语言学教程[第六章语言与认知]山东大学期末考试知识点复习
语言学纲要期末复习考点（完整）
语言学纲要期末复习考点（完整）语言学纲要期末复习整理导言1.语言学的研究的对象是语言2.语言研究的三大发源地:古代印度、中国和古希腊一罗马3.中国传统的语文学也叫小学，包括文字学、训诂学和音韵学4.19世纪历史比较语言学的出现，标志着语言学作为一个独立学科的形成。
5.20世纪初，瑞士语言学家索绪尔《普通语言学教程》成为现代语言学形成的标志性著作。
第一章、语言的功能1.语言的功能包括社会功能和思维功能。
2.语言的社会功能包括信息传递功能和人际互动功能。
3.在各种信息传递的形式中，语言是第一性的、最基本的手段。
4.语言和思维的关系:思维是人的大脑对于客观事实的反映，是人们对于客观世界的认识过程，是人类社会特有的一种精神活动。
①语言是思维活动的动因和载体，是思维成果的贮存所。
思维离不开语言。
②思维和语言不是相同的东西。
思维:太阳晒小王;语言:小王晒太阳③同一思维内容可以用不同的语言形式来表达。
④思维要符合逻辑，语言要符合语法，但语法未必符合逻辑。
第二章、语言是符号系统1.语言的本质：语言是一套符号系统。
2.语言和言语的关系:①语言和言语是一般和特殊(个别) 的关系。
语言通过言语反映出它的存在。
②语言是一套规则系统，说话是对规则的具体运用，所说的话(言语)是根据规则系统的要求使用组织材料的结果。
③语言是社会的，言语是个人的。
语言是社会约定俗成的，而言语是个人行为。
3.符号的基本性质:符号的形式和意义之间没有本质上的、自然属性上的必然联系，是社会约定俗成的。
4.语言符号用人类发出的声音作为自己的形式，是音和义的结合体。
5.能指是指语言符号的物质实体，也就是能够指称某种意义的成分，即形式，如汉语中的语音和汉字。
所指是指符号所指的意义内容，也就是“能指成分”，即特定的物质实体所指的意义内容。
即：能指=形式；所指=意义内容6.语言符号的性质:①任意性：语言符号最突出的特点就是它的音义结合的任意性。
②强制性：音义关系一经社会约定而进入交际之后，它对人们就有强制性。
语言学期末复习资料整理版
语言学期末复习资料整理版Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. 语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。
4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。
Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
胡壮麟《语言学教程》笔记和考研真题详解(语言与认知)【圣才出品】
第6章语言与认知6.1 复习笔记本章要点:1. Psycholinguistics心理语言学2. Language acquisition, language comprehension, language production 语言习得，语言的理解，语言的生成3. First language acquisition第一语言习得4. Cognitive linguistics认知语言学常考考点：语言习得；第一语言习得；语言的理解和生成；范畴；隐喻；整合理论等。
本章内容索引：I. Definition of cognitionII. Definition of PsycholinguisticsIII. Language acquisition1. The Behaviorist Approach2. The Innateness HypothesisIV. Language comprehension1. Sound Comprehension2. Word recognition3. Comprehension of sentences4. Comprehension of textV. Language Production1. Access to words2. Generation of sentences3. Written language productionVI. Cognitive Linguistics1. Definition2. Construal and Construal Operations(1) Attention/ Salience(2) Judgment/ Comparison(3) Perspective/ Situatedness3. Categorization(1) Basic level(2) Superordinate level(3) Subordinate level4. Image Schemas5. Metaphor(1) Ontological metaphors(2) Structural metaphors(3) Orientional metaphors6. Metonymy7. Blending TheoryI. Definition of cognition (认知的定义)Cognition is used in several different loosely related disciplines. In psychology it is used to refer to the mental processes of an individual, with particular relation to a concept which argues that the mind has internal mental states (such as beliefs, desires and intentions) and can be understood as information processing, especially when much abstraction or concretization is involved, or processes such as involving knowledge, expertise or learning for example are at work. Another definition of “cognition” is the mental process or faculty of knowing, including aspects such as awareness, perception, reasoning, and judgment.“认知”一词既可用于不同学科也可用于相关学科。
语言学概论[第六章词义]山东大学期末考试知识点复习
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第六章词义1．词汇与词汇分类词汇又叫语汇，是构成语言的基本材料。
它既可以指一种具体语言或方言中的全部的词和固定词组，也可以指语言中某类词语的总和，还可以指某个作品中所使用的词的总和。
但是它不能指一个个具体的词或固定词组。
根据词汇的稳定程度，它可以分为基本词汇与一般词汇两种。
基本词汇在语言发展中是相对稳定的，一般词汇则敏感地反映着社会的发展和人们生活的变化，于不断产生、消亡等变化之中。
基本词汇与一般词汇相对，是词汇系统的基础和核心。
标志着与人们世世代代的日常生活有密切关系的事物的词以及表示事物关系的常用虚词的总汇叫基本词汇，它是词汇中的主要部分，具有全民常用性、稳固性、能产性等特点。
一般词汇是指词汇中基本词汇以外的词。
它紧随社会的发展与人们生活的变化而变化，稳固性差，构词能力弱，有时候它可以转换为基本词汇。
它包括古语词、方言词、外来词、新造词等。
另外，从词的用途与特点来看，词汇可以分为通用词汇与专用词汇、常用词汇与罕用词汇。
2．词义词义是指人们对现实现象的反映以及由此带来的人们对现实现象的主观评价，它包括词的理性意义与附加色彩。
它具有概括性、模糊性、民族性、主观性特点。
3．词的理性意义与非理性意义词的理性意义是指以现实现象为基础，不涉及人们主观态度的词义。
它是词义的基础与核心部分。
根据人们对事物本质特征的反映情况，词的理性意义可以分为通俗意义与科学意义两种。
词的非理性意义，又叫词的附加色彩，是人们对客观世界认识的价值观念、立场态度和语言使用上的主观看法。
它附着在词的理性意义之上，可以分为三类：一是感情色彩，它有褒义、贬义与中性之分；二是语体色彩，词的语体色彩分为口语色彩和书面语色彩两种基本类型；三是形象色彩，是因为描绘人或事物的形象、情状或特征而使词带上了形象性、可感性和比喻性等特点，可以引起人们对事物视觉形象或听觉形象的联想。
4．词的本义、基本义、引申义、派生义本义是指词的有历史可查的最初的意义。
语言学基础期末复习提纲(整理版)
题型：填空题10，20%；选择题10，20%；判断4，20%（3句话解释原因）；简答3，18%（四句话作答）；论述1，22%（1/4页纸作答）。
导论1、中国、印度和希腊-罗马在传统语言文学的研究上都取得了辉煌的成就，是语言学的三大发源地。
2、中国传统语言研究主要抓住汉字，分析它的形体，探求它的古代读音和意义，形成了统称“小学”的文字、音韵和训诂之学，也就是中国传统的语文学。
3、历史比较语言学标志着语言学不再是其他学科的附庸，已经发展成为一门独立的学科。
4、20世纪初，瑞士语言学家索绪尔在《普通语言学教程》中提出观点，语言学从此成为一门现代学科。
5、理论语言学，也称普通语言学，是关于语言的一般规律的理论研究。
第一章语言的功能1、语言是一种社会现象，和人类社会有着紧密联系。
2、语言的社会功能中最基本的是信息传递功能。
3、如果一个病人大脑左半球发生损伤，他尽管说不出医院的名称、病房、床号，却能找得到。
相反，如果大脑右半球受损，尽管能找到医院的名称、病房、床号，却找不到，能说出家的位置却找不到，这说明语言功能存在大脑左边。
4、儿童学习语言的过程是考察语言与思维关系的一条很好途径。
5、儿童语言的习得一定具有先天生理基础，也离不开外界的社会条件。
6、儿童语言能力的开发还有时间的限制，最迟到十二三岁，如果在此之前没有机会学习语言，那么之后其语言习得和心智发展的潜能就失去了。
十二三岁是语言习得的关键时期，之一临界期的分工时间也是一致的。
第二章语言是符号系统1、符号包含形式和意义两个方面。
（能指形式，形指意义，符号构成的两个方面，语言学上通常用形式和意义来表述。
形式也叫能指，是符号的外壳，是可以被人的感觉器官感知的，因而形式具有物质性。
意义也叫所指，是符号形式所代表的内容，也就是现实现象事物。
）2、符号的形式和意义之间是没有本质上、自然属性上的必要联系，在这一点上符号和隐含某种信息的自然的征候不同。
3、语言符号的任意性和线条性，是20世纪初瑞士的语言学家家得·索绪尔作为语言符号的基本性质提出来的。
语言学期末复习
格，时，体，态，人称等。 25.词的概念意义：也叫理性意义，词汇意义的主体部分，是指说一种语言的人在对现实世 界的认知中形成的共同的主观映像，是认知的成果。 26.词的色彩意义：指词汇主体意义之外，还包涵感情色彩，语体色彩，象征功能等其他与 概念义相关的意义。 27.隐喻：引申的两种形式之一，建立在两个意义所反映的现实现象的某种相似的基础上。 其相似可以是外形的相似，某种性质的相似等等，认知语言学的莱可夫和约翰逊把隐喻分为 实体，结构和空间三种。 28.派生意义：词义中由本义衍生出来的意义。 29.词的中心意义：多义词在语言的发展过程中，某一个意义可能会占据中心地位，语言学 中把这种意义叫做中心意义，是就多义词在某个时代的各个意义的关系说的。 30.转喻：引申的两种形式之一，其基础不是现实现象的相似，而是两类现实现象之间存在 着某种联系，这种联系在人们的心目中经常出现而固定化，因而可以用指称甲类现象的词来 指称乙类现象。 31.词的语义特征：某一小类词中所特有的能对其所在格式起制约作用的并足以区别于其他 小类词的语义要素。 32.语义场：具有相同的语义特征的词义所构成的集合叫做语义场，同一义场内的词义相互 有一定的制约关系，体现了词义的结构系统性。 33.构词法：同一个词在造句时因其句法位置的差异而发生的不同变化，语言学家把专门研 究词形变化现象和规则的学问称为词形学通常简称为构词法。 34.语义角色：句中名词和动词有不同的语义关系，语义学中称之为“语义角色”，是可以涵 盖许多句子动-名关系的抽象角色，如施事，受事，工具等。 35.蕴涵：通俗地说，句子真值的蕴涵关系就是，从一个句子的句义一定可以推导出另一个 句子的句义，反向推导却不成立。 36.预设：通俗地说，如果一个句子的肯定和否定两种形式都以另一句子的肯定式为前提， 则另一句子是该句的预设。 37.语境：语言出现的环境，包括三个方面：话语的物理语境，又叫做“言谈现场”；话语语 境；说话人和受话者的背景知识。 38.话题：一个句子中句义信息所关涉的那个实体是句子的“话题”。 39.说明：针对话题展开的句子其它部分是“说明”。 40.焦点：从信息的角度看，句子中的新信息是说话者所传递信息的重点所在，是说话者认 为受话者不知道因此希望受话者特别关注的部分。 41.会话合作原则：它是指交际双方为使会话合作顺利进行，以达到共同的沟通目的而必须 相互配合，共同遵循的某些准则。它具体包括：量的准则（指所提供的信息的量），质的准 则（所说的话力求真实），关系准则（所说的话是相关的），方式准则（清楚明白说出要说的 话）。 42.言语行为：人们说出的话是一种社会行为，本身也构成新的人类经验，与现实世界中的 其他人，物，现象，事件有着“行为-效力”的关联。这些是语言在另一层次上的意义。语 言行为可以分为三个环节，分别是言内行为，言外行为和言后行为。言语行为可以分为不同 的类型，如阐释，命令，请求，询问等等。 43.社会方言：根据社会因素而区分的社团与语言特点相关，因此这些社会社团又被称为不 同的“言语社团”。各个言语社团的语言是在全民语言基础上产生的各有自己特点的语言分 支或语言变体，这就是所谓社会方言。 44.地域方言：从同一语言分化出来的地域分支，如果处于不完全分化的社会条件和同一语
语言学教程 知识点总结
