最新土木工程概论(2)
土木工程概论 第6讲_建筑工程2_部分2
这是世界首次 使用的预应力 弦支穹顶结构
土木工程概论
3 建筑结构的主要形式
3.12 悬索式结构
悬索结构由索网、边缘构件和支承结构三部分组成。 屋面荷载通过索网传递到支承柱，再由柱传递到基础。 钢索用多股钢铰线或钢丝绳制成，是一种大跨度屋盖的 理想结构形式。
马鞍型索网 （边缘为一对交叉斜拱）
土木工程概论
土木工程概论
3.10 网架结构
网 架 球 形 节 点
单曲网架外景
单曲网架内景
土木工程概论
3.10 网架结构
大连热带雨林馆
中 心 环
全景 外环 入口
土木工程概论
3.10 网架结构
宝钢56m跨干煤棚
平板网架整体吊装 （跨度100m、总重500t）
双曲网架内景
土木工程概论
3 建筑结构的主要形式
3.11 网壳结构
是以钢杆件组成的曲面网格 结构。网壳可分为单层和双层， 网壳的曲面具有很大的刚度，网 壳结构在大跨度屋盖的应用日益 增多。
网壳与网架外形相 似，区别在于网壳 是刚接杆件体系， 网架节点是铰接的
大连理工大学刘长春体育馆
建筑面积17300m2，屋盖采用 钢网壳结构， 2003年建成。
土木工程概论
3.11 网壳结构
土木工程概论
3.12 悬索式结构
北京理工大学 体育馆
采用双曲金属屋面， 支承体系采用“提篮式” 屋顶结构体系，受力钢管 桁架形成双道圆弧拱，并 通过六道空间桁架相连组 成马鞍型，下部悬吊整个 屋盖体系。 提篮式屋顶结构 体系又形似“鳐 鱼”，动感十足
土木工程概论
第6讲 建筑工程(2)
4 特种结构
3.12 悬索式结构
美国耶鲁大学溜冰馆
civil-engineering-CHAPTER-TWO（土木工程概论英文课件）
civil-engineering-CHAPTER-TWO（土木工程概论英文课件）CHAPTER TWOPREPARATION FOR BEING A CIVIL ENGINEER The first step to be a civil engineer is generally to study civil engineering in a university or college, or major in主修civil engineering or other related programs. In most countries, the certificate （a document attesting to the truth of certain stated facts）of Registered Engineer注册工程师is only given to those who have accepted higher education in accredited （given official approval to act）programs. In this chapter, the reader will acquire the information about the typical（of a feature that helps to distinguish a person or thing）content of these programs.2 .1 What Kinds of Knowledge Are Necessary for a civil Engineer?Engineering education in universities domestic and abroad includes general education and special engineering education. At first, science and mathematics should be mentioned in general education. Engineering is a system of the applying of science and technology, so scientific principles set the foundation of engineering. This is the most important difference between modern civil engineering and ancient construction activities, although construction has always depended to some extent on scientific principles. Since the Industrial Revolution 工业革命, and even as far back as早在，远在the Renaissance（the revival of learning and culture）, civil engineering has always been a branch of technologic science. For these reasons, science and mathematics become the common base of engineering educationincluding civil engineering education.Owing to the accumulation of several centuries, modern science has accumulated. a massive（containing a great quantity of matter）body of literature and knowledge.However, the beginner need not sit under apple tree to discover the laws of universal gravitation as Isaac Newton did in legend（a story about mythical）. Neither does he have to exhaust （wear out completely）his brain for the principle of transform between energy and the mass. Based on the work of numerous pioneers, new students can now enter into the paradise of science easily. Nowadays, engineering is a synthetic system not only depending on traditional mechanics, but also closely relating to advanced science. You can find the courses such as Physics, Chemistry, Computer Science, Material Science, Environmental Science, and perhaps more, in your civil engineering program.One characteristic of modern science is that it can be described exactly and beautifully by mathematics. So the engineer should grasp this powerful tool to solve the problems they will meet in engineering analysis, design, planning and control. In this aspect, engineering students should learn advanced mathematics高等数学including analyticgeometry解析几何；分析几何学（the use of algebra代数学to study geometric properties）;, differential and integral calculus 微积分, progression, differential equation微分方程（an equation containing differentials of a function）. In addition, study of linear algebra线性代数, matrix, probability, numerical methods数值方法；计算方法is usually required by Civil Engineering Program. Using all of this knowledge, an engineer is able to predict preciselyimportant things about the project. For example, an engineercan tell whether a house or a bridge is safe or dangerous when earthquake occurs, or when it is hit by a hurricane. How can the skilled engineer do it? The engineer does this by using abstract models from physical objects（物理对象visible entity）, which can be described and predicted by mathematics. Mathematics数学运算provides engineers with a solid foundation in their engineering activities. Furthermore, by strict training through verification确认，查证；核实（additional proof that something that was believed (some fact or hypothesis or theory) is correct）, deduction推论（something that is inferred）and calculation in the study of mathematics, one will accustom oneself to logicality, strictness, and more rationality; important qualities for a good engineer.An engineer not only just takes the responsibility or the technology and production activities of a project but also has the duty to the society. Does your engineering project benefit your people and society or harm them? A qualified engineer should be conscientiously aware of this point at all times and for this reason universities also organize social science and humanities education for their students. Students enrolling in engineering programs should accept the education in this aspect. Philosophy, ethics, history, literature, aesthetics（the branch of philosophy dealing with beauty and taste (emphasizing the evaluative criteria that are applied to art), as well economics, management （the act of managing something）and foreign language are a useful