear-several of which are probably known to science students already.Period, Cycle, Frequency and Amplitude A steady-state mechanical vibration is the motion of a system repeated after an interval of time known as the period. The motion completed in any one period of time is called a cycle. The number of cycles per unit of time is called the frequency. The maximum displacement of any part of the system from its static-equilibrium position is the amplitude of the vibration of that part-the total travel being twice the amplitude. Thus, “amplitude” is not synonymous with “displacement” but is the maximum value of the displacement from the static-equilibrium position.Natural and Forced Vibration A natural vibration occurs without any external force except gravity, and normally arises when an elastic system is displaced from a position of stable equilibrium and released, i. e. natural vibration occurs under the action of restoring forces inherent in an elastic system, and natural frequency is a property of he system.A forced vibration takes place under the excitation of an external force (or externally applied oscillatory disturbance) which is usually a function of time, e. g.in unbalanced rotating parts, imperfections in manufacture of gears and drives. The frequency of forced vibration is that of the exciting or impressed force, i. e. the forcing frequency is an arbitrary quantity independent of the natural frequency of the system.Resonance Resonance describes the condition of maximum amplitude. It occurs when the frequency of an impressed force coincides with, or is near to a natural frequency of the system. In this critical condition, dangerously large amplitudes and stresses may occur in mechanical systems but, electrically, radio and television receivers are designed to respond to resonant frequencies. The calculation or estimation of natural frequencies is, therefore, of great importance in all types of vibrating and oscillating systems. When resonance occurs in rotating shafts and spindles, the speed of rotation is known as the critical speed. Hence, the prediction and correction or avoidance3 of a resonant condition in mechanisms is of vital importance since, in the absence of damping or other amplitude-limiting devices, resonance is the condition at which a system gives an infinite response to a finite excitation.Damping Damping is the dissipation of energy from a vibrating system, and thus prevents excessive response. It is observed that a natural vibration diminishes in amplitude with time and, hence, eventually ceases owing to some restraining or damping influence. Thus if a vibration is to be sustained, the energy dissipated by damping must be replaced from an external source.The dissipation is related in some way to the relative motion between the components or elements of the system, and is caused by frictional resistance of some sort, e.g. in structures, internal friction in material, and external friction caused by air or fluid resistance called “viscous” damping if the drag force is assumed proportional to the relative velocity between moving parts. One device assumed to give viscous damping is the “dashpot” which is a loosely fitting piston in a cylinder so that fluid can flow from one side of the piston to the other through the annular clearance space.A dashpot cannot store energy but can only dissipate it.Basic Machining Operations and Machine ToolsBasic Machining OperationsMachine tools have evolved from the early foot-powered lathes of the Egyptians and John Wilkinson’s boring mill. They are designed to provide rigid support for both the workpiece and the cutting tool and can precisely control their relative positions and the velocity of the tool with respect to the workpiece. Basically, in metal cutting, a sharpened wedge-shaped tool removes a rather narrow strip of metal from the surface of a ductile workpiece in the form of a severely deformed chip. The chip is a waste product that is comsiderably shorter than the workpiece from which it came but woth a corresponding increase in thickness of the uncut chip. The geometrical shape of the machine surface depedns on the shape of the tool and its path during the machinig operation.Most machining operations produce parts of differing geometry. If a rough cylindrical workpiece revolves about a central axis and the tool penetrates beneath its surface and travels parallel to the center of rotation, a surface of revolution is producedand the operation is called turning. If a hollow tube is machined on the inside in a similar manner, the operation is called boring. Producing an external conical surface of uniformly varying diameter is called taper turning. If the tool point travels in a path of varying radius,a contoured surface like that of a bowling pin a can be produced; or, if the piece is short enough and the support is sufficiently rigid, a contoured surface could be produced by feeding a shaped tool normal to the axis of rotation. Short tapered or cylindrical surfaces could also be contour formed.Flat or plane surfaces are frequently required. The can be generated by adial turning or facing, in which the tool point moves normal to the axis of rotation. In other cases, it is more convenient to hold the workpiece steady and reciprocate the tool across it in a series of straight-line cuts with a crosswise feed increment before each cutting stroke. This operation is called planing and is carried out on a shaper. For larger pieces it is easier to keep the tool stationary and draw the workpiece under it as inplaning. The tool is fed at each reciprocation. Contoured surfaces can be produced by using shaped tools.Multiple-edged tools can also be used. Drilling uses a twin-edged fluted tool for holes with depths up to 5 10times the drill diameter. Whether the dril turns or the workpiece rotates, relative motion between the cutting edge and the workpiece is the important factor. In milling operations a rotary cutter with a number of cutting edges engages the workpiecem which moves slowly with respect to the cutter. Plane or contoured surfaces may be produced, depending on the geometry of the cutter and the type of feed. Horizontal or vertical axes of rotation ma be used, and the feed of the workpiece may be in any of the three coordinate directions.Basic Machine ToolsMachine tools are used to produce a part of a specified geometrical shape and precise size by removing metal from a ductile materila in the form of chips. The latter are a waste product and vary from long continuous ribbons of a ductile material such as steel, which are undesirable from a disposal point of view, to easily handled well-broken chips resulting from cast iron. Machine tools perform five basic metal-removal processes: turning, planing, drilling, milling, and frinding. All other metal-removal processes are modifications of these five basic processes. For example, boring is internal turning;reaming,tapping, and counterboring modify drilled holes and are related to drilling; hobbing and gear cutting are fundamentally milling operations; hack sawong and broaching are a form of planing and honing; lapping, superfinishing, polishing, and buffing are avariants of grinding or abrasive removal operations. Therefore, there are only four types of basic machine tools, which use cutting tools of specific controllable feometry: thes, 2.planers, 3.drilling machines, and ling machines. The frinding process forms chips, but the geometry of the barasive grain is uncontrollable.The amount and rate of material removed by the various machining processes may be large, as in heavy truning operations, or extremely small, as in lapping or superfinishing operations where only the high spots of a surface are removed.A machine tool performs three major functions: 1.it rigidly supports the workpiece orits holder and the cutting tool; 2. it provedes relative motion between the workpiece and the cutting tools; 3. it provides a range of feeds and speeds usually ranging from 4 to 32 choices in each case.Speed and Feeds in MachiningSpeeds feeds, and depth of cut are the three major variables for economical machining. Other variables are the work and tool materials, coolant and geometry of the cutting tool. The rate of metal removal and power required for machining depend upon these variables.The depth of cut, feed, and cutting speed are machine settings that must be established in any metal-cutting operation. They all affect the forces, the power, and the rate of metal removal. They can be defined by comparing them to the needle and record of a phonograph. The cutting speed is represented by the velocity of the record surface relative to the needle in the tone arm at any instant. Feed is represented by the advance the needle radially inward per revolution, or is the difference in position between two adjacent grooves.Turning on Lathe CentersThe basic operations performed on an engine lathe are illustrated in Fig. Those operations performed on extemal surfaces with a single point cutting tool are called turning. Except for drilling, reaming, and tapping, the operations on intermal surfaces are also performed by a single point cutting tool.All machining operations, including turning and boring, can be classified as roughing, finishing, or semi-finishing. The objective of a roughing ooperation is to remove the bulk of the material sa repidly and as efficiently as possible, while leaving a small amount of material on the work-piece for the finishing operation. Finishing operations are performed to btain the final size, shape, and surface finish on the workpiece. Sometimes a semi-finishing operation will precede the finishing operation to leave a small predetermined and uniform amount of stoxd on the work-piece to be removed by the finishing operation.Generally, longer workpieces are turned while supported on one or two lathe centers. Cone shaped holes, called center holes, which fit the lathe centers are drilled in the ends of the workpiece-usually along the axis of the cylindrical part. The end of the workpiece adjacent to the tailstock is always supported by a tailstock center, while the end near the headstock may be supported by a headstock cener or held in a chuck. The headstock end of the workpiece may be held in a four-jar chuck, or in a collet type chuck. This method holds the workpiece firmly and transfers the power to the workpiece smoothly; the additional support to the workpiece priovided by the chuck lessens the tendency for chatter to occur when cutting. Precise results can be obtained with this method if care is taken to hold the workpiece accurately in the chuck.Very precise results can be obtained by supporting the workpiece between two centers.A lathe dog is clamped to the workpiece; together they are driven by a driver p;ate mounted on the spindle nose. One end of the workpiece is machined; then the workpiece can be turned around in the lathe to machine the other end. The center holes in the workpiece serve as precise locating surfaces as well as bearing surfaces to carry the weight of the workpiece and to resist the xutting forces. After the workpiece has been removed from the lathe for any reason, the center holes will accurately align the workpiece back in the lathe or in another lathe,or in a cylindrical grinding machine. The workpiece must never be held at the headstock end by both a chuck and a lathe center. While at first thought this seems like a quick method of aligning the workpiece in the chuck, this must not be done because it is not possible to press evenly with the jaws against the workpiece while it is also supported by the center. The alignment provided by the center will not be maintained and the pressure of the jaws may damage the center hole, the lathe center,and prehaps even the lathe spindle. Compensatng or floating jaw chucks used almost exclusively on high production work provice an exception to the statements made above. These chucks are really work drivers and cannot be used for the same purpose as ordinary three or four=jaw chucks. While very large diameter workpieces are sometimes mounted on two centers, they are preferably held at the headstock end by faceplate jaes to obtain the smooth power transmission; moreover, large lathe dogs that are adequate to transmit the power notgenerally available, although they can be maed as a special. Faceplate jaws are like chuck jaws except that thet are mounted on a faceplate, which has less overhang from the spindle bearings than a large chuck would have.BoringThe boring operation is generally performed in two steps; namely, rough boring and finish boring. The objective of the rough-boring operation is to remove the excess metal rapidly and efficiently, and the objective of the finish-boring operation is to obtain the desired size, surface finish, and location of the hole. The size of the hole is obtained by using the trial-cut procedure. The diameter of the hole can be measured with inside calipers and outside micrometer calipers. Basic Measuring Insteruments, or inside micrometer calipers can be used to measure the diameter directly.Cored holes and drilled holes are sometimes eccentric wwith respect to the rotation of the lathe. When the boring tool enters the work, the boring bar will take a deeper cut on one side of the hole than on the other, and will deflect more when taking this deeper cut,with the result that the bored hole will not be concentric with the rotation of the work. This effect is corrected by taking several cuts through the hole using a shallow depth of cut. Each succeeding shallow cut causes the resulting hole to be more concentric than it was with the previous cut. Before the final, finish cut is taken, the hole should be concentric with the rotation of the work in order to make certain that the finished hole will be accurately located.Shoulders, grooves, contours, tapers, and threads are bored inside of holes. Internal grooves are cut using a tool that is similar to an external grooving tool. The procedure for boring internal shoulders is very similar to the procedure for turning rge shoulders are faced with the boring tool positioned with the nose leading, and using the cross slide to feed the tool. Internal contours can be machined using a tracing attachment on a lathe. The tracing attachment is mounted on the cross slide and the stylus follows the outline of the master profile plate. This causes the cutting tool to move in a path corresponding to the profile of the master profile plate.Thus, the profile on the master profile plate is reproduced inside the bore. The master profile plate is accurately mounted on a special slide which can be precisely adjusted in two dirctions, in two directionsm, in order to align the cutting tool in the correct relationship to the work. This lathe has a cam-lick type of spindle nose which permits it to take a cut when rotating in either direction. Normal turning cuts are taken with the spindle rotating counterclockwise. Thie boring cut is taken with the spindle revolving in a clockwise direction, or “backwards”. This permits the boring cut to be taken on the “back side” of the bore which is easier to see from the operator’sposition in front of the lathe. This should not be done on lathes having a threaded spindle nose because the cutting force will tend to unscrew the chuck.中文翻译振动的定义和术语振动所有的物质---固体，液体和气体-----都能够振动，例如，在喷气发动机尾部导管中产生的气体振动会发出令人讨厌的噪声，而且有时还会使金属产生疲劳裂缝。
机械外文翻译中英文 机床 模具 机械 材料
附录英文原文Industrial Robot and its system’s componentsThere are a variety of definitions of the term robot. Depending on the definition used, the number of robot installations worldwide varies widely. Numerous single purpose muchines are used in manufacturing plants that might appear to be robots. These machines are hardwired to perform a single function and can not be reprogrammed to perform a different function. Such single-purpose machines do not fit the definition for industrial robots that is becoming widely accepted. This definition was developed by the robot Institute ofAmerica:A robot is a reprogrammable muhifunctional manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools, or specialized devices through variable progranmled motions for the perfommnce of a variety of tasks.Note that this definition cxmtalns the words reprograrnmable and multifunctional. It is these two characteristics that separate the true industrial robot from the various single-purpose machines used in modern manufacturing firms. The term"reprogrammable"implies two things:The robot operates aec~)rding to a written program, and this program can be rewritten to acconlmodatc a variety of manufacturing tasks.The term"multifunctional"means that the robot can, through reprogramming and the use of different cnd-effectors, perform a number of different manufacturing tasks. Definitions written around these two critical characteristics are becoming the accepted definitions among manufacturing professionals.The fimt articulated arm came about in 1951 and was used by the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. In 1954, the first programmable robot was designed by George Devol. It was based on two important technologies:(1) Numerical control (NC) technology.(2) Remote manipulation technology.Numerical control technology provided a foma of machine control ideally suited to robots.It allowed for the control of motion by stored programs. These programs contain data points to which the robot sequentially moves, timing signals to initiate action and to stop movement, and logic statements to allow for decision rfmking.Remote manipulation technology allowed a machine to be more than just another NC machine. It allowed such machines to become robots that can perfoml a variety of manufactuing tasks in both inaccessible an unsafe environmonts. By mering these two technologies, Devol developed the first industrial robot, an unsophistieated programmable materials handling machine.The first conunercially produced robot was developed in 1959. In 1962, the first industrial robot to be used oil a production llne was installed by General Motors Corporation. This robot was produced by Unimation. A major step forward in robot control occurred in 1973 with the development of the T-3 industrial robot by Cincinnati Milaeron. The T-3 robot was the first commercially producedindustrial robot controlled by a minicomputer.Numerical control and remote manipulation technology prompted the wide scale development and use of industrial robots. But major technological developments do not take place simply because of such new capabilities. Something must provide the impetus for taking advantage of these capabilities. In the case of industrial robots, the impetus was economies.The rapid inflation of wages experienced in the 1970s tremendously increased the personnel costs of manufacturing firms. At the same time, foreign competition became a serious problem for U. S. manufacturers. Foreign manufacturers who had under taken automation on a wide scale basis, such as those in Japan, began to gain an increasingly large share of the U.S. and world market for manufactured goods, particularly automobiles.Through a variety of automation techniques, includicg robots, Japanese manufacturers, beginning in the 1970s, were able to produce better automobiles more cheaply than nonautomated U.S. manufacturers. Consequently, in order to survive, U.S. manufacturers were forced to consider any technological developments that could help improve productivity.It became imperative to produce better produets at lower costs in order to be competitive with foreign manufacturers. Other factors such as the need to find better ways of performing dangerous marmfacturing tasks contributed to the development of industrial robots. However, the principal rationale has always been,and is still, improved productivity.One of the principal advantages of robots is that they can be used in settings that are dangerous to humans. Welding and parting are examples of applications where rotmts can be dangerous to humans. Even though robots are closely asmciated with safety in the workplace, they can, in themselves, be dangerous.Robots and robot cells must be carefully designed and configured so that they do not endanger human workers and other machines. Robot work envelops should be accurately calculated and a danger zone surroundting the envelop clearly marked off. Red flooring strips and barriers can be userd to keep human workers out of a robot’s work envelope.Eren with such precautions it is still a good idea to have an automatic shutdown system in situations where robots are used. Such a system should should have the capacity to sense the need for an automatic shutdown of operations. Fault-tolerant computers and redunant systems can be installed to ensure proper shutdown of robotics systems to ensure a safe environment.Industrial robots is the science of designing, building, and applying industrial robcts. What are robots In the late 1970s the Robotic Industries Association defined a robot as〞 a manipulator, designed to move material, parts,tools or specialized devices through variable programmed motions for the performance of a variety of tasks". Although this definition does not directly include pick and place arms as robots, teleoperamrs and remotely controlled devicesare often referred to also as robots. The International Standards Organization(ISO) has a more lengthy definition of an industrial robot:A machine formed by a mechanism including several degrees of freedom, often having tile appearanoa of one or several arms ending in a wrist capable of holding a tool or a workpiece or an inspection device. In particular, its control unit must use a memorizing device and .sometimes it can use sensing or adaptation appliances taking into account environment and circumstances. These multipurtpose machines are generally designed to carry out a repetitive function and can be adapted to other functions.The RIA and ISO definitions both stress the muLtifunctional and programmable capabilities and, therefore, exclude special-purpose "hard automation" tools and equipment typically found in high volume production. Also excluded are manual remote manipulators, which are extensions of human hands for use in, for example, sterile, hot, or radioactive environments.In Japan, the Japanese Industrial Robot Association (JIRA) classifies industrial robots by the method of input informatkm and the method of teaching:1. Manual Manipulators. Manipulators directly activated by the operator.2. Fixed-sequence Robot. Robot that once programmed for a given sequence of operations is not easily changed.3. Variable-sequence Robot. Robot that can be programmed for a given sequence of operations and can easily be changed or reprogrammed.4. Playback Robot. Robot that "memorizes" work sequences taught by a human being who physically leads the device through the intended work pattern; the robot can then create this sequence repetitively from memory.5. Numerically Controlled (NC) Robot. Robot that operatas from and is controlled by digital data, as in the form of punched tape, cards, or digital switches; operates like a NC machine.6. Intelligent Robot. Robot that uses sensory perception to evaluate its environment andcmake decisions and proceeds to operate accordingly.The first-generation of robot systems was defined for the various robots with limited computer power. Their main intelligant functions include programming by showing a sequence of manipulation steps by a human operator using a teach box. Without any sensors, these robots require a prearranged and relatively fixed factory environment and, therefore, have limited use.The second-generation of robot systems was enhanced by the addition of a computer processor. A major step in industrial robotics development was the integration of a computer with the industrial robot mechanism. This has provided real-time calculation of trajectory to smooth the motions of the end effector and integration of mine simple force and proximity sensors to obtain external signals.The main applications of second generation robots include spot and arc welding, spray painting, and some assembly.Third-generation robot systems incorporate multiple eomputer processors and multiple arms that can operate asynchronously to perform .several functions. Distributed hierarchical mmputer organization is preferred, because it can coordinate motions and interface with external sensors, other machines, and other robots and can communicate with other computers. These robots can already exhibitintelligent behavior, including knowledge-based control and learning abilities.Japan ranks as the world's top robot-producing and robot-using country, with more than 40% of the world's industrial robot installations. The reasons for this penetration are sociological-and technological factors that are unique to Japan: industrial robots brought productivity and quality gains in Japanese industry, coupled with improvements of the work enviromnent. These have perpetuated the social-demand for more robots as well as increased the expectation from this technology.Current and emerging robot applications in industry can be categorized on the complexity and requirements of the job. They range from simple, low technolngy pick-and place operations through medium technology painting, some assembly and welding operations to high technology precision assembly and inspection operations.Pick-and-place Operations The earliest applications of robots were in machine loading unloading, pick-and-place, and material transfer operations. Such robots typically were not servo controlled and worked with pneumatic or hydraulic power. The Icxad-carrying requirements were high, working in dirty or hazardous factory environments. Replacing unskilled human labor often in hazardous jobs, these robots had to be robust and low in initial and maintenance costs.Painting and Welding Operations The next level in the sophistimtion of industrial robot applications was in spray painting, and spot and arc welding. These applications complemented or replaced certain skilled human labor. Often the justification was by eliminating dangerous environmental exposures. These applications often require tracking complex trajectories such as painting surface mntours, hence mrvo controlled "articulated or spherical robot structures were used.Lead-through teaching modes became commom, and sometimes sophisticated sensors are employed to maintain process consistency. Experience has shown that when properly selected and implemented, thase robotic applications usually lead to reduced overall manufacturing costs and improved product quality compared with manual method.Assembly Operations The most advanced level of technology employing third-generation industrial robots is found in assembly. System repeatability is of utmost importance. End-of-arm tooling must be compliant, i.e., have both force and displacement control to adjust part insertions, which require that the robot actually "feel" its way along. This technology usually requires a measure of artificial intelligence. Assembly robots generally are electronically driven and operate in clean enviromnents. Assembly robots are expected to exceed further technology applications.Other Applications Other typical applications of robots include inspection, quality control, and repair; processing such as laser and water jet cutting and drilling, riveting, and clean room operations; and applications in the wood, paper, and food-processing industries. As industrial robot technology and robot intelligence improve even further, additional applications may be justified effectively.The components of a robot system could be discussed either from a physical point of view or from a systems point of view. Physically, we would divide the system into the robot, power system, and controller (computer). Likewise, the robot itself could be partitioned anthropomorphically into base, shoulder, elbow, wrist, gripper, and tool. Most of these terms require little explanation.Consequently, we will describe the components of a robot system from the point of view of information transfer. That is, what infomtation or signal enters the component; what logical or arithmetic operation does the component perform; and what information or signal does the component produce It is important to note that the same physical component may perform many different information proees.sirkg operations (e. g. , a central computerperforms many different calculations on different data). Likewise, two physically separate components may perform identical information operations ( e. g., the shoulder and elbow actuators both convert signals to motion in very similar ways).Actuator Asmciated with each joint on the robot is an actuator which causes that joint to move. Typical actuators are electric motors and hydraulic cylinders. Typically, a robot system will contain six actuators, since six are required for full control of position and orientation. Many robot applications do not require this full flexibility, and consequently, robots are often built with five or fewer actuators.Sensor To control an actuator, the computer must have infommtion regarding the position and possibly the velocity of the actuator. In this context, the term position refers to a displacement from some arbitrary zero reference point for that actuator. For example, in the case of a rotary actuator , "position" would really the angular position and be measured in radians.Many types of sensors can provide indications of position and velocity. The various types of sensors require different mechanisms for interfacing to the computer. In addition, the industrial use of the manipulator requires that the interface be protected from the harsh electrical environment of the factory. Sources of electrical noise such as arc welders and large motors can easily makena digital system useless unless care is taken in design and construction of the interface.Computation We could easily have labeled the computation module "computer,"as most of the Functions to be described are typically perfommd by digital computers. However, many of the Functions may be performed in dedicated custom hardware or networks of computers We will, thus, discuss the commputational component as if it were a simple computer, recognizing that tile need for real-time control may require special equipment and that some of this equipment may even be analog, although the current trend is toward fully digital systems.One further note: We will tend to avoid the use of the term microprocessor in this book and simply say computer, although many current robot manufacturers use one or more microprocessors in their systems.The computation component performs the following operations: Servo Given the current position and/or velocity of an actuator, determine the appropriate drivesignal to move that actuator toward its desired position. "This operation must be performed for eaeh actuator. Kinematics Given the current statel of the actuators (position and velocity ),determine the current state of the gripper. Conversely, given a desired state of the hand, determine the desired state for each actuator.Dynamics Given knowledge of the loads on the arm (inertia, friction, gravity, acceleration), use this information to adjust the sorvo operation to achieve better performance.Workplace Sensor Analysis Given knowledge of the task to be performed, determine appropriate robot motion commands. This nmy include analyzing a TV picture of the workplace or measuring and compensating for forces applied at the hand.In addition to these easily identified co. mponents, there are also supervisory operations such as path planning and operator interaction.中文翻译工业机器人及其系统组成有许多关于机器人这个术语的定义。
机械制造专业外文翻译-轴、联轴器和滚动轴承
外文原文：shafts、couplings and rolling contact bearingskey words: shafts、couplings、bearingsVirtually all machines contain shafts.The most common shape for shafts is circular and the cross section can be either solid or hollow (hollow shafts can result in weight savings ).Rectangular shafts are sometimes used ,as in screwdriver blades,socket wrenches and control knob stems .A shaft must have adequate torsional strength to transmit torque and not be overstressed. It also be torsionally stiff enough so that one mounted component does not deviate excessively from its original angular position relative to a second component mounted on the same shaft. Generally speaking ,the angle of twist should not exceed one degree in a shaft length equal to 20 diameters.Shafts are mounted inbearings and transmint power through such devices as gears, pullerys, cams and clutches. These devices introduce forces which attempt to bend the shaft; hence, the shaft must be rigid enough to prevent overloading of the supporting bearings. In general, the bending deflection of a shaft should not exceed 0.01 in. per ft of length between bearing supports.In addition, the shaft must be able to sustain a combination of bending and torsional loads. Thus an equivalent load must be consideredwhich takes into account both torsion and bending. Also, the allowable stress must contain a factor of safety which includes fatigue, since torsional and bending stress reversals occur.For diameters less than 3 in. , the usual shaft material is cold-rolled ateel containing about 0.4 percent carbon. Shafts are either cold-rolled or forged in sizes from 3 in. to 5 in. ,shafts are forged and machined to size .Pleastic shafts are widely used for light load applications. One advantage of using plastic is safety in electrical applications ,since plastic is a poor conductor of electricity.Components such as gears and pulleys are mounted on shafts by means of key .The design of the key and the corresponding keyway in the shaft must be prperly evaluated. For example ,stress concentrations occur in shafts due to keyways ,and the material removed to form the keyway further weakens the shaft.If shafts are run at cirtical speeds ,severe vibrations can occur which can seriously damage a machine. It is important to know the magnitude of these critical speeds so that they can be avoided. As a general rule of thumb,the difference between the operating speed and the critical speed should be at least 20 percent .Another important aspect of shaft design is the method of directly connecting one shaft to another. This is accomplished by devices such as rigid and flexible couplings.A coupling is a device for connecting the eds of adjacent shafts. In machine construction, ouplings are used to effect a semipermanent connection between adjacent rotating shafts. The connection is permanent in the sense that it is not meant to be broken during the useful life of the machine, but it can be broken and restored in an emergency or when worn parts are replaced.There are several types of shaft couplings, their characteristics depend on the purpose for which they are used. If an exceptionally long shaft is required in a manufacturing plant or a propeller shaft on a ship, it is made in sections that are coupled together with rigid couplings. A common type of rigid coupling consists of two mating radial flanges(disks) that are cttached by key-driven hubs to the eds of adjacent shaft sections and bolted together through the flanges to form a rigid connection. Alignment of the connected shafts is usually effeted by means of a rabbet joint on the face of the flanges.In connecting shafts belonging to separate devices (such as an electric motor and a gearbox ),precise aligning of the shafts is difficult and a flexible coupling is used. This coupling connects theshafts in such a way as to minimize the harmful effects of shaft misalignment. Flexible couplings also permit the shafts to deflect under their separate systems of with one another. Flexible couplings can also serve to reduce the intensity of shock loads and vibrations transmitted from one shaft to another.Virtually all shafts contain rolling contact bearings.The concern of a machine designer with ball and roller bearings is fivefold as follows:(a) life in relation to load; (b) stiffness ,i.e. deflections under load; (c) friction;(d) wear; (e) noise. For moderate loads and speeds the correct selection of a standard bearing on the basis of load rating will usually secure satisfactory performance. The deflection of the bearing elements will become important where loads are high, although this is usuallyof less magnitude than that of the shafts or other components associated with the bearing. Where speeds are high special cooling arrangements become necessary which may increase frictional drag. Wear is primarily associated with the introduction of contaminants, and sealing arrangements must be chosen with regard the hostility of the environment.Because the high quality and low price of ball and roller bearings depends on quantity production, the task of the machine designer becomes one of selection rather than design. Rolling-contact bearings are generally made with ateel which is through-hardened toabout 900HV,although in many mechanisms special races are not provided and the interacting surfaces are hardened to about 600 HV. It is not surprising that, owing to the high stresses involved, a predominant form of failure should be metal fatigue, and a good deal of work is currently in progress intended to improve the reliability of this type of bearing. Design can bebased on accepted values of life and it is generral practice in the bearing industry to define the load capacity of the bearing as that value below which 90 lpercent of a batch will exceed a lift of ane million revolutions.Notwithstanding the fact that responsibility for the basic design of ball and roller bearings rests with the bearing manufacturer, the machine designer must form a correct appreciation of the duty to be performed by the bearing and be concerned not only with bearing selection but with the conditions for correct installation.The fit of the bearing races onto the shaft or onto the housings is of critical importance because of their combined effect on the internal clearance of the bearing as well as preserving the desired degree of interference fit. Inadequate interference can induce serious trouble from fretting corrosion. The inner race is frequently located axially by abutting against a shoulder. A radius at this point is essential for the avoidance of stress concentration and ball races are provides with a radius or chamfer to allow space for this .Where life is not the determining factor in design, it is usual to determine maximum loading by the amount towhich a bearing will deflect under load. Thus the concept of “static load-carrying capacity” is understood to mean the load that can be alpplied to a bearing, which is either stationary or subject to slight swiveling motions, without impairing its running qualities for subsequent rotational motion. This has beendetermined by practical experience as the load which when applied to a bearing results in a total deformation of the rolling element and raceway at any point of contact not exceeding 0.01 percent of the rolling-element diameter. This would correspond to a permanent deformation of 0.00025 mm for a ball 25mm in diameter.The successful functioning of many bearing depends upon providing them with adequate protection against their environment, and in some circumstances the enviroration of the bering surfaces. Achievement of the correct functioning of seals is an essential part of bearing design. Moreover, seals which are applied to moving parts for any purpose are of interest to tribologists because they are components of bearing systems and can only be designed satisfactorily on the basis of the approlpriate bearing theory. Notwithstanding their importance, the amount of research effort that has been devoted to the understanding of the understanding of the behavior of seals has been small when compared with that devoted to other aspects of bearing technology.References:1 Erickson.Belt and Application for Engineers.Marcel Dekker.Inc,19972 South,Mancuso.Mechanical Power Transmission Components.1994中文译文：轴、联轴器和滚动轴承关键词：轴、联轴器、轴承实际上，几乎所有的机器中都装有轴。
