审计学财务报表审阅中英文对照外文翻译文献
审计学毕业论文外文文献及翻译--国际审计准则第910号：财务报表审阅
LNTU---Acc附录A国际审计准则第910号：财务报表审阅（一）引言1.本准则旨在为审计人员接受委托从事财务报表审阅的职业责任，以及出具审阅报告的格式和内容建立标准，提供指导。
2.本准则是针对财务报表审阅制定的。
然而，它也适用于审阅财务信息或其他信息的业务。
本准则要连同国际审计准则120号“国际审计准则框架”一并阅读。
其他国际审计准则的有关内容对审计人员运用这一谁则可以有所帮助。
审阅业务的目的3.财务报表审阅的目的是为了使审计人员能够表明，根据实施的程序(这些程序并不提供象在审计业务中所要求获取的所有证据)，是否存在审计人员注意到的，使得审计人员认为财务报表在所有重大方面没有按照指明的财务报告框架编制的情况(消极保证)。
审阅业务的一般原则4.审计人员应当遵循国际会计师联合会颁布的“职业会计师道德守则”。
统驭审计人员职业责任的道德原则是:(I)独立;(2)公正;(3)客观;(4)职业胜任能力及应有关注;(5)保密;(6)职业行为;(7)技术准则。
5.审计人员应当按照本准则执行审阅工作。
6.审计人员应当以职业怀疑的态度计划和执行审阅工作，以识别可能存在的导致财务报表重大错报的情况。
7.为了在审阅报告中发表消极保证的意见，审计人员应当主要通过查询和分析程序获取充分、适当的证据，形成结论。
审阅范围8．“审阅范围”是指为了实现审阅目的，在各种情况下认为必要的审阅程序。
执行财务报表审阅所要求的程序，由审计人员根据国际审计准则、有关专业团体、法律和法规的要求，以及审阅业务约定条件及报告要求确定。
适当的保证9.审阅业务提供了一个适当程度的保证，即审阅的信息不存在重大的错报，这是用消极保证的方式发表意见。
业务约定条款10.审计人员和客户应当就业务约定条款达成一致意见。
达成一致的条款应当记录在业务委托书或其他适当的类似合同中。
11.业务委托书有助于制定审阅工作计划。
审计人员致送记录委托关键条款的业务委托书，对客户和审计人员均有益处。
财务报表分析中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTSWe need to use financial ratios in analyzing financial statements.—— The analysis of comparative financial statements cannot be made really effective unless it takes the form of a study of relationships between items in the statements. It is of little value, for example, to know that, on a given date, the Smith Company has a cash balance of $1oooo. But suppose we know that this balance is only -IV per cent of all current liabilities whereas a year ago cash was 25 per cent of all current liabilities. Since the bankers for the company usually require a cash balance against bank lines, used or unused, of 20 per cent, we can see at once that the firm's cash condition is exhibiting a questionable tendency.We may make comparisons between items in the comparative financial statements as follows:1. Between items in the comparative balance sheeta) Between items in the balance sheet for one date, e.g., cash may be compared with current liabilitiesb) Between an item in the balance sheet for one date and the same item in the balance sheet for another date, e.g., cash today may be compared with cash a year agoc) Of ratios, or mathematical proportions, between two items in the balance sheet for one date and a like ratio in the balance sheet for another date, e.g., the ratio of cash to current liabilities today may be compared with a like ratio a year ago and the trend of cash condition noted2. Between items in the comparative statement of income and expensea) Between items in the statement for a given periodb) Between one item in this period's statement and the same item in last period's statementc) Of ratios between items in this period's statement and similar ratios in last period's statement3. Between items in the comparative balance sheet and items in the comparative statement of income and expensea) Between items in these statements for a given period, e.g., net profit for this year may be calculated as a percentage of net worth for this yearb) Of ratios between items in the two statements for a period of years, e.g., the ratio of net profit to net worth this year may-be compared with like ratios for last year, and for the years preceding thatOur comparative analysis will gain in significance if we take the foregoing comparisons or ratios and; in turn, compare them with:I. Such data as are absent from the comparative statements but are of importance in judging a concern's financial history and condition, for example, the stage of the business cycle2. Similar ratios derived from analysis of the comparative statements of competing concerns or of concerns in similar lines of business What financialratios are used in analyzing financial statements.- Comparative analysis of comparative financial statements may be expressed by mathematical ratios between the items compared, for example, a concern's cash position may be tested by dividing the item of cash by the total of current liability items and using the quotient to express the result of the test. Each ratio may be expressed in two ways, for example, the ratio of sales to fixed assets may be expressed as the ratio of fixed assets to sales. We shall express each ratio in such a way that increases from period to period will be favorable and decreases unfavorable to financial condition.We shall use the following financial ratios in analyzing comparative financial statements:I. Working-capital ratios1. The ratio of current assets to current liabilities2. The ratio of cash to total current liabilities3. The ratio of cash, salable securities, notes and accounts receivable to total current liabilities4. The ratio of sales to receivables, i.e., the turnover of receivables5. The ratio of cost of goods sold to merchandise inventory, i.e., the turnover of inventory6. The ratio of accounts receivable to notes receivable7. The ratio of receivables to inventory8. The ratio of net working capital to inventory9. The ratio of notes payable to accounts payableIO. The ratio of inventory to accounts payableII. Fixed and intangible capital ratios1. The ratio of sales to fixed assets, i.e., the turnover of fixed capital2. The ratio of sales to intangible assets, i.e., the turnover of intangibles3. The ratio of annual depreciation and obsolescence charges to the assetsagainst which depreciation is written off4. The ratio of net worth to fixed assetsIII. Capitalization ratios1. The ratio of net worth to debt.2. The ratio of capital stock to total capitalization .3. The ratio of fixed assets to funded debtIV. Income and expense ratios1. The ratio of net operating profit to sales2. The ratio of net operating profit to total capital3. The ratio of sales to operating costs and expenses4. The ratio of net profit to sales5. The ratio of net profit to net worth6. The ratio of sales to financial expenses7. The ratio of borrowed capital to capital costs8. The ratio of income on investments to investments9. The ratio of non-operating income to net operating profit10. The ratio of net operating profit to non-operating expense11. The ratio of net profit to capital stock12. The ratio of net profit reinvested to total net profit available for dividends on common stock13. The ratio of profit available for interest to interest expensesThis classification of financial ratios is permanent not exhaustive. -Other ratios may be used for purposes later indicated. Furthermore, some of the ratios reflect the efficiency with which a business has used its capital while others reflect efficiency in financing capital needs. The ratios of sales to receivables, inventory, fixed and intangible capital; the ratios of net operating profit to total capital and to sales; and the ratios of sales to operating costs and expenses reflect efficiency in the use of capital.' Most of the other ratios reflect financial efficiency.B. Technique of Financial Statement AnalysisAre the statements adequate in general?-Before attempting comparative analysis of given financial statements we wish to be sure that the statements are reasonably adequate for the purpose. They should, of course, be as complete as possible. They should also be of recent date. If not, their use must be limited to the period which they cover. Conclusions concerning 1923 conditions cannot safely be based upon 1921 statements.Does the comparative balance sheet reflect a seasonable situation? If so, it is important to know financial conditions at both the high and low points of the season. We must avoid unduly favorable judgment of the business at the low point when assets are very liquid and debt is low, and unduly unfavorable judgment at the high point when assets are less liquid and debt likely to be relatively high.Does the balance sheet for any date reflect the estimated financial condition after the sale of a proposed new issue of securities? If so, in order to ascertain the actual financial condition at that date it is necessary to subtract the amount of the security issue from net worth, if the. issue is of stock, or from liabilities, if bonds are to be sold. A like amount must also be subtracted from assets or liabilities depending upon how the estimated proceeds of the issue are reflected in the statement.Are the statements audited or unaudited? It is often said that audited statements, that is, complete audits rather than statements "rubber stamped" by certified public accountants, are desirable when they can be obtained. This is true, but the statement analyst should be certain that the given auditing film's reputation is beyond reproach.Is working-capital situation favorable ?-If the comparative statements to be analyzed are reasonably adequate for the purpose, the next step is to analyze the concern's working-capital trend and position. We may begin by ascertaining the ratio of current assets to current liabilities. This ratioaffords-a test of the concern's probable ability to pay current obligations without impairing its net working capital. It is, in part, a measure of ability to borrow additional working capital or to renew short-term loans without difficulty. The larger the excess of current assets over current liabilities the smaller the risk of loss to short-term creditors and the better the credit of the business, other things being equal. A ratio of two dollars of current assets to one dollar of current liabilities is the "rule-of-thumb" ratio generally considered satisfactory, assuming all current assets are conservatively valued and all current liabilities revealed.The rule-of-thumb current ratio is not a satisfactory test ofworking-capital position and trend. A current ratio of less than two dollars for one dollar may be adequate, or a current ratio of more than two dollars for one dollar may be inadequate. It depends, for one thing, upon the liquidity of the current assets.The liquidity of current assets varies with cash position.