and necessary tool.The necessary knowledge for professional occupation of civil engineering is composed of two parts; base knowledge for entire civil engineering and corresponding knowledge for a special aspect.Most civil engineering projects can be seen as varieties of structures. In order to ensure the safety of structures, civil engineers should understand their mechanical properties力学性能, such as forces, stresses （force that produces strain on a physical body）, displacements （move something from its natural environment）and deformations（the act of twisting or deforming the shape of something）of the structures, caused by the weight of the structure itself and facilities, winds on the structure, vehicles车辆, varying of temperatures, and perhaps earthquakes. Courses, usually named mechanics of materials材料力学, structural analysis结构分析, elasticity（the tendency of a body to return to its original shape after it has been stretched or compressed）, are set for this purpose. Because civil engineering projects are laid on or under the ground, to know soil and rock properties well is necessary. Thus geo-engineering, soil mechanics and foundation studies are also base knowledge. Water and wind, those will act on or react with the structures, have common properties in the view of mechanics, and fluid mechanics流体力学（study of the mechanics of fluids）deals with the concerned theories. Furthermore, a knowledge of engineering chart drawing (a skill to express the design idea by pictures in common rules understood by engineers* technicians and workers), surveying(to measure the landform for construction), and electricity, machinery, construction management建筑工程管理and general technic, budget（a sum of money allocated for a particular purpose）, bidding投标；出价（the number of tricks a bridge player is willing to contract to make）the tendering are also required.绘制应力应变图Since civil engineering covers many fields of knowledge with many aspects which will be found in the rest chapters of thisbook, it is impossible to learn all of the knowledge in these areas. Almost all of the universities in the world to provide students with several options to enable them to specialize专门研究in the fields mentioned in Chapter One. Such a method is also being re-accepted by civil engineering education in China since 1998 although it was the way in the early history of higher civil engineering education before 1950s. For example, students can now choose options in building structures, bridge, tunnel, road pavement and construction, railway and so on, to know how to design, construct, and organize a civil engineering project. And the students are usually encouraged to choose more options for their future professional life.You can choose one of them as your direction2 2 What Can the University Education Provide for Students?COURSES: Basically, university offers students a variety of courses. The branches of knowledge mentioned above are involved in the courses and courses are usually divided into three types: requirement anything indispensable, approved electives批准选修, and free choice.The requirement and approval electives are both the courses that the students majored in must learn. There are some differences between the two types. Students can not miss any requirement course while have limited right to elect some of the approved electives. In that case那样的话a university usually tells students the minimum which they should choose in the list of the approval electives. As for关于the free choice, universities normally ask for a necessary number of credits or class hours. Those who hope to graduate and be awarded the corresponding degree, have to meet the requirement of the university or the school.Universities should continually adjust teaching plans and course tables 课程表with the development of science and technology, to meet the needs of future engineers. So the contents of courses are changed from time to time.TEACHERS: As in middle and high schools,teachers in universities give lectures, check homework, organize panel discussion专题讨论会(discussion of a subject of public interest by a group of persons forming a panel usually before an audience) for special problems, guide the students to experiments and also check answers in test sheets at the end of semester.Simultaneously, most of them play the role of scientists and/or engineers. They publish research papers研究论文in journals, spend much time in laboratory to verify a new discovery, test a renewal material with the engineering purpose, or design and make a new tool for engineering purpose. Some of them are registered engineers注册土木工程师if their field is civil engineering, and even have their own design institutes. In famous universities, when you knock a door to ask your professor a question, you will be probably told that the professor who you are talking is a respectable academician of Academy of Sciences orEngineering. The groups of wisdoms, who are good at theories and practice experience, are the best gift the universities afford to the students. Unlike the teachers in middle and high schools, university professors rarely monitor your daily study, because they appreciate students should study on individual initiative.With the development of internet, the tele-course is becoming fashionable. A young student will be in a puzzle about the large number of teachers in one university, but will find, faceto face lecture and discussion is always charming, and