机械设计外文文献翻译、中英文翻译
机械设计外文文献翻译、中英文翻译unavailable。
The first step in the design process is to define the problem and XXX are defined。
the designer can begin toXXX evaluated。
and the best one is XXX。
XXX.Mechanical DesignA XXX machines include engines。
turbines。
vehicles。
hoists。
printing presses。
washing machines。
and XXX and methods of design that apply to XXXXXX。
cams。
valves。
vessels。
and mixers.Design ProcessThe design process begins with a real need。
Existing apparatus may require XXX。
efficiency。
weight。
speed。
or cost。
while new apparatus may be XXX。
To start。
the designer must define the problem and XXX。
ideas and concepts are generated。
evaluated。
and refined until the best one is XXX。
XXX.XXX。
assembly。
XXX.During the preliminary design stage。
it is important to allow design XXX if some ideas may seem impractical。
they can be corrected early on in the design process。
机械工程外文翻译
外文资料原文及译文学院：机电工程学院专业：机械设计制造及其自动化班级：学号：姓名：Mechanical engineering1.The porfile of mechanical engineeringEngingeering is a branch of mechanical engineerig,itstudies mechanical and power generation especially power and movement.2.The history of mechanical engineering18th century later periods,the steam engine invention hasprovided a main power fountainhead for the industrialrevolution,enormously impelled each kind of mechznicalbiting.Thus,an important branch of a new Engineering –separated from the civil engineering tools and machines on thebranch-developed together with Birmingham and the establishment of the Associantion of Mechanical Engineers in1847 had been officially recognized.The mechanicalengineering already mainly used in by trial and error methodmechanic application technological development intoprofessional engineer the scientific method of which in theresearch,the design and the realm of production used .From themost broad perspective,the demend continuously to enhance theefficiencey of mechanical engineers improve the quality of work,and asked him to accept the history of the high degreeof education and training.Machine operation to stress not onlyeconomic but also infrastructure costs to an absolute minimun.3.The field of mechanical engineeringThe commodity machinery development in the develop country,in the high level material life very great degree is decided each kind of which can realize in the mechanical engineering.Mechanical engineers unceasingly will invent the machine next life to produce the commodity,unceasingly will develop the accuracy and the complexity more and more high machine tools produces the machine.The main clues of the mechanical development is:In order to enhance the excellent in quality and reasonable in price produce to increase the precision as well as to reduce the production cost.This three requirements promoted the complex control system development.The most successful machine manufacture is its machine and the control system close fusion,whether such control system is essentially mechanical or electronic.The modernized car engin production transmission line(conveyer belt)is a series of complex productions craft mechanization very good example.The people are in the process of development in order to enable further automation of the production machinery ,the use of a computer to store and handle large volumes of data,the data is a multifunctional machine toolsnecessary for the production of spare parts.One of the objectives is to fully automated production workshop,three rotation,but only one officer per day to operate.The development of production for mechanical machinery must have adequate power supply.Steam engine first provided the heat to generate power using practical methods in the old human,wind and hydropower,an increase of engin .New mechanical engineering industry is one of the challenges faced by the initial increase thermal effciency and power,which is as big steam turbine and the development of joint steam boilers basically achieved.20th century,turbine generators to provide impetus has been sustained and rapid growth,while thermal efficiency is steady growth,and large power plants per kW capital consumption is also declining.Finally,mechanical engineers have nuclear energy.This requires the application of nuclear energy particularly high reliability and security, which requires solving many new rge power plants and the nuclear power plant control systems have become highly complex electroonics,fluid,electricity,water and mechanical parts networks All in all areas related to the mechanical engineers.Small internal combustion engine,both to the type (petrol and diesel machines)or rotary-type(gas turbines andMong Kerr machine),as well as their broad application in the field of transport should also due to mechanical enginerrs.Throughout the transport,both in the air and space,or in the terrestrial and marine,mechanial engineers created a variety of equipment and power devices to their increasing cooperation with electrical engineers,especially in the development of appropration control systems.Mechanical engineers in the development of military weapons technology and civil war ,needs a similar,though its purpose is to enhance rather than destroy their productivity.However.War needs a lot of resources to make the area of techonlogy,many have a far-reaching development in peacetime efficiency.Jet aircraft and nuclear reactors are well known examples.The Biological engineering,mechanical engineering biotechnology is a relatively new and different areas,it provides for the replacement of the machine or increase the body functions as well as for medical equipment.Artficial limbs have been developed and have such a strong movement and touch response function of the human body.In the development of artificial organ transplant is rapid,complex cardiac machines and similar equipment to enable increasingly complex surgery,and injuries and ill patients life functions can besustained.Some enviromental control mechanical engineers through the initial efforts to drainage or irrigation pumping to the land and to mine and ventilation to control the human environment.Modern refrigeration and air-conditioning plant commonaly used reverse heat engine,where the heat from the engine from cold places to more external heat.Many mechanical engineering products,as well as other leading technology development city have side effects on the environment,producing noise,water and air pollution caused,destroyed land and landscape.Improve productivity and diver too fast in the commodity,that the renewable natural forces keep pace.For mechanical engineers and others,environmental control is rapidly developing area,which includes a possible development and production of small quantities of pollutants machine sequnce,and the development of new equipment and teachnology has been to reduce and eliminate pollution.4.The role of mechanical engineeringThere are four generic mechanical engineers in common to the above all domains function.The 1st function is the understanding and the research mechanical science foundation.It includes the power and movement of therelationship dynamics For example,in the vibration and movement of the relationship;Automatic control;Study of the various forms of heart,energy,power relations between the thermodynamic;Fluidflows; Heat transfer; Lubricant;And material properties.The 2nd function will be conducts the research,the desing and the development,this function in turn attempts to carry on the essential change to satisfy current and the future needs.This not only calls for a clear understanding of mechanical science,and have to break down into basic elements of a complex system capacity.But also the need for synthetic and innovative inventions.The 3rd function is produces the product and the power,include plan,operation and maintenance.Its goal lies in the maintenance either enhances the enterprise or the organization longer-tern and survivabilaty prestige at the same time,produces the greatest value by the least investments and the consumption.The 4th function is mechanical engineer’s coordinated function,including the management,the consultation,as well as carries on the market marking in certain situation.In all these function,one kind unceasingly to use the science for a long time the method,but is not traditional orthe intuition method tendency,this is a mechanical engineering skill aspect which unceasingly grows.These new rationalization means typical names include:The operations research,the engineering economics,the logical law problem analysis(is called PABLA) However,creativity is not rationalization.As in other areas,in mechanical engineering, to take unexpected and important way to bring about a new capacity,still has a personal,marked characteristice.5.The design of mechanical engineeringThe design of mechanical is the design has the mechanical property the thing or the system,such as:the instrument and the measuring appliance in very many situations,the machine design must use the knowledge of discipline the and so on mathematics,materials science and mechanics.Mechanical engineering desgin includeing all mechanical desgin,but it was a study,because it also includes all the branches of mechsnical engineering,such as thermodynamics all hydrodynamics in the basic disciplines needed,in the mechanical engineering design of the initial stude or mechanical design.Design stages.The entire desgin process from start to finish,in the process,a demand that is designed for it and decided to do the start.After a lot of repetition,thefinal meet this demand by the end of the design procees and the plan.Design considerations.Sometimes in a system is to decide which parts needs intensity parts of geometric shapes and size an important factor in this context that we must consider that the intensity is an important factor in the design.When we use expression design considerations,we design parts that may affect the entire system design features.In the circumstances specified in the design,usually for a series of such functions must be taken into account.Howeever,to correct purposes,we should recognize that,in many cases the design of important design considerations are not calculated or test can determine the components or systems.Especially students,wheen in need to make important decisions in the design and conduct of any operation that can not be the case,they are often confused.These are not special,they occur every day,imagine,for example,a medical laboratory in the mechanical design,from marketing perspective,people have high expectations from the strength and relevance of impression.Thick,and heavy parts installed together:to produce a solid impression machines.And sometimes machinery and spare parts from the design style is the point and not the other point of view.Our purpose is to make those you do notbe misled to believe that every design decision will need reasonable mathematical methods.Manufacturing refers to the raw meterials into finished products in the enterprise.Create three distinct phases.They are:input,processing exprot.The first phase includes the production of all products in line with market needs essential.First there must be the demand for the product,the necessary materials,while also needs such as energy,time,human knowledge and technology resourcess . Finall,the need for funds to obtain all the other resources. Lose one stage after the second phase of the resources of the processes to be distributed.Processing of raw materials into finished products of these processes.To complete the design,based on the design,and then develop plans.Plan implemented through various production processes.Management of resources and processes to ensure efficiency and productivity.For example,we must carefully manage resources to ensure proper use of funds.Finally,people are talking about the product market was cast.Stage is the final stage of exporting finished or stage.Once finished just purchased,it must be delivered to the users.According to product performance,installation and may have to conduct furtherdebugging in addition,some products,especially those very complex products User training is necessary.6.The processes of materials and maunfacturingHere said engineering materials into two main categories:metals and non-ferrous,high-performance alloys and power metals.Non-metallic futher divided into plastice,synthetic rubber,composite materials and ceramics.It said the production proccess is divided into several major process,includingshape,forging,casting/ founding,heat treatment,fixed/connections ,measurement/ quality control and materal cutting.These processes can be further divide into each other’s craft.Various stages of the development of the manufacturing industry Over the years,the manufacturing process has four distinct stages of development, despite the overlap.These stages are:The first phase is artisanal,the second Phase is mechanization.The third phase is automation the forth Phase is integrated.When mankind initial processing of raw materials into finished products will be,they use manual processes.Each with their hands and what are the tools manuslly produced.This is totally integrated production take shape.A person needs indentification,collection materials,the design of a productto meet that demand,the production of such products and use it.From beginning to end,everything is focused on doing the work of the human ter in the industrial revolution introduced mechanized production process,people began to use machines to complete the work accomplished previously manual. This led to the specialization.Specialization in turn reduce the manufacture of integrated factors.In this stage of development,manufacturing workers can see their production as a whole represent a specific piece of the part of the production process.One can not say that their work is how to cope with the entire production process,or how they were loaded onto a production of parts finished.Development of manufacting processes is the next phase of the selection process automation.This is a computer-controlled machinery and processes.At this stage,automation island began to emerge in the workshop lane.Each island represents a clear production process or a group of processes.Although these automated isolated island within the island did raise the productivity of indivdual processes,but the overall productivity are often not change.This is because the island is not caught in other automated production process middle,but not synchronous with them .The ultimate result is the efficient working fast parkedthrough automated processes,but is part of the stagnation in wages down,causing bottlenecks.To better understand this problem,you can imagine the traffic in the peak driving a red light from the red Service Department to the next scene. Occasionally you will find a lot less cars,more than being slow-moving vehicles,but the results can be found by the next red light Brance.In short you real effect was to accelerate the speed of a red Department obstruction offset.If you and other drivers can change your speed and red light simultaneously.Will advance faster.Then,all cars will be consistent,sommth operation,the final everyone forward faster.In the workshop where the demand for stable synchronization of streamlined production,and promoted integration of manufacturing development.This is a still evolving technology.Fully integrated in the circumstances,is a computer-controllrd machinery and processing.integrated is completed through computer.For example in the preceding paragraph simulation problems,the computer will allow all road vehicles compatible with the change in red.So that everyone can steady traffic.Scientific analysis of movement,timing and mechanics of the disciplines is that it is composed of two pater:staticsand dynamics.Statics analyzed static system that is in the system,the time is not taken into account,research and analysis over time and dynamics of the system change.Dynameics from the two componets.Euler in 1775 will be the first time two different branches: Rigid body movement studies can conveniently divided into two parts:geometric and mechanics.The first part is without taking into account the reasons for the downward movement study rigid body from a designated location to another point of the movement,and must use the formula to reflect the actual,the formula would determine the rigid body every point position. Therefore,this study only on the geometry and,more specifically,on the entities from excision.Obviously,the first part of the school and was part of a mechanical separation from the principles of dynamics to study movement,which is more than the two parts together into a lot easier.Dynamics of the two parts are subsequently divided into two separate disciplines,kinematic and dynamics,a study of movement and the movement strength.Therefore,the primary issue is the design of mechanical systems understand its kinematic.Kinematic studies movement,rather than a study of its impact.In a more precise kinematic studies position,displacement,rotation,speed,velocity and acceleration of disciplines,for esample,or planets orbiting research campaing is a paradigm.In the above quotation content should be pay attention that the content of the Euler dynamics into kinematic and rigid body dynamics is based on the assumption that they are based on research.In this very important basis to allow for the treatment of two separate disciplines.For soft body,soft body shape and even their own soft objects in the campaign depends on the role of power in their possession.In such cases,should also study the power and movement,and therefore to a large extent the analysis of the increased complexity.Fortunately, despite the real machine parts may be involved are more or less the design of machines,usually with heavy material designed to bend down to the lowest parts.Therefore,when the kinematic analysis of the performance of machines,it is often assumed that bend is negligible,spare parts are hard,but when the load is known,in the end analysis engine,re-engineering parts to confirm this assnmption.机械工程1.机械工程简介机械工程是工程学的一个分支，它研究机械和动力的产，尤其是力和动力。
机械专业毕业设计外文翻译1
本科毕业设计（本科毕业论文）外文文献及译文文献、资料题目：High-rise Tower Crane designed文献、资料来源：期刊（著作、网络等）文献、资料发表（出版）日期：2000.3.25院（部）：机电工程学院专业：机电工程及自动化High-rise Tower Crane designed under Turbulent Winds At present, construction of tower cranes is an important transport operations lifting equipment, tower crane accident the people's livelihood, major hazards, and is currently a large number of tower crane drivers although there are job permits, due to the lack of means to monitor and review the actual work of a serious violation . Strengthen the inspection and assessment is very important. Tower crane tipping the cause of the accident can be divided into two aspects: on the one hand, as a result of the management of tower cranes in place, illegal operation, illegal overloading inclined cable-stayed suspended widespread phenomenon; Second, because of the tower crane safety can not be found in time For example,Took place in the tower crane foundation tilt, micro-cracks appear critical weld, bolts loosening the case of failure to make timely inspection, maintenance, resulting in the continued use of tower cranes in the process of further deterioration of the potential defect, eventually leading to the tower crane tipping. The current limit of tower crane and the black box and can not be found to connect slewing tower and high-strength bolts loosening tightened after the phenomenon is not timely, not tower verticality of the axis line of the lateral-line real-time measurement, do not have to fight the anti-rotation vehicles, lifting bodies plummeted Meng Fang, hook hoists inclined cable is a timely reminder and record of the function, the wind can not be contained in the state of suspended operation to prevent tipping on the necessary tips on site there is a general phenomenon of the overloaded overturning of the whole security risks can not be accurately given a reminder and so on, all of which the lease on the tower crane, use, management problems,Through the use of tower crane anti-tipping monitor to be resolved. Tower crane anti-tipping Monitor is a new high-tech security monitoring equipment, and its principle for the use of machine vision technology and image processing technology to achieve the measurement of the tilt tower, tower crane on the work of state or non-working state of a variety of reasons angle of the tower caused by the critical state to achieve the alarm, prompt drivers to stop illegal operation, a computer chip at the same time on the work of the state of tower crane be recorded. Tower crane at least 1 day overload condition occurs, a maximum number of days to reach 23 overloading, the driver to operate the process of playing the anti-car, stop hanging urgency, such as cable-stayed suspended oblique phenomenon often, after verification and education, to avoid the possible occurrence of fatal accidents. Wind conditions in the anti-tipping is particularly important, tower cranes sometimes connected with the pin hole and pin do not meet design requirements, to connect high-strength bolts are not loose in time after the tightening of the phenomenon, through timely maintenance in time after the tightening of the phenomenon, through timely maintenance and remedial measures to ensure that the safe and reliable construction progress. Reduced lateral line tower vertical axis measuring the number of degrees,Observation tower angle driver to go to work and organize the data once a month to ensure that the lateral body axis vertical line to meet the requirements, do not have to every time and professionals must be completed by Theodolite tower vertical axismeasuring the lateral line, simplified the management link. Data logging function to ensure that responsibility for the accident that the scientific nature to improve the management of data records for the tower crane tower crane life prediction and diagnosis of steel structures intact state data provides a basis for scientific management and proactive prevention of possible accidents, the most important thing is, if the joint use of the black box can be easily and realistically meet the current provisions of the country's related industries. Tower crane safety management at the scene of great importance occurred in the construction process should be to repair damaged steel, usually have to do a good job in the steel tower crane maintenance work and found that damage to steel structures, we must rule out potential causes of accidents, to ensure safety in production carried out smoothly. Tower crane in the building construction has become essential to the construction of mechanical equipment, tower crane at the construction site in the management of safety in production is extremely important. A long time, people in the maintenance of tower crane, only to drive attention to the conservation and electrical equipment at the expense of inspection and repair of steel structures, to bring all kinds of construction accidents.Conclusion: The tower crane anti-tipping trial monitor to eliminate potential causes of accidents to provide accurate and timely information, the tower crane to ensure the smooth development of the leasing business, the decision is correct, and should further strengthen and standardize the use of the environment (including new staff training and development of data processing system, etc.).The first construction cranes were probably invented by the Ancient Greeks and were powered by men or beasts of burden, such as donkeys. These cranes were used for the construction of tall buildings. Larger cranes were later developed, employing the use of human treadwheels, permitting the lifting of heavier weights. In the High Middle Ages, harbour cranes were introduced to load and unload ships and assist with their construction – some were built into stone towers for extra strength and stability. The earliest cranes were constructed from wood, but cast iron and steel took over with the coming of the Industrial Revolution.For many centuries, power was supplied by the physical exertion of men or animals, although hoists in watermills and windmills could be driven by the harnessed natural power. The first 'mechanical' power was provided by steam engines, the earliest steam crane being introduced in the 18th or 19th century, with many remaining in use well into the late 20th century. Modern cranes usually use internal combustion engines or electric motors and hydraulic systems to provide a much greater lifting capability than was previously possible, although manual cranes are still utilised where the provision of power would be uneconomic.Cranes exist in an enormous variety of forms – each tailored to a specific use. Sizes range from the smallest jib cranes, used inside workshops, to the tallest tower cranes,used for constructing high buildings, and the largest floating cranes, used to build oil rigs and salvage sunken ships.This article also covers lifting machines that do not strictly fit the above definition of a crane, but are generally known as cranes, such as stacker cranes and loader cranes.The crane for lifting heavy loads was invented by the Ancient Greeks in the late 6th century BC. The archaeological record shows that no later than c.515 BC distinctive cuttings for both lifting tongs and lewis irons begin to appear on stone blocks of Greek temples. Since these holes point at the use of a lifting device, and since they are to be found either above the center of gravity of the block, or in pairs equidistant from a point over the center of gravity, they are regarded by archaeologists as the positive evidence required for the existence of the crane.The introduction of the winch and pulley hoist soon lead to a widespread replacement of ramps as the main means of vertical motion. For the next two hundred years, Greek building sites witnessed a sharp drop in the weights handled, as the new lifting technique made the use of several smaller stones more practical than of fewer larger ones. In contrast to the archaic period with its tendency to ever-increasing block sizes, Greek temples of the classical age like the Parthenon invariably featured stone blocks weighing less than 15-20 tons. Also, the practice of erecting large monolithic columns was practically abandoned in favour of using several column drums.Although the exact circumstances of the shift from the ramp to the crane technology remain unclear, it has been argued that the volatile social and political conditions of Greece were more suitable to the employment of small, professional construction teams than of large bodies of unskilled labour, making the crane more preferable to the Greek polis than the more labour-intensive ramp which had been the norm in the autocratic societies of Egypt or Assyria.The first unequivocal literary evidence for the existence of the compound pulley system appears in the Mechanical Problems (Mech. 18, 853a32-853b13) attributed to Aristotle (384-322 BC), but perhaps composed at a slightly later date. Around the same time, block sizes at Greek temples began to match their archaic predecessors again, indicating that the more sophisticated compound pulley must have found its way to Greek construction sites by then.During the High Middle Ages, the treadwheel crane was reintroduced on a large scale after the technology had fallen into disuse in western Europe with the demise of the Western Roman Empire. The earliest reference to a treadwheel (magna rota) reappears in archival literature in France about 1225, followed by an illuminated depiction in a manuscript of probably also French origin dating to 1240. In navigation, the earliest uses of harbor cranes are documented for Utrecht in 1244, Antwerp in 1263, Brugge in 1288 and Hamburg in 1291, while in England the treadwheel is not recorded before 1331.Generally, vertical transport could be done more safely and inexpensively by cranes than by customary methods. Typical areas of application were harbors, mines, and, in particular, building sites where the treadwheel crane played a pivotal role in the construction of the lofty Gothic cathedrals. Nevertheless, both archival and pictorial sources of the time suggest that newly introduced machines like treadwheels or wheelbarrows did not completely replace more labor-intensive methods like ladders, hods and handbarrows. Rather, old and new machinery continued to coexist on medieval construction sites and harbors.Apart from treadwheels, medieval depictions also show cranes to be powered manually by windlasses with radiating spokes, cranks and by the 15th century also by windlasses shaped like a ship's wheel. To smooth out irregularities of impulse and get over 'dead-spots' in the lifting process flywheels are known to be in use as early as 1123.The exact process by which the treadwheel crane was reintroduced is not recorded, although its return to construction sites has undoubtedly to be viewed in close connection with the simultaneous rise of Gothic architecture. The reappearance of the treadwheel crane may have resulted from a technological development of the windlass from which the treadwheel structurally and mechanically evolved. Alternatively, the medieval treadwheel may represent a deliberate reinvention of its Roman counterpart drawn from Vitruvius' De architectura which was available in many monastic libraries. Its reintroduction may have been inspired, as well, by the observation of the labor-saving qualities of the waterwheel with which early treadwheels shared many structural similarities.In contrast to modern cranes, medieval cranes and hoists - much like their counterparts in Greece and Rome - were primarily capable of a vertical lift, and not used to move loads for a considerable distance horizontally as well. Accordingly, lifting work was organized at the workplace in a different way than today. In building construction, for example, it is assumed that the crane lifted the stone blocks either from the bottom directly into place, or from a place opposite the centre of the wall from where it could deliver the blocks for two teams working at each end of the wall. Additionally, the crane master who usually gave orders at the treadwheel workers from outside the crane was able to manipulate the movement laterally by a small rope attached to the load. Slewing cranes which allowed a rotation of the load and were thus particularly suited for dockside work appeared as early as 1340. While ashlar blocks were directly lifted by sling, lewis or devil's clamp (German Teufelskralle), other objects were placed before in containers like pallets, baskets, wooden boxes or barrels.It is noteworthy that medieval cranes rarely featured ratchets or brakes to forestall the load from running backward.[25] This curious absence is explained by the high friction force exercised by medieval treadwheels which normally prevented the wheel from accelerating beyond control.目前，塔式起重机是建筑工程进行起重运输作业的重要设备，塔机事故关系国计民生、危害重大，而目前众多的塔机司机虽然有上岗证，由于缺少监督和复核手段，实际工作中违规严重。
机械设计理论机械类设计外文翻译、中英文翻译