-The larger the proportion of current assets in the form of cash the more liquid are the current assets as a whole. Generally speaking, cash should equal at least 20 per cent of total current liabilities (divide cash by total current liabilities). Bankers typically require a concern to maintain bank balances equal to 20 per cent of credit lines whether used or unused. Open-credit lines are not shown on the balance sheet, hence the total of current liabilities (instead of notes payable to banks) is used in testing cash position. Like the two-for-one current ratio, the 20 per cent cash ratio is more or less a rule-of-thumb standard.The cash balance that will be satisfactory depends upon terms of sale, terms of purchase, and upon inventory turnover. A firm selling goods for cash will find cash inflow more nearly meeting cash outflow than will a firm selling goods on credit. A business which pays cash for all purchases will need more ready money than one which buys on long terms of credit. The more rapidly the inventory is sold the more nearly will cash inflow equal cash outflow, other things equal.Needs for cash balances will be affected by the stage of the business cycle. Heavy cash balances help to sustain bank credit and pay expenses when a period of liquidation and depression depletes working capital and brings a slump in sales. The greater the effects of changes in the cycle upon a given concern the more thought the financial executive will need to give to the size of his cash balances.Differences in financial policies between different concerns will affect the size of cash balances carried. One concern may deem it good policy to carry as many open-bank lines as it can get, while another may carry only enough lines to meet reasonably certain needs for loans. The cash balance of the first firm is likely to be much larger than that of the second firm.The liquidity of current assets varies with ability to meet "acid test."- Liquidity of current assets varies with the ratio of cash, salable securities, notes and accounts receivable (less adequate reserves for bad debts), to total current liabilities (divide the total of the first four items by total current liabilities). This is the so-called "acid test" of the liquidity of current condition. A ratio of I: I is considered satisfactory since current liabilities can readily be paid and creditors risk nothing on the uncertain values of merchandise inventory. A less than 1:1 ratio may be adequate if receivables are quickly collected and if inventory is readily and quickly sold, that is, if its turnover is rapid andif the risks of changes in price are small.The liquidity of current assets varies with liquidity of receivables. This may be ascertained by dividing annual sales by average receivables or by receivables at the close of the year unless at that date receivables do not represent the normal amount of credit extended to customers. Terms of sale must be considered in judging the turnover of receivables. For example, if sales for the year are $1,200,000 and average receivables amount to $100,000, the turnover of receivables is $1,200,000/$100,000=12. Now, if credit terms to customers are net in thirty days we can see that receivables are paid promptly.Consideration should also be given market conditions and the stage of the business cycle. Terms of credit are usually longer in farming sections than in industrial centers. Collections are good in prosperous times but slow in periods of crisis and liquidation.Trends in the liquidity of receivables will also be reflected in the ratio of accounts receivable to notes receivable, in cases where goods are typically sold on open account. A decline in this ratio may indicate a lowering of credit standards since notes receivable are usually given to close overdue open accounts. If possible, a schedule of receivables should be obtained showing those not due, due, and past due thirty, sixty, and ninety days. Such a, schedule is of value in showing the efficiency of credits and collections and in explaining the trend in turnover of receivables. The more rapid the turnover of receivables the smaller the risk of loss from bad debts; the greater the savings of interest on the capital invested in receivables, and the higher the profit on total capital, other things being equal.Author(s): C. O. Hardy and S. P. Meech译文：财务报表分析A.财务比率我们需要使用财务比率来分析财务报表，比较财务报表的分析方法不能真正有效的得出想要的结果，除非采取的是研究在报表中项目与项目之间关系的形式。
内部审计中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：Internal auditing's role in ERMAs organizations lay their enterprise risk groundwork, many auditors are taking on management's oversight responsibilities, new research finds.Internal audit departments have played a variety of roles in their organization's enterprise risk management (ERM) activities since The Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Tread way Commission (COSO) released its Enterprise Risk Management-Integrated Framework in September 2004. An IIA position paper issued in the wake of COSO ERM, "The Role of Internal Auditing in Enterprise-wide Risk Management," indicates the roles that the internal audit function should and should not play throughout the ERM process, ranging from full involvement to no involvement. According to the paper, internal auditors should have a core role in five ERM-related assurance activities: giving assurance on risk management processes, giving assurance that risks are evaluated correctly, evaluating risk managementprocesses, evaluating the reporting of key risks, and reviewing the management of key risks.A recent IIA Research Foundation study examined the extent to which internal audit functions adhere to the ERM roles recommended in the IIA paper. During October 2005, researchers disseminated an online survey to 7,200 IIA members through The Institute's Global Auditing Information Network. The survey generated 361 responses from a mix of large, mid-sized, and small organizations in a variety of industries, including businesses, government agencies, and not for profit organizations. Nearly 60 percent of respondents identified themselves as a chief audit executive or audit director, 23 percent were audit managers, and 7.8 percent were staff or senior auditors. Approximately 90 percent were from the United States and Canada.Respondents' organizations are at different stages of implementing ERM, as defined by COSO. More than 11 percent say their organization's ERM infrastructure is mature or relatively mature, and 37 percent have recently adopted or are in the process of implementing ERM. Among all organizations surveyed, the internal audit function is primarily responsible for ERM-related activities in 36 percent of respondents' organizations, while 27 percent say the primary responsibility belongs to a chief risk officer (CRO) who is not part of the audit function. Nearly one-third of respondents say another executive or function oversees ERM..The hours and dollars internal audit functions spend on ERM-related activities are minimal for many respondents. Nearly half say their audit department spent 10 percent or less of its hourly and financial budgets on ERM-related activities during fiscal year 2004. More than one-third of audit departments spent II percent to 50 percent of their time on ERM, and 28 percent spent n percent to 50 percent of their financial budgets, while less than 10 percent of departments Spent more than 50 percent of their time and money.The IIA position paper categorizes 18 ERM-related activities according to the appropriate level of responsibility for the internal audit function. Survey respondents reported their current and ideal level of responsibility for these activities: no responsibility, limited responsibility, moderate responsibility, substantialresponsibility, and total responsibility.CORE ACTIVITIESDifferences between respondents' current and ideal responsibilities are greatest for the five core ERM assurance activities identified In the IIA paper. Respondents Indicated that their current responsibility for each of the core ERM related activities is moderate, but they say they should have a substantial level of responsibility. These views agree with the IIA guidance. Additionally, roughly half of internal audit functions surveyed currently have substantial or full responsibility for at least one core activity, and more than two-thirds say they should have till or substantial responsibility for at least one core activity.Within the core category, the audit function's two highest levels of current responsibility involve reviewing management of key risks and evaluating the risk management process. Evaluating the risk management process and giving assurance on risk management processes are the highest-rated ideal responsibilities. Conversely, giving assurance that risks are evaluated correctly is the lowest-rated current and ideal responsibility.The following respondent comments offer some insight into why audit departments are not currently involved in core ERM-related activities at the level they deem appropriate;"We have just recently begun implementing ERM activities in our company. We do not yet have complete understanding of the process and buy-in from management.""The audit committee and management are not aware of what ERM is.""The internal audit function has just initiated an awareness campaign among the audit committee members."These comments suggest that educating management and the audit committee on ERM issues can be critical to ensuring that the audit function takes on an appropriate level of responsibility for ERM.LEGITIMATE ACTIVITIESThe IIA paper prescribes seven legitimate ERM-related activities for which internal committee audit functions may be responsible as long as safeguards are inplace: facilitating the identification and evaluation of risks, coaching management in responding to risks, coordinating ERM-related activities, consolidating the reporting on risks, maintaining and developing the ERM framework, championing establishment of ERM, and developing risk management strategy for board approval. These activities are described as "consulting" activities. Although respondents' current responsibility for each of these legitimate activities ranges from limited to moderate, they say their ideal level should be moderate, which is consistent with the guidance.Within the legitimate category, the highest level of current internal audit responsibility involves facilitating the identification and evaluation of risks —the top-rated ERM-related activity, including core activities. This activity is also the highest-rated ideal activity among legitimate activities, suggesting that auditors consider it a core responsibility. This finding is not surprising. because risk detection and evaluation are traditional considerations in developing annual audit plans. The lowest-rated