What is linguistics?definition: Linguistics is generally defined as scientific study of language.1What is language? Language can be generally defined as a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communicationThe main features of language:Language is a system. Elements of language are arranged according to rules; can’t be combined at will. e.g. *bkli, *I apple eat.Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.language is vocal because the primary medium is sound for all languages; writing system came much later than spoken form.Language is human-specific . It is different from the communication systems other forms of life possess,e.g. bird songs, bee dance, animal cries.symbolic---- words are associated with objects, actions and ideas by convention.“A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”----ShakespeareDesign Features of Language?Design features”refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communicationDesign featuresArbitrarinessDualityProductivity/CreativityDisplacementArbitrariness at the syntactic level: language is not arbitrary at the syntactic level.He came in and sat down.He sat down and came in.He sat down after he came in.The link between a linguistic sign and its meaning is a matter of conventionSaussure: the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning(No logical connection between sounds and meanings.)Arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning, even with onomatopoeic words:The dog barks bow wow in English but “汪汪汪” in Chinese.Duality refers to the property of language with two levels of structure, one of sounds and the other of meanings. At one level, the sounds, which are meaningless in isolation, can be grouped and regrouped into units of meaning.For example, sounds such as f, g, d, o, mean nothing separately. When combined together, they take on meaning, as in fog, dog, god.Productivity/Creativity It means language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. It refers to the property that language enables language users to produce or understand an indefinite number of sentences includiing novel sentences by use of a finite set ofrules.Displacement Human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.Thus, we can refer to Confucius, or the North Pole, even though the first has been dead for over 2550 years and the second is situated far away from us.Origin of language1.The divine-origin theory---- Language is a gift of God to mankind2. The invention theory---- imitative, cries of nature, the grunts of men working together.a. The bow-wow theoryb. The pooh-pooh theory pain, anger and joyc. The yo-he-ho theory3.The evolutionary theory---- the result of physical and psychological developmentFunctions of languagermative functionLanguage is the instrument of thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite of social development. The informative function is indeed a crucial function of language.It is also called ideational function in the framework of functional grammar.2. Interpersonal functionFor example, the way in which people address others and refer to themselves( e.g. Dear Sir, Dear Professor, Johnny, yours, your obedient servant.) ) indicate the various grades of interpersonal relations.3. Performative functionthe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons,as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing of children, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.The performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.For example, in Chinese when someone breaks a bowl or a plate the host or the people present are likely to say 岁岁平安as a means of controlling the invisible forces which the believers feel might affect their lives adversely.4.Emotive functionThe emotive function of language is one of the most powerful uses of language because it is crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.It is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress, e.g. swear words, obscenities, involuntary verbal reactions to a piece of art or scenery; conventional words/phrases, e.g.God,My, Damn it, What a sight, Wow, Ugh, Oh.5. Phatic communion•Phatic communion refers to the social interaction of language, originating from Malinowski's study of the functions of language performed by Trobriand Islanders.For example,Mrs. P sneezes violently.Mrs. Q: Bless you.Mrs. P: Thank you.Good morning, God bless you, Nice day“I must go home now, or my husband will beat me6. Recreational functionThe recreational function of a language is often overlooked because it seems so restrictive in purpose and supposedly so limited in usefulness.However, no one will deny the use of language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby's babbling or a chanter's chanting.To take one example, the well-known movie《刘三姐》features a scene of “对歌” (song dueling) mostly for the sheer joy of playing on language.7.Metalingual function•Our language can be used to talk about itself.Main branches of linguisticsPhoneticsPhonologyMorphologySyntaxSemanticsPhonetics studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc.Phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables..Morphology is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning —morphemes and word-formation processes.Although many people think of words as the basic meaningful elements of a language，many words can be broken down into still smaller units, called morphemes.Syntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct sentences.The form or structure of a sentence is governed by the rules of syntax, which specify word order, sentence organization, and the relationships between words, word classes and other sentence elements.Semantics examines how meaning is encoded in a language.It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also with levels of language below the word and above it, e.g. meaning of morphemes and sentences.Important distinctions in linguisticsDescriptive vs. prescriptiveprescriptiveSynchronic vs. diachronicLangue & paroleCompetence & performanceThe first is a prescriptive command, while the second is a descriptive statement.The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are.They represent two different types of linguistic study.If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use, it is said to be descriptive; if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic description takes a fixed instant (usually, but not necessarily, the present) as its point of observation. Most grammars are of this kind.Diachronic linguistics is the study of a language through the course of its history.Langue & par leSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (utterances) as langue and parole.Langue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community. Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual useCompetence and performanceThis fundamental distinction is discussed by Chomsky in his Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965).A language user's underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called his linguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situations.Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual2. PhonologyMain points：Phones, phonemes & allophones* Minimal pairs &Complementary distribution* Suprasegmental featuresBoth phonetics and phonology concern the study of speech sounds. The same root: phono- Phonetics语音学mainly deals with the description, classification and transcription of speech sounds.(study how speech sounds are produced, transmitted ,and perceived.)研究语音的发生传递和感知。