英文原文Machine design theoryThe machine design is through designs the new product or improves the old product to meet the human need the application technical science. It involves the project technology each domain, mainly studies the product the size, the shape and the detailed structure basic idea, but also must study the product the personnel which in aspect the and so on manufacture, sale and use question.Carries on each kind of machine design work to be usually called designs the personnel or machine design engineer. The machine design is a creative work. Project engineer not only must have the creativity in the work, but also must in aspect and so on mechanical drawing, kinematics, engineerig material, materials mechanics and machine manufacture technology has the deep elementary knowledge.If front sues, the machine design goal is the production can meet the human need the product. The invention, the discovery and technical knowledge itself certainly not necessarily can bring the advantage to the humanity, only has when they are applied can produce on the product the benefit. Thus, should realize to carries on before the design in a specific product, must first determine whether the people do need this kind of productMust regard as the machine design is the machine design personnel carries on using creative ability the product design, the system analysis and a formulation product manufacture technology good opportunity. Grasps the project elementary knowledge to have to memorize some data and the formula is more important than. The merely service data and the formula is insufficient to the completely decision which makes in a good design needs. On the other hand, should be earnest precisely carries on all operations. For example, even if places wrong a decimal point position, also can cause the correct design to turn wrongly.A good design personnel should dare to propose the new idea, moreover is willing to undertake the certain risk, when the new method is not suitable, use original method. Therefore, designs the personnel to have to have to have the patience, because spendsthe time and the endeavor certainly cannot guarantee brings successfully. A brand-new design, the request screen abandons obsoletely many, knows very well the method for the people. Because many person of conservativeness, does this certainly is not an easy matter. A mechanical designer should unceasingly explore the improvement existing product the method, should earnestly choose originally, the process confirmation principle of design in this process, with has not unified it after the confirmation new idea.Newly designs itself can have the question occurrence which many flaws and has not been able to expect, only has after these flaws and the question are solved, can manifest new goods come into the market the product superiority. Therefore, a performance superior product is born at the same time, also is following a higher risk. Should emphasize, if designs itself does not request to use the brand-new method, is not unnecessary merely for the goal which transform to use the new method.In the design preliminary stage, should allow to design the personnel fully to display the creativity, not each kind of restraint. Even if has had many impractical ideas, also can in the design early time, namely in front of the plan blueprint is corrected. Only then, only then does not send to stops up the innovation the mentality. Usually, must propose several sets of design proposals, then perform the comparison. Has the possibility very much in the plan which finally designated, has used certain not in plan some ideas which accepts.How does the psychologist frequently discuss causes the machine which the people adapts them to operate. Designs personnel's basic responsibility is diligently causes the machine to adapt the people. This certainly is not an easy work, because certainly does not have to all people to say in fact all is the most superior operating area and the operating process.Another important question, project engineer must be able to carry on the exchange and the consultation with other concerned personnel. In the initial stage, designs the personnel to have to carry on the exchange and the consultation on the preliminary design with the administrative personnel, and is approved. This generally is through the oral discussion, the schematic diagram and the writing material carries on. Inorder to carry on the effective exchange, needs to solve the following problem:(1)designs whether this product truly does need for the people? Whether there iscompetitive ability(2)does this product compare with other companies' existing similar products?(3)produces this kind of product is whether economical?(4)product service is whether convenient?(5) product whether there is sale? Whether may gain?Only has the time to be able to produce the correct answer to above question. But, the product design, the manufacture and the sale only can in carry on to the above question preliminary affirmation answer foundation in. Project engineer also should through the detail drawing and the assembly drawing, carries on the consultation together with the branch of manufacture to the finally design proposal.Usually, can have some problem in the manufacture process. Possibly can request to some components size or the common difference makes some changes, causes the components the production to change easily. But, in the project change must have to pass through designs the personnel to authorize, guaranteed cannot damage the product the function. Sometimes, when in front of product assembly or in the packing foreign shipment experiment only then discovers in the design some kind of flaw. These instances exactly showed the design is a dynamic process. Always has a better method to complete the design work, designs the personnel to be supposed unceasingly diligently, seeks these better method.Recent year, the engineerig material choice already appeared importantly. In addition, the choice process should be to the material continuously the unceasing again appraisal process. The new material unceasingly appears, but some original materials can obtain the quantity possibly can reduce. The environmental pollution, material recycling aspect and so on use, worker's health and security frequently can attach the new limiting condition to the choice of material. In order to reduce the weight or saves the energy, possibly can request the use different material. Comes from domestic and international competition, to product service maintenance convenience request enhancement and customer's aspect the and so on feedback pressure, can urgethe people to carry on to the material reappraises. Because the material does not select when created the product responsibility lawsuit, has already had the profound influence. In addition, the material and between the material processing interdependence is already known by the people clearly. Therefore, in order to can and guarantees the quality in the reasonable cost under the premise to obtain satisfaction the result, project engineer makes engineers all to have earnestly carefully to choose, the determination and the use material.Makes any product the first step of work all is designs. Designs usually may divide into several explicit stages: (a) preliminary design; (b) functional design; (c) production design. In the preliminary design stage, the designer emphatically considered the product should have function. Usually must conceive and consider several plans, then decided this kind of thought is whether feasible; If is feasible, then should makes the further improvement to or several plans. In this stage, the question which only must consider about the choice of material is: Whether has the performance to conform to the request material to be possible to supply the choice; If no, whether has a bigger assurance all permits in the cost and the time in the limit develops one kind of new material.In the functional design and the engineering design stage, needs to make a practical feasible design. Must draw up the quite complete blueprint in this stage, chooses and determines each kind of components the material. Usually must make the prototype or the working model, and carries on the experiment to it, the appraisal product function, the reliability, the outward appearance and the service maintenance and so on. Although this kind of experiment possibly can indicate, enters in the product to the production base in front of, should replace certain materials, but, absolutely cannot this point take not earnestly chooses the material the excuse. Should unify the product the function, earnestly carefully considers the product the outward appearance, the cost and the reliability. Has the achievement very much the company when manufacture all prototypes, selects the material should the material which uses with its production in be same, and uses the similar manufacture technology as far as possible. Like this has the advantage very much to the company. The functioncomplete prototype if cannot act according to the anticipated sales volume economically to make, or is prototypical and the official production installment has in the quality and the reliable aspect is very greatly different, then this kind of prototype does not have the great value. Project engineer is best can completely complete the material in this stage the analysis, the choice and the determination work, but is not remains it to the production design stage does. Because, is carries on in the production design stage material replacement by other people, these people are inferior to project engineer to the product all functions understanding. In the production design stage, is should completely determine with the material related main question the material, causes them to adapt with the existing equipment, can use the existing equipment economically to carry on the processing, moreover the material quantity can quite be easy to guarantee the supply.In the manufacture process, inevitably can appear to uses the material to make some changes the situation. The experience indicated that, may use certain cheap materials to take the substitute. However, in the majority situation, in will carry on the production later to change the material to have in to start before the production to change the price which the material will spend to have to be higher than. Completes the choice of material work in the design stage, may avoid the most such situations. Started after the production manufacture to appear has been possible to supply the use the new material is replaces the material the most common reason. Certainly, these new materials possibly reduce the cost, the improvement product performance. But, must carry on the earnest appraisal to the new material, guarantees its all performance all to answer the purpose. Must remember that, the new material performance and the reliable very few pictures materials on hand such understood for the people. The majority of products expiration and the product accident caused by negligence case is because in selects the new material to take in front of substitution material, not truly understood their long-term operational performance causes.The product responsibility lawsuit forces designs the personnel and the company when the choice material, uses the best procedure. In the material process, five most common questions are: (a) did not understand or cannot use about the materialapplication aspect most newly the best information paper; (b) has not been able to foresee and to consider the dusk year possible reasonable use (for example to have the possibility, designs the personnel also to be supposed further to forecast and the consideration because product application method not when creates consequence.In recent years many products responsibilities lawsuit case, because wrongly uses the plaintiff which the product receives the injury to accuse produces the factory, and wins the decision); (c) uses the material data not entire perhaps some data are indefinite, works as its long-term performance data is the like this time in particular;(d) the quality control method is not suitable and not after the confirmation; (e) the personnel which completely is not competent for the post by some chooses the material.Through to the above five questions analysis, may obtain these questions is does not have the sufficient reason existence the conclusion. May for avoid these questions to these questions research analyses the appearance indicating the direction. Although uses the best choice of material method not to be able to avoid having the product responsibility lawsuit, designs the personnel and the industry carries on the choice of material according to the suitable procedure, may greatly reduce the lawsuit the quantity.May see from the above discussion, the choice material people should to the material nature, the characteristic and the processing method have comprehensive and the basic understanding.译文：机械设计理论机械设计是一门通过设计新产品或者改进老产品来满足人类需求的应用技术科学。
机械专业外文翻译中英文翻译外文文献翻译
英文资料High-speed millingHigh-speed machining is an advanced manufacturing technology, different from the traditional processing methods. The spindle speed, cutting feed rate, cutting a small amount of units within the time of removal of material has increased three to six times. With high efficiency, high precision and high quality surface as the basic characteristics of the automobile industry, aerospace, mold manufacturing and instrumentation industry, such as access to a wide range of applications, has made significant economic benefits, is the contemporary importance of advanced manufacturing technology. For a long time, people die on the processing has been using a grinding or milling EDM (EDM) processing, grinding, polishing methods. Although the high hardness of the EDM machine parts, but the lower the productivity of its application is limited. With the development of high-speed processing technology, used to replace high-speed cutting, grinding and polishing process to die processing has become possible. To shorten the processing cycle, processing and reliable quality assurance, lower processing costs.1 One of the advantages of high-speed machiningHigh-speed machining as a die-efficient manufacturing, high-quality, low power consumption in an advanced manufacturing technology. In conventional machining in a series of problems has plagued by high-speed machining of the application have been resolved.1.1 Increase productivityHigh-speed cutting of the spindle speed, feed rate compared withtraditional machining, in the nature of the leap, the metal removal rate increased 30 percent to 40 percent, cutting force reduced by 30 percent, the cutting tool life increased by 70% . Hardened parts can be processed, a fixture in many parts to be completed rough, semi-finishing and fine, and all other processes, the complex can reach parts of the surface quality requirements, thus increasing the processing productivity and competitiveness of products in the market.1.2 Improve processing accuracy and surface qualityHigh-speed machines generally have high rigidity and precision, and other characteristics, processing, cutting the depth of small, fast and feed, cutting force low, the workpiece to reduce heat distortion, and high precision machining, surface roughness small. Milling will be no high-speed processing and milling marks the surface so that the parts greatly enhance the quality of the surface. Processing Aluminum when up Ra0.40.6um, pieces of steel processing at up to Ra0.2 ~ 0.4um.1.3 Cutting reduce the heatBecause the main axis milling machine high-speed rotation, cutting a shallow cutting, and feed very quickly, and the blade length of the workpiece contacts and contact time is very short, a decrease of blades and parts of the heat conduction. High-speed cutting by dry milling or oil cooked up absolute (mist) lubrication system, to avoid the traditional processing tool in contact with the workpiece and a lot of shortcomings to ensure that the tool is not high temperature under the conditions of work, extended tool life.1.4 This is conducive to processing thin-walled partsHigh-speed cutting of small cutting force, a higher degree of stability, Machinable with high-quality employees compared to the company may be very good, but other than the company's employees may Suanbu Le outstanding work performance. For our China practice, we use the models to determine the method of staff training needs are simple and effective. This study models can be an external object, it can also be a combination of internal and external. We must first clear strategy for the development of enterprises. Through the internal and external business environment and organizational resources, such as analysis, the future development of a clear business goals and operational priorities. According to the business development strategy can be compared to find the business models, through a comparative analysis of the finalization of business models. In determining business models, a, is the understanding of its development strategy, or its market share and market growth rate, or the staff of the situation, and so on, according to the companies to determine the actual situation. As enterprises in different period of development, its focus is different, which means that enterprises need to invest the manpower and financial resources the focus is different. So in a certain period of time, enterprises should accurately selected their business models compared with the departments and posts, so more practical significance, because the business models are not always good, but to compare some aspects did not have much practical significance, Furthermore This can more fully concentrate on the business use of limited resources. Identify business models, and then take the enterprise of the corresponding departments and staff with the business models for comparison, the two can be found in the performance gap, a comparative analysis to find reasons, in accordance with this business reality, the final identification of training needs. The cost of training is needed, if not through an effective way to determine whether companies need to train and the training of the way, but blind to training, such training is difficult to achieve the desired results. A comparison only difference between this model is simple and practical training.1.5 Can be part of some alternative technology, such as EDM, grinding high intensity and high hardness processingHigh-speed cutting a major feature of high-speed cutting machine has the hardness of HRC60 parts. With the use of coated carbide cutter mold processing, directly to the installation of ahardened tool steel processing forming, effectively avoid the installation of several parts of the fixture error and improve the parts of the geometric location accuracy. In the mold of traditional processing, heat treatment hardening of the workpiece required EDM, high-speed machining replace the traditional method of cutting the processing, manufacturing process possible to omit die in EDM, simplifying the processing technology and investment costs .High-speed milling in the precincts of CNC machine tools, or for processing centre, also in the installation of high-speed spindle on the general machine tools. The latter not only has the processing capacity of general machine tools, but also for high-speed milling, a decrease of investment in equipment, machine tools increased flexibility. Cutting high-speed processing can improve the efficiency, quality improvement, streamline processes, investment and machine tool investment and maintenance costs rise, but comprehensive, can significantly increase economic efficiency.2 High-speed millingHigh-speed milling the main technical high-speed cutting technology is cutting the development direction of one of it with CNC technology, microelectronic technology, new materials and new technology, such as technology development to a higher level. High-speed machine tools and high-speed tool to achieve high-speed cutting is the prerequisite and basic conditions, in high-speed machining in the performance of high-speed machine tool material of choice and there are strict requirements.2.1 High-speed milling machine in order to achieve high-speed machiningGeneral use of highly flexible high-speed CNC machine tools, machining centers, and some use a dedicated high-speed milling, drilling. At the same time a high-speed machine tool spindle system and high-speed feeding system, high stiffness of the main characteristics of high-precision targeting and high-precision interpolation functions, especially high-precision arc interpolation function. High-speed machining systems of the machine a higher demand, mainly in the following areas:General use of highly flexible high-speed CNC machine tools, machining centers, and some use a dedicated high-speed milling, drilling. At the same time a high-speed machine tool spindle system and high-speed feeding system, high stiffness of the main characteristics of high-precision targeting and high-precision interpolation functions, especially high-precision arc interpolation function. High-speed machining systems of the machine a higher demand, mainly in the following areas:High-speed milling machine must have a high-speed spindle, the spindle speed is generally 10000 ~ 100000 m / min, power greater than 15 kW. But also with rapid speed or in designated spots fast-stopping performance. The main axial space not more than 0 .0 0 0 2 m m. Often using high-speed spindle-hydrostatic bearings, air pressure-bearing, mixed ceramic bearings, magneticbearing structure of the form. Spindle cooling general use within the water or air cooled.High-speed processing machine-driven system should be able to provide 40 ~ 60 m / min of the feed rate, with good acceleration characteristics, can provide 0.4 m/s2 to 10 m/s2 acceleration and deceleration. In order to obtain good processing quality, high-speed cutting machines must have a high enough stiffness. Machine bed material used gray iron, can also add a high-damping base of concrete, to prevent cutting tool chatter affect the quality of processing. A high-speed data transfer rate, can automatically increase slowdown. Processing technology to improve the processing and cutting tool life. At present high-speed machine tool manufacturers, usually in the general machine tools on low speed, the feed of the rough and then proceed to heat treatment, the last in the high-speed machine on the half-finished and finished, in improving the accuracy and efficiency at the same time, as far as possible to reduce processing Cost.2.2 High-speed machining toolHigh-speed machining tool is the most active one of the important factors, it has a direct impact on the efficiency of processing, manufacturing costs and product processing and accuracy. Tool in high-speed processing to bear high temperature, high pressure, friction, shock and vibration, such as loading, its hardness and wear-resistance, strength and toughness, heat resistance, technology and economic performance of the basic high-speed processing performance is the key One of the factors. High-speed cutting tool technology development speed, the more applications such as diamond (PCD), cubic boron nitride (CBN), ceramic knives, carbide coating, (C) titanium nitride Carbide TIC (N) And so on. CBN has high hardness, abrasion resistance and the extremely good thermal conductivity, and iron group elements between the great inertia, in 1300 ℃ would not have happened significant role in the chemical, also has a good stability. The experiments show that with CBN cutting toolHRC35 ~ 67 hardness of hardened steel can achieve very high speed. Ceramics have good wear resistance and thermal chemical stability, its hardness, toughness below the CBN, can be used for processing hardness of HRC <5 0 parts. Carbide Tool good wear resistance, but the hardness than the low-CBN and ceramics. Coating technology used knives, cutting tools can improve hardness and cutting the rate, for cutting HRC40 ~ 50 in hardness between the workpiece. Can be used to heat-resistant alloys, titanium alloys, hightemperature alloy, cast iron, Chungang, aluminum and composite materials of high-speed cutting Cut, the most widely used. Precision machining non-ferrous metals or non-metallic materials, or the choice of polycrystalline diamond Gang-coated tool.2.3 High-speed processing technologyHigh-speed cutting technology for high-speed machining is the key. Cutting Methods misconduct, will increase wear tool to less than high-speed processing purposes. Only high-speed machine tool and not a good guide technology, high-speed machining equipment can not fullyplay its role. In high-speed machining, should be chosen with milling, when the milling cutter involvement with the workpiece chip thickness as the greatest, and then gradually decreased. High-speed machining suitable for shallow depth of cut, cutting depth of not more than 0.2 mm, to avoid the location of deviation tool to ensure that the geometric precision machining parts. Ensure that the workpiece on the cutting constant load, to get good processing quality. Cutting a single high-speed milling path-cutting mode, try not to interrupt the process and cutting tool path, reducing the involvement tool to cut the number to be relatively stable cutting process. Tool to reduce the rapid change to, in other words when the NC machine tools must cease immediately, or Jiangsu, and then implement the next step. As the machine tool acceleration restrictions, easy to cause a waste of time, and exigency stop or radical move would damage the surface accuracy. In the mold of high-speed finishing, in each Cut, cut to the workpiece, the feed should try to change the direction of a curve or arc adapter, avoid a straight line adapter to maintain the smooth process of cutting.3 Die in high-speed milling processing ofMilling as a highly efficient high-speed cutting of the new method,inMould Manufacturing has been widely used. Forging links in the regular production model, with EDM cavity to be 12 ~ 15 h, electrodes produced 2 h. Milling after the switch to high-speed, high-speed milling cutter on the hardness of HRC 6 0 hardened tool steel processing. The forging die processing only 3 h20min, improve work efficiency four to five times the processing surface roughness of Ra0.5 ~ 0.6m, fully in line with quality requirements.High-speed cutting technology is cutting technology one of the major developments, mainly used in automobile industry and die industry, particularly in the processing complex surface, the workpiece itself or knives rigid requirements of the higher processing areas, is a range of advanced processing technology The integration, high efficiency and high quality for the people respected. It not only involves high-speed processing technology, but also including high-speed processing machine tools, numerical control system, high-speed cutting tools and CAD / CAM technology. Die-processing technology has been developed in the mold of the manufacturing sector in general, and in my application and the application of the standards have yet to be improved, because of its traditional processing with unparalleled advantages, the future will continue to be an inevitable development of processing technology Direction.4 Numerical control technology and equipping development trend and countermeasureEquip the engineering level, level of determining the whole national economy of the modernized degree and modernized degree of industry, numerical control technology is it develop new developing new high-tech industry and most advanced industry to equip (such as information technology and his industry, biotechnology and his industry, aviation, spaceflight, etc. national defense industry) last technology and getting more basic most equipment. Marx has ever said "the differences of different economic times, do not lie in what is produced, and lie in how to produce,produce with some means of labor ". Manufacturing technology and equipping the most basic means of production that are that the mankind produced the activity, and numerical control technology is nowadays advanced manufacturing technology and equips the most central technology. Nowadays the manufacturing industry all around the world adopts numerical control technology extensively, in order to improve manufacturing capacity and level, improve the adaptive capacity and competitive power to the changeable market of the trends. In addition every industrially developed country in the world also classifies the technology and numerical control equipment of numerical control as the strategic materials of the country, not merely take the great measure to develop one's own numerical control technology and industry, and implement blockading and restrictive policy to our country in view of " high-grade, precision and advanced key technology of numerical control " and equipping. In a word, develop the advanced manufacturing technology taking numerical control technology as the core and already become every world developed country and accelerate economic development in a more cost-effective manner, important way to improve the overall national strength and national position. Numerical control technology is the technology controlled to mechanical movement and working course with digital information, integrated products of electromechanics that the numerical control equipment is the new technology represented by numerical control technology forms to the manufacture industry of the tradition and infiltration of the new developing manufacturing industry, namely the so-called digitization is equipped, its technological range covers a lot of fields: (1)Mechanical manufacturing technology; (2)Information processing, processing, transmission technology; (3)Automatic control technology; (4)Servo drive technology;(5)Technology of the sensor; (6)Software engineering ,etc..Development trend of a numerical control technologyThe application of numerical control technology has not only brought the revolutionary change to manufacturing industry of the tradition, make the manufacturing industry become the industrialized symbol , and with the constant development of numerical control technology and enlargement of the application, the development of some important trades (IT , automobile , light industry , medical treatment ,etc. ) to the national economy and the people's livelihood of his plays a more and more important role, because the digitization that these trades needed to equip has already been the main trend of modern development. Numerical control technology in the world at present and equipping the development trend to see, there is the following several respect [1- ] in its main research focus.5 A high-speed, high finish machining technology and new trend equippedThe efficiency, quality are subjavanufacturing technology. High-speed, high finish machining technology can raise the efficiency greatly , improve the quality and grade of the products, shorten production cycle and improve the market competitive power. Japan carries the technological research association first to classify it as one of the 5 great modern manufacturing technologies forthis, learn (CIRP) to confirm it as the centre in the 21st century and study one of the directions in international production engineering.In the field of car industry, produce one second when beat such as production of 300,000 / vehicle per year, and many variety process it is car that equip key problem that must be solved one of; In the fields of aviation and aerospace industry, spare parts of its processing are mostly the thin wall and thin muscle, rigidity is very bad, the material is aluminium or aluminium alloy, only in a situation that cut the speed and cut strength very small high, could process these muscles, walls. Adopt large-scale whole aluminium alloy method that blank " pay empty " make the wing recently, such large-scale parts as the fuselage ,etc. come to substitute a lot of parts to assemble through numerous rivet , screw and other connection way, make the intensity , rigidity and dependability of the component improved. All these, to processing and equipping the demand which has proposed high-speed, high precise and high flexibility.According to EMO2001 exhibition situation, high-speed machining center is it give speed can reach 80m/min is even high , air transport competent speed can up to 100m/min to be about to enter. A lot of automobile factories in the world at present, including Shanghai General Motors Corporation of our country, have already adopted and substituted and made the lathe up with the production line part that the high-speed machining center makes up. HyperMach lathe of U.S.A. CINCINNATI Company enters to nearly biggest 60m/min of speed, it is 100m/min to be fast, the acceleration reaches 2g, the rotational speed of the main shaft has already reached 60 000r/min. Processing a thin wall of plane parts, spend 30min only, and same part general at a high speed milling machine process and take 3h, the ordinary milling machine is being processed to need 8h; The speed and acceleration of main shaft of dual main shaft lathes of Germany DMG Company are up to 120000r/mm and 1g.In machining accuracy, the past 10 years, ordinary progression accuse of machining accuracy of lathe bring 5μm up to from 10μm already, accurate grades of machining center from 3～5μm, rise to 1～1.5μm, and ultraprecision machining accuracy is i t enter nanometer grade to begin already (0.01μm).In dependability, MTBF value of the foreign numerical control device has already reached above 6 000h, MTBF value of the servo system reaches above 30000h, demonstrate very high dependability .In order to realize high-speed, high finish machining, if the part of function related to it is electric main shaft, straight line electrical machinery get fast development, the application is expanded further .5.2 Link and process and compound to process the fast development of the lathe in 5 axesAdopt 5 axles to link the processing of the three-dimensional curved surface part, can cut with the best geometry form of the cutter , not only highly polished, but also efficiency improves by a large margin . It is generally acknowledged, the efficiency of an 5 axle gear beds can equal 2 3 axle gearbeds, is it wait for to use the cubic nitrogen boron the milling cutter of ultra hard material is milled and pared at a high speed while quenching the hard steel part, 5 axles link and process 3 constant axles to link and process and give play to higher benefit. Because such reasons as complicated that 5 axles link the numerical control system , host computer structure that but go over, it is several times higher that its price links the numerical control lathe than 3 axles , in addition the technological degree of difficulty of programming is relatively great, have restricted the development of 5 axle gear beds.At present because of electric appearance of main shaft, is it realize 5 axle complex main shaft hair structure processed to link greatly simplify to make, it makes degree of difficulty and reducing by a large margin of the cost, the price disparity of the numerical control system shrinks. So promoted 5 axle gear beds of head of complex main shaft and compound to process the development of the lathe (process the lathe including 5).At EMO2001 exhibition, new Japanese 5 of worker machine process lathe adopt complex main shaft hair, can realize the processing of 4 vertical planes and processing of the wanton angle, make 5 times process and 5 axles are processed and can be realized on the same lathe, can also realize the inclined plane and pour the processing of the hole of awls. Germany DMG Company exhibits the DMUVoution series machining center, but put and insert and put processing and 5 axles 5 times to link and process in once, can be controlled by CNC system or CAD/CAM is controlled directly or indirectly.5.3 Become the main trend of systematic development of contemporary numerical control intelligently, openly, networkedly.The numerical control equipment in the 21st century will be sure the intelligent system, the intelligent content includes all respects in the numerical control system: It is intelligent in order to pursue the efficiency of processing and process quality, control such as the self-adaptation of the processing course, the craft parameter is produced automatically; Join the convenient one in order to improve the performance of urging and use intelligently, if feedforward control , adaptive operation , electrical machinery of parameter , discern load select models , since exactly makes etc. automatically; The ones that simplified programming , simplified operating aspect are intelligent, for instance intelligent automatic programming , intelligent man-machine interface ,etc.; There are content of intelligence diagnose , intelligent monitoring , diagnosis convenient to be systematic and maintaining ,etc..Produce the existing problem for the industrialization of solving the traditional numerical control system sealing and numerical control application software. A lot of countries carry on research to the open numerical control system at present, such as NGC of U.S.A. (The Next Generation Work-Station/Machine Control), OSACA of European Community (Open System Architecture for Control within Automation Systems), OSEC (Open System Environment for Controller) of Japan, ONC (Open Numerical Control System) of China, etc.. The numerical control system melts tobecome the future way of the numerical control system open. The so-called open numerical control system is the development of the numerical control system can be on unified operation platform, face the lathe producer and end user, through changing, increasing or cutting out the structure target(numerical control function), form the serration, and can use users specially conveniently and the technical know-how is integrated in the control system, realize the open numerical control system of different variety , different grade fast, form leading brand products with distinct distinction. System structure norm of the open numerical control system at present, communication norm , disposing norm , operation platform , numerical control systematic function storehouse and numerical control systematic function software development ,etc. are the core of present research.The networked numerical control equipment is a new light spot of the fair of the internationally famous lathe in the past two years. Meeting production line , manufacture system , demand for the information integration of manufacturing company networkedly greatly of numerical control equipment, realize new manufacture mode such as quick make , fictitious enterprise , basic Entrance that the whole world make too. Some domestic and international famous numerical control lathes and systematic manufacturing companies of numerical control have all introduced relevant new concepts and protons of a machine in the past two years, if in EMO2001 exhibition, " Cyber Production Center " that the company exhibits of mountain rugged campstool gram in Japan (Mazak) (intellectual central production control unit, abbreviated as CPC); The lathe company of Japanese big Wei (Okuma ) exhibits " IT plaza " (the information technology square , is abbreviated as IT square ); Open Manufacturing Environment that the company exhibits of German Siemens (Siemens ) (open the manufacturing environment, abbreviated as OME),etc., have reflected numerical control machine tooling to the development trend of networked direction.5.4 Pay attention to the new technical standard, normal setting-up5.4.1 Design the norm of developing about the numerical control systemAs noted previously, there are better common ability, flexibility, adaptability, expanding in the open numerical control system, such countries as U.S.A. ,European Community and Japan ,etc. implement the strategic development plan one after another , carry on the research and formulation of the systematic norm (OMAC , OSACA , OSEC ) of numerical control of the open system structure, 3 biggest economies in the world have carried on the formulation that nearly the same science planned and standardized in a short time, have indicated a new arrival of period of change of numerical control technology. Our country started the research and formulation of standardizing the frame of ONC numerical control system of China too in 2000.5.4.2 About the numerical control standardThe numerical control standard is a kind of trend of information-based development of manufacturing industry. Information exchange among 50 years after numerical control technology was born was all because of ISO6983 standard, namely adopt G, M code describes how processes,。