current and ideal activity is developing a risk management strategy for board approval, which is an activity that might best be handled by management.The IIA guidance cautions that when internal auditors undertake these legitimate consulting activities, safeguards should be in place to ensure that they do not take on management responsibility for actually managing risks. One possible preventive measure would include documenting the auditors' ERM responsibilities in an audit committee-approved audit charter. Further, if auditors take on any ERM-related activities that fall within this consulting role, they should treat these engagements as consulting engagements and apply the relevant IIA standards to help ensure their independence and objectivity.INAPPROPRIATE ACTIVITIESAccording to the IIA position paper. It is inappropriate for internal auditors to be responsible for six ERM-related activities: setting the risk appetite, imposing risk management processes, providing management assurance on risks, making decisions on risk responses, implementing risk responses on management's behalf, and having accountability for risk management. Overall, audit functions in the survey have greater responsibility for these activities than the IIA paper recommends. However,auditors say they should have some limited responsibility for the inappropriate activities.Within the inappropriate category, internal auditors' highest level of current and ideal responsibility is providing management assurance on risks, while their lowest level of responsibility is for setting the risk appetite. Respondents' comments suggest that auditors currently have greater responsibilities in these areas because the audit function is playing a leading role during the early stages of ERM development.ORGANIZATIONAL CHARACTERISTICSThe perceived current and ideal FRM roles for the internal audit function may vary across organizations, depending on the organization's industry, size, and audit department size, as well as the firm's need to comply with the U.S. Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002.INDUSTRY Respondents work in a variety of sectors, including financial services, manufacturing, transportation, communications, utilities, health care, retail and wholesale, government, and education. Researchers compared responses from the two largest industry groups: financial services and manufacturing. On average, financial service industry audit departments have greater current responsibility for core activities than those from manufacturing. With respect to inappropriate activities, manufacturing audit departments tend to say their ideal involvement should be higher than their current responsibility, while financial service industry audit departments rate their current and ideal responsibilities at the same level.ORGANIZATION SIZE Approximately half of respondents work in organizations that had 2004 revenues between US $500 million and US $5 billion. Nearly 25 percent of respondents work in organizations that had revenues under US $500 million in 2004, while a similar number of respondents work in organizations that had more than US $5 billion in revenue that year. Researchers compared responses from organizations with revenues of less than US $1 billion with organizations with revenues greater than US $1 billion. On average, auditors from both types of organizations have relatively equal levels of responsibility for current core activities. However, smaller organizations rated their ideal involvement for thesecore activities higher than large organizations. Smaller organizations have a slightly higher current level of responsibility for inappropriate activities than larger organizations and say their ideal involvement in these areas should be higher.AUDIT STAFF SIZE More than half of respondents work in audit departments with 10 or fewer auditors, slightly more than one-quarter work in departments with between 11 and 50 auditors, and approximately one-tenth of respondents work in departments with more than 50 auditors. Internal audit functions with more than 10 auditors currently have somewhat more responsibility for core activities than audit departments with 10 or fewer auditors. Both large and small audit functions have roughly equal levels of responsibility for all other ERM-related activities. However, unlike large audit organizations, respondents from small audit departments want to have more responsibility for activities in the inappropriate category.SARBANES-OXLEY Most respondents' organizations are required to comply with Sarbanes-Oxley Section 404. Researchers found few differences between those organizations and respondents from organizations that do not have to comply with the act. The primary difference related to core activities, where compliers report a higher level of current responsibility than non-compliers.Although the IIA guidance is equally applicable to all organizations, the research indicates that smaller internal audit departments and those from smaller organizations tend to take on ERM responsibilities that would be more appropriate for management. In these cases, internal auditing should work to develop an ERM implementation and maintenance plan that includes a stratcgy and timeline for migrating responsibilities for these activities to managementTHE AUDITOR'S ROLEAlthough the survey results suggest that the current levels of responsibility audit departments have may differ somewhat from that levels recommended by The IIA'S position paper, the respondents' comments offer some evidence that auditors understand the underlying concepts of the guidance:"There needs to be a shift in the 'doing' of the ERM to being an internal audit function that relies on and evaluates the ERM process. ERM should be in sync withthe audit universe and plan,""In the past i8 months, the corporation has appointed a CRO to provide oversight and guidance to evolving ERM processes. During this period, much of internal auditing's previous ERM roles have migrated to this officer." More importantly, respondents identified significant barriers in their organizations to following the guidance:"These ERM responsibilities and processes are not well defined in many organizations and should be more clearly articulated by senior management."'There is not enough emphasis from the top that risk management is important and must be done effectively. Management is still trying to hide things from internal auditing. It's not them against us, we're all in it together.""Most auditors and enterprise managers lack clarity on the distinction between responsibility for risk assurance implementation versus responsibility for risk assurance compliance and monitoring."These comments stress that a key element to establishing a successful ERM program is education on the importance of ERM and the appropriate roles management and internal auditing have in the process. Internal auditors can play a key role in providing this education. The audit department, management, hoard of directors, and audit committee need to be clear about which ERM related activities internal auditors should perform and which activities should always be performed by management. Relevant training should highlight that internal auditing could serve in a monitoring or consulting role throughout much of the ERM process, but the formal decision-making authority must reside with management if the audit department is to maintain its independence and objectivity.Auditors should take steps to ensure that the board and audit committee are aware of the COSO ERM framework and are actively engaged in overseeing the ERM process. Additionally, auditors should consider training senior management, the board, and others throughout their organization on COSO ERM and related guidance.Responses to the survey provide useful insights into additional steps that the internal audit profession should take. Auditors whose organizations are in the earlystages of adopting ERM or will be implementing ERM in the future have many opportunities to ensure that the process is effective and efficient. For example, audit departments that currendy perform ERM-related activities that should be management's responsibility can take proactive steps to open up the lines of communication between internal auditing and management, the board and audit committee, and external auditors about the risks of this situation. Such communication should encourage management to take on appropriate ERM responsibilities. One approach audit departments could take is to develop a business plan describing how management can assume responsibility for ERM related activities for which they should be accountable. However, internal auditors should recognize that completing this plan and convincing management to accept these ERM responsibilities might not occur quickly.With appropriate planning, communication, and education, internal auditors, management, the board, and external auditors should be ready to work together to achieve the many benefits of ERM. Ideally, this coordination will result in performing ERM-related activities at appropriate places within the organization, management accepting its responsibility for ERM, and that audit function playing a role that is consistent with appropriate professional guidance.译文：内部审计在企业风险管理中的作用新的研究发现：随着企业以组织风险为基础，许多审计人员对管理层采取职责监督措施。
审计报告中英文范本
审计报告AUDITOR’S REPORT晋**审字（2007）第000**号Jin ** (2007) Audit No.00****铸造有限公司To **foundry Co., Ltd:我们审计了后附的**铸造有限公司（以下简称贵公司）财务报表，包括2006年12月31 日的资产负债表，2006年度的利润表以及财务报表附注We have audited the accompanying balance sheet of ** foundry Co., Ltd (the “Company”) as of Dec.31,2006, and the related consolidated income statement for the 2006 then ended, and a summary of significant accounting policies and other explanatory notes一、管理层对财务报表的责任1.Management’s Responsibility for the Financial Statements按照企业会计准则和《企业会计制度》的规定编制财务报表是贵公司管理层的责任。
这种责任包括：（1）设计、实施和维护与财务报表编制相关的内部控制，以使财务报表不存在由于舞弊或错误而导致的重大错报：（2）选择和运用恰当的会计政策：（3）作出合理的会计估计The management is responsible for the preparation and fair presentation of these financial statements in accordance with the Accounting Standards for Business Enterprises and China Accounting System for Business Enterprises. This responsibility includes: (i) designing, implementing and maintaining internal control relevant to the preparation and fair presentation of financial statements that are free from material misstatement, whether due to fraud or error; (ii) selecting and applying appropriate accounting policies; and (iii) making accounting estimates that are reasonable in the circumstances二、注册会计师的责任2. Auditor’s Responsibility我们的责任是在实施审计工作的基础上对财务报表发表审计意见。