语言学知识点总结
语言学知识点总结语言学是一门研究语言的科学，它涵盖了众多的分支和领域，对于我们理解语言的本质、结构、功能和发展具有重要意义。
以下是对一些重要语言学知识点的总结。
一、语言的定义和本质语言是人类用于交流和思维的符号系统。
它具有任意性、二层性、创造性和移位性等特征。
任意性指语言符号的形式与其所代表的意义之间没有必然的、内在的联系，是约定俗成的。
比如“书”这个词为什么代表书籍这一概念，并没有天然的逻辑联系，只是大家都这样认同和使用。
二层性是指语言具有语音和语法两个层面。
语音层是语言的外在表现形式，而语法层则是组织和规则，使得语音能够组合成有意义的语言单位。
创造性使得我们能够用有限的语言单位创造出无限的表达方式，来传达各种新的思想和概念。
移位性则让我们可以谈论过去、未来和不在眼前的事物。
二、语言的结构语言结构包括语音、词汇、语法和语义等方面。
语音学研究语言的声音系统，包括元音、辅音的发音特点，以及语音的组合和变化规律。
词汇是语言的建筑材料，包括词的构成、词义的演变和词汇的分类等。
语法规则决定了词如何组合成句子，包括词法和句法。
词法涉及词的形态变化，如名词的复数、动词的时态等；句法则关注句子的结构和成分。
语义学探讨语言符号与它们所指称的对象之间的关系，研究词义和句义的理解和表达。
三、语言的功能语言具有多种功能，如交际功能、思维功能、记录功能、文化传承功能等。
交际功能是语言最基本的功能，使人们能够相互交流信息、表达情感和想法。
思维功能帮助我们组织和表达思维，语言和思维相互影响，相互促进。
记录功能让我们能够将知识、经验和历史等信息保存下来。
文化传承功能则通过语言传递文化传统、价值观念和社会规范。
四、语言的发展语言是不断发展变化的。
语言的发展受到社会、历史、文化等多种因素的影响。
新词汇不断产生，旧词汇可能逐渐消亡或改变意义。
例如，随着科技的发展，出现了“互联网”“智能手机”等新词汇。
语音和语法也会发生变化，语音的演变可能导致读音的改变，语法规则可能会简化或变得更加复杂。
语言学教程[第八章语言的使用]山东大学期末考试知识点复习
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语言学教程[第八章语言的使用]山东大学期末考试知识点复习语言学教程山东大学期末考试知识点复习第八章语言的使用在语言学的学习中，了解语言的使用是非常重要的一部分。
语言的使用即指语言在日常生活中的应用和运用，研究语言的使用可以帮助我们理解语言的功能和作用，以及影响语言使用的因素。
本章将重点介绍语言的使用以及相关的知识点。
一、交际行为与语言使用交际行为是人类社会中的一种基本行为，通过交际行为可以实现人际关系的建立、信息的传递和社会化的发展。
而语言正是人们进行交际行为所必需的一种工具。
语言使用包括语言的产生、理解和运用。
语言的产生是指人们根据特定的语言规则和环境，将思维转化为语言形式；语言的理解是指人们通过对语言信息的解码，理解并把握他人所表达的含义；语言的运用是指人们在交际情境中运用语言，实现交流的目的。
二、语言交际的特点语言交际具有以下几个特点：第一，语言交际是双向的。
在交际过程中，既有信息的发送者，也有信息的接收者；第二，语言交际是有目的性的。
人们在交际中常常有明确的目的，希望通过语言来实现某种目标；第三，语言交际是依赖语言系统的。
语言系统是指一种特定的语言结构和规则，人们在交际中依据语言系统来组织语言的表达；第四，语言交际是情境依存的。
语言的使用是受到情境的制约的，包括交际环境、社会背景、语言参与者的身份等。
三、语用学与语言使用语用学是研究语言使用的学科，它探讨人们在交际中如何通过语言来表达意义和实现交流。
语用学研究的内容包括意义的构建、上下文的作用、会话结构、言语行为等。
语用学从很多方面拓展了我们对语言的理解，使我们能够更好地理解语言在交际中的功能和运作方式。
四、言语行为与言外行为在日常生活中，人们的言语行为常常不仅仅是字面上的意思，还包含了其他一些含义，这就是言外行为。
言语行为指的是人们通过言语来传递信息和表达意思；言外行为则是言语行为之外的非语言行为，例如语调、肢体语言、眼神表情等。
言外行为在交际中起到了非常重要的作用，可以帮助我们更好地理解他人的意图和情感。
《语言学教程》重点笔记（2020年）
《语言学教程》重点笔记（2020年）语言学教程笔记第一章语言学导论语言的定义特征：从本质上将人类语言与动物语言区分开的人类语言的区别性特点。
1.任意性：任意性是指语言符号的形式与所表示的意义没有天然的联系，任意性是语言的核心特征。
例如，我们无法解释为什么一本书读作a /buk/，一支钢笔读作a /pen/。
任意性具有不同层次：（1）语素音义关系的任意性。
（2）句法层面上的任意性。
（3）任意性和规约性。
2.二层性：二层性是指拥有两层结构的这种特性，上层结构的单位由底层结构的元素构成，每层都有自身的组合规则。
话语的组成元素是本身不传达意义的语音，语音的唯一作用就是相互组合构成有意义的单位，比如词。
因为底层单位是无意的，而上层单位有明确的意义，所以我们把语音叫做底层单位，与词等上层单位相对。
二层性使语言拥有了一种强大的能产性。
3.创造性：创造性指语言的能产性，指语言有制造无穷长句的潜力，这来源于语言的二层性和递归性。
利用二重性说话者可以通过组合基本语言单位，无止境地生成句子，大多数都是以前没有过的或没有听过的。
4.移位性：是指人类语言可以让使用者在交际时用语言符号代表时间上和空间上并不可及的物体、时间或观点。
因此我们可以提及孔子或北极，虽然前者已经去世两千五百五十多年而后者位置距我们非常之远。
语言使我们能够谈及已不存在或还未出现的事物。
移位性赋予人们的概括与抽象能力使人类受益无穷。
词在指称具体物体时，并不总是出现在即时、形象化的语境中。
他们通常为了体现指称含义而被使用。
5.文化传递性：语言不是靠遗传，而是通过文化传递的。
6.互换性：指人可以是信息的发出者，也可以是信息的接受者，即人作为说话者和听话者的角色是可以随意更换的。
元语言功能：我们的语言可以用来讨论语言本身。
比如说，我可以用“书”指代一本书，也可以用“书这个词”来指代“书”这个词本身。
这使语言具有无限的自我反身性：人类可以谈论“说话”，也可以思考“思考”。
胡壮麟语言学教程期末考试复习专用笔记(老师画的重点,自己整理的)
英语专业的，自己整理的，期末考试完了，把这个放在网上给大家分享一下。
希望对大家有所帮助！Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1.1 Why study language?1. Language is very essential to human beings.2. In language there are many things we should know.3. For further understanding, we need to study language scientifically.1.2 What is language?1.3 Design features of languageThe features that define our human languages can becalled design features which can distinguish human language from any animal system of communication.1.3.1 Arbitrariness1.3.2 Duality1.3.3 CreativityCreativity means that language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness. Recursiveness refers to the rule which can be applied repeatedly without any definite limit. The recursive nature of language provides a theoretical basis for the possibility of creating endless sentences.1.3.4 Displacement1.4 Origin of language1. The bow-wow theoryIn primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment they lived and speech developed from that.2. The pooh-pooh theoryIn the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pains, anger and joy which gradually developed into language.3. The “yo-he-ho” theoryAs primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.1.5 Functions of languageAs is proposed by Jacobson, language has six functions:1. Referential: to convey message and information;2. Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake;3. Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions;4. Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and entreaties;5. Phatic: to establish communion with others;6. Metalingual: to clear up intentions, words and meanings.What is contextualism?“Contextualism” is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from, or reduce it to, observable context: the “situational context” and the “linguistic context”. Every utterance occurs in a particular spatial-temporal situation, as the following factors are related to the situational context: (1) the speaker andthe hearer; (2) the actions they are performing at the time; (3) various external objects and events; (4) deictic features. The “linguistic context” is ano ther aspect of contextualism. It considers the probability of one word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another, which forms part of the meaning, and an important factor in communication.Halliday (1994) proposes a theory of metafunctions of language. It means that language has three metafunctions:According to Hu Zhuanglin, language has at least seven functions:1.5.1 Informative1.5.2 Interpersonal functionThe interpersonal function means people can use language to establish and maintain their status in a society.1.5.3 PerformativeThe performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals, the blessing ofchildren, the naming of a ship at a launching ceremony, and the cursing of enemies.1.5.4 Emotive function1.5.5 Phatic communionThe phatic communion means people always use some small, seemingly meaningless expressions such as Good morning, God bless you, Nice day, etc., to maintain a comfortable relationship between people without any factual content.1.5.6 Recreational functionThe recreational function means people use language for the sheer joy of using it, such as a baby’s babbling ora chanter’s chanting.1.5.7 Metalingual functionThe metalingual function means people can use language to talk about itself. E.g. I can use the word “book” to talk about a book, and I can also use the expression “the word book” to talk about the sign “b-o-o-k” itself.1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one community, butthe language of all human beings.