《机械外文翻译文献翻译液压传动》
英文原文Hydraulic SystemHydraulic presser drive and air pressure drive hydraulic fluid as the transmission is made according to the 17th century, Pascal's principle of hydrostatic pressure to drive the development of an emerging technology, the United Kingdo m in 1795 • Braman Joseph (Joseph Braman ,1749-1814), in London water as a medium to form hydraulic press used in industry, the birth of the world's first hydraulic press. Media work in 1905 will be replaced by oil-water and further improved.Hydraulic transmission There are many outstanding advantages, it is widely used, such as general industr- ial use of plastics processing machinery, the pressure of machinery, machine tools, etc.; operating machinery engineering machinery, construction machinery, agricultural machinery, automobiles, etc.; iron and steel indu- stry metallurgical machinery, lifting equipment, such as roller adjustment device; civil water projects with flo- od control and dam gate devices, bed lifts installations, bridges and other manipulation of institutions; speed turbine power plant installations, nuclear power plants, etc.; ship from the deck heavy machinery (winch), the bow doors, bulkhead valve, stern thruster, etc.; special antenna technology giant with control devices, measu- rement buoys, movements such as rotating stage; military-industrial control devices used in artillery, ship anti- rolling devices, aircraft simulation, aircraft retractable landing gear and rudder control devices and other devi- ces.A complete hydraulic system consists of five parts, namely, power components, the implementation of co- mponents, control components, auxiliary components and hydraulic oil.The role of dynamic components of the original motive fluid into mechanical energy to the pressure that the hydraulic system of pumps, it is to power the entire hydraulic system. The structure of the form of hydra- ulic pump gears are generally pump, vane pump and piston pump.Implementation of components (such as hydraulic cylinders and hydraulic motors) which is the pressure of the liquid can be converted to mechanical energy to drive the load for a straight line reciprocating movement or rotational movement.Control components (that is, the various hydraulic valves) in the hydraulic system to control and regulate the pressure of liquid, flow rate and direction. According to the different control functions, hydraulic pressure control valve can be divided into valves, flow control valves and directional control valve. Pressure control valves are divided into benefits flow valve (safety valve), pressure relief valve, sequence valve, pressure relays, etc.; flow control valves including throttle, adjusting the valves, flow diversion valve sets, etc.; directional control valve includes a one-way valve , one-way fluid control valve, shuttle valve, valve and so on. Under the control of different ways, can be divided into the hydraulic valve control switch valve, control valve and set the value of the ratio control valve.Auxiliary components, including fuel tanks, oil filters, tubing and pipe joints, seals, pressure gauge, oil level, such as oil dollars.Hydraulic oil in the hydraulic system is the work of the energy transfer medium, there are a variety of mineral oil, emulsion oil hydraulic molding Hop categories.The role of the hydraulic system is to help humanity work. Mainly by the implementation of components to rotate or pressure into a reciprocating motion.Hydraulic system and hydraulic power control signal is composed of two parts, the signal control of some parts of the hydraulic power used to drive the control valve movement.Part of the hydraulic power means that the circuit diagram used to show the different functions of the interrelationship between components. Containing the source of hydraulic pump, hydraulic motor and auxiliary components; hydraulic control part contains a variety of control valves, used to control the flow of oil, pressure and direction; operative or hydraulic cylinder with hydraulic motors, according to the actual requirements of their choice.In the analysis and design of the actual task, the general block diagram shows the actual operation of equi - pment. Hollow arrow indicates the signal flow, while the solid arrows that energy flow.Basic hydraulic circuit of the action sequence - Control components (two four-way valve) and the spring to reset for the implementation of components (double-acting hydraulic cylinder), as well as the extending and retracting the relief valve opened and closed . For the implementation of components and control components, presentations are based on the corresponding circuit diagram symbols, it also introduced ready made circuit diagram symbols.Working principle of the system, you can turn on all circuits to code. If the first implementation of components numbered 0, the control components associated with the identifier is 1. Out with the implementation of components corresponding to the identifier for the even components, then retracting and implementation of components corresponding to the identifier for the odd components. Hydraulic circuit carried out not only to deal with numbers, but also to deal with the actual device ID, in order to detect system failures.DIN ISO1219-2 standard definition of the number of component composition, which includes the following four parts: device ID, circuit ID, component ID and component ID. The entire system if only one device, device number may be omitted.Practice, another way is to code all of the hydraulic system components for numbers at this time, components and component code should be consistent with the list of numbers. This method is particularly applicable to complex hydraulic control system, each control loop are the corresponding number with the systemWith mechanical transmission, electrical transmission compared to the hydraulic drive has the following advantages:1, a variety of hydraulic components, can easily and flexibly to layout.2, light weight, small size, small inertia, fast response.3, to facilitate manipulation of control, enabling a wide range of stepless speed regulation (speed range of 2000:1).4, to achieve overload protection automatically.5, the general use of mineral oil as a working medium, the relative motion can be self-lubricating surface, long service life;6, it is easy to achieve linear motion /7, it is easy to achieve the automation of machines, when the joint control of the use of electro-hydraulic, not only can achieve a higher degree of process automation, and remote control can be achieved.The shortcomings of the hydraulic system:1, as a result of the resistance to fluid flow and leakage of the larger, so less efficient. If not handled properly, leakage is not only contaminated sites, but also may cause fire and explosion.2, vulnerable performance as a result of the impact of temperature change, it would be inappropriate in the high or low temperature conditions.3, the manufacture of precision hydraulic components require a higher, more expensive and hence the price. 4, due to the leakage of liquid medium and the compressibility and can not be strictly the transmission ratio. 5, hydraulic transmission is not easy to find out the reasons for failure; the use and maintenance requirements for a higher level of technology.In the hydraulic system and its system, the sealing device to prevent leakage of the work of media within and outside the dust and the intrusion of foreign bodies. Seals played the role of components, namely seals. Medium will result in leakage of waste, pollution and environmental machinery and even give rise to malfunctioning machinery and equipment for personal accident. Leakage within the hydraulic system will cause a sharp drop in volumetric efficiency, amounting to less than the required pressure, can not even work. Micro-invasive system of dust particles, can cause or exacerbate friction hydraulic component wear, and further lead to leakage.Therefore, seals and sealing device is an important hydraulic equipment components. The reliability of its机械专业中英文文献翻译work and life, is a measure of the hydraulic system an important indicator of good or bad. In addition to the closed space, are the use of seals, so that two adjacent coupling surface of the gap between the need to control the liquid can be sealed following the smallest gap. In the contact seal, pressed into self-seal-style and self-styled self-tight seal (ie, sealed lips) two.The three hydraulic system diseases1, as a result of heat transmission medium (hydraulic oil) in the flow velocity in various parts of the existence of different, resulting in the existence of a liquid within the internal friction of liquids and pipelines at the sam- e time there is friction between the inner wall, which are a result of hydraulic the reasons for the oil tempera- ture. Temperature will lead to increased internal and external leakage, reducing its mechanical efficiency. At the same time as a result of high temperature, hydraulic oil expansion will occur, resulting in increased com- pression, so that action can not be very good control of transmission. Solution: heat is the inherent characte -ristics of the hydraulic system, not only to minimize eradication. Use a good quality hydraulic oil, hydraulic piping arrangement should be avoided as far as possible the emergence of bend, the use of high-quality pipe and fittings, hydraulic valves, etc.2, the vibration of the vibration of the hydraulic system is also one of its malaise. As a result of hydraulic oil in the pipeline flow of high-speed impact and the control valve to open the closure of the impact of the process are the reasons for the vibration system. Strong vibration control action will cause the system to error, the system will also be some of the more sophisticated equipment error, resulting in system failures. Solutions: hydraulic pipe should be fixed to avoid sharp bends. To avoid frequent changes in flow direction, can not avoid damping measures should be doing a good job. The entire hydraulic system should have a good damping measures, while avoiding the external local oscillator on the system.3, the leakage of the hydraulic system leak into inside and outside the leakage leakage. Leakage refers to the process with the leak occurred in the system, such as hydraulic piston-cylinder on both sides of the leakage, the control valve spool and valve body, such as between the leakage. Although no internal leakage of hydra- ulic fluid loss, but due to leakage, the control of the established movements may be affected until the cause system failures. Outside means the occurrence of leakage in the system and the leakage between the external environment. Direct leakage of hydraulic oil into the environment, in addition to the system will affect the working environment, not enough pressure will cause the system to trigger a fault. Leakage into the enviro- nment of the hydraulic oil was also the danger of fire. Solution: the use of better quality seals to improve the machining accuracy of equipment.Another: the hydraulic system for the three diseases, it was summed up: "fever, with a father拉稀" (This is the summary of the northeast people). Hydraulic system for the lifts, excavators, pumping station, dynamic, crane, and so on large-scale industry, construction, factories, enterprises, as well as elevators, lifting platforms, Deng Axle industry and so on.Hydraulic components will be high-performance, high-quality, high reliability, the system sets the direction of development; to the low power, low noise, vibration, without leakage, as well as pollution control, water-based media applications to adapt to environmental requirements, such as the direction of development; the development of highly integrated high power density, intelligence, mechatronics and micro-light mini-hydraulic components; active use of new techniques, new materials and electronics, sensing and other high-tech.Hydraulic coupling to high-speed high-power and integrated development of hydraulic transmission equ- ipment, development of water hydraulic coupling medium speed and the field of automotive applications to develop hydraulic reducer, improve product reliability and working hours MTBF; hydraulic torque converter to the development of high-power products, parts and components to improve the manufacturing process tech -nology to improve reliability, promote computer-aided technology, the development of hydraulic torque con- verter and power shift transmission technology supporting the use of ; Clutch fluid viscosity should increase the quality of products, the formation of bulk to the high-power and high-speed direction.Pneumatic Industry:Products to small size, light weight, low power consumption, integrated portfolio of development, the implementation of the various types of components, compact structure, high positioning accuracy of the direction of development; pneumatic components and electronic technology, to the intelligent direction of development; component performance to high-speed, high-frequency, high-response, high-life, high temp- erature, high voltage direction, commonly used oil-free lubrication, application of new technology, new technology and new materials.(1)used high-pressure hydraulic components and the pressure of continuous work to reach 40Mpa, the maximum pressure to achieve instant 48Mpa;(2) diversification of regulation and control;(3) to further improve the regulation performance, increase the efficiency of the powertrain;(4) development and mechanical, hydraulic, power transmission of the composite portfolio adjustment gear;(5) development of energy saving, energy efficient system function;(6) to further reduce the noise;(7) Application of Hydraulic Cartridge V alves thread technology, compact structure, to reduce the oil spill Water-based hydraulic systemsWater-based hydraulic systems traditionally have been used in hot-metal areas of steel mills. The obvious advantage of water systems in these industries is their fire resistance. Water-based hydraulic systems also have obvious cost advantages over oil-based fluid. First, non-toxic, biodegradable synthetic additives for water cost $5 to $6 per gallon. One gallon of concentrate can make 20 gallons of a 5% solution, so the cost of water-based hydraulic fluid actually can be less than 30 cents per gallon.Considering the costs associated with preventing and cleaning up environmental contamination, water-based hydraulic systems hold the potential for tremendous cost savings at the plant level. Oil that has leaked already becomes a very important problem. It must be collected, properly contained. Water containing synthetic additives, however, can by dumped into plant effluent systems.Cost savings at the plant level don't stop at the lower cost of the fluid and its disposal. Because water-based hydraulic fluid consists of 10 parts water and one part synthetic additive, 5 gallons of additive mixes with water to make 100 gallons of water-based fluid. A 50gallon container is certainly easier to handle than two 55-gallon drums, so warehousing is simpler, cleaner, and less cluttered. Transportation costs also are lower.Other potential plant-wide savings include improved safety for workers because the water-based fluid is non-toxic as well as non-flammable. These attributes can reduce plant insurance rates. Spills cost less to clean up because granular absorbents or absorbent socks are unnecessary. Water is "hot" againThe oil embargo in the 1970s sparked interest in water-based fluids as a less-costly alternative to oils. Even the most expensive water additives became attractive when designers learned that one gallon of concentrate would make 20 gallons of fluid.As oil prices gradually dropped, so did interest in water-based hydraulics. In retrospect, interest in water-based fluids centered around their cost saving potential. Most designers lost interest when they discovered that they could not just change the fluid in their systems from oil to water without making other substantial changes. They then become reluctant to accept other "disadvantages" - read substantial changes - of switching over to water-based hydraulics.What were viewed as disadvantages were really different rules that apply to water-based hydraulic systems? Designers probably resisted learning more about water-based hydraulics because they were intimated by all the work required to lean about how to design a new system or retrofit an older system. By closing their minds to this different technology, they missed the many other advantages of water-based fluid beyond initial cost. Now that environmental concerns have added disposal costs to the price of hydraulic fluids, water-based hydraulics has again become a hot topic.Fighting freezeWater-based hydraulic systems do, of course, have limits to their applications. One limitation is the potential of freezing. This possibility is probably the most significant blockade to more widespread application of机械专业中英文文献翻译water-based systems, especially in the mobile equipment industry. Longwall mining is by far the largest sector of mobile equipment that has been able to take advantage of water-based systems. Temperatures underground do not approach the freezing point of water, and fire resistance is essential. Mobile and even marine equipment used in temperate climates could cash in one the advantages of water based systems, but there is no guarantee that such equipment always will be used in above-freezing temperatures.Nevertheless, adding an anti-freeze to a water-based fluid can depress its freezing temperature to well below 32°F. Ethylene glycol - used in automotive anti-freeze - is toxic and is not biodegradable, so its use for anti-freeze in water-based hydraulic fluid would defeat the environmental advantage water-based fluid has. There is an alternative. Propylene glycol is not toxic and is biodegradable. It costs more than ethylene glycol and is not quite as effective antifreeze, so it must be used in slightly higher concentrations. Two more techniques to reduce freezing potential are to keep fluid circulating continuously and use hose where practical. Sealing the systemTwo more perceived problems with water hydraulic systems are bacterial infestation and difficulty in maintain proper concentrations. Sealing the system from atmosphere can hold bacterial growth in check. Addition of an anti-bacterial agent to the fluid can have a lasting effect on preventing bacterial buildup if air is excluded from the system.A sealed reservoir eliminates another problem suffered by many hydraulic systems: water ingression. This addresses another misconception about water-based systems: water-based systems not sealed from the atmosphere must be closely monitored to ensure that the additive concentration stays within tolerance. That is because water evaporates from the reservoir more readily than the additive does. Consequently, water evaporation causes the additive concentration to increase. When new fluid is added to a system, samples of the existing fluid must be taken to determine the concentration of additive in solution. These results then reveal the ratio of additive to fluid that must be added so that fluid concentration is correct.With a system that seals fluid from the atmosphere, the evaporation problem is virtually eliminated. Fluid that escapes by leakage is a solution containing water and additive. Therefore, the quantity of fluid in the system changes, but concentration does not. System fluid is replen ished simply by adding a pre-mixed solution of water and additive to the reservoir.中文原文液压传动液压传动和气压传动称为流体传动，是根据17世纪帕斯卡提出的液体静压力传动原理而发展起来的一门新兴技术，1795年英国约瑟夫•布拉曼(Joseph Braman,1749-1814)，在伦敦用水作为工作介质，以水压机的形式将其应用于工业上，诞生了世界上第一台水压机。
机械加工——机械类外文翻译、中英文翻译
TOOL WEAR MECHANISMS ON THE FLANK SURFACE OF CUTTINGINSERTSFOR HIGH SPEED WET MACHINING5.1 IntroductionAlmost every type of machining such as turning, milling, drilling, grinding..., uses a cutting fluid to assist in the cost effective production of pa rts as set up standard required by the producer [1]. Using coolant with some cutting tools material causes severe failure due to the lack of their resistance to thermal shock (like AL2O3 ceramics), used to turn steel. Other cutting tools materials like cubic boron nitride (CBN) can be used without coolant, due to the type of their function. The aim of using CBN is to raise the temperature of the workpice to high so it locally softens and can be easily machined.The reasons behind using cutting fluids can be summarized as follows.® Extending the cutting tool life achieved by reducing heat generated and as a result less wear rate is achieved. It will also eliminate the heat from theshear zone and the formed chips.® Cooling the work piece of high quality materia l under operation plays an important role since thermal distortion of the surface and subsurfacedamage is a result of excessive heat that must be eliminated or largelyreduced to produce a high quality product.Reducing cutting forces by its lubricating e ffect at the contact interface region and washing and cleaning the cutting region during machining from small chips. The two main reasons for using cutting fluids are cooling and lubrication.Cutting Fluid as a Coolant:The fluid characteristics and condition of use determine the coolant action of the cutting fluid, which improves the heat transfer at the shear zone between the cutting edge, work piece, and cutting fluid. The properties of the coolant in this case must include a high heat capacity to carry away heat and good thermal conductivity to absorb the heat from the cutting region. The water-based coolant emulsion with its excellent high heat capacity is able to reduce tool wear [44]. Cutting Fluid as a Lubricant:The purpose is to reduce friction bet ween the cutting edge, rake face and the work piece material or reducing the cutting forces (tangential component). As the friction drops the heat generated isdropped. As a result, the cutting tool wear rate is reduced and the surface finish is improved.Cutting Fluid PropertiesFree of perceivable odorPreserve clarity throughout lifeKind and unirritated to skin and eyes.Corrosion protection to the machine parts and work piece.Cost effective in terms off tool life, safety, dilution ratio, and fluid lif e.[1]5.1.1 Cutting Fluid TypesThere are two major categories of cutting fluidsNeat Cutting OilsNeat cutting oils are poor in their coolant characteristics but have an excellent lubricity. They are applied by flooding the work area by a pump and re-circulated through a filter, tank and nozzles. This type is not diluted by water, and may contain lubricity and extreme-pressure additives to enhance their cutting performance properties. The usage of this type has been declining for their poor cooling ability, causing fire risk, proven to cause health and safety risk to the operator [1].® Water Based or Water Soluble Cutting FluidsThis group is subdivided into three categories:1.Emulsion ` mineral soluble' white-milky color as a result of emulsion of oil inwater. Contain from 40%-80% mineral oil and an emulsifying agent beside corrosion inhibitors, beside biocide to inhibit the bacteria growth.2.Micro emulsion `semi-synthetic' invented in 1980's, has less oil concentrationand/or higher emulsifier ratio 10%-40% oil. Due to the high levels ofemulsifier the oil droplet size in the fluid are smaller which make the fluid more translucent and easy to see the work piece during operation. Otherimportant benefit is in its ability to emulsify any leakage of oil from themachine parts in the cutting fluid, a corrosion inhibitors, and bacteria control.3.Mineral oil free `synthetic' is a mix of chemicals, water, bacteria control,corrosion inhibitors, and dyes. Does not contain any mineral oils, andprovides good visibility.23 to the work piece. bare in mind that the lack of mineral oil in this type of cuttingfluid needs to take more attention to machine parts lubrication since it should not leave an oily film on the machine parts, and might cause seals degradation due the lack of protection.5.1.2 Cutting Fluid SelectionMany factors influence the selection of cutting fluid; mainly work piece material, type of machining operation, machine tool parts, paints, and seals. Table 5-1 prepared at the machine tool industry res earch association [2] provides suggestions on the type of fluid to be used.5.1.3 Coolant ManagementTo achieve a high level of cutting fluids performance and costeffectiveness, a coolant recycling system should be installed in the factory. This system will reduce the amount of new purchased coolant concentrate and coolant disposable, which will reduce manufacturing cost. It either done by the company itself or be rented out, depends on the budget and management policy of the company [1].Table 5-1 Guide to the selection of cutting fluids for general workshop applications.Machining operation Workpiece materialFree machining and low - carbon Medium- Carbon steels High Carbon and alloy steels Stainlessand heattreated GrindingClear type soluble oil, semi synthetic or chemical Turning General purpose, soluble oil, semi synthetic or synthetic fluid Extreme-pressuresoluble oil,semi-synthetic orsyntheticfluid Milling General purpose, soluble oil, semi synthetic or synthetic Extreme- pressure soluble oil, semi- synthetic or synthetic Extreme-pressuresoluble oil,semi-synthetic orsyntheticfluid(neat cutting oilsmay beDrillingExtreme- pressure soluble oil, semi- synthetic or GearShapping Extreme-pressure soluble oil, Neat-cutting oils preferable HobbingExtreme-pressure soluble oil, semi-synthetic or synthetic fluid (neat cutting oils may be Neat-cutti ng oils BratchingExtreme-pressure soluble oil, semi-synthetic or synthetic fluid (neat Tapping Extreme-pressure soluble oil, semi-synthetic or Neat-cuttingpreferableNote: some entreis deliberately extend over two or more columns, indicating awide range of possible applications. Other entries are confined to aspecific class of work material.Adopt ed f rom Edw ard and Wri ght [2]5.2 Wear Mechanisms Under Wet High Speed M achiningIt is a common belief that coolant usage in metal cutting reduces cuttingtemperature and extends tools life. However, this researchshowed that this is not necessarily true to be generalized overcutting inserts materials. Similar research was ca rried out ondifferent cutting inserts materials and cutting conditionssupporting our results. Gu et al [36] have recorded adifference in tool wear mechanisms between dry and wetcutting of C5 milling inserts. Tonshoff et al [44] alsoexhibited different wear mechanisms on AL 2O 3/TiC inserts inmachining ASTM 5115, when using coolants emulsionscompared to dry cutting. In addition, Avila and Abrao [20]experienced difference in wear mechanisms activated at theflank side, when using different coolants in t estingAL 2O 3lTiC tools in machining AISI4340 steel. The wearmechanisms and the behavior of the cutting inserts studied inthis research under wet high speed-machining (WHSM)condition is not fully understood. Therefore, it was theattempt of this research to focus on the contributions incoating development and coating techniques of newlydeveloped materials in order to upgrade their performance attough machining conditions. This valuable research providesinsight into production timesavings and increase inprofitability. Cost reductions are essential in the competitiveglobal economy; thus protecting local markets and consistingin the search of new ones.5.3 Experimental Observations on Wear Mechanisms of Un-CoatedCemented Carbide Cutting Inserts in High Speed WetMachiningIn this section, the observed wear mechanisms are presented of uncoated cemented carbide tool (KC313) in machining ASTM 4140 steel under wet condition. The overall performance of cemented carbide under using emulsion coolant has been improved in terms of extending tool life and reducing machining cost. Different types of wear mechanisms were activated at flank side of cutting inserts as a result of using coolant emulsion during machining processes. This was due to the effect of coolant in reducing the average temperature of the cutting tool edge and shear zone during machining. As a result abrasive wear was reduced leading longer tool life. The materials of cutting tools behave differently to coolant because of their varied resistance to thermal shock. The following observations recorded the behavior of cemented carbide during high speed machining under wet cutting.Figure5-1 shows the flank side of cutting inserts used at a cutting speed of 180m/min. The SEM images were recorded after 7 minutes of machining. It shows micro-abrasion wear, which identified by the narrow grooves along the flank side in the direction of metal flow, supported with similar observations documented by Barnes and Pashby [41] in testing through-coolant-drilling inserts of aluminum/SiC metal matrix composite. Since the cutting edge is the weakest part of the cutting insert geometry, edge fracture started first due to the early non-smooth engagement between the tool and the work piece material. Also, this is due to stress concentrations that might lead to a cohesive failure on the transient filleted flank cutting wedge region [51, 52]. The same image of micro-adhesion wear can be seen at the side and tool indicated by the half cone27 shape on the side of cutting tool. To investigate further, a zoom in view was taken atthe flank side with a magnification of 1000 times and presented in Figure 5-2A. It shows clear micro-abrasion wear aligned in the direction of metal flow, where the cobalt binder was worn first in a hi gher wear rate than WC grains which protruded as big spherical droplets. Figure 5-2B provides a zoom-in view that was taken at another location for the same flank side. Thermal pitting revealed by black spots in different depths and micro-cracks, propagated in multi directions as a result of using coolant. Therefore, theii~ial pitting, micro-adhesion and low levels of micro-abrasion activated under wet cutting; while high levels of micro-abrasion wear is activated under dry cutting (as presented in the prev ious Chapter).Figure 5-3A was taken for a cutting insert machined at 150mlmin. It shows a typical micro-adhesion wear, where quantities of chip metal were adhered at the flank side temporarily. Kopac [53] exhibited similar finding when testing HSS-TiN drill inserts in drilling SAE1045 steel. This adhered metal would later be plucked away taking grains of WC and binder from cutting inserts material and the process continues. In order to explore other types of wear that might exist, a zoom-in view with magnification of 750 times was taken as shown in Figure5-3B. Figure 5-3B show two forms of wears; firstly, micro-thermal cracks indicated by perpendicular cracks located at the right side of the picture, and supported with similar findings of Deamley and Trent [27]. Secondly, micro-abrasion wear at the left side of the image where the WC grains are to be plucked away after the cobalt binder was severely destroyed by micro-abrasion. Cobalt binders are small grains and WC is the big size grains. The severe distort ion of the binder along with the WC grains might be due to the activation of micro-adhesion and micro-abrasionFigure 5-1 SEM image of (KC313) showing micro abrasion and micro-adhesion (wet).SEM micrographs of (KC313) at 180m/min showing micro-abrasion where cobalt binder was worn first leaving protruded WC spherical droplets (wet).(a)SEM micrographs of (KC313) at 180m/min showing thermal pitting (wet).Figure 5-2 Magnified views of (KC313) under wet cutting: (a) SEM micrographs of (KC313) at 180mlmin showing micro-abrasion where cobalt binderwas worn first leaving protruded WC spherical droplets (wet ), (b) SEMmicrographs of (KC313) at 180.m/min showing thermal pitting (wet ).SEM image showing micro-adhesion wear mechanism under 150m/min (wet).(a)SEM image showing micro-thermal cracks, and micro-abrasion.Figure 5-3 Magnified views of (KC313) at 150m/min (wet): (a) SEM image showing micro-adhesion wear mechanism under 150m/min (wet), (b) SEM image showing micro-fatigue cracks, and micro-abrasion (wet).Wear at the time of cutting conditions of speed and coolant introduction. Therefore, micro-fatigue, micro-abrasion, and micro-adhesion wear mechanisms are activated under wet condition, while high levels of micro-abrasion were observed under dry one.Next, Figure 5-4A was taken at the next lower speed (120m/min). It shows build up edge (BUE) that has sustained its existence throughout the life of the cutting tool, similar to Huang [13], Gu et al [36] and Venkatsh et al [55]. This BUE has protected the tool edge and extended its life. Under dry cutting BUE has appeared at lower speeds (90 and 60 m/min), but when introducing coolant BUE started to develop at higher speeds, This is due to the drop in shear zone temperature that affected the chip metal fl ow over the cutting tool edge, by reducing the ductility to a level higher than the one existing at dry condition cutting. As a result, chip metal starts accumulating easier at the interface between metal chip flow, cutting tool edge and crater surface to form a BUE. In addition to BUE formation, micro-abrasion wear was activated at this speed indicated by narrow grooves.To explore the possibility of other wear mechanisms a zoom-in view with a magnification of 3500 times was taken and shown in Figure 5-4B. Micro- fatigue is evident by propagated cracks in the image similar to Deamley and Trent [27] finding. Furthermore, Figure 5-4B shows indications of micro-abrasion wear, revealed by the abrasion of cobalt binder and the remains of big protruded WC grains. However, the micro-abrasion appeared at this speed of 120m/min is less severe than the same type of micro-wear observed at 150m/min speed, supported with Barnes [41] similar findings. Therefore, micro-abrasion, BUE and micro-fatigue were activated under wet condition while, adhesion, high levels micro-abrasion, and no BUE were under dry cutting.SEM i m a g e o f(KC313) showing build up e d g e under 120m/min (wet).(a)SEM i m a g e o f(KC3 13) showing micro-fatigue, and micro-abrasion (wet). Figure 5-4 SEM images of (KC313) at 120m/min (wet), (a) SEM image of (KC313). showing build up edge, (b) SEM image of(K C313) showing micro-fatigue and micro-abrasion33 Figure 5-5 is for a cutting tool machined at 90m/min, that presents a goodcapture of one stage of tool life after the BUE has been plucked away. The bottom part of the flank side shows massive metal adhesion from the work piece material. The upper part of the figure at the edge shows edge fracture. To stand over the reason of edge fracture, the zoom-in view with magnification of 2000 times is presented in Figure 5-6A. The micro-fatigue crack image can be seen as well as micro-attrition revealed by numerous holes, and supported with Lim et al [31] observations on HSS-TiN inserts. As a result of BUE fracture from the cutting tool edge, small quantities from the cutting tool material is plucked away leaving behind numerous holes. Figure 5-6B is another zoom-in view of the upper part of flank side with a magnification of 1000 times and shows micro-abrasion wear indicated by the narrow grooves. Furthermore, the exact type of micro-wear mechanism appeared at the flank side under 60 m/min. Therefore, in comparison with dry cutting at the cutting speed of 90 m/min and 60 m/min, less micro-abrasion, bigger BUE formation, and higher micro-attrition rate were activated.Figure 5-5 SEM image showing tool edge after buildup edge was plucked away.SEM image showing micro-fatigue crack, and micro-attrition.