财务报表分析中英文对照外文翻译文献
文献信息文献标题: The Need Of Financial Statement Analysis In A Firm or0 rgnization(企业或机构财务报表分析的必要性)国外作者: Suneetha G 文献出处:《International Journal of Science Engineering and Advancel Technology (.JSEAT)) 2017, 5(6): 731-735字数统计:2541单词,15110字符;中文4377汉字外文文献:The Need Of Financial Statement AnalysisIn A Firm Or An Orgnization Abstract Financial statement analysis play a dominate role in setting the frame watt of managerial decisions through analysis and interpretation of financial statement This paper discusses about financial , strength and weakness of the company by properly establishing relationship between the items of balance shed and profit and loss account. In order to judge the profitability and financial soundness of the company horizontal, and vertical analyze or done. The various technique used in analyzing financial statement included 'comparative statement, common size statement, trend analysis and ratio analysis. The results suggest that the ratio approach is a highly useful tool in financial statement analysis, especially when a set of ratios is used to evaluate a firm's performanceKey words: Financial statement analysis, to evaluate a firm's performance Comparative statement. Common size statement, trend analysis and ratio analysis1 Introductionhe basis for financial analysis planning and decision making is financiainformation/a business firm has to prepares its financial accounts viz.. balance sheet profit and loss account which provides useful financial information for the purpose of decision making Financial information is needed to predict. Compare and evaluate the fin's earnings ability. The formers statements viz. profit and loss account shows that operating activities of the concern and the later balance sheet depicts the balance value of the acquired assets and of liabilities at a particular point of time. However these statements don't disclose all of the necessary for ascertaining the financial strengths and weaknesses of an enterprise. it is necessary to analyze the data depicted n the financial statements. The finance manager has certain analytical tools which helps is financial analysis and planning. [Doron nissim, stephen h. Penman, (2003) Financialstatement Analysis of Leverage and How it Informs About Profitability and Price-to-book Ratios. Survey of Accounting Studies. Kluwer Academic PublishersAs per examine by Dissim. StephePenman' on Financia proclamation investigation of Leverage and how it illuminates about gainfulness and cost to book proportions, money related explanation examination that recognizes use that emerges in financing exercises from use that emerges in operations. The examination yields two utilizing conditions. one for getting to back operations and one for obtaining over the span of operations. This examination demonstrates that the budgetary explanation investigation clarifies cross-sectional contrasts in present and future rates of return and additionally cost to-snare proportions, which depend onexpected rates of profit for value. This investigation helps in understandorkins influence contrasts in productivity in the cross-areas. changes in future productivity from current benefit and legally binding working liabilities from evaluated liabilities Yating Van, HW. Chuang, (2010) Financial Ratio Adjustment Process: Evidence from Taiwan and North America, ISSN 1450-2887 Issue 43 (2010)0 Euro Journa Publishing Inc. 20102. Financial statements analysisprocess of identifying the financial strengths and weaknesses of a firm from the available accounting data and financial statements. The analysis is done by properly establishing the relationship between the items of balance sheet and profitnd loss account. The first task of the financial analyst is to determine the information relevant the decision under consideration from the total information contained in financial statement. The second step is to arrange information in a way to highlightsignificant relationships. The final step is interpretation and drawing of infed conclusions. Thus financial analysis is the process of selection, relating and evaluation of the accounting data or informationPurpose of financial statements analysis Financial statements analysis is the meaningful interpretation of 'financial statements for panics demanding financial information. It is not necessary for the proprietors alone. In general, the purpose of financial statements analysis is to aidmaking between the users of accounts To evaluate past performance and financial position To predict future performance Tools and techniques of financial analysis Comparative balance sheet common size balance shee Trend analysis Ratio analysis Comparative balance sheet Comparative financial statements is a statement of the financial position of a business so designed as to facilitate comparison of different accounting variables for drawing useful inferences. Financial statements of two or more business enter prices may be compared over period of years. This is known as inter firm comparison Financial statements of the particular business enter pries may be compared over two periods of years. This is known inter period comparisonCommon size statements It facilities the comparison of two or more business entities with a commonbase .in case of balance sheet, total assets or liabilities or capital can be taken ascommon base. These statements are called common measurements or components percentage or 100 percent statements. Since each statement is representated as a %ofthe total of 100 which in variably serves as the baseIn this manner the announcements arranged to draw out the proportion of every benefit of risk to the aggregate of the monetary record and the proportion of every thing of cost or incomes to net deals known as the basic size articulationsPattern investigation Even examination of money related explanations can likewise be completed by figuring pattern rates. Pattern rate expresses quite a long while's budgetary formation as far as a base year. The base year rises to 100 % with every single other year expressed in some rate of this baseProportion investigation Proportion investigation is the technique or process by which the relationship of things or gatherings of things in the budgetary proclamations are registered. decided and introduced. Proportion investigation is an endeavor to determine quantitative measures or aides concerning the money related wellbeing and benefit of the business nture. Proportion investigation can be utilized both in pattern and static examinationhere are a few proportions at the examiner yet the gathering of proportions he wouincline toward relies upon the reason and the destinations of the investigationBookkeeping proportions are viable apparatuses of examination; they are pointers of administrative and over all operational productivity. Proportions, when appropriately utilized are fit for giving valuable data. proportion examination characterized as the deliberate utilization of proportions to decipher the money related explanations with the goal that the qualities and shortcomings of a firm and in addition its chronicled execution and current monetary condition can be resolved the term proportion alludes to the numerical or quantitative connection between things factors this relationship can be communicated as (Fraction (2)Percentages (3)Proportion of numbers These option strategies for communicating things which are identified with eacstigation,examination. It ought to be seen that processing the proportion does not include data in the figures of benefit or deals. What the proportions do is that they uncover the relationship in a more important manner in order to empower us to reach inferences from th As indicated by look into by the Yating yang and 11. W. Chuang. on 'Monetary Ratio Adjustment Process: Evidence from Taiwan and North America. measurable legitimacy of the proportion strategy in monetary articulation examination is researched. The outcomes hence recommend that the proportion approach is a valuable instrument in monetary explanation investigation, particularly when an arrangement of proportions is utilized to assess an association's execution. The straightforwardness of this strategy additionally underpins the utilization of proportions in money related basic leadership3.Money related proportions in perspective of GAAGAAP is the arrangement of standard systems for recording business exchanges and detailing accounting report passages. The components of GAAP incorporatethings onetaryd. and how to ascertain exceptional offer estimations. The models fused into (MAP give general consistency in assumes that are thusly used to ascertain imperative money related proportions that financial specialists and investigators use to assess the organization. Indeed, even agreeable monetary records can be trying to unravel, yet without a framework characterizing every class of section, corporate money related articulations would be basically dark and uselessThere are seven fundamental rule that guide the foundation of the Generall Accepted Accounting Principles. The standards of normality, consistency, perpetuality and genuineness go towardsurging organizations to utilize the legitimate bookkeeping hones quarter after quarter in a decent confidence push to demonstrate the genuine money related state of the organization. None remuneration judiciousness and progression build up rules for how to set up a monetary record, by and large to report the budgetary status of the organization as it is without treatin resources in irregular ways that distort the operations of the organization just to balance different sections. The rule of periodicity basic implies that salary to be gotten extra time ought to be recorded as it is booked to be gotten, not in a singular amountThe brought together arrangement of bookkeeping in this manner has various advantages. Not exclusively does it give a specific level of straightforwardness into an organization's funds. it likewise makes for generally simple examinations between organizations. Subsequently, GAAPempowers venture by helping financial specialists pick shrewdly. GAAP gives America organizations preference over remote ones where financial specialists, unless they have a cozy comprehension of the business may have a great deal more trouble figuring the potential dangers and prizes of a venture. GAAP applies to U.S.