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the study of speech sounds, it includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics.1.7.2 PhonologyPhonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology studies the minimal units of meaning –morphemes and word-formation processes.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax refers to the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language, or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics examines how meaning is encoded ina language.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the study of meaning in context.1.8 MacrolinguisticsMacrolinguistics is the study of language in all aspects, distinct from microlinguistics, which dealt solely with the formal aspect of language system.1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is a term which covers a variety of different interests in language and society, including the language and the social characteristics of its users.1.8.3 Anthropological linguistics,Anthropological linguistics studies the relationship between language and culture in a community.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field which centers around the use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptiveTo say that linguistics is a descriptive science is to saythat the linguist tries to discover and record the rules to which the members of a language-community actually conform and does not seek to impose upon them other rules, or norms, of correctness.Prescriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for the correct use of language and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.For example, “Don’t say X.” is a prescriptive command; “People don’t say X.” is a descriptive statement. The distinction lies in prescribing how things ought to be and describing how things are. In the 18th century, all the main European languages were studied prescriptively. However, modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because the nature of linguistics as a science determines its preoccupation with description instead of prescription.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronicA synchronic study takes a fixed instant (usually at present) as its point of observation. Saussure’s diachronic description is the study of a language through the course of its history. E.g. a study of the features of the English used in Shakespeare’s time wouldbe synchronic, and a study of the changes English has undergone since then would be a diachronic study. In modern linguistics, synchronic study seems to enjoy priority over diachronic study. The reason is that unless the various state of a language are successfully studied it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.1.9.3 Langue & paroleSaussure distinguished the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of linguistics as langue and parole. Langue is relative stable and systematic, parole is subject to personal and situational constraints; langue is not spoken by an individual, parole is always a naturally occurring event. What a linguist should do, according to Saussure, is to draw rules from a mass of confused facts, i.e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make them the subject of linguistics.1.9.4 Competence and performanceAccording to Chomsky, a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules is called the linguistic competence, and the actual use of language inconcrete situations is called performance. Competence enables a speaker to produce and understand and indefinite number of sentences and to recognize grammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker’s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker’s p erformance does not always match his supposed competence. Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. Chomsky’s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, Saussure’s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product and a set of conventions of a community, while competence is deemed as a property of mind of each individual. Saussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds2.1 Speech production and perceptionPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas:1. Articulatory phonetics –the study of the production of speech sounds2. Acoustic phonetics –the study of the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech3. Auditory phonetics –the study of perception of speech soundsMost phoneticians are interested in articulatory phonetics.2.2 Speech organsSpeech organs are those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech. The speech organs can be considered as consisting of three parts: the initiator of the air stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.2.3 Segments, divergences, and phonetic transcription2.3.1 Segments and divergencesAs there are more sounds in English than its letters, each letter must represent more than one sound.2.3.2 Phonetic transcriptionInternational Phonetic Alphabet (IPA): the system ofsymbols for representing the pronunciation of words in any language according to the principles of the International Phonetic Association. The symbols consists of letters and diacritics. Some letters are taken from the Roman alphabet, some are special symbols.2.4.2 ConsonantsThe categories of consonant are established on the basis of several factors. The most important of these factors are:1. the actual relationship between the articulators and thus the way in which the air passes through certain parts of the vocal tract (manner of articulation);2. where in