direct communication not limited in speech. Communication is also by means of expression of teacher's eyes and gestures. The close distance between you, your classmates and the lecturer, will make for an excited atmosphere, it is why since Socrates苏格拉底（古希腊哲学家）(ancient Athenian philosopher; teacher of Plato and Xenophon (470-399 BC), Confucius孔子（中国哲学家，教育家）(Chinese philosopher whose ideas and sayings were collected after his death and became the basis of a philosophical doctrine known a Confucianism (circa 551-478 BC), no matter how modern the society has become, and no matter what kind of high tech is introduced into the education process, the university always keeps its campus and excellent scholars学者们in a remarkable size.LABORATORY AND SITE PRACTICE BASE: For engineering colleges, the laboratories equipped with variety of test machines and measuring devices, and opened to students are indispensable. There are several types of experiments with special purpose, for demonstration, observation, validation确认；批准；生效(the act of validating; finding or testing the truth of something), practical training实习训练, exploration探究(a careful systematic search), or others. The basic experimental skill necessary for engineers can be learned in the laboratories. Most of test items测验项目are specified in the textbook, and detailed instruction is printed. In recent years, universities in China encourage students to design the experiments themselves, and do what they are interested in the related fields, to make students have the desire for innovation.It is cognized that a qualified engineer should possess rich experience obtained from engineering practice, so practicalexercise becomes one important part of the education plan of civil engineering program. Laboratory training is part of this practical training.Others are design work both in classroom and in workroom of consulting companies or design institutes, construction site work, geologic investigation地质勘察, surveying and measurement outside. In most cases Chinese universities, set practice bases at construction companies and design institutes. Usually students are requested to join the construction site work during the summer or winter vacation. A new procedure is tried in a few universities to ask students to search the projects being constructed and go there for their practical training. The procedure itself is taken as a practice. Most universities take the practical trainings to be requirement or approved electives.LIBRARY AND OTHER INFORMATION SOURCES: Self-study is a typical mode of university students. Successful students are always those who do not satisfy the contents of lectures and homework given by teachers. For themcomprehensive reading is undertaken outside indicated textbooks. Books, journals, reports and dissertations学位论文in the form of collection of printed pages打印页面which are stored in the book shelves are also read. Of course, the libraries in modern universities are reformed with the computer system and network, and the electronic libraries make it more convenient for students more convenience to borrow and read. The ability to search, find, and grasp information becomes more and more important in this age, and it is the task of the university education to let students have this ability.SPIRIT AND ATMOSPHERE: In the common sense, the universities are the place where there are freedom for thinking,equality in academy, and advocation of creation. Furthermore, the alternation of new students every year, make university campuses full of the energy of the younger generation.New student military trainingACTIVITIES OUT OF CLASS: there are different student organizations in the campus that help connect classroom to career, develop professionalism, increase technical proficiency, and refine ethical judgment. For example, the Institute of Civil Engineers (ICE) of British welcomes the students enrolled in program of civil engineering to be student members; even ICE develops its members in Chinese universities.Recently American Society of Civil Engineering ( ASCE) joined this action too. There are many sports teams for soccer, basketball, badminton, swimming, track and field, which are organized inter-class, department and even college. Societies in literatures and arts, will afford students a total different area from those in the class.2.3 What Abilities Shall a Future Civil Engineer Possess?THE ABILITY TO APPLY THE KNOWLEDGE：Elementary knowledge is essential to a civil engineering student. In common, by four-year period study, the student should be proficient熟练的，精通的in mathematics through differential equations 微分方程, probability and statistics概率论与数理统计, calculus-based physics微积分学, and general chemistry普通化学; proficiency ln the material mechanics材料力学, fluidmechanics流体力学, structural analysis and geo-techknowledge? good command of theprimary skills for engineering survey, drawing, test, and calculation and design, and at least deeper understanding several major civil engineering areas.The emphasis should be shifted to the application of the knowledge after we understand the importance of the knowledge. 