-based enterprises just, however every other real nation has bookkeeping measures set up for their local organizations. Now and again remote bookkeeping is genuinely like U.S. GAAP, changing in just minor and fectively represented ways. In different cases, the models change fundamentally aking direct examinations questionable, best case scenarioAdvantages and Limitations of Financial Ratio Analysis Financial ratio analysis is a useful tool for users of financial statement. It hasFocal pointselated proclamations It helps in contrasting organizations of various size and each other. It helps in drift examination which includes looking at a solitary organization over a period It highlights imperative data in basic frame rapidly. A client can judge an organization by simply taking a gander at few number as opposed to perusing of the entire monetary explanationsRestrictions Regardless of convenience, finance.ial proportion examination has a few burdens Some key faults of budgetary proportion examination areDifferent organizations work in various enterprises each having distinctive natural conditions, for example, control, showcase structure, and so on. Such factors curve so huge that a correlation of two organizations from various ventures may beecelvilFinancial bookkeeping data is influenced by assessments and presumptions Bookkeeping principles permit diverse bookkeeping arrangements, which disables likeness and subsequently proportion examination is less helpful in suchcircumstancesRatio investigation clarifies connections between past data while clients are more worried about present and future datThe investigation helps for breaking down the alteration procedure of moneelated proportionsmodel states three impacts which circular segment an association's interior impact, expansive impact, and key administration. It encourages(That a company's budgetary proportions reflect unforeseen changes in the business(2)Active endeavors to accomplish the coveted focus by administration and (3)An individual association's money related proportion developmentMonetary proclamations investigation is the way toward looking at connections among components of the organization's "bookkeeping articulations" or money related explanations (accounting report, salary articulation. proclamation of income and the announcement of held profit) and making correlations with pertinent data. It is a significant instrument utilized by financial specialists. leasers, monetary investigators proprietors. administrators and others in their basic leadership handle The most well known sorts of money related explanations examination curveHorizontal Analysis: monetary data are thought about for at least two years for a solitary organizationVertical anaery thing on a solitary monetary explanation is figured as a rate of an aggregate for a solitary organizationRatio Analysis: analyze things on a solitary budgetary articulation or look at the connections between things on two monetary proclamationsMoney related proportions examination is the most widely recognized type o budgetary explanations investigation. Monetary proportions delineate connections between various parts of an organization's operations and give relative measures of the company's conditions and execution. Monetary proportions may give intimationsand side effects of the money related condition and signs of potential issue regionsby and large holds no importance unless they are looked at against something else, as past execution, another organization/contender or industry normal. In this way, the proportions of firms in various enterprises, which confront distinctive conditions, are generally difficult to analyzeMoney related proportions can be a critical instrument for entrepreneurs and dministrators to gauge their advance toward achieving organization objectives, an toward contending with bigger organizations inside an industry; likewise, followin different proportions after some time is an intense approach to recognize patterns Proportion examination, when performed routinely after some time, can likewise give assistance independent ventures perceive and adjust to patterns influencing their operationsMoney related proportions are additionally utilized by financiers. Speculators and business experts to survey different traits of an organization's monetary quality or working outcomes, this is another motivation behind why entrepreneurs need to comprehend money related proportions in light of the fact that, all the time, a business' capacity to get financing or value financing will rely upon the organization's budgetary proportions. Money related proportions are ordered by the monetary part of he business which the proportion measures. Liquidity proportions look at the ccessibility of organization's money to pay obligation. Productivity proportions measure the organization's utilization of its benefits and control of its costs to create a satisfactory rate of return. Use proportions look at the organization's techniques for financing and measure its capacity to meet budgetary commitments. Productivity proportions measure how rapidly a firm changes over non-money resources for money resources. Market proportions measure financial specialist reaction to owning an organization's stock and furthermore the cost of issuing stockProportion Analysis is a type of Financial Statement Analysis that is utilized acquire a snappy sign of an association's money related execution in a few key territories. Proportion investigation is utilized to assess connections among money related proclamation things. The proportions are utilized to distinguish inclines after some time for one organization or to look at least two organizations at one point in ime. Money related explanation proportion investigation concentrates on three key parts of a business: liquidity, benefit, and dissolvability The proportions are sorted as Short-term Solvency Ratios, Debt MaRatios and Asset management Ratios. Productivity Ratios, and Market Value ratios Proportion Analysis as an instrument has a few vital elements. The information, which are given by budgetary proclamations. are promptly accessible. The calculation of proportions encourages the examination of firms which contrast in measure oportions can be utilized to contrast anassociation's money related execution and industry midpoints. What's more, proportions can be utilized as a part of a type of ttern investigation to recognize zones where execution has enhanced or crumbled after some time. Since Ratio Analysis depends on bookkeeping data, its adequacy is restricted by the bends which emerge in budgetary explanations because of such things as Historical Cost Accounting and swelling. Thusly, Ratio Analysis should just be utilized as an initial phase in money related examination, to get a snappy sign of an association's execution and to distinguish territories which should be explored further.中文译文:企业或机构财务报表分析的必要性摘要财务报表分析在制定管理决策框架方面起着主导作用,其方法是通过对财务报表进行分析和解释。
财务报表分析外文文献及翻译
财务报表分析外⽂⽂献及翻译Review of accounting studies,2003,16(8):531-560 Financial Statement Analysis of Leverage and How It Informs About Protability and Price-to-Book RatiosDoron Nissim, Stephen. PenmanAbstractThis paper presents a ?nancial statement analysis that distinguishes leverage that arises in ?nancing activities from leverage that arises in operations. The analysis yields two leveraging equations, one for borrowing to ?nance operations and one for borrowing in the course of operations. These leveraging equations describe how the two types of leverage affect book rates of return on equity. An empirical analysis shows that the ?nancial statement analysis explains cross-sectional differences in current and future rates of return as well as price-to-book ratios, which are based on expected rates of return on equity. The paper therefore concludes that balance sheet line items for operating liabilities are priced differently than those dealing with ? nancing liabilities. Accordingly, ?nancial statement analysis that distinguis hes the two types of liabilities informs on future pro?tability and aids in the evaluation of appropriate price-to-book ratios.Keywords: financing leverage; operating liability leverage; rate of return on equity; price-to-book ratioLeverage is traditiona lly viewed as arising from ?nancing activities: Firms borrow to raise cash for operations. This paper shows that, for the purposes of analyzing pro?tability and valuing ?rms, two types of leverage are relevant, one indeed arising from ?nancing activities b ut another from operating activities. The paper supplies a ?nancial statement analysis of the two types of leveragethat explains differences in shareholder pro?tability and price-to-book ratios.The standard measure of leverage is total liabilities to equity. However, while some liabilities—like bank loans and bonds issued—are due to ?nancing, other liabilities—like trade payables, deferred revenues, and pension liabilities—result from transactions with suppliers, customers and employees in conducting operations. Financing liabilities are typically traded in well-functioning capital markets where issuers are price takers. In contrast, ?rms are able to add value in operations because operations involve trading in input and output markets that are less perfect than capital markets. So, with equity valuation in mind, there are a priori reasons for viewing operating liabilities differently from liabilities that arise in ?nancing.Our research asks whether a dollar of operating liabilities on the balance sheet is priced differently from a dollar of ?nancing liabilities. As operating and ?nancing liabilities are components of the book value of equity, the question is equivalent to asking whether price-to-book ratios depend on the composition of book values. The price-to-book ratio is determined by the expected rate of return on the book value so, if