the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing, or the obstruction of the air (place of articulation).2.4.3 Manners of articulation8. Velar: A speech sound which is made with the back of the tongue and the soft palate.2.4.5 The consonants of EnglishReceived Pronunciation (RP): The type of British Standard English pronunciation which has been regarded as the prestige variety and which shows noregional variation. It has often been popularly referred to as “BBC English” or “Oxford English” because it is widely used in the private sector of the education system and spoken by most newsreaders of the BBC network.A chart of English consonantsManner of articulation Place of articulationBilabial Labio-dental Dental Alveolar Post-alveolar Palatal Velar GlottalStopNasalFricativeApproximantLateralAffricateIn many cases there are two sounds that share the same place and manner of articulation. These pairs of consonants are distinguished by voicing, the one appearing on the left is voiceless and the one on the right is voiced.Therefore, the consonants of English can be described in the following way:[p] voiceless bilabial stop [b] voiced bilabial stop [s] voiceless alveolar fricative [z] voiced alveolar fricative[m] bilabial nasal [n] alveolar nasal[l] alveolar lateral [j] palatal approximant [h] glottal fricative [r] alveolar approximant2.5 Vowels2.5.1 The criteria of vowel description1. The part of the tongue that is raised – front, center, or back.2. The extent to which the tongue rises in the direction of the palate. Normally, three or four degrees are recognized: high, mid (often divided into mid-high and mid-low) and low.3. The kind of opening made at the lips –various degrees of lip rounding or spreading.4. The position of the soft palate – raised for oral vowels, and lowered for vowels which have been nasalized.2.5.2 The theory of cardinal vowels[Icywarmtea doesn’t quite understand this theory.]Cardinal vowels are a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchanging, intending to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.By convention, the eight primary cardinal vowels are numbered from one to eight as follows: CV1[], CV2[], CV3[], CV4[], CV5[], CV6[], CV7[], CV8[].A set of secondary cardinal vowels is obtained by reversing the lip-rounding for a give position: CV9 –CV16. [I am sorry I cannot type out many of these. If you want to know, you may consult the textbook p. 47. –icywarmtea]2.5.3 Vowel glidesPure (monophthong) vowels: vowels which are produced without any noticeable change in vowel quality.Vowel glides: Vowels where there is an audible change of quality.Diphthong: A vowel which is usually considered as one distinctive vowel of a particular language but really involves two vowels, with one vowel gliding to the other.2.5.4 The vowels of RP[] high front tense unrounded vowel [] high back lax rounded vowel[] central lax unrounded vowel [] low back lax rounded vowel2.6 Coarticulation and phonetic transcription2.6.1 CoarticulationCoarticulation: The simultaneous or overlapping articulation of two successive phonological units. Anticipatory coarticulation: If the sound becomes more like the following sound, as in the case of lamp, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation.Perseverative coarticulation: If the sound displays the influence of the preceding sound, as in the case of map, it is perseverative coarticulation.Nasalization: Change or process by which vowels or consonants become nasal.Diacritics: Any mark in writing additional to a letter or other basic elements.2.6.2 Broad and narrow transcriptionsThe use of a simple set of symbols in our transcription is called a broad transcription. The use of more specific symbols to show more phonetic detail is referred to as anarrow transcription. The former was meant to indicate only these sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language while the latter was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation. 2.7 Phonological analysisPhonetics is the study of speech sounds. It includes three main areas: articulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. On the other hand, phonology studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. There is a fair degree of overlap in what concerns the two subjects, so sometimes it is hard to draw the boundary between them. Phonetics is the study of all possible speech sounds while phonology studies the way in which speakers of a language systematically use a selection of these sounds in order to express meaning. That is to say, phonology is concerned with the linguistic patterning of sounds in human languages, with its primary aim being to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.2.8 Phonemes and allophones2.8.1 Minimal pairsMinimal pairs are two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning. E.g. the English words tie and die are minimal pairs as they differ in meaning and in their initial phonemes /t/ and /d/. By identifying the minimal pairs of a language, a phonologist can find out which sound substitutions cause differences of meaning.2.8.2 The phoneme theory2.8.3 AllophonesA phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning. Any of the different forms of a phoneme is called its allophones. E.g. in English, when the phoneme // occurs at the beginning of the word like peak //, it is said with a little puff of air, it is aspirated. But when // occurs in the word like speak //, it is said without the puff of the air, it is unaspirated. Both the aspirated [] in peak and the unaspirated [=] in speak have the same phonemic function, i.e. they are both heard and identified as // and not as //; they are bothallophones of the phoneme //.2.9 Phonological processes2.9.1 AssimilationAssimilation: A process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound. Regressive assimilation: If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation.Progressive assimilation: If a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, we call it progressive assimilation.Devoicing: A process by which voiced sounds become voiceless. Devoicing of voiced consonants often occurs in English when they are at the end of a word.2.9.2 Phonological processes and phonological rules The changes in assimilation, nasalization, dentalization, and velarization are all phonological processes in which a target or affected segment