'To know' is mere the first step. For engineers, the more important thing is to apply his knowledge i.e. natural science, mathematics and elementary engineering knowledge recorded in the textbooks or papers in the form of rules, principles, formulae and data, to solve engineering problems.THE ABILITY TO CONDUCT EXPERIMENTS AND EXPLAN THE RESULTS: The ability to plan and conduct experiments and analyse the results are basic aspects of the engineer's abilities.The future engineer is required to conduct laboratory experiments and to critically analyze and interpret data. Though many problems can be solved efficiently and economically by computation in a fine mechanical model, it is not everything. When new material or new structural system is used in civil engineering project, there are new variables which are not reflected, covered in the ready-made model. It will be dangerous if engineers do not change their mathematical model in time. However, how to calibrate the model? The most practical way is to do an experiment. Similar things also encounter in built-up or 'older' constructions, because there are many unknown factors. For example, material used in the structure will weaken, be damaged and lose its function through the duration of a structure's life while the change cannot usually be fully expected at the beginning. And on the other hand, the surroundings, conditions and real loads can also change. Engineers and researchers make the same phenomena, in most case, to recur (happen or occur again) in the laboratory, so that they can reveal the mechanism which now should be understood for the purpose of the safety of the structure. Though according to the basetheory, research engineers are able to judge the results of the experiments, it is common that the observed phenomena or obtained data in the experiments conflict with the known knowledge. In this case, the conflict will bring new discovery and improve an engineer's work. Give a rational explanation to a seemingly strange phenomenon is a wonderful task. It needs to synthesize knowledge of many subjects and to create new knowledge which is not mentioned or recorded in the literature.THE ABILITY OF DESIGN: For engineers, the ability to design a system, a component- or a procedure of construction is basically required. Civil engineers are creating substantial entities every day and everywhere in the world. Before they make them，they should be 'described'. It is the description of the non-existed entity that is called 'design'. The design shows what the future project is, and how to make it in a language which can be understood by constructors. The engineering design is quite different from the design of a piece of artwork, though we sometimes hear the admiration for a building as 'a graceful sculpture'. However, an artist can make a sculpture horse supporting only by one hoof, it will be impossible at ten times the size because the weight increases in three power of the size. Here the key factors will be functionality, safety and low-cost. It means that only the design which meets this requirements is practicable. So the engineering design work should obey the codes, specifications and guidance which arebased on scientific principles and the summary of accumulated experience. On the other hand, as an enterprising engineer. he or she never satisfies the existed ways or technics, so to search a possible way under the limited conditions to realize the 'impossible' things in design will be a challengeable butcharming work forever.THE ABILITY TO COOPERATE WITH WORKING TEAM: An engineer never work alone. Each project is a system, so the design work involves many people' efforts. For a big size building structure, the structural engineers should work with other experts from different disciplines, such as architects, surveyors, mechanical engineers and electricians. In the past, a skilful engineer would play several roles in a project with small size, but nowadays the different jobs should be taken by qualified engineers possessing certificates. When you are in the position of chief engineer in the work team, you should be in more harmony with your fellows. in order to cooperate with others well, every engineer should know how to hear and understand others, to consider things in both sides, you and your fellows, and to make necessary concession after discussion or even quarrels.THE ABILITY TO COMMUNICATE EFFECTIVELY:This is the ability which is an engineer should pay more attention to in the modern society. T o the engineer, as a designer, you should let your clients to accept your design, recognize that what you designed is the most suitable one in many possibilities; you should let the examiners and officers from government believe that your design accords with the low and specification so that the public and surroundings are safety? and you should let the contractors, manufacturers and construction companies understand your consideration and its rationality and feasibility. After being an engineer, you will find that you are frequently asked to attend meetings, to explain something for the project you designed, and you have to go to the construction site to hear new problems and tell the technician the answers. All of these need good communication unfortunately, until now our highschools and universities gave few chances to most of students to train their communication skills. Young engineering students now should take this seriously, and make great efforts to improve their communication ability.The basic element of communication is to speak. So try to look on your audience, no matter in seminars, in meetings or even in your friends' parties, make your voice loud, speak clearly and use plain but vivid