(a)SEM image showing micro-abrasion.Figure 5-6 SEM images of (KC313) at 90m/min:(a) SEM image showing micro-fatigue crack, and micro-attrition, (b) SEM image showingmicro-abrasion.5.4 Experimental Observations on Wear Mechanisms of Coated CementedCarbide with TiN-TiCN-TiN Coating in High Speed WetMachiningInvestigating the wear mechanisms of sandwich coating under wet cutting is presented in this section starting from early stages of wear. Figure 5-7 shows early tool wear starting at the cutting edge when cutting at 410m/min. Edge fracture can be seen, it has started at cutting edge due to non-smooth contact between tool, work piece, micro-abrasion and stress concentrations. To investigate further the other possible reasons behind edge fracture that leads to coating spalling, a zoom-in view with magnification of 2000 ti mes was taken and presented at Figure 5-8A. Coating fracture can be seen where fragments of TiN (upper coating) had been plucked away by metal chips. This took place as result of micro-abrasion that led to coating spalling. On the other hand, the edge is t he weakest part of the cutting insert geometry and works as a stress concentrator might lead to a cohesive failure on the transient filleted flank cutting wedge region [51, 52].Both abrasion wear and stress concentration factor leave a non-uniform edge configuration at the micro scale after machining starts. Later small metal fragments started to adhere at the developed gaps to be later plucked away by the continuous chip movement as shown in Figure 5-8A. Another view of edge fracture was taken of the same cutting tool with a magnification of 2000 times as shown in Figure 5-8B. It presents fracture and crack at the honed tool edge. A schematic figure indicated by Figure 5-9, presented the progressive coated cutting inserts failure starting at the insert edge. It was also noticed during the inserts test that failure takes place first at the inserts edge then progressed toward the flank side. Consequently, a study on optimizing the cutting edgeFigure 5-7 SEM image of (KC732) at 410m/min showing edge fractur e and micro-abrasion (wet).SEM image showing edge fracture.(a)SEM image showing fracture and crack at the honed insert edge.Figure 5-8 SEM of (KC732) at 410m/min and early wear stage (wet): (a) SEM image showing edge fracture, (b) SEM image showing fr acture and crack atthe honed insert edge.radius to improve coating adhesion, and its wear resistance, might be also a topic for future work.Figure 5-1.0A was taken after tool failure at a speed of 410m/min. It shows completely exposed substrate and severe sliding wear at the flank side. The coating exists at the crater surface and faces less wear than the flank side. Therefore it works as an upper protector for the cutting edge and most of the wear will take place at the flank side as sliding wear. Figu re 5-10B is a zoom-in view with magnification of 3500 times, and shows coating remaining at the flank side. Nonetheless, micro-abrasion and a slight tensile fracture in the direction of metalchip flow. Ezugwa et al [28] and Kato [32] have exhibited simila r finding. However, the tensile fracture in this case is less in severity than what had been observed at dry cutting. This is due to the contribution of coolant in dropping the cutting temperature, which has reduced the plastic deformation at high temperature as a result. Hence, in comparison with the dry cutting at the same speed, tensile fracture was available with less severity and micro-abrasion/sliding. However, in dry cutting high levels of micro-abrasion, high levels of tensile fracture and sliding wear occurred.Figure 5-11 was taken at early stages of wear at a speed of 360m/min. It shows sliding wear, coating spalling and a crack starting to develop between TiN and TiCN coating at honed tool edge. Figure5-12A shows nice presentation of what had been described earlier regarding the development of small fragments on the tool edge. The adhered metal fragments work along with micro-abrasion wear to cause coating spalling.SEM image showing sliding wear.(a)SEM image showing micro-abrasion and tensile fracture.Figure 5-10 SEM images of (KC732) at 410m/min after failure (wet): (a) SEM image showing sliding wear, (b) SEM image showing micro-abrasionand tensile fracture.Figure 5-11 SEM image at early stage of wear of 360m/min (wet) showing coating and spalling developing crack between TiN and TiCN layers.The size of the metal chip adhered at the edge is almost 15g. Since it is unstable it will be later plucked away taking some fragments of coatings with it and the process continues. Another zoom in view with a magnification of 5000 times for the same insert is shown in Figure 5-12B indicating a newly developed crack between the coating layers.Figure 5-13A is taken of the same insert after failure when machining at 360m/min and wet condition. Coating spalling, and sliding wear can be seen and indicated by narrow grooves. In addition, initial development of notch wear can be seen at the maximum depth of cut.Further investigation is carried out by taking a zoom in view with a magnification of 2000 times as shown in Figure 5-13B. A clear micro-abrasion wear and micro-fatigue cracks were developed as shown, which extended deeply through out the entire three coating layers deep until the substrate. Therefore, in comparison with dry cutting, micro-fatigue crack, less tensile fracture, less micro-abrasion wear were activated at wet cutting. While micro- fatigue crack, high levels of micro-abrasion, and high levels of tensile fracture are distinguish the type of wear under dry condition at the same cutting spee d.Next, Figure 5-14A is taken for cutting tools machined at 310m/min. The results are similar to the previous inserts machined at 360m/min, where adhesion of metal fragments occurred at the tool edge, sliding wear and coating spalling. In addition, the black spot appeared at the top of the figure on the crater surface is a void resulting from imperfections in the coating process. At this condition, the crater surface will be worn faster than the flank surface.SEM image showing adhered metal fragments at tool edge.(a)SEM image showing developed crack between coating layers.Figure 5-12 SEM image of (KC732) at early wear 360m/min (wet): (a) SEM image showing adhered metal fragments at tool edge, (b) SEM image showingdeveloped crack between coating layers.(a)SEM image showing coating spalling and sliding wear after tool failure(b)SEM image showing micro-abrasion, and micro-fatigue cracks developedbetween coating layersFigure 5-13 SEM image of KC732 after failure machined at 360m/min(b)(wet): (a) SEM image showing coating spalling and sliding wear after toolfailure, (b) SEM image showing micro-abrasion, and micro-fatiguecracks developed between coating layers.翻译：在高速潮湿机械加工条件下后刀面表层磨损机理5.1 介绍几乎每类型用机器制造譬如转动, 碾碎, 钻井, 研..., 使用切口流体协助零件的有效的生产当设定标准由生产商[ 1 ] 需要。
机械外文翻译文献翻译汽车发动机凸轮轴
机械外文翻译文献翻译汽车发动机凸轮轴机械专业中英文文献翻译Automotive engine camshaftBrief introductionThe camshaft is a part of the piston engine. Its role is to control the opening and closing operation of the valve. Although the camshaft rotational speed in a four-stroke engine is a half of the crankshaft (the same as the camshaft rotational speed in a two-stroke engine with the crankshaft), but usually it is still very high speed, but also need to withstand the large torque, so the design right demanding camshaft in terms of strength and support material is generally a special cast iron, occasionally using forgings. Valve motion law related to engine power and operation characteristics, the design in the design process of the engine camshaft occupies a very important position.StructureThe main body of the camshaft is the same as the one with thecylinder length of the cylindrical rod. The above sets have several cam for driving the valve. One end of the camshaft camshaft bearing support and the other end is connected to the drive wheels.Cam side was egg-shaped. The design aims to ensure the the cylinder sufficient air intake and exhaust, specifically, within the shortest possible time to complete the valve opening and closing movements. In addition, taking into account the durability of the engine and thesmoothness of operation, the valve can not be generated due to the deceleration process of opening and closing movements too much too large the impact of serious wear and tear of the valve, otherwise it will cause an increase in noise or other serious consequences. Therefore, the cam and the power of the engine torque output as well as the operation of the ride there is a direct relationship.Generally inline engine, a cam corresponding to a valve V-typeengine or horizontal opposed type engine, every two valves share a cam. The rotary engine the valveless with gas engine because of its special structure, does not need to camPositionIn the long period of time, the bottom-mounted camshaft in aninternal combustion engine is most common. Typically such engines, the valve is located in the top of the engine camshaft machine, i.e., so-called the OHV (Over Head Valve, OHV) engines. Usually camshaft located on the side of the crankcase, through the gas distribution agencies (such as tappet, push rod, rocker, etc.) valve control. Bottom-mounted camshaft general also called side-mounted camshaft. Far distance valve, and each cylinder is usually only two valves in such an engine camshaft, so the speed is usually slower, ride comfort is poor, the output power is also relatively low. However, the engine output torque and low-speed performance of this structure is relatively good, relatively simple structure and easy maintenance.Now most of the production car's engine is equipped with overhead camshaft. The overhead camshafts structure closer to the camshaft valve, to reduce the kinetic energy of the waste caused机械专业中英文文献翻译by the bottom-mounted camshaft due to the larger distance betweenthe camshaft and the valve shuttle. Overhead camshaft of the enginevalve opening and closing action is relatively rapid, and hence higher speed, and the smooth running is also better. The engine of the the overhead camshafts structure appeared earlier the SOHC (Single Over Head Cam, overhead single camshaft) engine. This engine is only installed at the top of a camshaft, and therefore generally only two to three valvesof each cylinder (the intake air a to two exhaust), the high-speed performance has been limited. Technology updates DOHC (Double Over Head Cam, double overhead camshaft) engine, this engine with a two camshafts per cylinder can be installed four to five valves (intake two to three, Pai gas two), high-speed performance significantly improved, but at the same time the low-speed performance will be affected to some degree, the structure will be complicated and difficult to repair.ClassificationAccording to the the camshaft number of how many, can be dividedinto single overhead camshaft (SOHC) and double overhead camshaft (DOHC), two kinds. The single overhead camshaft camshaft is only one camshaft, double overhead camshaft is two, this is too straightforward explanation.The single overhead camshaft with a camshaft in the cylinder head, direct drive into the exhaust valve, it has a simple structure, suitable for high-speed engine. Generally used in the past side camshaft, the camshaft in the cylinder side, is driven directly by a timing gear. The valve lifter to the rotation of the camshaft is converted into reciprocating motion of the valve must be used to transfer power. Thus, more parts of the reciprocating motion, the inertial mass, is not conducive to high-speed movement of the engine. Moreover, the slender tappet has a certain degree of flexibility, prone to vibration, accelerated component wear, even the valve control is lost.DOHC cylinder head equipped with two camshafts, one is used to drive the intake valve, the other for driving the exhaust valve. Double overhead camshaft camshaft and valve spring design less demanding, especially for the hemispherical combustion chamber of the valve V-shaped configuration, but also facilitate and used in conjunction with four-valve gas distribution agencies. FaultCamshaft common faults including abnormal wear and tear, abnormal wear of the symptoms often first appear before the occurrence of abnormal sound as well as fracture, abnormal sound and fracture.(1) Camshaft almost at the end of the engine lubrication system, lubrication situation is not optimistic. If the oil pump is too long and so insufficient oil pressure or the lubricants Road blockage caused by lubricating oil can not reach the camshaft bearing cap fastening boltstightening torque caused by excessive oil can not enter the the camshaft gap will causing abnormal wear of the camshaft.(2) the abnormal wear of the camshaft causes the gap increases between the camshaft bearing, the camshaft movement occurs when theaxial displacement, resulting in abnormal noise. Abnormal wear will lead to increased gap between the drive cam with hydraulic tappets, cam 机械专业中英文文献翻译combined with hydraulic tappets will collide, resulting in abnormal noise.(3) camshaft sometimes fracture and other serious fault, common causes of hydraulic tappet cracked or severely worn, serious poor lubrication the camshaft poor quality and camshaft timing gear rupture.(4) In some cases, the failure of the camshaft is man-made causes,in particular the maintenance of the engine camshaft not correct disassembly. Such as demolition of the camshaft bearing caps with a hammer strength knocking or prying with a screwdriver, or install the bearing cap installed the wrong position does not match the result in the bearing cap and bearing, or bearing cover the fastening bolt tightening torque is too large. Install bearing cap should pay attention to the direction of the arrow and the position number marked on the surface of the bearing cap, and in strict accordance with the provisions of torque using the torque wrench tighten the bearing cap fastening bolts.RefitIn order to enhance the power of the engine, some converted stores a modified camshaft engine face lift high angle camshaft (Hi-camshaft CAM) is a common form of modified method. This modification operation is not complicated, but because of the lack of understanding of some modification cam on the camshaft angle and works so that the modified effect is not obvious even lead to the deterioration of the performance of the engine.High angle camshaft relative to ordinary camshaft cam angle of about 240?, high anglecamshaft cam angle can often reach over 280?. The large angle of the camshaft can extend thevalve open time, increase the valve lift, the intake valve and the exhaust valve open as early and late off, so that more air into the cylinder, in order to improve the engine, the power of the high speed output. Should choose for civilian vehicles, modified cam camshaft angle 278, will be a significant increase in working an angle greater than 278?camshaft valve overlap angle, so thatthe power of the engine high speed improve a lot, but enginecylinder seal is not good at low speed and cause the idling seriousjitter or even turn off, so that the vehicle can not adapt to everyday use, and can only be used for competition purposes.Production technologyThe camshaft is one of the key parts of the engine, the hardness of the camshaft peach apical and white layer depth is to determine the keytechnical indicators camshaft life and engine efficiency. , Should be considered to ensure that the cam has a sufficiently high hardness and a fairly deep white layer premise journal does not appear high carbide, so that it has a better cutting performance.Currently, the main method of domestic and foreign production camshaft: steel forging blank by cutting the cam peach tip martensitic layer formed some of the high-frequency quenching process. The end ofthe 1970s, Germany and France have developed a new camshaft argon arc remelting process; hardened cast iron camshaft otherwise dominated bythe United States; chilled cast iron camshaft mainly to Japan and France; well cam parts of the Cr-Mn-Mo alloy coatings casting surface alloying production.机械专业中英文文献翻译汽车发动机凸轮轴简介凸轮轴是活塞发动机里的一个部件。
机械设计制造及其自动化毕业论文中英文资料外文翻译
机械设计创造及其自动化毕业论文外文文献翻译INTEGRATION OF MACHINERY译文题目专业机械设计创造及其自动化外文资料翻译INTEGRATION OF MACHINERY（From ELECTRICAL AND MACHINERY INDUSTRY）ABSTRACTMachinery was the modern science and technology development inevitable result, this article has summarized the integration of machinery technology basic outline and the development background .Summarized the domestic and foreign integration of machinery technology present situation, has analyzed the integration of machinery technology trend of development.Key word： integration of machinery ，technology， present situation ，product t，echnique of manufacture ，trend of development0. Introduction modern science and technology unceasing development, impelled different discipline intersecting enormously with the seepage, has caused the project domain technological revolution and the transformation .In mechanical engineering domain, because the microelectronic technology and the computer technology rapid development and forms to the mechanical industry seepage the integration of machinery, caused the mechanical industry the technical structure, the product organization, the function and the constitution, the production method and the management systemof by machinery for the characteristic integration ofdevelopment phase.1. Integration of machinery outline integration of machinery is refers in the organization new owner function, the power function, in the information processing function and the control function introduces the electronic technology, unifies the system the mechanism and the computerization design and the software which constitutes always to call. The integration of machinery development also has become one to have until now own system new discipline, not only develops along with the science and technology, but also entrusts with the new content .But its basic characteristic may summarize is: The integration of machinery is embarks from the system viewpoint, synthesis community technologies and so on utilization mechanical technology, microelectronic technology, automatic control technology, computer technology, information technology, sensing observation and control technology, electric power electronic technology, connection technology, information conversion technology as well as software programming technology, according to the system function goal and the optimized organization goal, reasonable disposition and the layout various functions unit, in multi-purpose, high grade, redundant reliable, in the low energy consumption significance realize the specific function value, and causes the overall system optimization the systems engineering technology .From this produces functional system, then becomes an integration of machinery systematic or the integration of machinery product. Therefore, of coveringtechnology is based on the above community technology organic fusion one kind of comprehensive technology, but is not mechanical technical, the microelectronic technology as well as other new technical simple combination, pieces together .This is the integration of machinery and the machinery adds the machinery electrification which the electricity forms in the concept basic difference .The mechanical engineering technology has the merely technical to develop the machinery electrification, still was the traditional machinery, its main function still was replaces with the enlargement physical strength .But after develops the integration of machinery, micro electron installment besides may substitute for certain mechanical parts the original function, but also can entrust with many new functions,like the automatic detection, the automatic reduction information, demonstrate the record, the automatic control and the control automatic diagnosis and the protection automatically and so on .Not only namely the integration of machinery product is human's hand and body extending, human's sense organ and the brains look, has the intellectualized characteristic is the integration of machinery and the machinery electrification distinguishes in the function essence.2. Integration of machinery development condition integration of machinery development may divide into 3 stages roughly.20th century 60's before for the first stage, this stage is called the initial stage .In this time, the people determination not on own initiative uses the electronic technology the preliminary achievement to consummate the mechanical product the performance .Specially in Second World War period, the war has stimulated the mechanical product and the electronic technology union, these mechanical and electrical union military technology, postwar transfers civilly, to postwar economical restoration positive function .Developed and the development at that time generally speaking also is at the spontaneouscondition .Because at that time the electronic technology development not yet achieved certain level, mechanical technical and electronic technology union also not impossible widespread and thorough development, already developed the product was also unable to promote massively. The 20th century 70~80 ages for the second stage, may be called the vigorous development stage .This time, the computer technology, the control technology, the communication development, has laid the technology base for the integration of machinery development . Large-scale, ultra large scale integrated circuit and microcomputer swift and violent development, has provided the full material base for the integration of machinery development .This time characteristic is :①A mechatronics word first generally is accepted in Japan, probably obtains the quite widespread acknowledgment to 1980s last stages in the worldwide scale ;②The integration of machinery technology and the product obtained the enormous development ;③The various countries start to the integration of machinery technology and the product give the very big attention and the support. 1990s later periods, started the integration of machinery technology the new stagewhich makes great strides forward to the intellectualized direction, the integration of machinery enters the thorough development time .At the same time, optics, the communication and so on entered the integration of machinery, processes the technology also zhan to appear tiny in the integration of machinery the foot, appeared the light integration of machinery and the micro integration of machinery and so on the new branch; On the other hand to the integration of machinery system modeling design, the analysis and the integrated method, the integration of machinery discipline system and the trend of development has all conducted the thorough research .At the same time, because the hugeprogress which domains and so on artificial intelligence technology, neural network technology and optical fiber technology obtain, opened the development vast world for the integration of machinery technology .These research, will urge the integration of machinery further to establish the integrity the foundation and forms the integrity gradually the scientific system. Our country is only then starts from the beginning of 1980s in this aspect to study with the application .The State Councilsummary had considered fully on international the influence which and possibly brought from this about the integration of machinery technology developmenttrend .Many universities, colleges and institutes, the development facility and some large and middle scale enterprises have done the massive work to this technical development and the application, does not yield certain result, but and so on the advanced countries compared with Japan still has the suitable disparity.3. Integration of machinery trend of development integrations of machinery are the collection machinery, the electron, optics, the control, the computer, the information and so on the multi-disciplinary overlapping syntheses, its development and the progress rely on and promote the correlation technology development and the progress .Therefore, the integration of machinery main development direction is as follows:3.1 Intellectualized intellectualizations are 21st century integration of machinery technological development important development directions .Theartificial intelligence obtains day by day in the integration of machinery constructor's research takes, the robot and the numerical control engine bedis to the machine behavior description, is in the control theory foundation, the absorption artificial intelligence, the operations research, the computer science, the fuzzy mathematics, the psychology, the physiology and the chaos dynamics and so on the new thought, the new method, simulate the human intelligence, enable it to have abilities and so on judgment inference, logical thinking, independent decision-making, obtains the higher control goal in order to .Indeed, enable the integration of machinery product to have with the human identical intelligence, is not impossible, also is nonessential .But, the high performance, the high speed microprocessor enable the integration of machinery product to have preliminary intelligent or human's partial intelligences, then is completely possible and essential.In the modern manufacture process, the information has become the control manufacture industry the determining factor, moreover is the most active actuation factor .Enhances the manufacture system information-handling capacity to become the modern manufacture science development a key point .As a result of the manufacture system information organization and structure multi-level, makes the information the gain, the integration and the fusion presents draws up the character, information measure multi-dimensional, as well as information organization's multi-level .In the manufacture information structural model, manufacture information uniform restraint, dissemination processing and magnanimous data aspects and so on manufacture knowledge library management, all also wait for further break through.Each kind of artificial intelligence tool and the computation intelligence method promoted the manufacture intelligence development in the manufacture widespread application .A kind based on the biological evolution algorithm computation intelligent agent, in includes thescheduling problem in the combination optimization solution area of technology, receives the more and more universal attention, hopefully completes the combination optimization question when the manufacture the solution speed and the solution precision aspect breaks through the question scale in pairs the restriction .The manufacture intelligence also displays in: The intelligent dispatch, the intelligent design, the intelligent processing, the robot study, the intelligent control, the intelligent craft plan, the intelligent diagnosis and so on are various These question key breakthrough, may form the product innovation the basic research system. Between 2 modern mechanical engineering front science different science overlapping fusion will have the new science accumulation, the economical development and society's progress has had the new request and the expectation to the science and technology, thus will form the front science .The front science also has solved and between the solution scientific question border area .The front science has the obvious time domain, the domain and the dynamic characteristic .The project front science distinguished in the general basic science important characteristic is it has covered the key science and technology question which the project actual appeared.Manufacture system is a complex large-scale system, for satisfies the manufacture system agility, the fast response and fast reorganization ability, must profit from the information science, the life sciences and the social sciences and so on the multi-disciplinary research results, the exploration manufacture system new architecture, the manufacture pattern and the manufacture system effective operational mechanism .Makes the system optimization the organizational structure and the good movement condition is makes the system modeling , the simulation and the optimized essential target .Not only the manufacture system new architecture to makes the enterprise the agility and may reorganize ability to the demand response ability to have the vital significance, moreover to made the enterprise first floor production equipment the flexibility and may dynamic reorganization ability set a higher request .The biological manufacture view more and more many is introduced the manufacture system, satisfies the manufacture system new request.The study organizes and circulates method and technique of complicated system from the biological phenomenon, is a valid exit which will solve many hard nut to cracks that manufacturing industry face from now on currently .Imitating to living what manufacturing point is mimicry living creature organ of from the organization, from match more, from growth with from evolution etc. function structure and circulate mode of a kind of manufacturing system and manufacturing process.The manufacturing drives in the mechanism under, continuously by one's own perfect raise on organizing structure and circulating mode and thus to adapt the process of[with] ability for the environment .For from descend but the last product proceed together a design and make a craft rules the auto of the distance born, produce system of dynamic state reorganization and product and manufacturing the system tend automatically excellent provided theories foundation and carry out acondition .Imitate to living a manufacturing to belong to manufacturing science and life science of"the far good luck is miscellaneous to hand over", it will produce to the manufacturing industry for 21 centuries huge of influence .机电一体化摘要机电一体化是现代科学技术发展的必然结果,本文简述了机电一体化技术的基本概要和发展背景。
机械专业外文翻译---精密体积成形模具的设计制造及发展
Volume precision forming mold design andmanufacturing and developmentAuxiliary processing technologyIn the production process, improve die life is a complex comprehensive issues. All forging process, especially the net shape and approximate net form processing technologyMuch depends on the accuracy and quality, depending on the technology level of mould. Mould technology reflected in moulding design and manufacturing,And die life with the above two links in the outside, still and use the link. Improve die life is of great economic benefits, generally in the trial production mold tooling cost accounting for stage production cost of about 25%, and finalize the design production is only 10%.Die early failure forms, many for the punch and die of fracture bore edge collapse, flash in the bridge chap, cavity occurred crack at the bottom. Many factors influence the life of die a wide range and die design the life of die is based. Die design link is refers to the mould structure plan, set Forming design and determine the cavity of the steel, mould hardness etc. Mould manufacturing process is to point to die making technology, heat treatment standard and surface treatment technology, etc.In this paper, only from the mold design and die manufacturing two aspects to study and improve the life of die measures.1, the reasonable design precision volume forming a (fine forging)Die forgings should try to avoid with holes, narrow slot, Angle, shape should as far as possible is symmetrical, even if they can't do axisymmetric, also hope to achieve,Under symmetrical or left, right symmetry. To design mold pulling out rake, avoid stress concentration and die forging units, increasing the pressure overcome eccentric loading and mould wear not equal defect. For forging die cavity edge and bottom fillet radius R, design should ensure forgings cavity is easily filled with the premise of amplification.If the fillet radius is too small, easily cavity edge in high temperature and high pressure of collapse, the serious will form the reversed cone, influence die forgings the mold.Such as the bottom fillet radius R is too small and is not smooth transition, it's easy to crack and will continue to expand.When the mould design should make full use of CAD system for products function 2 d and 3 d design, to ensure that the products to the unity of the original information and accuracy,Avoid man-made errors, improve the mould design quality.Three-dimensional modelling product in forging process to reflect the product before comprehensive external shape,Timely find that the original design of the possible problems, at the same time, according to the product information, a computer design processing die-cavity roughing electrode, ready for the follow-up mold processing. The CAM technology can design according to the electrode accurately designated production mode. Adopt CNC milling machine (or processing center) processing electrode,Can ensure the machining precision of the electrode and reduce the time of the mould try, reduce scrap rate of the die and FanXiuLv, reduce the amount of fitter.For some complex shape, high accuracy of forgings,By the conventional die locksmith mould manufacturing methods guarantee certain size and shape using CAD/CAM technology in the complex forgings precise dimensions description,The determination of reasonable parting surface to ensure accuracy molmerged, from the mould manufacturing this link to ensure product precision.CAD/CAM/CAE technology can be finite element analysis, the size of the key parts of the design is reasonable can provide modification basis, Thus in for customers with high quality forgings, but also for the design of the customer provide the basis, strengthen the cooperation with the customers.Forming is the most important in the process of die forging work step, die forgings geometry is to rely on to ensure the forging die, die forging process to fully consider all sorts of factors,Especially in production possible or has exposed problems, in the mold design measures should be taken to reduce the follow-up process of processing difficulty. According to this principle in prevention to reduce die forgings craze and deformation, improving forgings qualified rate, can have pointed to take some countermeasures and measures. Such as forgings in certain parts of the machine and punching easily to affect the quality of products and deformation,But in the forging die design appropriate increase deformation parts of the machining allowance compensation, this is when the large deformation forging machine thin flange is more important.For some with stem and stem diameter relatively small forgings, in trimming and heat treatment process will produce regular geometric distortion,And with cold correction methods do not or difficult to straightening. As a factory TS60 crankshaft,According to the practical experience and statistical data center in advance will be in a certain range of reverse migration direction deformation must advance the deformation for.2, the reasonable design forging processAt present, the general enterprise without sound technology lab, lack of process test conditions, which requires process program must be correct and a success. Especially after step into the market economy, the responsible person of the enterprise technical personnel can only request forging success, not to fail, this will give process design personnel brought the big difficult for process engineering is of high level to, but even with rich practical experience in the process are also hard to avoid can feel awkward, once mistakes can cause bigger loss.For trimming to the existing tear part in design flash slots can be forging when the thinning weak parts to the height of the bridge flash, and to decrease the cut when cut thickness of flash here. Such as S195 connecting rod, materials for 45 steel, after cold forging machine, a big head ZiBu due to section shape a small, thin material, often appear in trimming a near the children and the muscle tear, and scrap rate is high. If instead of waste can be after forging machine improve trimming quality, but because trimming production by die forging beat of limit, the efficiency is low. And in forging die design thinning here when the height of the bridge flash, reduce the flash cutting force, can greatly reduce trimming tear.For cold extrusion technology, must be the greatest degree softening and reduce blank when the deformation friction force, strictly control thedeformation degree and each