components of book value command different price premiums, they must imply different expected rates of return on book value. Accordingly, the paper also investigates whether the two types of liabilities are associated with differences in future book rates of return.Standard ?nancial statement analysis distinguishes shareholder pro?tability that arises from operations from that which arises from borrowing to ?nance opera tions. So, return on assets is distinguished from return on equity, with the difference attributed to leverage. However, in the standard analysis, operating liabilities are not distinguished from ?nancing liabilities. Therefore, to develop the speci?cation s for the empirical analysis, the paper presents a ?nancial statement analysis that identi?es the effects of operating and ?nancing liabilities on rates of return on book value—andso on price-to-book ratios—with explicit leveraging equations that explain when leverage from each type of liability is favorable or unfavorable.The empirical results in the paper show that ?nancial statement analysis that distinguishes leverage in operations from leverage in ?nancing also distinguishes differences in contemporaneous and future pro?tability among ?rms. Leverage from operating liabilities typically levers pro?tability more than ?nancing leverage and has a higher frequency of favorable effects.Accordingly, for a given total leverage from both sources, ?rms with hig her leverage from operations have higher price-to-book ratios, on average. Additionally, distinction between contractual and estimated operating liabilities explains further differences in ?rms’ pro?tability and their price-to-book ratios.Our results are of consequence to an analyst who wishes to forecast earnings and book rates of return to value ?rms. Those forecasts—and valuations derived from them—depend, we show, on the composition of liabilities. The ?nancial statement analysis of the paper, supported by the empirical results, shows how to exploit information in the balance sheet for forecasting and valuation.The paper proceeds as follows. Section 1 outlines the ?nancial statements analysis that identi?es the two types of leverage and lays out expres sions that tie leverage measures to pro?tability. Section 2 links leverage to equity value and price-to-bookratios. The empirical analysis is in Section 3, with conclusions summarized in Section 4.1. Financial Statement Analysis of LeverageThe following ?nancial statement analysis separates the effects of ?nancing liabilities and operating liabilities on the pro? tability of shareholders’ equity. The analysis yields explicit leveraging equations from which the speci?cations for the empirical analysis are developed.Shareholder pro?tability, return on common equity, is measured asReturn on common equity (ROCE) = comprehensive net income ÷common equity (1) Leverage affects both the numerator and denominator of this pro?tability measure. Appropriate ?nancial statement analysis disentangles the effects of leverage. The analysis below, which elaborates on parts of Nissim and Penman (2001), begins by identifying components of the balance sheet and income statement that involve operating and ?nancing activities. The pro?tability due to each activity is then calculated and two types of leverage are introduced to explain both operating and ?nancing pro?tability and overall shareholder pro?tability.1.1 Distinguishing the Protability of Operations from the Protability of Financing ActivitiesWith a focus on common equity (so that preferred equity is viewed as a ?nancial liability), the balance sheet equation can be restated as follows:Common equity =operating assets＋financial assets－operating liabilities－Financial liabilities (2)The distinction here between operating assets (like trade receivables, inventory and property,plant and equipment) and ? nancial assets (the deposits and marketable securities that absorb excess cash) is made in other contexts. However, on the liability side, ?nancing liabilities are also distinguished here from operating liabilities. Rather than treating all liabilities as ? nancing debt, only liabilities that raise cash for operations—like bank loans, short-term commercial paper and bonds—are classi?ed as such. Other liabilities—such as accounts payable, accrued expenses, deferred revenue, restructuring liabilities and pension liabilities—arise from operations. The distinction is not as simple as current versus long-term liabilities; pension liabilities, for example, are usually long-term, and short-term borrowing is a current liability.Rearranging terms in equation (2),Common equity = (operating assets－operating liabilities)－(financial liabilities－financial assets)Or,Common equity = net operating assets－net financing debt (3) This equation regroups assets and liabilities into operating and nancing activities. Net operating assets are operating assets less operating liabilities. So a rm might invest in inventories, but to the extent to which the suppliers of those inventories grant credit, the net investment in inventories is reduced. Firms pay wages, but to the extent to which the payment of wages is deferred in pension liabilities, the net investment required to run the business is reduced. Net ?nancing debt is ?nancing debt (including preferred stock) minus?nancial assets. So, a ?rm may issue bonds to raise cash for operations but may also buy bonds with excess cash from operations. Its net indebtedness is its net position in bonds. Indeed a ?rm may be a net creditor (with more ?nancial assets than ?nancial liabilities) rather than a net debtor.The income statement can be reformulated to distinguish income that comes from operating and ?nancing activities: Comprehensive net income = operating income－net financing expense (4) Operating income is produced in operations and net ?nancial expense is incurred in the ?nancing of operations. Interest income on ?nancial assets is netted against interest expense on ?nancial liabilities (including preferred dividends) in net ?nancial expense. If interest i ncome is greater than interest expense, ?nancing activities produce net ?nancial income rather than net ?nancial expense. Both operating income and net ?nancial expense (or income) are after tax.3Equations (3) and (4) produce clean measures of after-tax o perating pro?tability and the borrowing rate:Return on net operating assets (RNOA) = operating income ÷net operating assets (5) andNet borrowing rate (NBR) = net financing expense ÷net financing debt (6) RNOA recognizes that pro?tabilit y must be based on the net assets invested in operations. So ?rms can increase their operating pro?tability by convincing suppliers, in the course of business, to grant or extend credit terms; credit reduces the investment that shareholders would otherwise have to put in the business. Correspondingly, the net borrowing rate, by excluding non-interest bearing liabilities from the denominator, gives the appropriate borrowing rate for the ?nancing activities.Note that RNOA differs from the more common return on assets (ROA), usually de?ned as income before after-tax interestexpense to total assets. ROA does not distinguish operating and ?nancing activities appropriately. Unlike ROA, RNOA excludes ?nancial assets in the denominator and subtracts operating liabilities. Nissim and Penman (2001) report a median ROA for NYSE and AMEX ?rms from 1963–1999 of only 6.8%, but a median RNOA of 10.0%—much closer to what one would expect as a return to business operations.1.2 Financial Leverage and its Effect on Shareholder ProtabilityFrom expressions (3) through (6), it is straightforward to demonstrate that ROCE is a weighted average of RNOA and the net borrowing rate, with weights derived from equation (3): ROCE= [net operating assets ÷common equity× RNOA]－[net financ ing debt÷common equity ×net borrowing rate (7) Additional algebra leads to the following leveraging equation:ROCE = RNOA＋[FLEV× ( RNOA－net borrowing rate )] (8) where FLEV, the measure of leverage from ?nancing activities, isFinancing leverage (FLEV) =net financing debt ÷common equity (9) The FLEV measure excludes operating liabilities but includes (as a net against ?nancing debt) ?nancial assets. If ?nancial assets are greater than ?nancial liabilities, FLEV is negative. The leveraging equation (8) works for negative FLEV (in which case the net borrowing rate is the return on net ? nancial assets).This analysis breaks shareholder pro?tability, ROCE, down into that which i s due to operations and that which is due to ? nancing. Financial leverage levers the ROCE over RNOA, with the leverage effect determined by the amount of ?nancial leverage (FLEV) and the spread between RNOA and the borrowing rate. The spread can be positive (favorable) or negative (unfavorable). 