vocabulary as possible.Besides speaking, the effective communication includes writing skill and expression of one's idea both in pictures and simple formulas. There are many skills you should learn, but the most important thing is to remember that the purpose of effective communication is for thoroughly understanding between you and your companion.Communication is not the same thing performing on a stage, where the key point should be exchange of information successfully. Good communication skill also includes hearing and considering companion's opinion. Discussion is also involved in the process of communication.2.4How Do You Match the Demands of the Program Education?Through four-year-period study to make yourselves acquire basic knowledge and training for being an engineer is one of the main targets that makes you enter into a university and enroll into a special engineering program.University is a new circumstance to freshmen students. For those who just left high school, and perhaps many of them are first time to sleep in dormitory of school, they should he familiar with the new life as early as possible.STUDY IN CLASSROOM: Needless to say, study is the mostimportant task. There are many things to 'study'. However, to study and understand the knowledge which are necessary for the education objectives as introduced previously in this chapter and specified by the program, education plan is the basic requirement.As a student, you have had the school experience more than ten years, so you know the study skill well; reading textbooks, attending the lectures, taking noteswhen listening, doing homework ............... .. those are almost the same as in high schools. But something changes.The engineering students usually do not have their fixed classroom. They should move from one building to another during the ten minute break between classes. Nobody shares one standard curriculum schedule with his classmates in the same program, especially in the junior and senior year. Students have the opportunity to choose what they 'prefer', and every one shall type the number of the course he wants to join in the next semester into the computer registered system, or after a long queue outside the administration office to fill in course register form. To Chinese students, the most difference from the traditional high school is perhaps that no teacher will strictly monitor your daily study life.Are you free? Certainly. But, just to certain extentSame as the other programs, the Civil Engineering Program requires necessary credits before you are approved to graduate from the university. Each course has its credits according to the class hours and the importance. After passing the examination, you can obtain the pointed credits. If the program asks its students to fulfill total 150 credits, you will never expect to be awarded the engineering bachelor degree in the case that youearned only 149 credits! Furthermore, as you have known, the courses you have to take are divided into three types, requirements, approval electives and free choice, but to each of the three types, the program education plan specifies a certain amount of credits you have to obtain. That is to say your freedom is not infinite.Sometimes, a student will be informed that he did not meet the requirement of the program because he does not pick enough credits in approval electives indicated by the program education plan. So, students had better to read program education plan and student manual carefully once enrolling in the program, and to follow it in the following days. What your tutor who is designated by the department for you, if any can do is to give you some suggestion or advice when you consider to choosesomething.To finish all the courses the program asks is important, and to get high points is encouraged. When you pursue advanced degree study, or apply for a good position1)i n your career life after graduation, high points are always helpful at the beginning. However, good students are not those who only know the description printed on the books or recite the formulae, but fail to explain practical phenomenon,to discover unknown things and to have strong motivation to create new knowledge himself. So university professors encourage students to consider problems in different views, and appreciate students to observe in their own eyes and to ask questions after thinking.JOIN ACTIVITIES IN CAMPUS OUT OF CLASS ACTIVELY: Since an engineer needs to learn effective communication with othersand smooth cooperation with work teams, and to be a good fellow and a success leader both in engineering and social activities, engineering students ought not to localize their 'study' only in academy or pure specialty. Fortunately, a university is such a school that provides with plenty of opportunities to those who would like to develop their multi-talents so that campus activities are called the 'amateurish classroom'. To join one or several activities which attract you in variety of campus activities, i.e. sports, drama and concerts, forums, competitions, clubs and reading party, will benefit your spirits and brain, enlarge your friend circle and get a way more comfortable to develop yourself. It is the university tradition to encourage students to join campus activities.PERSIST IN PHYSICAL EXERCISE: It is not a special requirement to civil engineering program students. Keeping in good health makes