working procedure, deformation degree distribution.General low carbon steel, carbon steel and low carbon steel alloy softening annealing process for: heating to 760 ℃heat preservation 4 h, By 20 ℃/ h the cooling speed of cold to 680 ℃heat preservation 3 h, again with 20 ℃/ h of the cooling speed to 640 ℃after cooling furnace cooling to 350 ℃Blackburn.Hardness general can reach 125-155 HB.Less than 0.2% of the carbon content of carbon steel, steel the annealing can less than 120 HB hardness. The steel softening annealing then through roll light, acid, phosphate,Saponification besmear again after lard mix MoS-2 lubrication, may reduce the deformation load, effectively reduce the punch, molding cycle, joint body the fracture failure.The small deformation process of cold extrusion method can reduce the impact extrusion die under unit, not on the blank between production processes softening,Make die life prolonged. Some domestic manufacturers in the extrusion production of covet a will, reduce the extrusion process, although also can get samples (or product) make,But mould load is too big, prone to failure. This kind of practice is quick in cold extrusion technology once a boom and has failed to the development of the main technical reasons. The forging die CAE software, you can analyze the material flow, friction resistance and material filling overflow cavity,To help design personnel reasonably effective process design.3, reasonable structure of the die designThe mould structure design main consideration guidance accuracy reasonable, cutting clearance appropriate, rigid, consider using combined mold as far as possible.Formwork should have a good rigidity, do not only meet the required strength, template shoulds not be too thin, and where possible to add thick, even thickening 50%.Progressive die unfavorable use only 2 root guide pin orientation, should try to do four root guide pin orientation, this guide good performance. Because of increased stiffness, ensure the convex,Concave die gap even, make sure the punch and concave die won't happen touch cut phenomenon.Floating mode can avoid press mold to handle the bad influence of guidance accuracy. The punch should clamping reliable,When the check assembly to punch or concave die on the vertical axis of the level and up and down between the underside of the parallel degree. In the cold extrusion, punch and concave die of hardness to the right, to give full play to the fortitude to prolong life processing of potential.If W6Mo5Cr4V2 steel cold extrusion of the punch, when hardness 60 HRC frequency when normal use, life for 3000 ~ 3500.But if by that experience low hardness, plastic life must extend will greatly disappointed, when hardness for 57 ~ 58 HRC extrusion workpiece,The work of the punch with will be upsetting. A factory detection 1 a punch die extrusion after work with size found, upsetting a large increase from 0.01 to 0.04 mm.For hot press concave die cannot apply mechanically cold extrusion touch experience, when the three Cr2W8V steel hot press concave die from the hardness value > 40 HRC to 37 to 38 HRC,Service life from 1000 ~ 2000 times increased to 6000 ~ 8000 times. According to experience, different forging equipment for the hardness of forging die forging requirements are different, and even in the same kind of forging equipment of die forging, forging different products to mold hardness requirement is not the same. In forging flash resection, punchbottom should as far as possible with the hollows of forgings coincide with the surface. Such as cutters die forging a keen flash,Cut flash at the bottom of the punch hollow to and cutters arc of the handle fit, or in the cut in the process of flash, flash to cut the punch forgings to one side to flip, make the punch and concave die damage. Usually, the cutting clearance amplifier can extend life cut flash mode.4, reasonable selecting mould materialAccording to the working conditions and production mold batch of material itself and strong performance to selecting mould material, should as far as possible choose quality good steel.According to the information of the mould are being manufactured for high, but the material cost is only the price of general mold by 6% ~ 20%. To die material to a test, module should comply with the supply agreement, the chemical composition of the module to comply with the relevant provisions of the international. Only in the case that module qualified to forging. Large module (100 kg above) by electric steel slag re-melting H13 make sure internal quality,To avoid possible ingredients segregation, impurities such as internal defects exceed bid. To make use of the ultrasonic testing of nondestructive testing technology such as check to ensure that eachforgings internal quality is good, avoid possible metallurgy defects, will eliminate waste as soon as possible.5 and reasonable establishing the steel forging normsAccording to the carbide segregation to the influence of the die life, must limit the inhomogeneity of carbide degree of precision mould and load the slender punch,Must choose good toughness of high strength steel mold, carbide not uniformity should be controlled for not more than 3 grade. Cr12 steel carbide not uniformity level 3 than level 5 durability improve 1 times above. Roll silk die of carbide not uniformity for 5 ~ 6 grade most roll silk 2000 pieces, and not the homogeneous degree to improve carbide at level 1 ~ 2 can roll silk 550000 pieces. If carbide segregation serious, may cause overheat, burning, craze, collapse collapse, tensile blade, and early failure. Ribbon, mesh, large particles and large firing the carbon that is made of mould performance anisotropic, horizontal low intensity, and plastic also poor.According to the micro hardness measurement results, carbide normal distribution place for 740 ~ 760 HV, carbide concentration point is 920 ~ 940 HV,Carbide in 610 ~ 670 rare for HV, rare place in carbide to excessive tempering, hardness and strength is reduced, carbide FuJiOu often lack for tempering,Brittleness is big, and lead to mould upsetting or break.Through the forging can effectively improve the tool steel carbide segregation, generally after forging can reduce carbide segregation level 2, for a maximum of 3 grade. Had better use axial,Radial repeated heading pull (cross heading pull law), it is upsetting the raw materials in the section after two perpendicular direction heading out again and again, and finally to along the axial or horizontal forging into, repeat this process is called double cross heading pull out, repeat many times for many times that the dui pull out. For 50 mm diameter less than or equal to the high alloy steel, the carbide not uniformity in general than level 4, can meet the general mold use requirement.6, rational selection of heat treatment processHeat treatment is not to die early failure of the important reasons, according to a factory statistics, its accounts for about 35% of the mould early failure factors.Heat treatment including forging die after the annealing, rough machining of high temperature tempering or low temperature after the tempering, finish machining the quenching and tempering after, edm, line cuttinglater to stress low temperature firing back. Only cold heat processing is very good and cooperate with each other, to ensure good die life. The mold cavity and thin wall when the need to normal quenching temperature the ceiling, so that residual austenitic rises, make the mold from swell.Due to rapid heating heating time is short, to reduce the decarburization oxidation, small grains of carbon steel large-scale die quenching little deformation. For high speed steel paper with low quenching, high back to technology is more good, quenching temperature is low, tempering the higher temperature, can greatly improve the toughness, although rigidity decrease, but to improve for broken or fatigue damage of die life is very effective. Usually Cr12MoV harden steel heating temperature of 1000 ℃, the oil cold, then 220 ℃tempering. As in the heat treatment to advance a time before heat treatment, heat to 1100 ℃is the heat preservation, oil cold, 700 ℃high temperature tempering, then die life can be greatly improved. We in the early 70 s for 3 Cr2W8V steel and high quenching, high heat treatment cutters to process the hot forming die have been introduced and the good results, improve life more than twice as many. Low temperature of carbon nitrogen infiltration process, surface hardness of up to 1200 HV, also can greatly improve the die life.Low temperature electrolytic permeability can reduce sulfur metal deformation friction, improve the viscous resistance to bite. 6W6Mo5Cr4V steel making use of the punch cold extrusion,The low temperature of carbon nitrogen permeability, service life by an average of 1 times above, then the low temperature electrolytic permeability sulfur treatment can further improve life 50%.Die after quenching have a lot of residual stress, it often cause mould deformation even craze. In order to reduce residual stress,Mould should be hot after quenching follows, tempering should fully, tempering don't fully easy generation before grinding crack. For carbon steel, 200 ℃tempering 1 h,Residual stress can eliminate about 50%, tempering 2 h residual stress can eliminate about 75% ~ 80%, and if 500 ~ 600 ℃tempering 1 h, the residual stress can eliminate up to 90%. A factory CrWMn steel punch hardened tempering 1 h, use soon fracture, and when the tempering 2.5 h, use of fracture is not found.It shows that the tempering don't even, although the surface hardness meet the requirements, but work internal organization not even, eliminate the residual stress is not full, the mould easy early rupture failure.After tempering general is empty cold, in the tempering cooling process, the material internal may appear new tensile stress, should slow cold to 100 ~ 120 ℃released later,Or in high temperature after tempering plus a low temperature firing back. Surface coating layer of hardening technology PVD, CVD get great progress in recent years, some of the vacuum in PVD steamed plating, vacuum sputtering and ion plating, including ion plating has strong adhesion, pouring plating of sedimentary speed, pollution-free, etc. Ion plating technology in mould coating surface can be TiC, TiN, can prolong the service life of a few times to dozens of times. Ion plating is vacuum gas discharge steam film and the combination of a deposition.Hollow cathode discharge method (HCD method) is to use of vacuum pump and the vacuum, then to the gas pump into the reaction, and keep in the vacuum 10-5 ~ 10-2 Pa range,Use of low voltage large current HCD electron gun evaporate metal or compounds ionization, and work together to surface in a layer of protection membrane. In order to improve the efficiency of plating apply, General on the work piece on load voltage.The forging die surface treatment technology of domestic application not too much, this field is the necessary development. Overall the cavity of carburizing and seepage nitrogen, carbon and nitrogen boriding and ofpermeability and the mould cavity local spraying, brush plating and surface hardening support surfacing are promising, break through the field will make our country modeling technology is greatly improved. After the failure of the mould filling welding technology, the domestic early 90 s have the factory for research and application, such as forging plant in qinghai, weld repairs can improve the service life of the forging die after 1 times.7, reasonably determine the mechanical processing manufacturing process and the machining accuracyWith advanced equipment and technology to ensure that every vice mould has high precision and interchangeability in order to ensure that the forging die have high accuracy of the request and repeat precision. Manufacturing process to solve first for the processing of the machining deformation and residual stress can not be too big. Rough machining when had better not make the surface roughness Ra > 3.2 u m,Special attention should be in the mold working part corner to the smooth transition, reduce the heat generated by the heat stress.The cavity surface processing left at knife scar, grinding mark are stress concentration, the position is also early cracks and fatigue crack source, so in forging die when processing cutting tool must be good. Plane tools must be good at both ends often round R, circular arc cutting tools for Rgauge measurement, will never allow appear cusp. Walk in finishing the sword to small amount, not be allowed knife scar. For complex cavity must keep grinding surplus, even after processing no knife scar, also want to again by grinding wheel with pneumatic fitter (or in other methods) fine polishing, but be aware that prevent grind the local overheating, whenBurns surface and reduce the surface hardness.Mold machining surface hardening layer, thick 10 μ m or so, har dening layer is crisp and to have residual stress, direct use often cause early craze, such hardening layer in the 180 ℃or so low temperature can eliminate the tempering residual stress.This will cause if grinding heat invisible to the naked eye and grinding direction perpendicular tiny crack in stress function, crack will expand. To CrWMn steel cold extrusion die adopt concave dry grinding, grinding depth of 0.04 ~ 0.05 mm, use of cracking 100%; Adopt wet grinding, grinding depth 0.005 ~ 0.01 mm, the use of the good performance. Eliminate grinding stress can also will die in 260 ~ 315 ℃of salt bath at 1.5 min, and then in 30 ℃oil cooling, so can reduce 1 HRC hardness, residual stress reduced by 40% ~ 65%. For precision mould precision grinding should pay attention to the influence of the environment temperature, constant temperature grinding requirements.Forging die for finishing reserves when rough machining reasonable machining allowance, for a small cushion, may be caused by heat treatment deformation allowance of not enough, we must have a new system for forging die repair, if leave headroom is too large, it increases the difficulty of hardening processing.When forging die coattails "supporting surface and parting surface parallel degree more than requirement, can make the forging die lock gnawing on or cracked, the person that weigh will interrupt hammer stem and even damage hammer, so in forging die processing in the cavity dimension of the request processing according to the drawing, the other part of overall size, location degree, the parallel degree, vertical degree by request processing and strict inspection. Some of small forging die after heat treatment plant with flat grinder grinding up and down the plane, with the goal of large forging die cutting planer generation to shave, ensure manufacturing precision.Forging die cavity directly influence the roughness of the forging die life, roughness high will make forging not easy demould, especially with raised among areas, the deeper the forging, embrace get tight, finally only forging die off with the method of gas cutting machining or damage forgings. Due to the high roughness can make metal flow resistance increased, serious when several pieces will be after the forging die wallwear into groove, not only affects the forming of forgings, also easy to make forging die early failure.Work surface roughness low friction resistance small mould not only, and resistance to bite and anti-fatigue capability is strong, the surface roughness general requirement Ra = 0.4 ~ 0.8 u m.Mould manufacturing assembly precision on the life of die has a very big impact, assembly precision, the underside flat, parallel degree good, the punch and concave die vertical degree is high, the gap even, can also get very high life.精密体积成形模具的设计制造及发展辅助加工技术在生产过程中，提高模具寿命是一个复杂的综合性问题。
机械类中英文翻译、外文翻译——机床刀具设计
英语原文：Design Of Tool Machine PropResearch significanceThe original knife machine control procedures are designed individually, not used tool management system, features a single comparison, the knife only has to find the tool knife, knife positioning the shortest path, axis tool change, but does not support large-scale tool.Automatic knife in the knife election, in the computer memory knife-election on the basis of using the Siemens 840 D features, and the election procedures knife more concise, and complete the space Daotao View. ATC use the knife rapid completion of STEP-7 programming, and have been tested in practice. In the positioning of the knife, PLC controlled modular design method, which future production of similar machines will be very beneficial, it is easy to use its other machine. Automatic tool change systems will be faster growth, reduced tool change time, increase the positioning accuracy tool is an important means to help NC technology development.Tool and inventory components of modern production is an important link in the management, especially for large workshop management. The traditional way of account management, and low efficiency, high error rate, and not sharing information and data, tools and the use of state can not track the life cycle, are unable to meet the current information management needs. With actual production, we have to establish a workshop tool for the three-dimensional tool storage system to meet the knife workshop with auxiliary storage and management needs.The system uses optimization technology, a large number of computer storage inventory information, timely, accurate, and comprehensive tool to reflect the inventory situation. The entire system uses a graphical interface, man-machine dialogue tips from the Chinese menu, select various functions can be realized and the importation of all kinds of information. Management system using online help function. Through the workshop management, network management and sharing of information. Have automated inventory management, warehousing management tool, a tool for the management and statistical functions.1.System components and control structureThe entire system, including the structure and electrical machinery control systems.1.1.1Mechanical structure and working principleTool from the stent, drive, drive system, Turret, shielding, control system, and electrical components. Support from the column, beam, the upper and lower guide Central track, and track support component.1) Drive for the system chosen VVVF method. Cone used brake motors, with VVVF by Cycloidreducer through sprocket drive.2) Drag a variable frequency drive system and control technology. VVVF adopted, will speed drive shaft in the normal range adjustment to control the speed rotary turret to 5 ~ 30mm in, the drive shaft into two, two under through sprocket, the two profiled rollers Chain driven rotating shelves. Expansion chain adopted by the thread tight regulation swelling, swelling the regular way. - Conditioned, under the same chain-of-conditioning, so that the chain of uniform.3) Turret and shields the entire total of 14 independent Turret. 13 of them as a socket-Turret, as a drawer-Turret, each Turret back through the pin and, under the conveyor chain link chain plate, installed at the bottom roller, chain driven rotating turret rotation along the track. Outlet-Turret and BT50-BT40 Turret Turret two kinds of forms. To strengthen management, security, landscaping modeling, shelf peripherals and shields. Turret-drawer drawer placed at six other Des V oeux a knife, can be categorized with some of knife auxiliary equipment, such as bits, such as turning tools.1.1.2.Electrical Control SystemThis tool storage systems is the main electrical control their shelves for operational control and position control. Operational control equipment, including operation of the start of braking control. Position Control is the main location and address of the shelves for testing. Control system as shown in Figure 1.图 1 Tool Control System for the1) Electric Transmission horizontal rotary tool storage systems are the mechanical movements are repeated short-term work system. And the run-time system needs some speed, speed transmission needs, the system will use VVVF method can be used simple structure, reliable operation of the motor and frequency inverter.2) Control of the system is divided into two kinds of manual control and automatic control, manual control as a general reserve and debugging methods of work; ways to the system control computer (IPC) and the control unit (inverter contactor , etc.) consisting of a control system.3) location and positioning accuracy of the system automatically identify the site and location using a detection device as proximity switches, relays through the plate-point isolation and the number plate recorded close to the switching signal acquisition and operation of Hutchison with a Optimal Path addressable identify the current location and shelves of the purpose of the shelf location. In order to enable a more accurate positioning system, adopted two photoelectric switches, to detect the two shelves of the two films.1.2.The functions of the knifeknife The is the role of reserves a certain number of tools, machine tool spindle in hand to achieve the fungibility a disc cutter knife is the type of library, the chain knives, and other means, in the form of the knife and capacity according to the Machine Tool to determine the scope of the process.mon typesThe knife is a tool storage devices, the common knife mainly in the following forms:(1) the turret knifeIncluding the first level turret vertical turret and the first two, see Figure 2.6 a) and b):(2) the disc cutterDisc knife in the library with discoid knife, cutting tool along See how vertical arrangement (including radial and axial from knife from knife), along See how radial array into acute or arranged in the form of the knife. Simple, compact, more applications, but are ring-cutter, low utilization of space. Figure 2.7 a) to c). If the knife storage capacity must be increased to increase the diameter of the knife, then the moment of inertia also increased correspondingly, the election campaign long knife. Tool number not more than 32 general. Cutter was multi-loop order of the space utilization knife, but inevitably given the knife from complex institutions,applicable to the restricted space Machine Tool storage capacity and more occasions. Two-disc structure is two smaller capacity knife on both sides of the sub-spindle place, more compactlayout, the number of certificates corresponding increase knife, apply to small and medium-sized processing center.(3) the chain knifeIncluding single-and multi-ring chain ring chain, chain link can take many forms change, see Figure 2.8 a) to c), thebasic structure shown inFigure 2. 8 doFeatures: knife apply tothe larger capacity of theoccasion, the space of thesmall number ofgenerally applicable tothe tool in the 30-120.Only increase the lengthof the chain tool will increase the number should not be increased circumferential speed of itsmoment of inertia of the knife does not increase the disc as large.(4) linear combination knife and the knife libraryThe linear knife simple structure in Figure 2.9, tool single order, the capacity of small knife, used for CNC lathe and drill press on. Because the location of fixed knife, ATC completed action by the spindle without manipulator. The cutter knife is generally the turret combination turret with a combination of the disc cutter knife and the chain combination. Every single knife the knife certificates of smaller, faster tool change. There are also some intensive drum wheel, and the lattice-type magazine for the knife, the knife-intensive though. Small footprint, but because of structural constraints, basically not used for single processing center, the concentration used for FMS for the knife system.1.4 Tool storage capacityTool storage capacity of the first to consider the needs of processing, from the use of point of view, generally 10 to 40 knives, knife will be the utilization of the high, and the structure iscompact.1.5 Tool options(1) choose to order processing tool according to the order, followed Add to the knife every knife in the Block. Each tool change, the order of rotation of a cutter knife on location, and remove the need knives, has been used by the cutter knife can be returned to the original Block, can also order Add Block, a knife. However, as the knife in the tool in different processes can not be repeated use of the knife must increase the capacity and lower utilization rate.(2) most of the arbitrary choice of the current system of using arbitrary NC election knives, divided into Daotao coding, coding and memory-cutter, three. Daotao coding tool code or knives or Daotao need to install the code used to identify, in accordance with the general principle of binary coding coding. Tool knife election coding method uses a special knife handle structure, and each of the coding tool. Each of the tool has its own code, thereby cutting tool can be in different processes repeatedly used, not to replace the tool back at the original knife, the knife capacity can be reduced accordingly. Memory-election this paper knife, in this way can knives and knife in the position corresponding to the Daotao memory of the PLC in the NC system, no matter which tool on the Inner knife, tool information is always there in mind, PLC . On the knife with position detection devices, will be the location of each Daotao. This tool can be removed and sent back to arbitrary. On the knife is also a mechanical origin, every election, the nearest knife selection.1.6.Control of the knife(1) the knife as a system to control the positioning axis. In the ladder diagram in accordance with the instructions for computing T code comparison of the output angle and speed of instructions to the knife the knife servo drive servo motor. Tool storage capacity, rotation speed, and / deceleration time, and other system parameters can be set in such a manner free from any outside influence positioning accurate and reliable but the cost is higher.(2) knife from the hydraulic motor drives, fast / slow the points, with proximity switches count and positioning. In comparison ladder diagram of the current storage system knife (knife spindle) and goals knife (pre-knife) and computing, then output rotation instructions, judging by the shortest path rotation in place. This approach requires sufficient hydraulic power and electromagnetic valve knife the rotational speed can be adjusted through the throttle. But over time may be oily hydraulic, oil temperature and environmental factors impact the change in velocity and accuracy. Not generally used in large and medium-sized machine tool change frequently.(3) the knife from AC asynchronous motor driven cam mechanism (Markov institutions), with proximity switches count, which means stable operation, and generally accurate and reliablepositioning cam used in conjunction with a mechanical hand, ATC fast-positioning.2. ATC, the main types, characteristics, and the scope of application 2.1 Auto Rotary ToolRotary Tool automatically onthe use of CNC machine tool is asimple installation of automatic toolchange, the Quartet and 47.60 TurretTool various forms, such as rotaryturret were installed on four, six ormore of the Tool , NC instructions byATC. Rotary Tool has two verticaland horizontal, relatively simplestructure, applicable to economicCNC lathe.Rotary Tool in the structure musthave good strength and stiffness,resistance to bear rough Cutting Toolin the cutting force and reduce therole of deformation and improveprocessing accuracy. Rotating Toolto choose reliable positioningprogramme structure and reasonable position, in order to ensure that each rotary turret to a higher position after repeated positioning accuracy (typically 0.001 to 0.005mm). Figure 2.1 shows the spiral movements of the Quartet Turret.Auto Rotary Tool in the simplest of ATC, is 180 º rotary ATC devices, as shown in Figure 2.2 ATC instructions received, the machine control system put ATC spindle control to the designated location at the same time, the tool movement to the appropriate location, ATC, with the rotary axis and at the same time, the knives matching tool; drawbars from Spindle Cutting Tools rip, ATC, will be the tool from their position removed; ATC, 180 º rotary tool spindle and the tool and tool away; ATC, the Rotary At the same time, the tool refocusing its position to accept Spindle removed from the cutting tool; Next, ATC, will be replaced with the cutter knives were unloaded into the spindle and tool: Finally, back to the original ATC, "standby" position. At this point, ATC completed procedures to continue to run. This ATC, the main advantage ofsimple structure, the less movement, fast tool change. The main disadvantage is that knives must be kept in parallel with the axis of the plane, and after the home side compared to the tool, chip and liquid-cutting knife into the folder, it is necessary to the tool plus protection. Cone knife folder on the chip will cause ATC error, or even damage knife folders, and the possibility of spindle. Some processing centre at the transfer, and the tool side. When the ATC command is called, the transfer-cutter knives will be removed, the machine go forward, and positioning with the ATC, in line with the position. 180 º "Rotary ATC devices can be used horizontal machine, can also be used for vertical machining centers.2. 2 ATC head-turret installedWith rotating CNC machine tool often used such ATC devices, with a few turret head spindle, each with a spindle on both knives, the first tower interim process can be automatic tool change-realization. The advantage is simple structure, tool change time is short, only about 2 s. However, due to spatial constraints, the number of spindle can not be too much, usually only apply to processes less, not to high precision machine tools, such as the NC drill, such as CNC milling machine. In recent years there has been a mechanical hand and the turret head with a knife for the automatic tool change ATC devices, as shown in Figure 2.3. It is in fact a turret head ATC, and the knife-ATC device combination. The principle is as follows:5 turret on the first two tool spindle 3 and 4, when using the tool spindle 4 processing tool, the manipulator 2 will be the next step to the need for the tool does not work on the tool spindle 3 until after the completion of this process , the first rotary turret 180 º, ATC completed. ATC most of their time and processing time coincidence, the only real tool change time turret transposition of the first time, this approach mainly used for ATC and NC NC drilling file bed. 2. 3.Daidao system for the automatic tool changeFigure 2.4 shows the knife and the whole machine tool CNC machine tools for the appearance of Fig.Figure 2.5 shows the knife and split-type machine to the appearance of CNC machine tool plans.At this point, knife storage capacity, a heavier tool can, and often additional transport unit to complete the knife between the spindle and cutting tool transport.Daidao the knife from the ATC, the election knives, automatic loading and unloading machine tool and tool exchange institutions (manipulator), composed of four parts, used widely.Tool Automatic Tool Change the manipulator system, the whole process more complicated ATC. We must first used in the processing of all installed in the standard tool on the knife handle in the machine outside the pre-size, according to a certain way Add to the knife. ATC, selected first in the knife knife, and then from ATC, from the knife from the knife or spindle, exchange, the new knife into the spindle, the old knife back into the knife.ATC, as the former two knives to accommodate a limited number can not be too many, can notmeet the needs of complex parts machining, CNC machine tool Automatic Tool Change Daidao the use of the automatic tool change devices. The knife has more capacity, both installed in the spindle box side or above. As for the automatic tool change Daidao device CNC machine tool spindle box only a spindle, spindle components to high stiffness to meet the machining requirements. The number of establishments in larger knife, which can meet the more complex parts of the machining processes, significantly improving productivity. Daidao system for the automatic tool change applied to drilling centres and CNC machining centers. The comparison drawn Daidao automatic tool change system is the most promising.3.PLC control of the knife random mode of election3. 1Common methods of automatic election knifeAutomatic control of the knife CNC refers to the system after the implementation of user instructions on the knife library automation process, including the process to find knives and automatic tool change [(63,71]. CNC Machining Center device (CNC) directive issued by the election knife , a knife, the tool required to take the knife position, said the election automatic knife. automatically elected knife There are two ways: random sequence election knives and knife election method.3.1.1 order election knifeTool Selection order is the process tool according to the sequence of the insert knife, the use of knives in order to take place, used knives back at the original knife, can also order Add Block, a knife. In this way, no need Tool identification devices, and drive control is a relatively simple, reliable and can be used directly from the points of the knife machinery to achieve. But the knives in each of the tool in different processes can not be reused, if the tool is installed in accordance with the order of the knife, there will be serious consequences. The need to increase the number of knives and knife the capacity of the tool and reduce the utilization of the knife. 3.1.2Random election knifeRandom election under the knife is arbitrary instructions to select the required tools, then there must be tool identification devices. Tool knife in the library do not have the processing in accordance with the order of the workpiece can be arbitrary storage. Each of the tool (or knifeblocks) are for a code, automatic tool change, the rotary cutter, every tool have been the "tool identification device" acceptable identification. When CNC tool code and the code in line with directives of the tool selected, the rotary cutter knives will be sent to the ATC position, waiting to grab manipulator. Random knife election is the advantage of the cutter knife in the order has nothing to do with the processing sequence, the same tool can be used repeatedly. Therefore, the relatively small number of knives, knife the corresponding smaller. Random elections knife on the tool must be coded to identify. There are three main coding.1. Tool coding. Adopt special knife handle structure coding, the drawbars on the knife handle back-end packages such as spacing of the coding part of the lock-nut fixed. Coding diameter ring diameter of a size two, respectively, said that binary "1" and "0" to the two rings are different, can be a series of code. For example, there are six small diameter of the ring can be made to distinguish between 63 (26-1 = 63) of the coding tool. All of 0 normally not allowed to use the code, to avoid the cutter knife Block did not confuse the situation.2. Knife Block coding. On the knife Block coding, coding tool, and tool into line with the number of knives in the Block. ATC knife when the rotation, so that each knife seats followed through knowledge knife, knife found blocks, knives stopped the rotation. At this time there is no knife handle encoding part of the knife handle simplified.3. Annex coding methods. This style of coding keys, coded cards, coding and coding-disc, which is the most widely used coding keys.First to knives are attached to a tool of the show wrapped coding keys, and when the cutter knife to the store at knife in, so put the number of keys to remember knife Block Road, will be inserted into key to the coding Block next to the key hole in the seat for the knife to the numbers.ConclusionFocused on in today's manufacturing environment tool storage and management of new models and methods, practical application of good results in systems integration and optimization, and other aspects of operations will be further explored, so that it has a higher theoretical and practical level.译文：机床刀具设计课题研究意义机床原来的刀库控制程序是单独设计的，没有采用刀具管理系统，功能也比较单一，只实现了刀库刀具的找刀、刀库最短路径定位、主轴换刀，而且不支持大型刀具。
机械制造专业外文翻译