undergoes a structural change in certain environments or contexts. In each process the change is conditioned or triggered by a following sound or, in the case of progressive assimilation, a preceding sound. Consequently, we cansay that any phonological process must have three aspects to it: a set of sounds to undergo the process; a set of sounds produced by the process; a set of situations in which the process applies.We can represent the process by mans of an arrow: voiced fricative →voiceless / __________ voiceless. This is a phonological rule. The slash (/) specifies the environment in which the change takes place. The bar (called the focus bar) indicates the position of the target segment. So the rule reads: a voiced fricative is transformed into the corresponding voiceless sound when it appears before a voiceless sound.2.9.3 Rule ordering[No much to say, so omitted – icywarmtea]2.10 Distinctive featuresDistinctive feature: A particular characteristic which distinguishes one distinctive sound unit of a language from another or one group of sounds from another group.Binary feature: A property of a phoneme or a word which can be used to describe the phoneme or word. A binary feature is either present or absent. Binaryfeatures are also used to describe the semantic properties of words.2.11 SyllablesSuprasegmental features: Suprasegmental features are those aspects of speech that involve more than single sound segments. The principal suprasegmental features are syllables, stress, tone, and intonation.Syllable: A unit in speech which is often longer than one sound and smaller than a whole word.Open syllable: A syllable which ends in a vowel.Closed syllable: A syllable which ends in a consonant.Maximal onset principle: The principle which states that when there is a choice as to where to place a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.E.g. The correct syllabification of the word country should be //. It shouldn’t be // or // according to this principle.Chapter 3 Lexicon3.1 What is word?1. What is a lexeme?A lexeme is the smallest unit in the meaning system of alanguage that can be distinguished from other similar units. It is an abstract unit. It can occur in many different forms in actual spoken or written sentences, and is regarded as the same lexeme even when inflected.E.g. the word “write” is the lexeme of “write, writes, wrote, writing and written.”2. What is a morpheme?A morpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical. E.g. the word “boxes” has two morphemes: “box” and “es,” neither of which permits further division or analysis shapes if we don’t want to sacrifice its meaning.3. What is an allomorph?An allomorph is the alternate shapes of the same morpheme. E.g. the variants of the plurality “-s” makes the allomorphs thereof in the following examples: map –maps, mouse – mice, ox – oxen, tooth – teeth, etc.4. What is a word?A word is the smallest of the linguistic units that canconstitute, by itself, a complete utterance in speech or writing.3.1.1 Three senses of “word”1. A physically definable unit2. The common factor underlying a set of forms3. A grammatical unit3.1.2 Identification of words1. StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement, compared with the relative positional mobility of the constituents of sentences in the hierarchy. T ake the word chairman for example. If the morphemes are rearranged as * manchair, it is an unacceptable word in English.2. Relative uninterruptibilityBy uninterruptibility, we men new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing is to be inserted in between the three parts of the word disappointment: dis + appoint + ment. Nor is one allowed to use pauses between the parts of aword: * dis appoint ment.3. A minimum free formThis was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” and word “the minimum free form,” the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute, by itself, a complete utterance.3.1.3 Classification of words1. Variable and invariable wordsIn variable words, one can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word form; on the other hand, part of the word remains relatively constant.E.g. follow –follows –following –followed. Invariable words refer to those words such as since, when, seldom, through, hello, etc. They have no inflective endings.2. Grammatical words and lexical words Grammatical words, a.k.a. function words, express grammatical meanings, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words.Lexical words, a.k.a. content words, have lexical meanings, i.e. those which refer to substance, actionand quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words.3. Closed-class words and open-class words Closed-class word: A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added. Therefore, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc. are all closed items.Open-class word: A word that belongs to the open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.4. Word classThis is close to the notion of parts of speech in traditional grammar. Today, word class displays a wider range of more precisely defined categories. Here are some of the categories newly introduced into linguistic analysis. (1) Particles: Particles include at least the infinitive marker “to,” the negative marker “not,” and the subordinate units in p hrasal verbs, such as “get by,” “do up,” “look back,” etc.(2) Auxiliaries: Auxiliaries used to be regarded asverbs. Because of their unique properties, which one could hardly expect of a verb, linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class.(3) Pro-forms: Pro-forms are the forms which can serve as replacements for different elements in a sentence. For example, in the following conversation, so replaces that I can come.A: I hope you can come.B: I hope so.