people to have confidence to live and work, to ensure the engineers energetically devote themselves into heavy work. By the way, though it is said not to work too heavy, in fact the work of civil engineers is really a heavy one, considering the duty engineer must take for the safety of human being and the society!Universities seek two main achievements in this aspect: to let the daily physical exercise become one of the personal customs of students and to train students to have some basic skills for physical exercise. Both of these are indispensable preparation for a qualified engineer.BE AWARE OF SOCIAL RESPOSSIBILITY:了解社会责任Why has society established a register engineer system, and why has this system been widely accepted by most of the industrial countries? The answer is that each engineering project that engineersinvolved in is not only a solution to a pure technical problem. At first, it will relate to the safety of life and estate. The failure of a building, collapse of a bridge or even a serious accident when undergoing construction may induce a real catastrophe to people, and make the loss of life and estate. So society asks that engineers who take the technical responsibility to the projects must be those who are qualified in knowledge and abilities. The procedure to cognize the candidate's qualification in engineering is the matter of register engineer system.With the development of natural and social science, people have more comprehensive understanding to human being and the relation with the world. In such a background, engineers should consider more and take larger responsibilities. The engineers are being required to understand the relation of his engineering projects with the society, and theinfluence of the projects on environment and continuous development. For example, if an industry building to be built will bring high benefits to investors, but also high risk to pollute the rivers and surrounding soils, what should the civil engineers do? The civil engineers shall be aware of the responsibility to cooperate with the experts in that field to solve the problem. In that case, a structural engineer may adjust the previous concept design if necessary.To be a responsible and conscientious engineer, the engineering student in the university should leave himself enough time to contact comprehensive knowledge about ethics, history and cultures of the different construction regions, beyond engineering subjects. The student needs to develop fine personality. A selfish person will be difficult to be a good engineer.。
土木工程概论
第一章导论1.1.1 什么是土木工程土木工程是建造各类工程设施的科学技术的统称。
它不但包括所应用的材料、设备和所进行的勘测、设计、施工、保养维修等技术活动，还包括工程建设的对象，即建造在地上或地下、陆上或水中，以及直接或间接为人类生活、生产、军事和科学服务的各种工程设施。
1.1.2 土木工程的性质和特点土木工程的五个基本性质1.综合性2.社会性3.实践性4.工程周期长5.工程的系统性1.2.3 现代土木工程的发展历史简述现代土木工程具有以下特征1.功能要求多样化2.城市立体化3.交通高速化4.材料轻质高强化5.施工过程工业化6.理论研究精密化第二章土木工程材料2.2.1 土木工程合成材料 P23六种功能1.过滤作用2.排水作用3.隔离作用4.加筋作用5.防渗作用6.防护作用2.2 钢材钢材的作用与特性1.轻质高强2.韧性好抗冲击能力强3.外表轻巧，华美具有光泽4.容易腐蚀2.2.3 混凝土材料1.混凝土的定义与组成定义：有胶凝材料、骨料和水（或不加水）按适当的比例配合，拌和制成混合物，经一定时间后硬化而的坚硬固体叫做混凝土。
2.混凝土材料的作用于特性混凝土的性能特点P27混凝土的缺点P272.2.4 复合材料的作用与特性1.复合材料的优点（1）比强度、比模量大（2)耐疲劳性能好（3）阻尼减震性好（4）破损安全性高2.复合材料缺点（1）刚度问题（2）经济性问题（3）防火问题（4）耐久性问题2.3.4 FRP复合材料FRP的主要特点P33第三章工程结构的设计方法3.1.1 永久荷载根据时间的变化来分类，可以分为永久荷载、可变荷载和偶然荷载。
3.3.2 结构的功能结构的功能包括安全性、适用性和耐久性3.3.5 结构设计方案结构方案设计包括结构选型、结构布置和主要构件的截面尺寸估算。
第四章基础工程承受建筑物或构筑物荷载的那一部分土层称为地基，将上部结构荷载均匀地传给地基并连接上部结构与地基的下部结构称为基础。
第2章 建筑工程 《土木工程概论(第2版)》
二、按组成房屋主体结构材料、用途及承重方式同分类
• （一）木结构建筑物 • （二）砌体结构建筑物 • （三）混凝土结构建筑物 • （四）钢结构建筑物 • （五）钢-混凝土组合结构建筑物 • （六）索结构和索-膜结构建筑物 • （七）特种构筑物 • （八）高层与超高层建筑的结构体系
截至2017年,已建成投入使用的世界上高度在前十位的建筑
220℃时,构件失去隔火作用
(五)按设计使用年限分类
《民用建筑设计通则》(GB 50352—2005)中规定,以 主体结构的设计使用年限确定的建筑类别为四类:
类别 1 2 3 4
设计使用年 限/年 5
25
50
100
示例 临时性建筑 易于替换结构构件的建筑 普通建筑和构筑物 纪念性建筑和特别重要的建筑
桁架，以错列桁架形式形成的结构。 • (4) 简体结构:利用四周墙形成的封闭筒体和框架一起组合成的结构。 • (5)拱结构:以在一个平面内受力的，由曲线(或折线)形构件组成的拱所
形成的结构。 • (6)网架结构:将杆组成网格形的空间网架，以空间网架为主体形成的结
构。 • (7)薄壳结构:由曲面形板与边缘构件(梁、拱或桁架)组成的空间结构。 • (8)钢索结构:也称悬挂式结构它是以索为主体的结构。 • （9）折板结构:由多块平板组合而成的空间结构。
第二节 建筑基本构造
• 一、建筑构造概述
• 建筑构造是研究建筑物的构造组成以及各构成部
分的组合原理与构造方法的学科。其主要任务是，在 建筑设计过程中综合考虑使用功能、艺术造型、技术 经济等诸多方面的因素，并运用物质技术手段，适当 地选择并正确地决定建筑的构造方案和构配件组用
• （一）基础 • （二）墙（或柱） • （三）楼板层和地坪 • （四）饰面装修 • （五）楼梯 • （六）屋顶 • （七）门与窗
土木工程概论习题答案2篇
土木工程概论习题答案2篇土木工程概论习题答案第一篇：土木工程的概述土木工程是一门研究和应用设计、建造和维护人类使用的各种基础设施工程的学科。
土木工程涉及的领域广泛，包括但不限于建筑、道路和桥梁、水利和环境工程。
在解决人类的基础设施需求和改善生活质量方面，土木工程起着重要的作用。
在土木工程概论中，学生们将学习到土木工程的基本原理和实践知识，掌握设计、建造和维护基础设施工程所需的技能。
下面是对一些常见习题的解答，以加深对土木工程的理解。
1. 什么是土木工程？土木工程是一门研究和应用设计、建造和维护人类使用的各种基础设施工程的学科。
它包括建筑、道路和桥梁、水利和环境工程等多个领域。
2. 土木工程起到什么作用？土木工程起着解决人类基础设施需求和改善生活质量的重要作用。
它负责建造和维护道路、桥梁、建筑物和水利工程等基础设施，为人们的生活提供了必要的便利和安全。
3. 土木工程的设计过程包括哪些步骤？土木工程的设计过程包括项目调研、概念设计、详细设计和施工准备等步骤。
在项目调研阶段，需要收集和分析项目的相关信息。
在概念设计阶段，需要确定项目的整体设计和功能。
在详细设计阶段，需要进行具体的设计计算和制图。
在施工准备阶段，需要准备相关的施工文件和材料。
4. 如何评估土木工程的可行性？评估土木工程的可行性需要考虑多个方面，包括技术可行性、经济可行性和环境可行性。
技术可行性指的是工程的设计和施工是否能够实现。
经济可行性指的是工程所需资金和资源是否能够得到保证。
环境可行性指的是工程对环境的影响是否可接受。
第二篇：土木工程的应用土木工程的应用非常广泛，涉及到建筑、道路和桥梁、水利和环境工程等多个领域。
下面是一些常见问题的解答，以加深对土木工程应用的理解。
1. 土木工程在建筑领域中的应用是什么？土木工程在建筑领域中的应用包括设计和建造各种建筑物，如住宅、办公楼和公共设施。
土木工程师需要考虑建筑的结构稳定性、材料选择和施工过程等因素。
土木工程概论
第一章绪论1土木工程是建造各类工程设施的科学技术的总称，它既指工程建设的对象，既建在地上，地下，水中的各总工程设施，也指应用的材料，设备和所进行的勘测设计，施工，保养，维修等技术2 现代土木工程特点：（1）功能要求多样化（2）城市建设立体化（3）交通工程快速化（4）工程设施大型化3 土木工程的未来：（1）重大工程项目将陆续兴建（2）土木工程将向太空，海洋，荒漠开拓（3）工程材料向轻质，高强，多功能化发展（4）设计方法精确化，设计工作自动化（5）信息和智能化技术全面引入土木工程（智能化交通，ITS。
土木工程分析的仿真系统可知道设计大大提高工程结构的可靠性）（6）土木工程的可持续发展4 土木工程所需知识，能力，和素质要求：知识：土木工程的基本理论包括基础理论和应用理论、土木工程的专业知识与技术、土木工程需要的相关知识如：给水排水、供暖通风、电工电子、工程机械等。