附录附录1英文原文Manufacturing EngineeringMultitasking MachiningDone-in-one setup makes parts betterHardened gear wheels (RC 62-65) are rough and finish-turned and finish-ground, drilled, threaded, and broached on an EMAG VSC 250 DS machine.Multifunction machine tools have been around long enough in various configurations for manufacturers to appreciate their potential for cost-saving, quality production of parts from miniature connectors to transmission housings for off-highway equipment. Development of true multitasking machines,however, has removed them from the category of special machines. Manufacturers have made them one of the fastest growing categories of CNC machine tools because they improve competitiveness. They offer the flexibility to meet just-in-time delivery of a variety of parts in smaller lot sizes. They consolidate the processes of many machines, improve accuracy, and save time formerly required for multiple setups as work was moved from machine to machine and operation to operation. Finally, they employ resources of people and capital equipment more efficiently, a definite plus that the most astute accountants can appreciate.The most familiar multitasking machines are NC lathes with live tools in the turret, mill-turns, and Swiss turning centers. NC lathes with a Y axis that allows turrets to move from side to side have full milling or drilling capability. They can mill, drill, and machine off the spindle centerline. A B axis allows rotation around the Y axis for drilling at an angle or contour milling.sand dollars to over a million dollars. That hardly qualifies them as commodity machines; yet, increasingly, these multitasking machines form the backbone of advanced machining operations for everyone from contract manufacturers to OEMs.Trends in the design of multitasking machines include packing more punch into a limited and crowded work area with extra slides, more horsepower, even matching sub spindle horsepower to that of the main spindle, putting more driven tools in the cut at the same time, and developing sophisticated software and controls for collision-avoidance, scheduling, and production analysis. For machine tool manufacturers with extensive experience in building CNC lathes and turningcenters, developing multitasking machines is a natural next step.Romi Machine Tools Ltd. (Erlanger, KY) developed its multitasking E series turning centers to perform turning, boring, milling, and tapping in one setup in a machine with a compact footprint. The E 320 turning center can be configured with one or two spindles,C axis, live tools, and Y axis for mid to high-volume production. The left spindle features a belt-driven cartridge-style gearless headstock with a high-torque 25 or 35-hp (18.6 or 26.1-kW) GE Fanuc AC spindle motor with a variable speed drive.The right spindle can match the left spindle with a similar 25-hp spindle motor. The slant-bed style E 320 series has a swing of 27.55" (700 mm), a maximum cutting length of 23.62" (600 mm), distance between spindle faces of 41.26" (1048 mm) and a cutting diam of 12.6" (320 mm). The E series includes an E 280 model, which features 15-hp (11.1-kW) spindles, as well as a double-turret, double-spindle E 220 model.pressure coolant, air blast, tool touch probe, and part sensor. The Hardinge-designed and built jaw chuck/collet-ready spindle design permits faster spindle speeds for faster cycle times and maximum part rigidity as parts are gripped close to the spindle bearings, resulting in increased concentricity.When equipped with Hardinge's patented HydroGlide hydrostatic linear guideway system, the Quest CNC lathes have the rigidity and precision required for hard turning, as well as the improved crash protection that hydrostatic design offers.The concept of "done in one" rules today, especially as complex parts can be machined from bar stock or from solid, often eliminating the leadtime and expense involved to design and produce castings and forgings. Manufacturers have been quick to recognize and study their potential for maintaining critical tolerances between features by eliminating multiple setups and the time and accuracy lost moving from operation to operation.At its Technical Center, Caterpillar Inc. (Peoria, IL) works in alliance with its machine tool suppliers to evaluate the potential of equipment and processes that can range from prototype work to production for next-generation Caterpillar equipment, according to Jim Reeb, director of manufacturing research and development. Caterpillar is currently working with Cincinnati Lamb's H5 Geminex series machine for machining and turning powertrain components.The H5 Geminex machine is a flexible solution for processing medium-sized and large parts requiring milling and turning in a single setup, combining four and five-axis machining and high-speed turning."We're doing some horizontal types of machining and turning on ductile housings," says Reeb. "We'll develop the process at the Tech Center and once it's worked out, we'll release the machine to our Decatur, IL facility for installation and production."Early experience with the potential of multitasking machine cells led Sandvik Mining and Construction (Sandviken, Sweden) to move production of its DTH (down-the-hole) rock drilling bits from the low-cost manufacturing environment of Mexico to Sweden in 2001. The DTH rock drilling bits are made from alloy steel forging blanks in 200 different types, of which 15 types are most frequently produced in batches varying from eight to 48.Making the move possible was the performance of a multitasking cell featuring three Nakamura STS-40 super multitasking turning centers with robotic workpiece handling. The cell is able to perform all turning, milling, drilling, and button-hole drilling, including a hardening cycle, of the alloy steel DTH drill bits in five days with 12 operators. The previous conventional method required seven machines and 50 people. Standardizing on the Sandvik Coromant Capto interface and selecting twin-edge tooling with two inserts in each toolholder enable each machine to independently perform complete machining of drill bits.The need to be competitive in its manufacturing processes is no less important to a machine tool builder than it is to its customers. In mid-November 2005, at the unveiling of its latest investment in advanced technology at its headquarters and manufacturing facility in Florence, KY, Brian Papke, president, Mazak Corp. said: "It is nae to be committed to manufacturing in the US without a plan to become cost and price competitive."To support production of its Nexus family of machines, many of which have multitasking capabilities, Mazak implemented lean manufacturing practices, including building to market demand rather than forecast and developing modularly assembled systems. A Palletech automation system for "done-in-one" manufacturing was installed. Production capacity for Nexus machines at its Florence facility has risen to 140 machines per month.--------------------------------------------------------------------------------Rotomill MPMC machines can turn, mill (both with B axis and U axis),as well as drill, tap, or hob complex workpieces.--------------------------------------------------------------------------------Manufacturing cells at Mazak's Florence facility feature Integrex multitasking machines produced by parent company, Yamazaki Mazak (Oguchi, Japan). Mazak has installed two Integrex-500HS multitasking machines teamed with robots for part loading and material handling within the flex cells. A large Integrex e-1060 V/8 multitasking center is being integrated with an existing HMC FMS to allow more flexibility in processing medium-sized machine components.In its product mix, Mazak numbers 11 different Integrex multitasking models and another 20 models with some degree of multitasking capability. In recognition of the unique challenges in programming and operation of multitasking machines, Mazak has established a Center for Multi-Tasking and Manufacturing Excellence for training customers in all aspects of multitasking machining at its National Technology Center, which was doubled in size.--------------------------------------------------------------------------------Workpieces as large as these crankshafts, and larger, are completely machinedon WFL's mill-turn centers.--------------------------------------------------------------------------------Following introductions in Japan last summer and at EMO 2005, Mori Seiki U.S.A. Inc. (Irving, TX) introduced its new NT Series of integrated mill-turn centers to the North American market in November. The NT Series is said to be the product of a complete rethinking of the design and construction of the multitasking machine with the goal of integrating milling and turning functions completely to deliver the same performance levels achieved by each process on dedicated machines.The NT Series employs both DCG (Driven at the Center of Gravity) technology and the box-in-box construction of its NH Series horizontal machining centers, along with a turret with a built-in milling motor.The NT Series comprises nine models with spindle, lower turret, and no center support options bringing the total number of variations to 66. NT Series machines have a B axis (?120? that uses a direct drive (DD) motor, eliminating backlash and making high-speed rotation possible. Maximum spindle speed is 5000 rpm with a maximum tool spindle speed of 12,000 rpm.The turret with built-in milling motor first introduced with Mori Seiki's NL Series of CNC lathes reportedly minimizes heat generation and vibration while eliminating transmission losses. The NL CNC lathes are available in four classes and six specification variations. Some 70% of the NL lathes ordered have been equipped with the multitasking capability of the direct-drive milling motor turret.Mori Seiki's MAPPS III control system for fast processing and collision prevention. completely checks for interference in 3-D in real time for spindles, workpieces, soft jaws, tools, holders, and turrets. Component collisions are prevented at all stages from setup to program operation since interference is detected in all automatic and manual modes.General engineering and aerospace contract manufacturers working in difficult-to-machine materials such as titanium, Inconel, and hardened steels are regarded as prime candidates for the M35 and M35-G multitasking models introduced by WFL Millturn Technologies Inc. (Novi, MI) at EMO 2005.The M35 series is the newest and smallest of WFL's product lineup of mill turn centers. The M35 series features a maximum turning diam of 420 mm, workpiece lengths up to 2090 mm, and a total of 92 tools, including the lower turret. WFL's largest mill turns can process workpieces to 6.5-m long, providing multifunctional turning-boring-milling units for complete machining of complex chuck and bar workpieces in one setup.The M35-G delivers high torque and feed forces to get the full potential of tools weighing up to 15 kg and measuring 450-mm long. The 20-kW milling spindle has a maximum torque of 165 N•m above 1100 rpm. Tool change takes place in a fixed and clearly defined position above the left-hand main spindle. The changing device ensures swift replacement and transfer of tools no longer required to the magazine. Tool systems can be HSK-A63, Capto C6, or KM63.To avoid collisions in automatic and manual operation, WFL offers a patented software option called CrashGuard, a real-time software extension of the CNC. Based on an internal 3-D model of the machine, CrashGuard provides realistic modeling of all special functions of the control, such as five-axis interpolation, rotation of coordinates, spline interpolation, and synchronizations, as well as correct and automatic representation of all machine cycles and macros, whether created by the machine manufacturer or the end user.Weing itner Maschinenbau GmbH (Kirchham, Austria) has expanded its Rotomill pick-up whirling/milling machines with the introduction of the Rotomill MPMC (multiproduct machining center). The Rotomill MPMC is equipped with a pick-up, high-power machining head and a five-axis interpolating controller for production of balanced/unbalanced chucking parts and heavy shafts, as well as for box-shaped housing-like components with dimensions up to 1.5-m diam workpiece envelope to 11-m long.Processes such as turning, milling, boring, deep hole drilling, and tapping can be performed on the Rotomill MPMC in a single setup. Virtually any mechanical cutting method can be realized, including turning, milling (both with B and also U axis), as well as drilling, tapping, or hobbing. Applications include production in one setup of extrusion cylinder and feed extruder screws, precision and special tubes for the oilfield industry, large crankshafts, cam shafts, motor housings, aircraft landing gears, and heavy drive shafts for the energy, ship building, and defense industries. Other industries that use the systems include the paper industry, mining, electrical (including turbines), electrical shafts, compressor, and plastics industries.With quality requirements in the mechanical engineering industry and especially the automotive sector becoming increasingly stringent, EMAG LLC (Farmington Hills, MI) has combined hard turning and finish grinding for fast removal of metal and finish machining of parts. The demand for tighter tolerances and expanded machining capabilities requires the complete machining of components in a single setup.EMAG, which offers workpiece-specific solutions for batch production in the automotive, hydraulics, and pneumatics industries, points to the need for multifunctional machines and dry machining, particularly of hardened workpieces. Reasons include ecology, environmental compatibility, and the rapid rise in waste-disposal costs for cutting oils.EMAG,EMAG's VSC DS turning and grinding centers are being used to machine workpieces, such as transmission parts, gearwheels, sliding sleeves, link pins, components for CVT gearboxes, roller races, rocker arms, bearings, and bearing rings. The combination of grinding and hard turning generates the smallest possible amount of heat on the workpiece surface. Rough hard turning is immediately followed by finish grinding without changing setups.The pick-up concept allows the EMAG VSC DS turning and grinding center to load itself just like all the other VSC machines. The machine benefits from thermal stability, as work spindle, grinding spindles, turret, and machine base are all fluid-cooled.中文翻译制造工程学多功能加工中心一次装夹使加工零件性能更好。
机械类外文文献翻译(中英文翻译)
机械类外文文献翻译(中英文翻译)英文原文Mechanical Design and Manufacturing ProcessesMechanical design is the application of science and technology to devise new or improved products for the purpose of satisfying human needs. It is a vast field of engineering technology which not only concerns itself with the original conception of the product in terms of its size, shape and construction details, but also considers the various factors involved in the manufacture, marketing and use of the product.People who perform the various functions of mechanical design are typically called designers, or design engineers. Mechanical design is basically a creative activity. However, in addition to being innovative, a design engineer must also have a solid background in the areas of mechanical drawing, kinematics, dynamics, materials engineering, strength of materials and manufacturing processes.As stated previously, the purpose of mechanical design is to produce a product which will serve a need for man. Inventions, discoveries and scientific knowledge by themselves do not necessarily benefit people; only if they are incorporated into a designed product will a benefit be derived. It should be recognized, therefore, that a human need must be identified before a particular product is designed.Mechanical design should be considered to be an opportunity to use innovative talents to envision a design of a product, to analyze the systemand then make sound judgments on how the product is to be manufactured. It is important to understand the fundamentals of engineering rather than memorize mere facts and equations. There are no facts or equations which alone can be used to provide all the correct decisions required to produce a good design.On the other hand, any calculations made must be done with the utmost care and precision. For example, if a decimal point is misplaced, an otherwise acceptable design may not function.Good designs require trying new ideas and being willing to take a certain amount of risk, knowing that if the new idea does not work the existing method can be reinstated. Thus a designer must have patience, since there is no assurance of success for the time and effort expended. Creating a completely new design generally requires that many old and well-established methods be thrust aside. This is not easy since many people cling to familiar ideas, techniques and attitudes. A design engineer should constantly search for ways to improve an existing product and must decide what old, proven concepts should be used and what new, untried ideas should be incorporated.New designs generally have "bugs" or unforeseen problems which must be worked out before the superior characteristics of the new designs can be enjoyed. Thus there is a chance for a superior product, but only at higher risk. It should be emphasized that, if a design does not warrant radical new methods, such methods should not be applied merely for the sake of change.During the beginning stages of design, creativity should be allowedto flourish without a great number of constraints. Even though many impractical ideas may arise, it is usually easy to eliminate them in the early stages of design before firm details are required by manufacturing. In this way, innovative ideas are not inhibited. Quite often, more than one design is developed, up to the point where they can be compared against each other. It is entirely possible that the design which is ultimately accepted will use ideas existing in one of the rejected designs that did not show as much overall promise.Psychologists frequently talk about trying to fit people to the machines they operate. It is essentially the responsibility of the design engineer to strive to fit machines to people. This is not an easy task, since there is really no average person for which certain operating dimensions and procedures are optimum.Another important point which should be recognized is that a design engineer must be able to communicate ideas to other people if they are to be incorporated. Communicating the design to others is the final, vital step in the design process. Undoubtedly many great designs, inventions, and creative works have been lost to mankind simply because the originators were unable or unwilling to explain their accomplishments to others. Presentation is a selling job. The engineer, when presenting a new solution to administrative, management, or supervisory persons, is attempting to sell or to prove to them that this solution is a better one. Unless this can be done successfully, the time and effort spent on obtaining the solution have been largely wasted.Basically, there are only three means of communication available tous. These are the written, the oral, and the graphical forms. Therefore the successful engineer will be technically competent and versatile in all three forms of communication. A technically competent person who lacks ability in any one of these forms is severely handicapped. If ability in all three forms is lacking, no one will ever know how competent that person is!The competent engineer should not be afraid of the possibility of not succeeding in a presentation. In fact, occasional failure should be expected because failure or criticism seems to accompany every really creative idea. There is a great deal to be learned from a failure, and the greatest gains are obtained by those willing to risk defeat. In the final analysis, the real failure would lie in deciding not to make the presentation at all. To communicate effectively, the following questions must be answered:(1) Does the design really serve a human need?(2) Will it be competitive with existing products of rival companies?(3) Is it economical to produce?(4) Can it be readily maintained?(5) Will it sell and make a profit?Only time will provide the true answers to the preceding questions, but the product should be designed, manufactured and marketed only with initial affirmative answers. The design engineer also must communicate the finalized design to manufacturing through the use of detail and assembly drawings.Quite often, a problem will occur during the manufacturing cycle [3].It may be that a change is required in the dimensioning or tolerancing of a part so that it can be more readily produced. This fails in the category of engineering changes which must be approved by the design engineer so that the product function will not be adversely affected. In other cases, a deficiency in the design may appear during assembly or testing just prior to shipping. These realities simply bear out the fact that design is a living process. There is always a better way to do it and the designer should constantly strive towards finding that better way.Designing starts with a need, real or imagined. Existing apparatus may need improvements in durability, efficiently, weight, speed, or cost. New apparatus may be needed to perform a function previously done by men, such as computation, assembly, or servicing. With the objective wholly or partly defined, the next step in design is the conception of mechanisms and their arrangements that will perform the needed functions.For this, freehand sketching is of great value, not only as a record of one's thoughts and as an aid in discussion with others, but particularly for communication with one's own mind, as a stimulant for creative ideas.When the general shape and a few dimensions of the several components become apparent, analysis can begin in earnest. The analysis will have as its objective satisfactory or superior performance, plus safety and durability with minimum weight, and a competitive east. Optimum proportions and dimensions will be sought for each critically loaded section, together with a balance between the strength of the several components. Materials and their treatment will be chosen. These important objectives can be attained only by analysis based upon the principles ofmechanics, such as those of statics for reaction forces and for the optimumutilization of friction; of dynamics for inertia, acceleration, and energy; of elasticity and strength of materials for stress。
机械制造工艺外文文献翻译、中英文翻译、外文翻译
中国地质大学长城学院本科毕业设计外文资料翻译系别：工程技术系专业：机械设计制造及其自动化姓名：侯亮学号：052115072015年 4 月 3 日外文资料翻译原文Introduction of MachiningHave a shape as a processing method, all machining process for the production of the most commonly used and most important method. Machining process is a process generated shape, in this process, Drivers device on the work piece material to be in the form of chip removal. Although in some occasions, the workpiece under no circumstances, the use of mobile equipment to the processing, However, the majority of the machining is not only supporting the workpiece also supporting tools and equipment to complete.Machining know the process has two aspects. Small group of low-cost production. For casting, forging and machining pressure, every production of a specific shape of the workpiece, even a spare parts, almost have to spend the high cost of processing. Welding to rely on the shape of the structure, to a large extent, depend on effective in the form of raw materials. In general, through the use of expensive equipment and without special processing conditions, can be almost any type of raw materials, mechanical processing to convert the raw materials processed into the arbitrary shape of the structure, as long as the external dimensions large enough, it is possible. Because of a production of spare parts, even when the parts and structure of the production batch sizes are suitable for the original casting, Forging or pressure processing to produce, but usually prefer machining.Strict precision and good surface finish, machining the second purpose is the establishment of the high precision and surface finish possible on the basis of. Many parts, if any other means of production belonging to the large-scale production, Well Machining is a low-tolerance and can meet the requirements of small batch production. Besides, many parts on the production and processing of coarse process to improve its general shape of the surface. It is only necessary precision and choose only the surface machining. For instance, thread, in addition to mechanical processing, almost no other processing method for processing. Another example is the blacksmith pieces keyhole processing, as well as training to be conducted immediately after the mechanical completion of the processing.Primary Cutting ParametersCutting the work piece and tool based on the basic relationship between the following four elements to fully describe : the tool geometry, cutting speed, feed rate, depth and penetration of a cutting tool.Cutting Tools must be of a suitable material to manufacture, it must be strong, tough, hard and wear-resistant. Tool geometry -- to the tip plane and cutter angle characteristics -- for each cutting process must be correct.Cutting speed is the cutting edge of work piece surface rate, it is inches per minute toshow. In order to effectively processing, and cutting speed must adapt to the level of specific parts -- with knives. Generally, the more hard work piece material, the lower the rate.Progressive Tool to speed is cut into the work piece speed. If the work piece or tool for rotating movement, feed rate per round over the number of inches to the measurement. When the work piece or tool for reciprocating movement and feed rate on each trip through the measurement of inches. Generally, in other conditions, feed rate and cutting speed is inversely proportional to.Depth of penetration of a cutting tool -- to inches dollars -- is the tool to the work piece distance. Rotary cutting it to the chip or equal to the width of the linear cutting chip thickness. Rough than finishing, deeper penetration of a cutting tool depth.Rough machining and finishing machiningThere are two kinds of cuts in machine- shop work called, respectively, the "roughing cut" and the "finishing cut". When a piece is "roughed out", it is quite near the shape and size required, but enough metal has been left on the surface to finish smooth and to exact size." Generally speaking, bars of steel, forging, castings, etc. are machined to the required shape and size with only one roughing and one finishing cut. Sometimes, however, certain portions of a piece may require more than one roughing cut. Also, in some jobs, for example, when great accuracy is not needed, or when a comparatively small amount of metal must be removed, a finishing cut may be all that is required. The roughing cut, to remove the greater part of the excess material, should be reasonably heavy, that is, all the machine, or cutting tool, or work, or all three, will stand. So the machinist’s purpose is to remove the excess stock as fast as he can without leaving, at the same time, a surface too torn and rough, without bending the piece if it is slender, and without spoiling the centers. The finishing cut, to make the work smooth and accurate, is a finer cut. The emphasis here is refinement - very sharp tool, comparatively little metal removed, and a higher degree of accuracy in measurement. Whether roughing or finishing, the machinist must set the machine for the given job. He must consider the size and shape of the work and the kind of material, also the kind of tool used and the nature of the cut to be made, then he proceeds to set the machine for the correct speed and feed and to set the tool to take the depth of cut desired.Automatic Fixture Design外文资料翻译译文机械制造工艺机械加工是所有制造过程中最普遍使用的而且是最重要的方法。
机械外文翻译中英文_机床
英文原文Basic Machining Operations and Cutting TechnologyBasic Machining OperationsMachine tools have evolved from the early foot-powered lathes of the Egyptians and John Wilkinson's boring mill. They are designed to provide rigid support for both the workpiece and the cutting tool and can precisely control their relative positions and the velocity of the tool with respect to the workpiece. Basically, in metal cutting, a sharpened wedge-shaped tool removes a rather narrow strip of metal from the surface of a ductile workpiece in the form of a severely deformed chip. The chip is a waste product that is considerably shorter than the workpiece from which it came but with a corresponding increase in thickness of the uncut chip. The geometrical shape of workpiece depends on the shape of the tool and its path during the machining operation.Most machining operations produce parts of differing geometry. If a rough cylindrical workpiece revolves about a central axis and the tool penetrates beneath its surface and travels parallel to the center of rotation, a surface of revolution is produced, and the operation is called turning. If a hollow tube is machined on the inside in a similar manner, the operation is called boring. Producing an external conical surface uniformly varying diameter is called taper turning, if the tool point travels in a path of varying radius, a contoured surface like that of a bowling pin can be produced; or, if the piece is short enough and the support is sufficiently rigid, a contoured surface could be produced by feeding a shaped tool normal to the axis of rotation. Short tapered or cylindrical surfaces could also be contour formed.Flat or plane surfaces are frequently required. They can be generated by radial turning or facing, in which the tool point moves normal to the axis of rotation. In other cases, it is more convenient to hold the workpiece steady and reciprocate the tool across it in a series of straight-line cuts with a crosswise feed increment before each cutting stroke. This operation is called planning and is carried out on a shaper. For larger pieces it is easier to keep the tool stationary and draw the workpiece under it as in planning. The tool is fed at each reciprocation. Contoured surfaces can be produced by using shaped tools.Multiple-edged tools can also be used. Drilling uses a twin-edged fluted tool for holes with depths up to 5 to 10 times the drill diameter. Whether thedrill turns or the workpiece rotates, relative motion between the cutting edge and the workpiece is the important factor. In milling operations a rotary cutter with a number of cutting edges engages the workpiece. Which moves slowly with respect to the cutter. Plane or contoured surfaces may be produced, depending on the geometry of the cutter and the type of feed.Horizontal or vertical axes of rotation may be used, and the feed of the workpiece may be in any of the three coordinate directions.Basic Machine ToolsMachine tools are used to produce a part of a specified geometrical shape and precise I size by removing metal from a ductile material in the form of chips. The latter are a waste product and vary from long continuous ribbons of a ductile material such as steel, which are undesirable from a disposal point of view, to easily handled well-broken chips resulting from cast iron. Machine tools perform five basic metal-removal processes: I turning, planning, drilling, milling, and grinding. All other metal-removal processes are modifications of these five basic processes. For example, boring is internal turning; reaming, tapping, and counter boring modify drilled holes and are related to drilling; bobbing and gear cutting are fundamentally milling operations; hack sawing and broaching are a form of planning and honing; lapping, super finishing. Polishing and buffing are variants of grinding or abrasive removal operations. Therefore, there are only four types of basic machine tools, which use cutting tools of specific controllable geometry: 1. lathes, 2. planers, 3. drilling machines, and 4. milling machines. The grinding process forms chips, but the geometry of the abrasive grain is uncontrollable.The amount and rate of material removed by the various machining processes may be I large, as in heavy turning operations, or extremely small, as in lapping or super finishing operations where only the high spots of a surface are removed.A machine tool performs three major functions: 1. it rigidly supports the workpiece or its holder and the cutting tool; 2. it provides relative motion between the workpiece and the cutting tool; 3. it provides a range of feeds and speeds usually ranging from 4 to 32 choices in each case.Speed and Feeds in MachiningSpeeds, feeds, and depth of cut are the three major variables for economical machining. Other variables are the work and tool materials, coolant and geometry of the cutting tool. The rate of metal removal and power required for machining depend upon these variables.The depth of cut, feed, and cutting speed are machine settings that must be established in any metal-cutting operation. They all affect the forces, the power, and the rate of metal removal. They can be defined by comparing them to the needle and record of a phonograph. The cutting speed (V) is represented by the velocity of- the record surface relative to the needle in the tone arm at any instant. Feed is represented by the advance of the needle radially inward per revolution, or is the difference in position between two adjacent grooves. The depth of cut is the penetration of the needle into the record or the depth of the grooves.Turning on Lathe CentersThe basic operations performed on an engine lathe are illustrated. Those operations performed on external surfaces with a single point cutting tool are called turning. Except for drilling, reaming, and lapping, the operations on internal surfaces are also performed by a single point cutting tool.All machining operations, including turning and boring, can be classified as roughing, finishing, or semi-finishing. The objective of a roughing operation is to remove the bulk of the material as rapidly and as efficiently as possible, while leaving a small amount of material on the work-piece for the finishing operation. Finishing operations are performed to obtain the final size, shape, and surface finish on the workpiece. Sometimes a semi-finishing operation will precede the finishing operation to leave a small predetermined and uniform amount of stock on the work-piece to be removed by the finishing operation.Generally, longer workpieces are turned while supported on one or two lathe centers. Cone shaped holes, called center holes, which fit the lathe centers are drilled in the ends of the workpiece-usually along the axis of the cylindrical part. The end of the workpiece adjacent to the tailstock is always supported by a tailstock center, while the end near the headstock may be supported by a headstock center or held in a chuck. The headstock end of the workpiece may be held in a four-jaw chuck, or in a type chuck. This method holds the workpiece firmly and transfers the power to the workpiece smoothly; the additional support to the workpiece provided by the chuck lessens the tendency for chatter to occur when cutting. Precise results can be obtained with this method if care is taken to hold the workpiece accurately in the chuck.Very precise results can be obtained by supporting the workpiece between two centers. A lathe dog is clamped to the workpiece; together they are driven by a driver plate mounted on the spindle nose. One end of the Workpiece is mecained;then the workpiece can be turned around in the lathe to machine the other end. The center holes in the workpiece serve as precise locating surfaces as well as bearing surfaces to carry the weight of the workpiece and to resist the cutting forces. After the workpiece has been removed from the lathe for any reason, the center holes will accurately align the workpiece back in the lathe or in another lathe, or in a cylindrical grinding machine. The workpiece must never be held at the headstock end by both a chuck and a lathe center. While at first thought this seems like a quick method of aligning the workpiece in the chuck, this must not be done because it is not possible to press evenly with the jaws against the workpiece while it is also supported by the center. The alignment provided by the center will not be maintained and the pressure of the jaws may damage the center hole, the lathe center, and perhaps even the lathe spindle. Compensating or floating jaw chucks used almost exclusively on high production work provide an exception to the statements made above. These chucks arereally work drivers and cannot be used for the same purpose as ordinary three or four-jaw chucks.While very large diameter workpieces are sometimes mounted on two centers, they are preferably held at the headstock end by faceplate jaws to obtain the smooth power transmission; moreover, large lathe dogs that are adequate to transmit the power not generally available, although they can be made as a special. Faceplate jaws are like chuck jaws except that they are mounted on a faceplate, which has less overhang from the spindle bearings than a large chuck would have.Introduction of MachiningMachining