(4) Determiners: Determiners refer to words which are used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference the noun phrase has. Determiners can be divided into three subclasses: predeterminers, central determiners and postdeterminers.3.2 The formation of word3.2.1 Morpheme and morphologyMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed.3.2.2 Types of morphemes1. Free morpheme and bound morphemeFree morphemes: Those which may occur alone, that is,those which may constitute words by themselves, are free morphemes.Bound morphemes: Those which must appear with at least another morpheme are called bound morphemes.2. Root, affix and stemA root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed. An affix is the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme. A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added.A root is the base form of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. In the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, what is left is the root nation. All words contain a root morpheme. A root may be free or bound. E.g. black in blackbird, blackboard and blacksmith; -ceive in receive, conceive and perceive. A few English roots may have both free and bound variants.E.g. the word sleep is a free root morpheme, whereas slep- in the past tence form slept cannot exist by itself, and therefore bound. A stem is any morpheme orcombination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. E.g. friend- in friends and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem can be equivalent to a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and a derivational affix.3. Inflectional affix and derivational affix Inflection is the manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and case, which do not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes is sometimes known as a distinction between inflectional morphemes and derivational morphemes. We can tell the difference between them with the following ways:(1) Inflectional affixes very often add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem. E.g. toys, walks, John’s, etc. Therefore, they serve to produce different forms of a single word. In contrast, derivational affixes often change the lexical meaning. E.g. cite,citation, etc.(2) Inflectional affixes don’t change the word class of the word they attach to, such as flower, flowers, whereas derivational affixes might or might not, such as the relation between small and smallness for the former, and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter. (3) Inflectional affixes are often conditioned by nonsemantic linguistic factors outside the word they attach to but within the phrase or sentence. E.g. the choice of likes in “The boy likes to navigate on the internet.” is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence, whereas derivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions. E.g. The choice of clever and cleverness depends on whether we want to talk about the property “clever” or we want to talk about “the state of being clever.”(4) In English, inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes, which are always word final. E.g. drums, walks, etc. But derivational affixes can be prefixes or suffixes. E.g. depart, teacher, etc.3.2.3 Inflection and word formation1. Inflection。
语言学复习资料附答案（完整）
语言学复习资料附答案（完整）语法范畴：词形变化表现的语法意义的聚合叫做“语法范畴”。
语法范畴就是词形变化所表达的语法意义的类。
常见的语法范畴主要性、数、格、体、时、态、级等，俄语、德语、法语中的某些词有性的区分。
文字：是指语言的视觉符号性质，是为了记录语言而发明的一种书写符号系统，是在语言的基础上产生的。
文字有音，形，义三部分。
音位变体：处在互补关系中的相似的音素彼此不对立，即不起区别词的语音形式的作用，我们可以把它们归并为一个音位。
如果他们被归为一个音位，则处于互补关系中的各个音素就被看作同一个音位在不同的位置上的代表，是同一个音位的不同的变异形式，所以我么把它们叫做音位变体。
音位变体可以分为“自由变体”和“条件变体”组合关系：符号和符合组合起来，形成高一级的结构，处于高一级结构中的各个符号，称为结构的成份，结构中的各个成分的关系称为组合关系。
聚合关系：如果一些语言符号或更大的单位在结合的某一环节上能够互相替换并且替换后结构关系不会改变，那么这些符号在结构中就具有某种相同的作用，它们自然地聚集成群，它们彼此的关系叫做聚合关系。
直接组成成分：句子是按照一定的规则一层一层组合起来的。
每一层中直接组合起来构成一个更大的语法单位的两个组成成分叫做直接组成部分。
洋泾浜：是当地人在和外来的商人，水手，传教士等打交道的过程中学来的一种变了形的外语。
是当地人没有学好的外语，是外语在当地语言的影响下出现的变种。
“洋泾浜”的共同特点是：语音经过当地语言音系的适当改造，语法规则减少到最低限度，词汇的项目比较少，往往要借助于迂回曲折的总说法指称事物。
“洋泾浜”是一定社会条件下的产物，只有口头形式，用于和外国人交往的特殊场合，没有人把它看作母语作为第一语言。
语言和言语语言的交际功能就是通过言语形式来实现的。
语言学中把对语言的运用及其成果成为言语，通俗点讲言语就是说话（或写作）和所说（所写）的话语言是从言语中概括出来的的为社会所公认的词语和规则的总和。
语言学概论[第六章词义]山东大学期末考试知识点复习
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语言学概论[第六章词义]山东大学期末考试知识点复习第六章词义．词汇与词汇分类词汇又叫语汇，是构成语言地基本材料.它既可以指一种具体语言或方言中地全部地词和固定词组，也可以指语言中某类词语地总和，还可以指某个作品中所使用地词地总和.但是它不能指一个个具体地词或固定词组.个人收集整理勿做商业用途根据词汇地稳定程度，它可以分为基本词汇与一般词汇两种.基本词汇在语言发展中是相对稳定地，一般词汇则敏感地反映着社会地发展和人们生活地变化，于不断产生、消亡等变化之中.个人收集整理勿做商业用途基本词汇与一般词汇相对，是词汇系统地基础和核心.标志着与人们世世代代地日常生活有密切关系地事物地词以及表示事物关系地常用虚词地总汇叫基本词汇，它是词汇中地主要部分，具有全民常用性、稳固性、能产性等特点.个人收集整理勿做商业用途一般词汇是指词汇中基本词汇以外地词.它紧随社会地发展与人们生活地变化而变化，稳固性差，构词能力弱，有时候它可以转换为基本词汇.它包括古语词、方言词、外来词、新造词等.另外，从词地用途与特点来看，词汇可以分为通用词汇与专用词汇、常用词汇与罕用词汇.个人收集整理勿做商业用途．词义词义是指人们对现实现象地反映以及由此带来地人们对现实现象地主观评价，它包括词地理性意义与附加色彩.它具有概括性、模糊性、民族性、主观性特点.个人收集整理勿做商业用途．词地理性意义与非理性意义词地理性意义是指以现实现象为基础，不涉及人们主观态度地词义.它是词义地基础与核心部分.根据人们对事物本质特征地反映情况，词地理性意义可以分为通俗意义与科学意义两种.个人收集整理勿做商业用途词地非理性意义，又叫词地附加色彩，是人们对客观世界认识地价值观念、立场态度和语言使用上地主观看法.它附着在词地理性意义之上，可以分为三类：一是感情色彩，它有褒义、贬义与中性之分；二是语体色彩，词地语体色彩分为口语色彩和书面语色彩两种基本类型；三是形象色彩，是因为描绘人或事物地形象、情状或特征而使词带上了形象性、可感性和比喻性等特点，可以引起人们对事物视觉形象或听觉形象地联想.个人收集整理勿做商业用途．词地本义、基本义、引申义、派生义本义是指词地有历史可查地最初地意义.它是其他引申意义产生地基础.在中国古代，推求本义地最初方法是据形索义，也就是分析古文字形体结构，用六书理论来解说字形，解释字义.到清代，人们摆脱了字形束缚开始使用因声求义地方法来探求词地本义.个人收集整理勿做商业用途基本义是指词在语言长期使用中所固定下来地、最常见地、最主要地意义.基本义是从词地现实应用来说地，本义是从词地最初产生来说地，但有时候词地基本义与本义是一致地.个人收集整理勿做商业用途引申义是相对于本义而言，指由本义发展派生出来地意义.根据与本义在意义联系上地远近程度，它可以分为直接引申与间接引申两种.引申地方式有隐喻和换喻两种.个人收集整理勿做商业用途派生义是指由本义或者基本义派生出来地意义.它常常用来指引申义.．词地意义分类单义词是指只有一个义项地词，即词地意义只概括反映某一类现实现象.这类词意义单一、固定，在使用过程中不会产生误解.虽然在词产生之初，词义往往是单一地，但在语言运用过程中，人们往往借助原有地单义词去指称与之有联系地事物或现象，于是单义词便发展成为多义词.个人收集整理勿做商业用途多义词就是包含两个或两个以上互相联系地义项地词.即一个词地意义可以概括反映相互关联地几类现实现象.它地义项包括本义与引申义.多义词是就词义类聚而言，而在具体语言环境中则呈现出词义地唯一性.个人收集整理勿做商业用途同义词就是几个声音不同而意义相同或基本相同地词.它包括等义词与近义词两种.构成等义词地原因可能是新旧词并存、标准语词与方言词、外来语与本族语、书面语与口语、学名与俗称等.辨析同义词可以从词义地轻重、褒贬、范围地大小，词地搭配对象、感情色彩、语体色彩以及词法功能上来进行.个人收集整理勿做商业用途反义词就是语言中意义相反或相对地词.它包括绝对反义词与相对反义词.绝对反义词之间地相反意义处于非此即彼地关系之中，中间不存在第三种意义；相对反义词之间地意义相反是相对地，中间存在第三种状态.我们所说地反义词是固定地，是语言反义词，而不是言语反义词.个人收集整理勿做商业用途．词义地特点词义地概括性就是人对现实现象地概括反映.它反映地不是个别地、非本质地、具体事物地属性特征，而是反映同一类事物现象地共同地、本质地属性特征.例如“葡萄”这个词地意义，就概括了世界上所有地色彩、形状、味道等地葡萄地共同特征.个人收集整理勿做商业用途词义地模糊性是指词义所概括地客观事物地外延没有明确地界限.词义产生模糊性地主要原因有以下几种：一是许多客观事物间界限模糊，因此也就产生了词义地模糊性；二是不同人在认识衡量事物现象时持有不同地标准，也能产生词义地模糊性.比如，青年、中年、傍晚、秋季等词都具有词义地模糊性特点.词义虽然具有模糊性，但它所概括反映地现实现象地主要特征应该是清晰地.个人收集整理勿做商业用途词义地全民性是指词义所反映地现实现象是全社会成员共同认知地，没有阶级性.在阶级社会里，许多现象虽然带有阶级性，但是反映这些现象地词义却是全民地，无阶级性地，所以我们要把语言和语言所表达地意义区别开.个人收集整理勿做商业用途词义地民族性.语言有民族性，作为语言成分地词义也必然具有民族性.它表现在音义结合地关系上，用什么语音形式固定什么语义内容，以及固定后词义地内涵、外延如何发展，完全取决于不同民族；词义所指事物范围大小、程度等特征也具有很强地民族性.总之，不同地民族在生活环境、劳动条件、风俗习惯、社会历史、文化心理等方面都有不尽相同地特点，反映这些情况地语言词汇地词义自然也就带上了鲜明地民族特点.个人收集整理勿做商业用途．词地构成方法词地构成方法就是构词法.构词法有广义构词法与狭义构词法之分.广义构词法指一切新词地构造方法，包括语音构词、语义构词与语法构词三种；狭义构词法指语素组合成词地方法，一般指语法构词法.个人收集整理勿做商业用途语音构词主要指由摹拟自然地声音构词地方法.比如，隆隆、咚咚、哗哗、等.语义构词是指新词地产生是由于旧词地语义孳生、分化而产生.比如，表示花地“杜鹃”与表示鸟地“杜鹃”，表示驿站地“站”与表示站台地“站”.语法构词就是使用语法手段来构成新词，它主要有复合法与派生法两种.复合法就是两个词根语素通过语法关系构成新词地方法，主要有主谓式、述宾式、偏正式、述补式、并列式五种.派生法就是在词根上附着词缀构成新词地方法.个人收集整理勿做商业用途．