能力：（1）自主学习能力（2）综合解决问题的能力（3）争强，创新能力（4）协调管理能力素质：1、要富有想象力和创造力2、有很强的适应性，能够适应在各种条件和场合下工作3、在技术和实践中能够积极开展思考并不断进取4、有很强的人际交往能力，能有效的与专业人员、客户和现场人员进行交流5、应具备正确的决策能力，因为土木工程时常涉及很大的经济问题。
第二章土木工程材料1砖分类：按生产工艺：烧结砖和非烧结砖按原材料：粘土砖，页岩砖，煤矸石砖，粉煤灰砖，炉渣砖和灰砂砖。
按有无孔洞：空心砖，多孔砖，实心砖（标准粘土砖尺寸240mm*115mm*53mm）2 水泥分类按用途及性能：通用水泥，专用水泥，特性水泥水泥的初凝：硅酸盐系水泥为干粉状物，加适量的水并拌合后便形成可塑性的水泥浆体，水泥浆体在常温下会逐渐变稠直到开始失去塑性水泥的终凝：随着塑性的消失，水泥浆开始产生强度，此时称为水泥的终凝3 绿色建材：采用建材卫生生产技术的无毒害，无污染，无放射性，有利于环境保护和人体健康，安全的建筑和装饰材料。
土木工程概论考试大纲第二章
第二章土木工程的内涵和发展简史土木工程的内涵（1）定义工程是指土木建筑或其它生产、制造部门用比较大而复杂的设备来进行的工作。
如机械工程、化学工程、土木工程、水利工程等。
是工程分科之一。
指用工程材料如土、石、砖、木、钢筋砼、建筑塑料、铝合金等修建房屋、道路、铁路、桥梁、隧道、运河、堤坝、港口、特种结构和市政卫生工程等的生产活动和工程技术。
与建筑物对应的另一个重要概念是构筑物——指人们一般不直接在内进行生产、生活活动的建筑物，如水塔、堤坝、烟囱等。
（2）构筑物指人们一般不直接在内进行生产、生活活动的建筑物，如水塔、堤坝、烟囱等。
⑶土木工程具有民用性是与人们的衣、食、住、行关系密切的工程。
人们的衣食住行都离不开建造各类建筑物、构筑物和修建各种工程设施。
⑷各类土木工程必须具备抵御自然灾害和人为的作用力⑸.⑸.要充分理解土木工程所要解决的四个方面的问题。
作为未来的土木工程师不仅要保证完成的各类土木工程能承受各种作用力，同时，还能根据现有的物质基础（土地、材料、施工机具等）经济而迅速地完成其建造任务。
土木工程的发展简史三个历史时期：古代土木工程（约公元前5000~17世纪中叶）近代土木工程（17世纪中叶至20世纪中叶）现代土木工程（20世纪中叶至今）⑴.古代土木工程时间跨度长。
大致从新石器时代（约公元前5000年起开始至17世纪中叶)。
具有代表性的工程有：①我国黄河流域的仰韶文化（约公元前5000~3000）遗址。
②埃及帝王陵墓建筑群③公元前770年秦襄公时期，人们曾用以木材（截面尺寸为150×150mm的方材）和青铜制金gang做成的木框架建筑房屋。
④都江堰⑤京杭大运河⑥中国历代封建王朝建造的大量宫殿和庙宇建筑，均系木构架结构。
⑦公元532~537年间建造在君士坦丁堡（今土耳其伊斯坦布尔）的索菲亚大教堂。
⑧赵州桥⑨山西应县木塔⑩西欧各国以意大利比萨大教堂和法国巴黎圣母院为代表的教条建筑，都采用了砖石拱卷结构。
《土木工程概论》第2章 土木工程材料
钢材
钢材等级
✓ Q235，Q345， Q390，420
✓ 数字表示钢材的 屈服强度
✓ 强度单位为 MPa(N/mm2)
钢材强度的理解
一块等级为Q235的钢板，厚度10mm，宽度 200mm，按图示方向受拉，则需要多大的拉 力，该钢板会被拉坏？
2.2.2木材
木材的力学性质：木材的顺纹（作用力方向与 纤维方向平行）强度远高于横纹（作用力方向 与纤维方向垂直）强度。因此，木材非常适合 承受拉力和弯矩。
木材的缺点：构造不均匀、各向异性，易吸湿、 吸水，因而产生较大的湿胀、干缩变形，易燃、 易腐等。
2.2.3混凝土和钢筋混凝土
混凝土是由胶结材料、骨料及水按一定比例配 制，经搅拌振捣成型，在一定条件下养护而成 的人造石材。简写为“砼”。
材料的物理性质主要有密度、弹性模量、泊松 比、孔隙率、含水率等；
材料的化学性质主要包括化学组分、亲水性、 憎水性、老化、锈蚀等。
材料的力学性质指材料在各种荷载作用下的强 度、变形及破坏性质。
材料强度指单位面积上材料所能承受的最大荷 载。
概念：弹性、塑性
橡皮擦
橡皮泥
土木工程材料的功能性属性主要有抗火性能、 隔热性能、抗腐蚀性能等，是功能材料选择的 依据。
2.1 土木工程材料与工程结构的关系
土木工程材料的选择与土木工程设计方案、施 工方案、工程经济性、及使用性能密切相关。
不同的工程材料限制了桥梁的跨度、建筑物的 高度、道路的最大载重量、以及工程造价等。
不同的工程材料限制了桥梁的跨度：
石拱桥的单孔跨度通常不超过20米； 钢索拉结的悬索桥单跨跨度早已突破千米， 1998年建成的日本明石大桥主跨为1991米。
土木工程概论
第一章绪论1、土木工程定义：土木工程是建造各类工程设施的科学技术的总称，它既指工程建设的对象，即建在地上、地下、水中的各种工程设施，也指所应用的材料、设备和所进行的勘测设计、施工、保养、维修等技术。
2、土木工程的分类：包括房屋建筑工程、公路与城市道路工程、铁道工程、桥梁工程、隧道工程、机场工程、地下工程、给水排水工程、港口码头工程等。
第二章基础工程1、基础：建在地基上，是上部结构构件的应力有效扩散，使之与土层强度相匹配的的过渡结构。
2、浅基础：通常把位于天然地基上、埋置深度小于5m的一般基础（柱基或墙基）以及埋置深度虽超过5m，但小于基础宽度的大尺寸基础（如箱型基础），统称为天然地基上的浅基础。
深基础：位于地基深处承载力较高的土层上，埋置深度大于5m或大于基础宽度的基础，称为深基础。
3、浅基础（独立基础、条形基础、筏板基础和沉箱基础）深基础（桩基础、沉井基础、沉箱基础）4、地基：是指承托土木工程基础的这一部分很小的场地。
5、岩土工程勘察的目的：查明工程地质条件，分析存在的地质问题，对建筑地区做出工程地质评价。
岩土工程勘察的任务：按照不同勘察阶段的要求，正确反映场地的工程地质条件及岩土体性状的影响，并结合工程设计、施工条件以及地基处理等工程的具体要求，进行技术论证和评价，提出岩土工程问题及解决问题的决策性具体建议，并提出基础、边坡等工程的设计准则和岩土工程施工的指导性意见，为设计、施工提供依据，服务于工程建设的全过程。
岩土工程勘察的三个阶段：可行性研究勘察（选址勘察）、初步勘查、详细勘察。
6、勘探的方法：钻探、井探、槽探、洞探、地球物理勘探等。
第四章建筑工程1、建筑物的基本构件：板、梁、柱、拱。
2、我国以24m为界限，低于24m者称为多层建筑。
超过100m的为超高层。
第五章交通土建工程1、交通体系：由铁路、道路、水运、航空和管道五种运输方式构成的大系统，共同承担着客、货的集散与交流。
2、道路定义：道路是提供各种车辆和行人等通行的工程设施。
土木工程概论 第2章新
2．2 混凝土
2．2．1 水泥 1．水泥的性质 水泥是水硬性胶凝材料，即加水拌合成塑性 浆体，能在空气中和水中凝结硬化，可将其他材料 胶结成整体，并形成坚硬石材的材料。
水泥按其用途及性能分为三类:通用水泥、 专用水泥、特性水泥。水泥按其主要水硬性物质名 称分为：硅酸盐水泥、铝酸盐水泥、硫铝酸盐水泥、 氟铝酸盐水泥、磷酸盐水泥，以火山灰性或潜在水 硬性材料以及其他活性材料为主要组分的水泥。 水泥为干粉状物，加适量的水并拌合后便形成 可塑性的水泥浆体，水泥浆体在常温下会逐渐变稠直 到开始失去塑性，这一现象称为水泥的初凝；随着塑 性的消失,水泥浆体开始产生强度，此时称为水泥的终 凝；水泥浆体由初凝到终凝的过程称为水泥的凝结。 水泥浆体终凝后，其强度会随着时间的延长不断增长， 并形成坚硬的水泥石，这一过程称为水泥的硬化。
北京市自2002年5月1日起，所有建筑工程 （包括基础部分）禁止使用粘土实心砖。采用几种新 型非粘土的页岩煤矸石多孔砖、页岩多孔砖，可用于 多层砖混结构0以上的墙体，以逐步取代粘土多孔砖。 新型非粘土砖有：
1）页岩煤矸石和页岩实心砖 这两种非粘土烧结实心砖与原粘土实心砖外形尺寸 完全相同，240mm×115mm×53mm。全面替代粘土实心 砖，可用于多层砖混结构的基础墙、暖气沟墙、室外 挡土墙及其他室内外原使用粘土实心砖的部位。
2．水泥品种பைடு நூலகம்
用于配制普通混凝土的水泥，可采用常用的五大类水泥。 1）硅酸盐水泥 由硅酸盐水泥熟料、0～5%石灰石或粒化高炉矿渣、 适量石膏磨细制成。
2）普通硅酸盐水泥 由硅酸盐水泥熟料、6～15%混合材料、适量 石膏磨细制成。掺活性混合材料时，不得超过15%， 其中允许用5%的窑灰或10%的非活性混合材料代替。 与硅酸盐水泥相比，早期硬化速度梢慢，抗冻性与耐 磨性略差。普通硅酸盐水泥标号比较高，适用于重要 结构的高强混凝土和预应力混凝土。硬化较快，耐冻 性好。耐腐蚀性差，放热量大。硅酸盐水泥适用于一 般建筑工程，不适用于大体积、耐高温和海工结构。
土木工程概论最新版本ppt课件
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1.3 创新思维使混凝土塔获得新生
塔钢
塔混 凝 土 单 筒
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混凝土单筒塔
带斜撑巨型空间筒体框架 部分预应力混凝土结构
创新思维孕育了东方明珠这一具有震撼 力和感染力的优美建筑。
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1.4 先进的结构使美丽 的建筑成为现实
三个筒体三撑杆 浅桩支承薄底板 七组大梁一根桅 一把巨伞一只碗
Q345钢，总用钢量350吨 .
（3） 两种方案
技术性。 经济性。 施工便捷性。 建筑功能和美观的要求。
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复习题（一）
高层建筑的划分：
1～3层为低层； 4～6层为多层； 7～9层为中高层； 10层～100米高层; 凡超过100米均为超高层。
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复习题（二）
我国建筑设计方针： 适用、经济、在可能条件下兼顾美观
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（4）悬挂结构和悬挑结构同时应用
上球45m直径，9层1万平方米，双重悬挂结构，犹如一把 张开的巨伞 ； 十二榀悬挑桁架，吊九层楼板，是我国目前最多层最高的 悬挂结构。 Φ250的销子连接桁架、钢环梁和柱。
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（5）预应力锥壳
50m直径的下球 ； 锥形的混凝土碗 ，碗底和6个筒体整浇在一起 ； 对锥壳顶面的楼板施加径向预应力 ； 碗边支承48根折线形柱子，支托桁架和楼板 。
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（6）技术创新需要科学态度
节段模型风洞试验
振动台试验
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土木工程概论(2)
第二章1、列举有代表性的采用不同建筑材料的典型建筑。
木材：北京故宫，湖北黄鹤楼；石材：中国长城，埃及金字塔，巴黎凯旋门，巴黎圣母院，法国凡尔赛宫，英国白金汉宫，德国科隆大教堂；钢筋混凝土：中国人民大会堂；钢材：北京奥运会鸟巢，巴黎埃菲尔铁塔，北京水立方2、绿色建材全面系统研发的含义。
我国建筑和建材产业面临资源、能源和环境的压力，存在着建筑围护结构保温性能差、建筑工程材料生产和应用脱节、建筑设计选材难、新型建材产品推广使用难等问题。
在目前形势下，提高建筑中采用绿色建筑材料和产品的比例、促进建筑垃圾再生利用尤为重要，研究、开发和应用环境友好型建筑材料与系列产品具有重要意义。
第三章1、比萨斜塔的基础形式。
筏板基础2、比萨斜塔产生倾斜的主要原因。
由于地基不均匀沉降和土地松软而倾斜3、基础有哪几种形式?分别适用于何种情况？1.条形基础：多用于单层或多层砌体结构；2.独立基础：多用于框架结构或单独柱子的情况；3.井格式基础：当地基条件较差，为了提高建筑物的整体性，防止柱子之间产生不均匀沉降，常将柱下基础沿纵横两个方向扩展连接起来，做成十字交叉的井格基础；4.桩基础：当浅埋基础不能满足地基强度和变形要求时采用；5.筏基础：常用于地基软弱的多层砌体结构、框架结构、剪力墙结构的建筑，以及上部结构荷载较大且不均匀或地基承载力低的情况；6.箱形基础：用于上、对地基不均匀沉降要求严格的高层建筑、重型建筑以及软弱土地基上多层建筑时；部建筑物荷载大。
4、防止地基不均匀沉降的措施有哪些？1在设计时候尽量使上部荷载中心受压均匀分布2遇到高低相差悬殊或地基软硬突变时，要合理设置沉降缝3增加上部结构对地基不均匀的协调作用。