as a shape-producing method is the most universally used and the most important of all manufacturing processes. Machining is a shape-producing process in which a power-driven device causes material to be removed in chip form. Most machining is done with equipment that supports both the work piece and cutting tool although in some cases portable equipment is used with unsupported workpiece.Low setup cost for small Quantities. Machining has two applications in manufacturing. For casting, forging, and press working, each specific shape to be produced, even one part, nearly always has a high tooling cost. The shapes that may he produced by welding depend to a large degree on the shapes of raw material that are available. By making use of generally high cost equipment but without special tooling, it is possible, by machining; to start with nearly any form of raw material, so tong as the exterior dimensions are great enough, and produce any desired shape from any material. Therefore .machining is usually the preferred method for producing one or a few parts, even when the design of the part would logically lead to casting, forging or press working if a high quantity were to be produced.Close accuracies, good finishes. The second application for machining is based on the high accuracies and surface finishes possible. Many of the parts machined in low quantities would be produced with lower but acceptable tolerances if produced in high quantities by some other process. On the other hand, many parts are given their general shapes by some high quantity deformation process and machined only on selected surfaces where high accuracies are needed. Internal threads, for example, are seldom produced by any means other than machining and small holes in press worked parts may be machined following the press working operations.Primary Cutting ParametersThe basic tool-work relationship in cutting is adequately described by means of four factors: tool geometry, cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut.The cutting tool must be made of an appropriate material; it must be strong, tough, hard, and wear resistant. The tool s geometry characterized by planes and angles, must be correct foreach cutting operation. Cutting speed is the rate at which the work surface passes by the cutting edge. It may be expressed in feet per minute.For efficient machining the cutting speed must be of a magnitude appropriate to the particular work-tool combination. In general, the harder the work material, the slower the speed.Feed is the rate at which the cutting tool advances into the workpiece. "Where the workpiece or the tool rotates, feed is measured in inches per revolution. When the tool or the work reciprocates, feed is measured in inches per stroke, Generally, feed varies inversely with cutting speed for otherwise similar conditions.The depth of cut, measured inches is the distance the tool is set into the work. It is the width of the chip in turning or the thickness of the chip in a rectilinear cut. In roughing operations, the depth of cut can be larger than for finishing operations.The Effect of Changes in Cutting Parameters on Cutting TemperaturesIn metal cutting operations heat is generated in the primary and secondary deformation zones and these results in a complex temperature distribution throughout the tool, workpiece and chip. A typical set of isotherms is shown in figure where it can be seen that, as could be expected, there is a very large temperature gradient throughout the width of the chip as the workpiece material is sheared in primary deformation and there is a further large temperature in the chip adjacent to the face as the chip is sheared in secondary deformation. This leads to a maximum cutting temperature a short distance up the face from the cutting edge and a small distance into the chip.Since virtually all the work done in metal cutting is converted into heat, it could be expected that factors which increase the power consumed per unit volume of metal removed will increase the cutting temperature. Thus an increase in the rake angle, all other parameters remaining constant, will reduce the power per unit volume of metal removed and the cutting temperatures will reduce. When considering increase in unreformed chip thickness and cutting speed the situation is more complex. An increase in undeformed chip thickness tends to be a scale effect where the amounts of heat which pass to the workpiece, the tool and chip remain in fixed proportions and the changes in cutting temperature tend to be small. Increase in cutting speed; however, reduce the amount of heat which passes into the workpiece and this increase the temperature rise of the chip m primary deformation. Further, the secondary deformation zone tends to be smaller and this has the effect of increasing the temperatures in this zone. Other changes in cutting parameters have virtually no effect on the power consumed per unit volume of metal removed and consequently have virtually no effect on the cutting temperatures. Since it has been shown that even small changes in cutting temperature have a significant effect on tool wear rate it is appropriate to indicate how cutting temperatures can be assessed from cutting data.The most direct and accurate method for measuring temperatures in high -speed-steel cutting tools is that of Wright &. Trent which also yields detailed information on temperature distributions in high-speed-steel cutting tools. The technique is based on the metallographic examination of sectioned high-speed-steel tools which relates microstructure changes to thermal history.Trent has described measurements of cutting temperatures and temperature distributions for high-speed-steel tools when machining a wide range of workpiece materials. This technique has been further developed by using scanning electron microscopy to study fine-scale microstructure changes arising from over tempering of the tempered martens tic matrix of various high-speed-steels. This technique has also been used to study temperature distributions in both high-speed -steel single point turning tools and twist drills.Wears of Cutting ToolDiscounting brittle fracture and edge chipping, which have already been dealt with, tool wear is basically of three types. Flank wear, crater wear, and notch wear. Flank wear occurs on both the major and the minor cutting edges. On the major cutting edge, which is responsible for bulk metal removal, these results in increased cutting forces and higher temperatures which if left unchecked can lead to vibration of the tool and workpiece and a condition where efficient cutting can no longer take place. On the minor cutting edge, which determines workpiece size and surface finish, flank wear can result in an oversized product which has poor surface finish. Under most practical cutting conditions, the tool will fail due to major flank wear before the minor flank wear is sufficiently large to result in the manufacture of an unacceptable component.Because of the stress distribution on the tool face, the frictional stress in the region of sliding contact between the chip and the face is at a maximum at the start of the sliding contact region and is zero at the end. Thus abrasive wear takes place in this region with more wear taking place adjacent to the seizure region than adjacent to the point at which the chip loses contact with the face. This result in localized pitting of the tool face some distance up the face which is usually referred to as catering and which normally has a section in the form of a circular arc. In many respects and for practical cutting conditions, crater wear is a less severe form of wear than flank wear and consequently flank wear is a more common tool failure criterion. However, since various authors have shown that the temperature on the face increases more rapidly with increasing cutting speed than the temperature on the flank, and since the rate of wear of any type is significantly affected by changes in temperature, crater wear usually occurs at high cutting speeds.At the end of the major flank wear land where the tool is in contact with the uncut workpiece surface it is common for the flank wear to be more pronounced than along the rest ofthe wear land. This is because of localised effects such as a hardened layer on the uncut surface caused by work hardening introduced by a previous cut, an oxide scale, and localised high temperatures resulting from the edge effect. This localised wear is usually referred to as notch wear and occasionally is very severe. Although the presence of the notch will not significantly affect the cutting properties of the tool, the notch is often relatively deep and if cutting were to continue there would be a good chance that the tool would fracture.If any form of progressive wear allowed to continue, dramatically and the tool would fail catastrophically, i. e. the tool would be no longer capable of cutting and, at best, the workpiece would be scrapped whilst, at worst, damage could be caused to the machine tool. For carbide cutting tools and for all types of wear, the tool is said to have reached the end of its useful life long before the onset of catastrophic failure. For high-speed-steel cutting tools, however, where the wear tends to be non-uniform it has been found that the most meaningful and reproducible results can be obtained when the wear is allowed to continue to the onset of catastrophic failure even though, of course, in practice a cutting time far less than that to failure would be used. The onset of catastrophic failure is characterized by one of several phenomena, the most common being a sudden increase in cutting force, the presence of burnished rings on the workpiece, and a significant increase in the noise level.Mechanism of Surface Finish ProductionThere are basically five mechanisms which contribute to the production of a surface which have been machined. These are:(l) The basic geometry of the cutting process. In, for example, single point turning the tool will advance a constant distance axially per revolution of the workpiecc and the resultant surface will have on it, when viewed perpendicularly to the direction of tool feed motion, a series of cusps which will have a basic form which replicates the shape of the tool in cut.(2) The efficiency of the cutting operation. It has already been mentioned that cutting with unstable built-up-edges will produce a surface which contains hard built-up-edge fragments which will result in a degradation of the surface finish. It can also be demonstrated that cutting under adverse conditions such as apply when using large feeds small rake angles and low cutting speeds, besides producing conditions which lead to unstable built-up-edge production, the cutting process itself can become unstable and instead of continuous shear occurring in the shear zone, tearing takes place, discontinuous chips of uneven thickness are produced, and the resultant surface is poor. This situation is particularly noticeable when machining very ductile materials such as copper and aluminum.(3) The stability of the machine tool. Under some combinations of cutting conditions; workpiece size, method of clamping ,and cutting tool rigidity relative to the machine toolstructure, instability can be set up in the tool which causes it to vibrate. Under some conditions this vibration will reach and maintain steady amplitude whilst under other conditions the vibration will built up and unless cutting is stopped considerable damage to both the cutting tool and workpiece may occur. This phenomenon is known as chatter and in axial turning is characterized by long pitch helical bands on the workpiece surface and short pitch undulations on the transient machined surface.(4)The effectiveness of removing swarf. In discontinuous chip production machining, such as milling or turning of brittle materials, it is expected that the chip (swarf) will leave the cutting zone either under gravity or with the assistance of a jet of cutting fluid and that they will not influence the cut surface in any way. However, when continuous chip production is evident, unless steps are taken to control the swarf it is likely that it will impinge on the cut surface and mark it. Inevitably, this marking besides looking.(5)The effective clearance angle on the cutting tool. For certain geometries of minor cutting edge relief and clearance angles it is possible to cut on the major cutting edge and burnish on the minor cutting edge. This can produce a good surface finish but, of course, it is strictly a combination of metal cutting and metal forming and is not to be recommended as a practical cutting method. However, due to cutting tool wear, these conditions occasionally arise and lead to a marked change in the surface characteristics.Limits and TolerancesMachine parts are manufactured so they are interchangeable. In other words, each part of a machine or mechanism is made to a certain size and shape so will fit into any other machine or mechanism of the same type. To make the part interchangeable, each individual part must be made to a size that will fit the mating part in the correct way. It is not only impossible, but also impractical to make many parts to an exact size. This is because machines are not perfect, and the tools become worn. A slight variation from the exact size is always allowed. The amount of this variation depends on the kind of part being manufactured. For examples part might be made 6 in. long with a variation allowed of 0.003 (three-thousandths) in. above and below this size. Therefore, the part could be 5.997 to 6.003 in. and still be the correct size. These are known as the limits. The difference between upper and lower limits is called the tolerance.A tolerance is the total permissible variation in the size of a part.The basic size is that size from which limits of size arc derived by the application of allowances and tolerances.Sometimes the limit is allowed in only one direction. This is known as unilateral tolerance.Unilateral tolerancing is a system of dimensioning where the tolerance (that is variation) is shown in only one direction from the nominal size. Unilateral tolerancing allow the changing of tolerance on a hole or shaft without seriously affecting the fit.When the tolerance is in both directions from the basic size it is known as a bilateral tolerance (plus and minus).Bilateral tolerancing is a system of dimensioning where the tolerance (that is variation) is split and is shown on either side of the nominal size. Limit dimensioning is a system of dimensioning where only the maximum and minimum dimensions arc shown. Thus, the tolerance is the difference between these two dimensions.Surface Finishing and Dimensional ControlProducts that have been completed to their proper shape and size frequently require some type of surface finishing to enable them to satisfactorily fulfill their function. In some cases, it is necessary to improve the physical properties of the surface material for resistance to penetration or abrasion. In many manufacturing processes, the product surface is left with dirt .chips, grease, or other harmful material upon it. Assemblies that are made of different materials, or from the same materials processed in different manners, may require some special surface treatment to provide uniformity of appearance.Surface finishing may sometimes become an intermediate step processing. For instance, cleaning and polishing are usually essential before any kind of plating process. Some of the cleaning procedures are also used for improving surface smoothness on mating parts and for removing burrs and sharp corners, which might be harmful in later use. Another important need for surface finishing is for corrosion protection in a variety of: environments. The type of protection procedure will depend largely upon the anticipated exposure, with due consideration to the material being protected and the economic factors involved.Satisfying the above objectives necessitates the use of main surface-finishing methods that involve chemical change of the surface mechanical work affecting surface properties, cleaning by a variety of methods, and the application of protective coatings, organic and metallic.In the early days of engineering, the mating of parts was achieved by machining one part as nearly as possible to the required size, machining the mating part nearly to size, and then completing its machining, continually offering the other part to it, until the desired relationship was obtained. If it was inconvenient to offer one part to the other part during machining, the final work was done at the bench by a fitter, who scraped the mating parts until the desired fit was obtained, the fitter therefore being a 'fitter' in the literal sense. J It is obvious that the two parts would have to remain together, and m the event of one having to be replaced, the fitting would have to be done all over again. In these days, we expect to be able to purchase a replacement fora broken part, and for it to function correctly without the need for scraping and other fitting operations.When one part can be used 'off the shelf' to replace another of the same dimension and material specification, the parts are said to be interchangeable. A system of interchangeability usually lowers the production costs as there is no need for an expensive, 'fiddling' operation, and it benefits the customer in the event of the need to replace worn parts.Automatic Fixture DesignTraditional synchronous grippers for assembly equipment move parts to the gripper centre-line, assuring that the parts will be in a known position after they arc picked from a conveyor or nest. However, in some applications, forcing the part to the centre-line may damage cither the part or equipment. When the part is delicate and a small collision can result in scrap, when its location is fixed by a machine spindle or mould, or when tolerances are tight, it is preferable to make a gripper comply with the position of the part, rather than the other way around. For these tasks, Zaytran Inc. Of Elyria, Ohio, has created the GPN series of non- synchronous, compliant grippers. Because the force and synchronizations systems of the grippers are independent, the synchronization system can be replaced by a precision slide system without affecting gripper force. Gripper sizes range from 51b gripping force and 0.2 in. stroke to 40Glb gripping force and 6in stroke. GrippersProduction is characterized by batch-size becoming smaller and smaller and greater variety of products. Assembly, being the last production step, is particularly vulnerable to changes in schedules, batch-sizes, and product design. This situation is forcing many companies to put more effort into extensive rationalization and automation of assembly that was previouslyextensive rationalization and automation of assembly that was previously the case. Although the development of flexible fixtures fell quickly behind the development of flexible handling systems such as industrial robots, there are, nonetheless promising attempts to increase the flexibility of fixtures. The fact that fixtures are the essential product - specific investment of a production system intensifies the economic necessity to make the fixture system more flexible.Fixtures can be divided according to their flexibility into special fixtures, group fixtures, modular fixtures and highly flexible fixtures. Flexible fixtures are characterized by their high adaptability to different workpieces, and by low change-over time and expenditure.There are several steps required to generate a fixture, in which a workpiece is fixed for a production task. The first step is to define the necessary position of the workpiece in the fixture, based on the unmachined or base pan, and the working features. Following this, a combination of stability planes must be selected. These stability planes constitute the fixture configuration in which the workpiece is fixed in the defined position, all the forces or torques are compensated,。
机床——机械类外文文献翻译、中英文翻译
毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译系部：专业：姓名：学号：外文出处：English For Electromechanical(用外文写)Engineering附件：1.外文资料翻译译文；2.外文原文。
附件1：外文资料翻译译文机床机床是用于切削金属的机器。
工业上使用的机床要数车床、钻床和铣床最为重要。
其它类型的金属切削机床在金属切削加工方面不及这三种机床应用广泛。
车床通常被称为所有类型机床的始祖。
为了进行车削，当工件旋转经过刀具时，车床用一把单刃刀具切除金属。
用车削可以加工各种圆柱型的工件，如：轴、齿轮坯、皮带轮和丝杠轴。
镗削加工可以用来扩大和精加工定位精度很高的孔。
钻削是由旋转的钻头完成的。
大多数金属的钻削由麻花钻来完成。
用来进行钻削加工的机床称为钻床。
铰孔和攻螺纹也归类为钻削过程。
铰孔是从已经钻好的孔上再切除少量的金属。
攻螺纹是在内孔上加工出螺纹，以使螺钉或螺栓旋进孔内。
铣削由旋转的、多切削刃的铣刀来完成。
铣刀有多种类型和尺寸。
有些铣刀只有两个切削刃，而有些则有多达三十或更多的切削刃。
铣刀根据使用的刀具不同能加工平面、斜面、沟槽、齿轮轮齿和其它外形轮廓。
牛头刨床和龙门刨床用单刃刀具来加工平面。
用牛头刨床进行加工时，刀具在机床上往复运动，而工件朝向刀具自动进给。
在用龙门刨床进行加工时，工件安装在工作台上，工作台往复经过刀具而切除金属。
工作台每完成一个行程刀具自动向工件进给一个小的进给量。
磨削利用磨粒来完成切削工作。
根据加工要求，磨削可分为精密磨削和非精密磨削。
精密磨削用于公差小和非常光洁的表面，非精密磨削用于在精度要求不高的地方切除多余的金属。
车床车床是用来从圆形工件表面切除金属的机床，工件安装在车床的两个顶尖之间，并绕顶尖轴线旋转。
车削工件时，车刀沿着工件的旋转轴线平行移动或与工件的旋转轴线成一斜角移动，将工件表面的金属切除。
车刀的这种位移称为进给。
车刀装夹在刀架上，刀架则固定在溜板上。
溜板是使刀具沿所需方向进行进给的机构。
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外文翻译英文原文Belt Conveying Systems Development of driving systemAmong the methods of material conveying employed，belt conveyors playa very important part in the reliable carrying of material over longdistances at competitive cost．Conveyor systems have become larger and more complex and drive systems have also been going through a process of evolution and will continue to do so．Nowadays，bigger belts require more power and have brought the need for larger individual drives as well as multiple drives such as 3 drives of 750 kW for one belt(this is the case for the conveyor drives in Chengzhuang Mine)．The ability to control drive acceleration torque is critical to belt conveyors’performance．An efficient drive system should be able to provide smooth，soft starts while maintaining belt tensions within the specified safe limits．For load sharing on multiple drives．torque and speed control are also important considerations in the drive system’s design.Due to the advances in conveyor drive control technology，at present many more reliable．Cost-effective and performance-driven conveyor drive systemscovering a wide range of power are available for customers’ choices[1].1 Analysis on conveyor drive technologies1．1 Direct drivesFull-voltage starters．With a full-voltage starter design，the conveyor head shaft is direct-coupled to the motor through the gear drive．Direct full-voltage starters are adequate for relatively low-power, simple-profile conveyors．With direct fu11-voltage starters．no control is provided for various conveyor loads and．depending on the ratio between fu11-and no-1oad power requirements，empty starting times can be three or four times faster than full load．The maintenance-free starting system is simple，low-cost and very reliable．However, they cannot control starting torque and maximum stall torque；therefore．they arelimited to the low-power, simple-profile conveyor belt drives．Reduced-voltage starters．As conveyor power requirements increase，controlling the applied motor torque during the acceleration period becomes increasingly important．Because motor torque 1s a function of voltage，motor voltage must be controlled．This can be achieved through reduced-voltage starters by employing a silicon controlled rectifier(SCR)．A common starting method with SCR reduced-voltage starters is to apply low voltage initially to take up conveyor belt slack．and then to apply a timed linear ramp up to full voltage and belt speed．However, this starting method will not produce constant conveyor belt acceleration．When acceleration is complete．the SCRs,which control the applied voltage to the electric motor． are locked in full conduction, providing fu11-line voltage to the motor．Motors with higher torque and pull—up torque，can provide better starting torque when combined with the SCR starters, which are available in sizes up to 750 KW．Wound rotor induction motors．Wound rotor induction motors are connected directly to the drive system reducer and are a modified configuration of a standard AC induction motor．By inserting resistance in series with the motor’s rotor windings．the modified motor control system controls motor torque．For conveyor starting，resistance is placed in series with the rotor for low initial torque．As the conveyor accelerates，the resistance is reduced slowly to maintain a constant acceleration torque．On multiple-drive systems．an external slip resistor may be left in series with the rotor windings to aid in load sharing．The motor systems have a relatively simple design．However, the control systems for these can be highly complex，because they are based on computer control of the resistance switching．Today，the majority of control systems are custom designed to meet a conveyor system’s particular specifications．Wound rotor motors are appropriate for systems requiring more than 400 kW ．DC motor．DC motors．available from a fraction of thousands of kW ，are designed to deliver constant torque below base speed and constant kW above base speed to the maximum allowable revolutions per minute(r/min)．with the majority of conveyor drives, a DC shunt wound motor is used．Wherein the motor’s rotating armature isconnected externally．The most common technology for controlling DC drives is a SCR device． which allows for continual variable-speed operation．The DC drive system is mechanically simple, but can include complex custom-designed electronics to monitor and control the complete system．This system option is expensive in comparison to other soft-start systems．but it is a reliable, cost-effective drive in applications in which torque,1oad sharing and variable speed are primary considerations．DC motors generally are used with higher-power conveyors，including complex profile conveyors with multiple-drive systems，booster tripper systems needing belt tension control and conveyors requiring a wide variable-speed range．1．2 Hydrokinetic couplingHydrokinetic couplings，commonly referred to as fluid couplings．are composed of three basic elements; the driven impeller, which acts as a centrifugal pump；the driving hydraulic turbine known as the runner and a casing that encloses the two power components．Hydraulic fluid is pumped from the driven impeller to the driving runner, producing torque at the driven shaft．Because circulating hydraulic fluid produces the torque and speed，no mechanical connection is required between the driving and driven shafts．The power produced by this coupling is based on the circulated fluid’s amount and density and the torque in proportion to input speed．Because the pumping action within the fluid coupling depends on centrifugal forces．the output speed is less than the input speed．Referred to as slip．this normally is between l% and 3%．Basic hydrokinetic couplings are available in configurations from fractional to several thousand kW ．Fixed-fill fluid couplings．Fixed-fill fluid couplings are the most commonly used soft-start devices for conveyors with simpler belt profiles and limited convex/concave sections．They are relativelysimple,1ow-cost,reliable,maintenance free devices that provide excellent soft starting results to the majority of belt conveyors in use today．Variable-fill drain couplings．Drainable-fluid couplings work on the same principle as fixed-fill couplings．The coupling’s impellers are mounted on the AC motor and the runners on the driven reducer high-speed shaft．Housing mounted to the drive base encloses the working circuit．The coupling’s rotating casing containsbleed-off orifices that continually allow fluid to exit the working circuit into a separate hydraulic reservoir．Oil from the reservoir is pumped through a heat exchanger to a solenoid-operated hydraulic valve that controls the filling of the fluid coupling．To control the starting torque of a single-drive conveyor system，the AC motor current must be monitored to provide feedback to the solenoid control valve．Variable fill drain couplings are used in medium to high-kW conveyor systems and are available in sizes up to thousands of kW ．The drives can be mechanically complex and depending on the control parameters．the system can be electronically intricate．The drive system cost is medium to high, depending upon size specified．Hydrokinetic scoop control drive．The scoop control fluid coupling consists of the three standard fluid coupling components：a driven impeller, a driving runner and a casing that encloses the working circuit．The casing is fitted with fixed orifices that bleed a predetermined amount of fluid into a reservoir．When the scoop tube is fully extended into the reservoir, the coupling is l00 percent filled．The scoop tube, extending outside the fluid coupling，is positioned using an electric actuator to engage the tube from the fully retracted to the fully engaged position．This control provides reasonably smooth acceleration rates．to but the computer-based control system is very complex．Scoop control couplings are applied on conveyors requiring single or multiple drives from l50 kW to 750 kW.1．3 Variable-frequency control(VFC)Variable frequency control is also one of the direct drive methods．The emphasizing discussion about it here is because that it has so unique characteristic and so good performance compared with other driving methods for belt conveyor． VFC devices Provide variable frequency and voltage to the induction motor, resulting in an excellent starting torque and acceleration rate for belt conveyor drives．VFC drives．available from fractional to several thousand(kW ), are electronic controllers that rectify AC line power to DC and，through an inverter, convert DC back to AC with frequency and voltage contro1．VFC drives adopt vector control or direct torque control(DTC)technology，and can adopt different operating speeds according to different loads．VFC drives can make starting or stallingaccording to any given S-curves．realizing the automatic track for starting or stalling curves．VFC drives provide excellent speed and torque control for starting conveyor belts．and can also be designed to provide load sharing for multiple drives．easily VFC controllers are frequently installed on lower-powered conveyor drives，but when used at the range of medium-high voltage in the past．the structure of VFC controllers becomes very complicated due to the limitation of voltage rating of power semiconductor devices，the combination of medium-high voltage drives and variable speed is often solved with low-voltage inverters using step-up transformer at the output，or with multiple low-voltage inverters connected in series．Three-level voltage-fed PWM converter systems are recently showing increasing popularity for multi-megawatt industrial drive applications because of easy voltage sharing between the series devices and improved harmonic quality at the output compared to two-level converter systems With simple series connection of devices．This kind of VFC system with three 750 kW /2．3kV inverters has been successfully installed in ChengZhuang Mine for one 2．7-km long belt conveyor driving system in following the principle of three-level inverter will be discussed in detail．2 Neutral point clamped(NPC)three-level inverter using IGBTsThree-level voltage-fed inverters have recently become more and more popular for higher power drive applications because of their easy voltage sharing features．1ower dv/dt per switching for each of the devices，and superior harmonic quality at the output．The availability of HV-IGBTs has led to the design of a new range of medium-high voltage inverter using three-level NPC topology．This kind of inverter can realize a whole range with a voltage rating from 2．3 kV to 4．1 6 kV Series connection of HV-IGBT modules is used in the 3．3 kV and 4．1 6 kV devices．The 2．3 kV inverters need only one HV-IGBT per switch[2,3].2．1 Power sectionTo meet the demands for medium voltage applications．a three-level neutral point clamped inverter realizes the power section．In comparison to a two-level inverter．the NPC inverter offers the benefit that three voltage levels can be supplied to the output terminals，so for the same output current quality，only1/4 of the switching frequency is necessary．Moreover the voltage ratings of the switches in NPC inverter topology will be reduced to 1/2．and the additional transient voltage stress on the motor can also be reduced to 1/2 compared to that of a two-level inverter．The switching states of a three-level inverter are summarized in Table 1．U．V and W denote each of the three phases respectively；P N and O are the dc bus points．The phase U，for example，is in state P(positive bus voltage)when theswitches S1u and S2uare closed，whereas it is in state N (negative bus voltage)when the switches S3u and S4uare closed．At neutral point clamping，the phase isin O state when either S2u or S3uconducts depending on positive or negative phasecurrent polarity，respectively．For neutral point voltage balancing，the average current injected at O should be zero．2．2 Line side converterFor standard applications．a l2-pulse diode rectifier feeds the divided DC-link capacitor．This topology introduces low harmonics on the line side．For even higher requirements a 24-pulse diode rectifier can be used as an input converter．For more advanced applications where regeneration capability is necessary, an active front．end converter can replace the diode rectifier, using the same structure as the inverter．2．3 Inverter controlMotor Contro1．Motor control of induction machines is realized by using a rotor flux．oriented vector controller．Fig．2 shows the block diagram of indirect vector controlled drive that incorporates both constant torque and high speed field-weakening regions where the PW M modulator was used．In this figure，the command flux is generated as function of speed．The feedback speed is added with the feed forward slip command signal . the resulting frequency signal is integrated and then the unit vectorsignals(cos and sin )are generated．The vector rotator generates the voltage and angle commands for the PW M as shown．PWM Modulator．The demanded voltage vector is generated using an elaboratePWM modulator．The modulator extends the concepts of space-vector modulation to the three-level inverter．The operation can be explained by starting from a regularly sampled sine-triangle comparison from two-level inverter．Instead of using one set of reference waveforms and one triangle defining the switchingand frequency， the three-level modulator uses two sets of reference waveforms Ur1and just one triangle．Thus, each switching transition is used in an optimal Ur2way so that several objectives are reached at the same time．Very low harmonics are generated．The switching frequency is low and thus switching losses are minimized．As in a two-level inverter, a zero-sequence component can be added to each set of reference waveform s in order to maximize the fundamental voltage component．As an additional degree of freedom，the position of the reference waveform s within the triangle can be changed．This can be used for current balance in the two halves of the DC-1ink．3 Testing resultsAfter Successful installation of three 750 kW /2．3 kV three-level inverters for one 2．7 km long belt conveyor driving system in Chengzhuang Mine．The performance of the whole VFC system was tested．Fig．3 is taken from the test，which shows the excellent characteristic of the belt conveyor driving system with VFC controller．Fig．3 includes four curves．The curve 1 shows the belt tension．From the curve it can be find that the fluctuation range of the belt tension is very smal1．Curve 2 and curve 3 indicate current and torque separately．Curve 4 shows the velocity of the controlled belt．The belt velocity have the“s”shape characteristic．A1l the results of the test show a very satisfied characteristic for belt driving system．4 ConclusionsAdvances in conveyor drive control technology in recent years have resulted in many more reliable．Cost-effective and performance-driven conveyor drive system choices for users．Among these choices，the Variable frequency control (VFC) method shows promising use in the future for long distance belt conveyor drives due to its excellent performances．The NPC three-level inverter using high voltage IGBTsmake the Variable frequency control in medium voltage applications become much more simple because the inverter itself can provide the medium voltage needed at the motor terminals，thus eliminating the step-up transformer in most applications in the past．The testing results taken from the VFC control system with NPC three．1evel inverters used in a 2．7 km long belt conveyor drives in Chengzhuang Mine indicates that the performance of NPC three-level inverter using HV-IGBTs together with the control strategy of rotor field-oriented vector control for induction motor drive is excellent for belt conveyor driving system．中文译文：带式输送机及其牵引系统在运送大量的物料时，带式输送机在长距离的运输中起到了非常重要的竞争作用。