义素和义位义素就是义位地语义构成成分，是词义最小地语义构成成分，又叫区别性语义特征.义素是理论分析地结果，是一种用来描写语义地最小地意义单位，没有独立地语音形式.个人收集整理勿做商业用途义位就是能够跟语音结合地最小地可以独立运用地语义单位.它由一束义素构成，它在词典中被称为义项，是词典释义地最小单位.它是从词语地各种用例中概括出来地共同地、一般地、稳定地意义，一个词往往有几个意义，每一个意义就是一个义位，在词典中则表现为一个义项.义位间地关系一般有对立关系、重合关系、顺序关系、上下义关系等.个人收集整理勿做商业用途．义素分析法义素分析法就是通过对不同地义位进行对比分析，找出它们所包含地共同义素与区别义素地方法.义素分析法是一种聚合分析，它是结构语言学地对比原则在语义研究中地运用，它地分析原则是二元对立.个人收集整理勿做商业用途使用义素分析法地步骤：首先要确定对比范围，即找出其存在地最小语义场；然后是比较词义地异同，找出它们地共同义素与区别义素，常用地比较方法有列表比较法、上下文比较法与词典义项释义比较法；最后就是整理、描写与检验，最终找出义位地结构式.个人收集整理勿做商业用途义素分析法地作用：义素分析可以使语义描写形式化、精密化，有利于语言教学与语言研究；帮助人们准确地、全面地、深入地理解词义，有利于词典地编纂；帮助人们清楚、简洁地说明词义地结构，便于比较词义之间地相同之处与不同之处，能够更好地辨析近义词、区别反义词；从理论上解决了词语意义搭配地问题，词义不搭配实质上是词义地义素之间不能够相容.但是，义素分析法目前尚未有一套客观地分析标准与科学依据，而带有一定地主观随意性.个人收集整理勿做商业用途．语义场语义场就是一组有共同语义特征及相同或相似语法分布地词互相规定、互相制约、互相作用从而形成地语义范围.语义场体现了义位间地层次性，体现了语义地系统性.语义场地常见类型有联想义场、分类义场、部分义场、顺序义场、关系义场、反义义场、同义义场、多义义场等.多义词在进入某一特定语义场时只能显示单一性.个人收集整理勿做商业用途语义场具有层次性.现实事物本身是分类地，而且是有层次性地，因而反映事物类别地语义场也就形成了有层次地结构，若干子语义场可以组成大地语义场，若干大地子语义场可以组成更大地语义场.个人收集整理勿做商业用途语义场具有系统性.一个语义场就是一定范围地语义系统.在同一个语义场中，每一个词语地意义会受到场中其他词语地制约，场中某个词义地变化或词语数量地增减，都会导致意义领域地重新划分或分配，从而引起语义场中其他词义地变化.语义场地系统性反映出语言地词汇具有一定地系统性.个人收集整理勿做商业用途英国语言学家利奇是当代语义学地代表人物之一，著有《语义学》、《语用学原理》等著作.他认为语义是语言地一部分，语义学应该属于语言学地一个分支学科，从语言运用地角度把语义分为概念意义、内涵意义、社会意义、情感意义、联想意义、搭配意义与主题意义等七种，这种分类方式明显包含了对语言地功能与使用特征分析，开始从静态地上下文言辞狭义语境分析转入了动态地社会文化这种广义语境分析，极大地推动了语义学地发展.个人收集整理勿做商业用途上位词与下位词：在语言中，具有属与种关系地词被称为上位词与下位词，前者是上位词，它指称地范围大；后者是下位词，它指称地范围小.它们之间地上下位关系实际上就是属种关系、一般与个别地关系.当然语言上地属种关系并不像科学分类上地属种关系那样严格，有时划分上下位关系地依据来源于习惯.个人收集整理勿做商业用途．语言环境语言环境又叫语境，是指人们运用语言进行交际时地具体环境.狭义地语境指一个语言单位出现地前后环境，即上下文；广义地语境指交际地场合及其语言交际地背景，包括时代背景。
大学语言学纲要期末考试必考重点
1、语言学的三大发源地：中国、印度、希腊—罗马2、五个阶段：编码-发送—传递—接收-解码3、语言的功能:社会功能、思维功能4、怎样理解语言符号的系统系?答:语言系统的结构：层级体系二层装置。
下层是音位，上层语素、词、句子。
运转机制：组合关系，聚合关系。
5、语言符号的特征:任意性、线条性6、掌握语言需要:抽象思维能力和发音能力7、语言的研究:答：从自然属性出发：针对所有人类语言的语音研究,属于语音学研究.从社会属性出发，针对语音在某一个具体语言的系统中起什么作用的研究,属于音系学的研究，8、语言的四要素：音高、音强、音长、音质9、音位：答：音位是从社会功能的角度划分出来的语音单位,它是特定的语言或方言中具有区别意义作用的最小语音单位.音位变体答：同属于一个音位的不同音素就叫做“音位变体”。
音位变体又可分为“条件变体”和“自由变体”。
条件变体是指出现的语音环境各不相同而又同属一个音位的两个或几个音素。
自由变体是指可以在同一语音环境里出现而又不能区别意义的两个或几个音素。
10、语法规则的表现形式：组合规则、聚合规则11、语法单位的四级单位：语素、词、词组、句子12、词缀与词根的位置关系：答:前缀：粘附在词根前面的词缀。
后缀:粘附在词根后面的词缀.中缀：插入词根中的词缀.例如：第一中的“第“小刀子中的子13、组合的递归性和开放性?（简答题）答:“递归”指的是相同的规则可以在一个结构里重复使用。
语言中句子的格式和长度各不相同，而且抽象也不能使新的规则不断地衍生，这样就需要让一种规则多次起作用。
语法规则实际上就是一种有限手段可以重复使用的规则。
语法规则的这种递归性质，使它成为一种简明的规则，帮助人们学习语言和运用语言时举一反三，以繁驭简。
14、形态的定义?答：在有些语言中，词与词组合是形式要发生变化。
同一个词与不同的词组合就有不同的变化.这些变化形成一个聚合。
叫做形态。
15、语法范畴概念？包括（性、数）答：根据某些语法意义的共同内容，把语法意义概括为几个基本类别，这种语法意义的类就叫做“语法范畴”。
语言学纲要期末复习及语言学概要复习重点
语言学纲要重点要看的题目第一章语言的功能一、填空1、语言的功能包括（社会）功能和（思维）功能。
2、语言的社会功能包括（信息传递）功能和（人际互动）功能。
3、在各种信息传递形式中，（语言）是第一性的、最基本的手段。
4、人的大脑分左右两个半球，语言功能及计数、推理能力等由（左）半球掌管，音乐感知、立体图形识别等能力由（右）半球制约。
5、儿童语言习得一般经过（独词句）阶段和（双词句）阶段，这是儿童学话的关键两步。
二、思考题2、儿童语言习得的临界期指什么？临界期的存在说明语言的哪些特性？临界期：是语言习得术语。
指的是儿童比成人习得语言又快又成功的生长期。
有语言学家认为从2岁开始至青春期，有的认为大脑优势在5岁左右就定下来了。
在临界期内，大脑的可塑性大，儿童可自然而又轻松地完成语言习得。
语言开发最迟12、13岁，过后原功能消退、弱化。
临界期的存在说明儿童语言的习得不仅需要具有先天生理基础（其中最重要的就是大脑的结构和功能），而且也离不开外界的社会条件。
儿童语言能力的开发还有时间的限制，这正和大脑语言区的确定时间是大致平行的。
3、不同语言思维方式的特殊性体现在哪些方面？思维能力是全人类普遍的，但使用不同语言的民族在思维方式上会有所不同。
每一种语言都包含着一个民族认识客观世界的特殊方式，我们学会一种语言也就学会了该民族的独特的思维方式。
不同语言背景的人进行思维时常常呈现出不同的特点：A 不同民族的不同语言对事物的分类可能不同。
英文中的“uncle”，与汉语中伯父、叔父、姑父；堂伯、堂叔、堂姑父、姨父、舅父、表姑父、表叔……等词对应。
B 相同语素构成的词，可能表示不同的概念。
手+纸汉：手纸日：信汽+车汉：汽车日：火车7、张三说，“我们先发明了电视，然后才给电视命名，所以思维不需要语言。
”张三的错误在哪里？【答】发明本身也需要语言的帮助。
在发明电视的过程中，所有的思维活动都离不开语言。
第二章语言是符号系统思考题1、听到一个熟人在说话，就能判断出是谁在说话，这个过程是语言符号在传递信息吗？为什么？这是语言符号在传递信息。
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第六章语言与认知
复习笔记
I.认知的定义
“认知”一词既可用于不同学科也可用于相关学科。
在心理学中，“认知”是指个人的心理过程，即心智具有内部心理状态 (比如信念、意志和意愿)。
特别是在许多具象和抽象交织在一起时，如知识、技能和学习共同作用时，采用信息处理的方法可以理解心理过程。
另外一种对“认知”的定义是指心理过程或知识的能力，包括意识、知觉、推理和判断等。
II．心理语言学的定义
心理语言学是对语言心理方面的研究，通常研究的是与语言行为相关的心理状态和思维活动。
心理语言学的一个重点是研究能够使人理解和产出可理解句子的语法规则的无意识运用。
心理语言学家研究语言与思维的关系，心理语言学同时也还关注语言是如何习得的以及语言在思维运用中所发挥的作用。
Ⅲ．语言习得
语言习得指的是一个人语言的学习和发展。
第一语言习得即一个人母语的学习和发展。
语言学家、心理语言学家和应用语言学家通过研究语言习得来理解其形成和发展的全过程，更好的理解语言的本质。
对于第一语言习得的问题存在两种说法：行为主义方法和天赋论。
1．行为主义方法
语言是一个学习的行为，是一个通过学习形成习惯的过程。
对语言学习的这种观点称作行为主义或行为主义观点。
根据这种观点，孩子的语言习得是一个“刺激一反映一模仿一强化”的过程。
个人的内部语言知识是其对所观察的语言事件进行结合的直接结果。
2．天赋理论
天赋论是说获取人类语言的能力是人类自身内在的机能之一，刚出生的婴儿就具备这种能力。
Ⅳ．语言的理解
1．发音理解
发音的理解不是一个被动的过程。
它通常依赖于听话者所处的语境。
人们需要从整体上来理解意思，而不是孤立地将其分开。
并不是单独去听每一个词。
对发音的成功理解要求人们具有区分细小的发音差别的内在能力，以及适应语言听觉种类的能力。
2．词语的识别
词语的理解是一个非常复杂的心理过程，远比处理发音复杂得多。
词汇由于其在传达意义过程中的极端重要作用而在语言理解中居于核心地位。
单词辨识是指对口头词语和书面词语的识别。
3．句子理解
语言的理解除了对发音、词汇意思的理解之外还包括对句子的理解。
对句子理解的影响有以下几个因素：第一是存在歧义的词语使得句子难以理解。
词语含有的信息越复杂，句子也就越难理解。
第二是指影响处理时间的句子的语言结构。
4．语篇理解
文本是命题的网络，这些命题构成单个句子的语义解释。
读者在阅读过程中提炼出语篇的主要线索和思路并且推理出未出现在语篇中的背景和关系，这样的提炼和推理过程受读者短时记忆的时效的限制，也受论据在命题之间的互证方式和文本所表明的语言组织形式的指引。
V．语言的生成
语言的生成是指通过语言来创造和表达意义的过程。
1．词汇提取
词汇是经过几个处理步骤而计划成的。
每个步骤产生一特定类型的表征，而且信息在各个表征之间通过激活的扩散而相互传递。
第一个处理步骤叫做概念化，它决定着要表达何种概念。
下一个步骤是选择能够和已确定的欲表达的概念相符合的词语。
最后一个步骤是形态一音位编码，这个步骤开始于检索与被选择单词相对应的语素。
2．句子的生成
在句子的生成过程中，第一步也是概念准备，也就是要确定想说出的内容。
一个全局的计划也是必需的。
计划的每一部分必须精心准备以使表征层面和词汇概念相一致，也许这需要通过一些中间阶段。
这种表征形成输入而进入到语言计划，在语言计划开始以后，才能产生出含有多个句子的话语。
语言生成理论假定说话者计划是呈递增状态的，说话者只要一做出了对最初几个词汇概念的选择，它们就会启动语言计划，稍后在说的时候或者在话语成分轮换时再准备其余的话语。
3．书面语的生成
书面语的生成步骤和口头语的生成步骤很相似，主要的区别在于一旦句法词汇单位和它的形态表征得到提取，必须要被检索和产生的形式是正字法拼写形式而不是音位形式。
音位在这一过程中起着很重要的作用，就像在阅读时从印刷体获取意义中它起的作用一样。
Ⅵ．认知语言学
1．定义
认知语言学基于人类对世界的经验，对世界的感知和概念化。
2．识解与操作
识解是一种用交替的方式对同一场景进行构想和描述的能力，这种能力是通过详细程度、不同的心理扫描、指向性、有利位置、图形一背景分离等加以实现的。
识解操作是人类语言处理过程中概念化的过程，或者说，识解操作是理解语
言表达方式所使用的基本心理过程和来源。
(1)注意力／突显
突显下的识解操作与我们关注突显事物所需注意力有关。
在知觉中，我们把注意力集中在感知到情景部分。
在认知中，我们把注意力关注于概念结构的激活。
(2)判断／对比
判断／对比识解操作与把一物比作另一物的判断相关。
它是人类基本的认知能力，也是人类经验的基础。
(3)视点／观察者位置
认知语言学的另外一个识解操作为视点，我们以所处的位置来观察一个情景。
视点取决于两个方面：其一，取决于观察者的位置与观察情景的关系；其二，取决于情景的安排与观察者位置的关系。
3．范畴化
范畴化是人类基于经验的异同对经验进行分类的过程，是人类知识的产生不可或缺的部分，它使人类能够把现在的经验与过去的经验结合起来。
范畴划分为三个层次：基本层次范畴、上位范畴和下属范畴。
(1)基本层次范畴
基本层次范畴是最能体现文化突显性、实现认知需求的范畴。
基于这个层次，人类可以感知到“事物”的最大不同。
(2)上位范畴
上位范畴是最具概括性的范畴，各成员没有足够的共性构成一个共同的完形。
(3)下属层次范畴
它们具有清晰可辨的完形和许多个性特征。
在此层次，我们可以感知基本层
次范畴成员间的区别。
下属范畴的名称通常形态复杂，它们是典型的复合形式。
4．意象图式
意象图式是一种通过相互作用以及动觉程序获得的对事物经验给以连贯和结构的反复出现的动态模式。
意象图式结构有两个特点：一是前概念图示结构，来自身体的经验；另一是人的感觉互动的不断操作，通过空间和把握物体的身体运动。
5．隐喻
隐喻涉及两个概念的对比，一个概念识解另一概念。
隐喻被描述为目标域与源域，目标域是隐喻所描述的经验，源域是人们用来描述经验的方法。
(1)实体隐喻
实体隐喻是指人类以自身经验和生理实体为基础，把事件、行为、情感、思想等抽象概念转换为实体。
(2)结构隐喻
结构隐喻起着重要作用，使我们超越指向性和所指，给我们根据另一概念构建一个概念的可能性。
结构隐喻植根于我们的经验，它意味着一个概念是以另一个的概念隐喻构建起来的。
(3)方位隐喻
方位隐喻给概念一个空间方位，它们不是以另一个概念构建一个概念为特点，是以不断发生的经验为特点。
方位隐喻以连接隐喻两部分的经验为基础，是基于人类身体和文化的经验。
6．转喻
认知语言学把转喻定义为认知过程。
在认知过程中，源域为同一域中的目标域提供了心理通路。
7．整合理论
法考尼埃和特纳提出并讨论了整合理论，一种认知操作即两个或更多的心理空间通过投射整合为一个新的、合成空间，这个空间有其独特的结构。
法考尼埃和特纳介绍了整合的例子，分析了整合的过程，提供了整合的分类，并把普遍存在和具有重要性的整合视为认知的来源。
整合在两个输入空间操作产生第三个空间，即合成空间。
合成空间部分地继承了两个输入空间的结构，形成自己的层创结构。