如在砌体结构中设置圈梁以增强结构整体性。
4合理安排施工工序和采用合理的施工方第四章1、建筑物的基本构件有哪些？他们在建筑中中承担作用和可能的形式。
P622、大跨度建筑的结构形式有哪些？各有什么特点？P663、墙体承重有哪几种方式？他们有什么优缺点？墙承重有横墙承重、纵墙承重、纵横墙混合承重三种。
土木工程概论教学课件第2章土木工程材料
2.4 水泥
一、水泥的定义 水泥是粉状的水硬性胶凝材料，即加水拌合成塑性浆体，能在
空气中和水中凝结硬化，可将其它材料胶结成整，并形成坚硬石材 的材料 。
二、水泥的分类
•按化学成分划分为硅酸盐水泥、铝酸盐水泥、硫铝酸盐水泥等系 列。
•硅酸盐水泥按掺混合材料的种类及数量不同，又分为硅酸盐水泥 、普通硅酸盐水泥、矿渣硅酸盐水泥、火山灰质硅酸盐水泥、粉煤 灰硅酸盐水泥和复合硅酸盐水泥等。
常用的建筑塑料有：
聚氯乙烯塑料（PVC）、聚乙烯（PE）、聚甲基丙烯酸甲酯（ PMMA）、酚醛树酯、不饱和聚脂树酯（UP）、环氧树酯（EP）等 。
三、建筑装饰材料
建筑装饰材料是指用于建筑物表面（如墙面、柱面、地面及顶 棚等）起装饰效果的材料。
建筑陶瓷 建筑玻璃
四、建筑涂料
建筑涂料是指涂敷于建筑物表面能干结成膜，具有防护、装饰、 防腐、防火或其他特殊功能的物质。
第2章 土木工程材料
2.1 概述 2.2 砖、瓦、砂、石、灰 2.3 钢材 2.4 水泥 2.5 木材 2.6 混凝土 2.7 砂浆 2.8 其他材料
二、建筑材料的分类
三、土木工程材料的产品标准
1
2
3
4
国家标准 行业标准 地方标准 企业标准
2.2 砖、瓦、砂、石、灰
一、砖
标准砖
多孔砖
空心砖
1-粗骨料；2-细骨料；3-水泥浆体
2.7 砂浆
砂浆是由胶凝材料、细骨料和水等材料按适当比例配制而成， 其在土木工程中起黏结、铺垫、传递荷载的作用。 砌筑砂浆主要用于各类砌体结构的砌筑，以水泥砂浆或水泥石灰砂 浆为主。
2.8 其他材料
一、沥青及沥青防水卷材 沥青是一种有机胶凝材料，它是由多种碳氢化合物及其非金属衍
石大远程奥鹏-土木工程概论-第二阶段在线作业正确答案
中国石油大学（北京）
石大远程
土木工程概论-第二阶段在线作业
参考答案
试读一页
土木工程概论-第二阶段在线作业
1. （）是关于事物的基本原理和事实的有组织、有系统的知识。
A、教学
B、技术
C、科学
D、工程
正确答案：C
2. 用土木工程分析的仿真系统的技术指导设计可大大提高工程结构的（）。
A、真实性
B、可靠性
C、观赏性
D、实用性
正确答案：B
3. 建材行业是土木工程产业的基础，建材行业为适应今后经济不断增长和可持续发展战略的需要就必须走（）之路。
A、绿色建材
B、高强建材
C、科技建材。
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第二章1、列举有代表性的采用不同建筑材料的典型建筑。
木材：北京故宫，湖北黄鹤楼；石材：中国长城，埃及金字塔，巴黎凯旋门，巴黎圣母院，法国凡尔赛宫，英国白金汉宫，德国科隆大教堂；钢筋混凝土：中国人民大会堂；钢材：北京奥运会鸟巢，巴黎埃菲尔铁塔，北京水立方2、绿色建材全面系统研发的含义。
我国建筑和建材产业面临资源、能源和环境的压力，存在着建筑围护结构保温性能差、建筑工程材料生产和应用脱节、建筑设计选材难、新型建材产品推广使用难等问题。
在目前形势下，提高建筑中采用绿色建筑材料和产品的比例、促进建筑垃圾再生利用尤为重要，研究、开发和应用环境友好型建筑材料与系列产品具有重要意义。
第三章1、比萨斜塔的基础形式。
筏板基础2、比萨斜塔产生倾斜的主要原因。
由于地基不均匀沉降和土地松软而倾斜3、基础有哪几种形式?分别适用于何种情况？1.条形基础：多用于单层或多层砌体结构；2.独立基础：多用于框架结构或单独柱子的情况；3.井格式基础：当地基条件较差，为了提高建筑物的整体性，防止柱子之间产生不均匀沉降，常将柱下基础沿纵横两个方向扩展连接起来，做成十字交叉的井格基础；4.桩基础：当浅埋基础不能满足地基强度和变形要求时采用；5.筏基础：常用于地基软弱的多层砌体结构、框架结构、剪力墙结构的建筑，以及上部结构荷载较大且不均匀或地基承载力低的情况；6.箱形基础：用于上、对地基不均匀沉降要求严格的高层建筑、重型建筑以及软弱土地基上多层建筑时；部建筑物荷载大。
4、防止地基不均匀沉降的措施有哪些？1在设计时候尽量使上部荷载中心受压均匀分布2遇到高低相差悬殊或地基软硬突变时，要合理设置沉降缝3增加上部结构对地基不均匀的协调作用。
如在砌体结构中设置圈梁以增强结构整体性。
4合理安排施工工序和采用合理的施工方第四章1、建筑物的基本构件有哪些？他们在建筑中中承担作用和可能的形式。
P622、大跨度建筑的结构形式有哪些？各有什么特点？P663、墙体承重有哪几种方式？他们有什么优缺点？墙承重有横墙承重、纵墙承重、纵横墙混合承重三种。
横墙承重方案：适用于房间的使用面积不大，墙体位置比较固定的建筑。
横墙承重的建筑物整体刚度和抗震性能较好，立而开窗灵活，但平面布置和房间划分的灵活性差。
纵墙承重方案：适用于房间的使用上要求有较大的开间，墙体位置在同层或上下层之间可能有变化的建筑。
在纵墙承重方案中，由于横墙数量少，房屋刚度差，应适当设置承重横墙，与楼板一起形成纵墙的侧向支撑。
纵横墙承重方案：适用于房间变化较多的建筑。
结构方案可根据需要布置，房屋中一部分用横墙承重，另一部分用纵墙承重，形成纵横墙混合承重方案。
此方案建筑组合灵活，空间刚度较好，墙体材料用量较多，适用于开间、进深变化较多的建筑。
4、高层超高层的结构形式有哪些？P72第五章1、查阅中国公路网，了解我国公路现状。
2、检索国内里程长度最长的前五条铁路。
3、任选一国家的首都机场和我国首都机场作定性比较。
列举隧道开挖中的安全防范措施。
1软弱围岩、不良地质、特殊地质或浅埋、偏压、滑坡地段隧洞，应组织技术论证，确定钻爆、掘进、支护方案。
2 洞内通风管、高压风管、水管、照明线、输电线、运输道路、人行道路要统一规划，加强维修，做到布设整齐，状态良好。
机械设备要固定存放位置，料具堆码整齐，专人负责保管。
3洞内施工应由值班领工员统一指挥，按施工组织设计合理安排开挖、衬砌和运输作业，减少交插和相互干扰。
4爆破开挖应做出爆破设计，采用光面爆破或预裂爆破技术必须严格控制周边眼间距、外插角和装药量等参数，减少对围岩的扰动及超欠挖数量。
5爆破起爆后，应派专人进行检查，处理危石、悬石，并设人监护。
确认安全后，其他人员方准进入作业面。
做好洞内防尘，降低粉尘浓度。
5、高速公路的设计要求有哪些？并试述高速公路的优缺点？P92第六章1、列举五个国内外著名桥梁及其所采用的结构形式。
卢浦大桥钢拱结构苏通大桥斜拉桥武汉长江大桥连续钢桁架梁金门大桥悬索桥悉尼港大桥钢桁架拱桥2、决定桥梁跨度和高度时主要考虑的因素。
P1243、桥梁工程设计的要点有哪些？P124第七章1任选一港口城市，为它的建设和发展提出建议第八章1、结合美国波士顿地下空间的开发利用，阐述我国三大城市（北京、上海、广州）在进行城市开发与城市改造过程中，可采取哪些措施？2、我国地下能源开发的前景和可能遇到的困难。
3、发展地下工程的意义？1、为人类的生存开拓了广阔的空间。
2、地下空间具有恒温性、恒湿性、隔热性、遮光性、气密性、隐蔽性、空间性、安全性等优点。
3、社会、经济、环境等多方面的综合效益良好。
4、节省城市占地、节约能源、克服地面各种障碍改善城市交通、减少城市污染、扩大城市空间容量、节省时间、提高工作效率和提高城市生活质量。
第九章1、从科学发展观的视角，谈我国的防洪抢险工作的展开。
2、水电、火电、核电的利弊分析与比较。
水电要有水位落差的地方，地理位置受限制比较多，对环境有一定影响，还算比较环保。
火电有燃料就可以，但是污染严重。
核电清洁安全，且发电功率大，但是对设备要求很高，投资大。
3、水力发电在我国电力工业中的地位和发展前景。
水力发电在我国电力工业中的位置很重要，其装机总容量位于火力发电以后，为第二位。
主要作为区域供电和调峰电站使用，个别超大容量电厂也跨区域送电P178第十章1、城市节水的途径探索。
1、冷却水的重复使用：在工厂推行冷却塔和冷却池技术，可使大量的冷却水得到重复利用，并且投资少，见效快。
2、回收利用废水，建立工业用水的封闭循环系统3、循环用水：在化工、电镀、印染、纺织等行业的生产过程中，可推行逆流漂洗的循环用水技术。
4、革新工艺，采用新技术：以风冷却、汽冷却代替水冷却，以热水代替蒸汽采暖。
2、城市污水处理政策机制的初步研究。
3、城市给水系统有哪几种，各自的优缺点是什么？P1914、城市排水体制有哪几种，各自的优缺点是什么？P196第十一章1、近三年来土木工程施工的新技术。
无梁楼盖,空心薄壁管2、奥运体育场馆建设中的有关施工的报道。
3.简述土方工程施工要点。
主要解决土壁稳定施工排水流沙防治填土压实4.简述砌筑工程施工要点。
P2145.简述钢筋混凝土工程主体施工要点钢筋绑扎，箍筋间距，保护层，浇筑施工注意接缝处理，灌注高度，钢筋搭接位置及长度，焊接的遵照规范6.简述施工组织设计的内容、分类。
P234第十二章现代化的项目管理具有哪些特点？1）项目管理的全球化发展。
（2）关于项目管理的多元化发展。
3）项目管理的专业学科发展。
一般大中型项目从建设前期到投入生产要经过几个阶段？前期工作阶段建设实施阶段竣工验收阶段施工方项目管理的主要任务是什么？施工安全管理施工合同管理施工信息管理施工成本控制施工进度控制施工质量控制与施工方有关的组织与协调试述施工总承包的特点？1、工程造价特点：部分施工图设计完成后，即可进行部分施工招标，确定相应的合同价，分包合同价比较准确；对施工总承包管理方的招标只确定总包管理费，无合同总造价，故合同总造成价是业主的一种风险；如果业主与分包商签约，还加大了业主的风险。
2、工期进度特点：施工总承包管理模式的招标不依赖于施工图纸出齐，可以就分包项目提前招标、开工、缩短建设周期。
3、质量控制特点：施工总承包管理方负责分包项目的质量控制；各分包合同交界面的协调控制也由施工总承包管理方负责，由此减轻业主工作量和管理负担。
4、合同管理特点：如果所有分包合同的招标、合同谈判、签约工作都由业主负责，则业主的合同管理工作量大，对业主不利。
反之则可减轻业主的负担。
相应的，对分包工程款的支付也有总承包管理方支付和业主支付两种方式，前者对总承包管理方管理分包商更为有利。
5、组织协调特点：施工总承包管理方要负责对所有分包商的施工管理及组织协调，大大减轻了业主的工作。
但是，如果分包合同都由业主签订，又会在一定程度上削弱施工总承包管理方对分包商的管理。
试述施工总承包管理的特点？一样施工总承包管理模式与施工总承包模式相比有哪些优点？1合同总价不是一次确定，某一部分施工图设计完成后，再进行该部分施工招标2有分包合同都通过招标获得有竞争力的投标报价，对业主方节约投资有利3施工总承包管理单位只收取总包管理费，不赚总包与分包之间的差价试述施工总承包管理的特点1.投资控制方面一部分施工图完成后，业主就可以单独或与施工总承包管理单位共同进行该部分工程的招标，分包合同的投标报价和合同价以施工图为依据。
在进行对施工总承包管理单位的招标时，只确定施工总承包管理费，而不确定工程造价，这可能成为业主控制总投资的风险。
多数情况下，由业主方与分包人直接签约，这样有可能增加业主方的风险。
2.进度控制方面不需要等待于施工图设计完成后在进行施工总承包管理的招标，分包合同的招标也可以提前，这样就有利于提前开工，有利于缩短建设周期。
3.质量控制方面对分包人的质量控制由施工总承包管理单位进行。
分包工程任务符合质量控制的“他人控制”原则，对质量控制有利。
各分包之间的关系可由施工总承包管理单位负责，这样就可以减轻业主方管理的工作量。
4.合同管理方面一般情况下，所有分包合同的招投标、合同谈判以及签约工作均由业主方负责，业主方的招标及合同管理工作量较大。
对于分包人的工程款支付可由施工总包管理单位支付或由业主直接支付，前者有利于施工总包管理单位对分包人的管理。
5.组织与协调方面由施工总承包管理单位负责对所有分包人的管理及组织协调，这样就大大减轻业主方的工作。
这是采用施工总承包管理模式的基本出发点。
参考规范下载1、《建筑施工模板安全技术规范》JGJ162-20082、《建筑施工扣件式钢管脚手架安全技术规范》JGJ130-20113、《建筑结构荷载规范》GB50009-20124、《钢结构设计规范》GB50017-20035、《混凝土结构设计规范》GB 50010-20106、《混凝土结构工程施工规范》GB50666-20117、《建筑施工临时支撑结构技术规范》JGJ300-20138、建筑施工计算手册(第二版)基本知识模板支撑体系简图一。