1.3 Operating Liability Leverage and its Effect on Operating ProtabilityWhile ?nancing debt levers ROCE, operating liabilities lever the pro?tability of operations, RNOA. RNOA is operating income relative to net operating assets, and net operating assets are operating assets minus operating liabilities. So, the more operating liabilities a ?rm has relative to operating assets, the higher its RNOA, assuming no effect on operating income in the numerator. The intensity of the use of operating liabilities in the investment base is operating liability leverage: Operating liability leverage (OLLEV) =operating liabilities ÷net operating assets (10) Using operating liabilities to lever the rate of return from operations may not come for free, however; there may be a numerator effect on operating income. Suppliers provide what nominally may be interest-free credit, but presumably charge for that credit with higher prices for the goods and services supplied. This is the reason why operating liabilities are inextricably a part of operationsrather than the ?nancing of operations. The amount that suppliers actually charge for this credit is dif?cult to identify. But the market borrowing rate is observable. The amount that suppliers would implicitly charge in prices for the credit at this borrowing rate can be estimated as a benchmark: Market interest on operating liabilities= operating liabilities×market borrowing ratewhere the market borrowing rate, given that most credit is short term, can be approximated by the after-tax short-term borrowing rate. This implicit cost is benchmark, for it is the cost that makes suppliers indifferent in supplying cred suppliers are fully compensated if they charge implicit interest at the cost borrowing to supply the credit. Or, alternatively, the ?rm buying the goods o r services is indifferent between trade credit and ?nancing purchases at the borrowin rate.To analyze the effect of operating liability leverage on operating pro?tability, w e d e?ne:Return on operating assets (ROOA) =(operating income＋market interest on operating liabilities)÷operating assets(11)The numerator of ROOA adjusts operating income for the full implicit cost of trad credit. If suppliers fully charge the implicit cost of credit, ROOA is the return of operating assets that would be earned had the ?rm no operating liability leverage. suppliers do not fully charge for the credit, ROOA measures the return fro operations that includes the favorable implicit credit terms from suppliers.Similar to the leveraging equation (8) for ROCE, RNOA can be expressed as:RNOA = ROOA＋[ OLLEV ×(ROOA－market borrowing rate )] (12) where the borrowing rate is the after-tax short-term interest rate.Given ROOA, the effect ofleverage on pro?tability is determined by the level of operating liability leverage and the spread between ROOA and the short-term after-tax interest rate. Like ?nancing l everage, the effect can be favorable or unfavorable: Firms can reduce their operating pro?tability through operating liability leverage if their ROOA is less than the market borrowing rate. However, ROOA will also be affected if the implicit borrowing cost on operating liabilities is different from the market borrowing rate. 1.4 Total Leverage and its Effect on Shareholder ProtabilityOperating liabilities and net ?nancing debt combine into a total leverage measure:Total leverage (TLEV) = ( net financing debt＋operating liabilities)÷common equityThe borrowing rate for total liabilities is:Total borrowing rate = (net financing expense＋market interest on operating liabilities) ÷net financing debt＋operating liabilitiesROCE equals the weighted average of ROOA and the total borrowing rate, where the weights are proportional to the amount of total operating assets and the sum of net ?nancing debt and operating liabilities (with a negative sign), respectively. So, similar to the leveraging equations (8) and (12):ROCE = ROOA ＋[TLEV×(ROOA －total borrowing rate)](13)In summary, ?nancial statement analysis of operating and ?nancing activities yields three leveraging equations, (8), (12), and (13). These equations are based on ?xed accounting re lations and are therefore deterministic: They must hold for a given ? rm at a given point in time. The only requirement in identifying the sources of pro?tability appropriately is a clean separation betweenoperating and ?nancing components in the ?nancial statements.2. Leverage, Equity Value and Price-to-Book RatiosThe leverage effects above are described as effects on shareholder pro?tability. Our interest is not only in the effects on shareholder pro?tability, ROCE, but also in the effects on shareholder value, which is tied to ROCE in a straightforward way by the residual income valuation model. As a restatement of the dividend discount model, the residual income model expresses the value of equity at date 0 (P0) as:B is the book value of common shar eholders’ equity, X is comprehensive income to common shareholders, and r is the required return for equity investment. The price premium over book value is determined by forecasting residual income, Xt –rBt-1. Residual income is determined in part by income relative to book value, that is, by the forecasted ROCE. Accordingly, leverage effects on forecasted ROCE (net of effects on the required equity return) affect equity value relative to book value: The price paid for the book value depends on the expect ed pro?tability of the book value, and leverage affects pro?tability. So our empirical analysis investigates the effect of leverage on both pro?tability and price-to-book ratios. Or, stated differently, nancing and operating liabilities are distinguishable components of book value, so the question is whether the pricing of book values depends on the composition of book values. If this is the case, the different components of book value must imply different pro?tability. Indeed, the two analyses (of pro?tab ility and price-to-book ratios) are complementary.Financing liabilities are contractual obligations for repayment of funds loaned. Operatingliabilities include contractual obligations (such as accounts payable), but also include accrual liabilities (such as deferred revenues and accrued expenses). Accrual liabilities may be based on contractual terms, but typically involve estimates. We consider the real effects of contracting and the effects of accounting estimates in turn. Appendix A provides some examples of contractual and estimated liabilities and their effect on pro?tability and value.2.1 Effects of Contractual liabilitiesThe ex post effects of ?nancing and operating liabilities on pro?tability are clear from leveraging equations (8), (12) and (13). These expressions always hold ex post, so there is no issue regarding ex post effects. But valuation concerns ex ante effects. The extensive research on the effects of ?nancial leverage takes, as its point of departure, the Modigliani and Miller (M&M) (1958) ?nancing irrelevance proposition: With perfect capital markets and no taxes or information asymmetry, debt ?nancing has no effect on value. In terms of the residual income valuation model, an increase in ?nancial leverage due to a substitution of debt for equity may increase expected ROCE according to expression (8), but that increase is offset in the valuation (14) by the reduction in the book value of equity that earns the excess pro?tability and the increase in the required equity return, leaving total value (i.e., the value of equity and debt) unaffected. The required equity return increases because of increased ? nancing risk: Leverage may be expected to be favorable but, the higher the leverage, the greater the loss to shareholders should the leverage turn unfavorable ex post, with RNOA less than the borrowing rate.In the face of the M&M proposition, research on the value effects of ?nancial leverage has proceeded to relax the conditions for the proposition to hold. Modigliani and Miller (1963) hyp othesized that the tax bene?ts of debt increase after-tax returns to equity and so increase equityvalue. Recent empirical evidence provides support for the hypothesis (e.g., Kemsley and Nissim, 2002), although the issue remains controversial. In any case, since the implicit cost of operating liabilities, like interest on ?nancing debt, is tax deductible, the composition of leverage should have no tax implications.Debt has been depicted in many studies as affecting value by reducing transaction and contracting costs. While debt increases expected bankruptcy costs and introduces agency costs between shareholders and debtholders, it reduces the costs that shareholders must bear in monitoring management, and may have lower issuing costs relative to equity. One might expect these considerations to apply to operating debt as well as ?nancing debt, with the effects differing only by degree. Indeed papers have explained the use of trade debt rather than ?nancing debt by transaction costs (Ferris, 1981), differentia l access of suppliers and buyers to ?nancing (Schwartz,1974), and informational advantages and comparative costs of monitoring (Smith, 1987; Mian and Smith, 1992; Biais and Gollier, 1997). Petersen and Rajan (1997) provide some tests of these explanations.In addition to tax, transaction costs and agency costs explanations for leverage, research has also conjectured an informational role. Ross (1977) and Leland and Pyle (1977) characterized ?nancing choice as a signal of pro?tability and value, and subseque nt papers (for example, Myers and Majluf, 1984) have carried the idea further. Other studies have ascribed an informational role also for operating liabilities. Biais and Gollier (1997) and Petersen and Rajan (1997), for example, see suppliers as having mo re information about ?rms than banks and the bond market, so more operating debt might indicate higher value. Alternatively, high trade payables might indicate dif?culti es in paying suppliers and declining fortunes.Additional insights come from further relaxing the perfect frictionless capital markets assumptions underlying the original M&M nancing irrelevance proposition. When it comes to operations, the product and input markets in which rms trade are typically less competitive than capital markets. In deed, ?rms are viewed as adding value primarily in operations rather than in nancing activities because of less than purely competitive product and input markets. So, whereas it is difficult to ‘‘make money off the debtholders,’’ ?rms can be seen as ‘‘mak ing money off the trade creditors.’’ In operations, ?rms can exert monopsony power, extracting value from suppliers and employees. Suppliers may provide cheap implicit ?nancing in exchange for information about products and markets in which the ?rm operates. They may also bene?t from ef?ciencies in the ?rm’s supply and distribution chain, and may grant credit to capture future business.2.2 Effects of Accrual Accounting EstimatesAccrual liabilities may be based on contractual terms, but typically involve estimates. Pension liabilities, for example, are based on employment contracts but involve actuarial estimates. Deferred revenues may involve obligations to service customers, but also involve estimates that allocate revenues to periods. While contractual liabilities are typically carried on the balance sheet as an unbiased indication of the cash to be paid, accrual accounting estimates are not necessarily unbiased. Conservative accounting, for example, might overstate pension liabilities or defer more revenue than required by contracts with customers.Such biases presumably do not affect value, but they affect accounting rates of return and the pricing of the liabilities relative to their carrying value (the price-to-book ratio). The effect of accounting estimates on operating liability leverage is clear: Higher carrying values for operatingliabilities result in higher leverage for a given level of operating assets. But the effect on pro?tability is also clear from leveraging equation (12): While conservative accounting for operating assets increases the ROOA, as modeled in Feltham and Ohlson (1995) and Zhang (2000), higher book values of operating liabilities lever up RNOA over ROOA. Indeed, conservative accounting for operating liabilities amounts to leverage of book rates of return. By leveraging equation (13), that leverage effect ?ows through to shareholder pro?tability, ROCE.And higher anticipated ROCE implies a higher price-to-book ratio.The potential bias in estimated operating liabilities has opposite effects on current and future pro?tability. For example, if a ? rm books higher deferred revenues, accrued expenses or other operating liabilities, and so increases its operating liability leverage, it reduces its current pro?tability: Current revenues must be lower or expenses higher. And, if a ?rm reports lower operating assets (by a write down of receivables, inventories or other assets, for example), and so increases operating liability leverage, it also reduces current pro?tability: Current expense s must be higher. But this application of accrual accounting affects future operating income: All else constant, lower current income implies higher future income. Moreover, higher operating liabilities and lower operating assets amount to lower book value of equity. The lower book value is the base for the rate of return for the higher future income. So the analysis of operating liabilities potentially identi?es part of the accrual reversal phenomenon documented by Sloan (1996) and interprets it as affecting leverage, forecasts of pro?tability, and price-to-book ratios.3. Empirical AnalysisThe analysis covers all ?rm-year observations on the combined COMPUSTAT (Industry and Research) ?les for any of the 39 years from 1963 to 2001 that satisfy the following requirements: (1)the company was listed on the NYSE or AMEX; (2) the company was not a ?nancial institution (SIC codes 6000–6999), thereby omitting ?rms where most ?nancial assets and liabilities are used in operations; (3) the book value of common equity is at least $10 million in 2001 dollars; and (4) the averages of the beginning and ending balance of operating assets, net operating assets and common equity are positive (as balance sheet variables are measured in the analysis using annual averages). T hese criteria resulted in a sample of 63,527 ?rm-year observations.Appendix B describes how variables used in the analysis are measured. One measurement issue that deserves discussion is the estimation of the borrowing cost for operating liabilities. As most operating liabilities are short term, we approximate the borrowing rate by the after-tax risk-free one-year interest rate. This measure may understate the borrowing cost if the risk associated with operating liabilities is not trivial. The effect of such measurement error is to induce a negative correlation between ROOA and OLLEV. As we show below, however, even with this potential negative bias we document a strong positive relation between OLLEV and ROOA.4. ConclusionTo ?nance operations, ?rms borrow in the ?nancial markets, creating ?nancing leverage. In running their operations, ?rms also borrow, but from customers, employees and suppliers, creating operating liability leverage. Because they involve trading in different types of markets, the two types of leverage may have different value implications. In particular, operating liabilities may re?ect contractual terms that add value in different ways than ?nancing liabilities, and so they may be priced differently. Operating liabilities also involve accrual accounting estimates that may further affect their pricing. This study has investigated the implications of the two types of leverage for pro?tability and equity value.The paper has laid out explicit leveraging equations that show how shareholder p ro?tability is related to ?nancing leverage and operating liability leverage. For operating liability leverage, the leveraging equation incorporates both real contractual effects and accounting effects. As price-to-book ratios are based on expected pro?tab ility, this analysis also explains how price-to-book ratios are affected by the two types of leverage. The empirical analysis in the paper demonstrates that operating and ?nancing liabilities imply different pro?tability and are priced differently in the stock market.Further analysis shows that operating liability leverage not only explains differences in pro?tability in the cross-section but also informs on changes in future pro?tability from current pro?tability. Operating liability leverage and changes in operating liability leverage are indicators of the quality of current reported pro?tability as a predictor of future pro?tability.Our analysis distinguishes contractual operating liabilities from estimated liabilities, but further research might examine operating liabilities in more detail, focusing on line items such as accrued expenses and deferred revenues. Further research might also investigate the pricing of operating liabilities under differing circumstances; for example, where ?rms have ‘‘market power’’ over their suppliers.会计研究综述，2003,16(8):531-560财务报表分析的杠杆左右以及如何体现盈利性和值⽐率摘要本⽂提供了区分⾦融活动和业务运营中杠杆作⽤的财务报表分析。
财务报表分析中英文对照外文翻译文献编辑
财务报表分析中英文对照外文翻译文献编辑Introduction:Financial statement analysis is an essential tool used by businesses and investors to evaluate the financial performance and position of a company. It involves the examination of financial statements such as the balance sheet, income statement, and cash flow statement to assess the company's profitability, liquidity, solvency, and efficiency. In this document, we will provide a detailed analysis and translation of foreign literature related to financial statement analysis.1. Importance of Financial Statement Analysis:Financial statement analysis provides valuable insights into a company's financial health and helps stakeholders make informed decisions. It enables investors to assess the profitability and growth potential of a company before making investment decisions. Additionally, it helps creditors evaluate the creditworthiness and repayment capacity of a company before extending credit. Furthermore, financial statement analysis assists management in identifying areas of improvement and making strategic decisions to enhance the company's performance.2. Key Elements of Financial Statement Analysis:a) Balance Sheet Analysis:The balance sheet provides a snapshot of a company's financial position at a specific point in time. It presents the company's assets, liabilities, and shareholders' equity. By analyzing the balance sheet, stakeholders can assess the company's liquidity, solvency, and financial stability.b) Income Statement Analysis:The income statement, also known as the profit and loss statement, presents the company's revenues, expenses, and net income over a specific period. It helps stakeholders evaluate the company's profitability, revenue growth, and cost management.c) Cash Flow Statement Analysis:The cash flow statement details the inflows and outflows of cash during a specific period. It provides insights into the company's operating, investing, and financing activities. By analyzing the cash flow statement, stakeholders can assess the company's ability to generate cash, meet its financial obligations, and fund its growth.3. Financial Ratios for Analysis:Financial ratios are essential tools used in financial statement analysis to assess a company's performance and compare it with industry benchmarks. Some commonly used financial ratios include:a) Liquidity Ratios:- Current Ratio: Measures a company's ability to meet short-term obligations.- Quick Ratio: Measures a company's ability to meet short-term obligations without relying on inventory.b) Solvency Ratios:- Debt-to-Equity Ratio: Measures the proportion of debt to equity in a company's capital structure.- Interest Coverage Ratio: Measures a company's ability to meet interest payments on its debt.c) Profitability Ratios:- Gross Profit Margin: Measures the profitability of a company's core operations.- Net Profit Margin: Measures the profitability of a company after all expenses, including taxes.d) Efficiency Ratios:- Inventory Turnover Ratio: Measures how quickly a company sells its inventory.- Accounts Receivable Turnover Ratio: Measures how quickly a company collects cash from its customers.4. Translation of Foreign Literature:In this section, we will provide a translation of key points from foreign literature related to financial statement analysis. The literature emphasizes the importance of accurate financial reporting, the use of financial ratios for analysis, and the interpretation of financial statements to make informed decisions.Conclusion:Financial statement analysis is a crucial process for evaluating a company's financial performance and position. It provides valuable insights into a company's profitability, liquidity, solvency, and efficiency. By analyzing financial statements and using financial ratios, stakeholders can make informed decisions regarding investments, credit extension, and strategic planning. Accurate translation and understanding of foreign literature related to financial statement analysis can further enhance the effectiveness of this process.。
财务报表分析的外文文献
毕业设计(论文)外文资料翻译系别管理信息系专业财务管理班级姓名学号外文出处/f/22323844.html?from=like附件 1.原文；2.译文2012年3月1.原文Financial statement analysis - the use of financial accountinginformation.Many years. Reasonable minimum current ratio was confirmed as 2.00. Until the mid-1960s, the typical enterprise will flow ratio control at 2.00 or higher. Since then, many companies the current ratio below 2.00 now, many companies can not control the current ratio over 2.00. This shows that the liquidity of many companies on the decline.In the analysis of an enterprise's liquidity ratio, it is necessary to average current ratio with the industry to compare. In some industries, the current ratio below 2.0 is considered normal, but some industry current ratio must be big 2.00. In general, the shorter the operating cycle, the lower the current ratio: the longer the operating cycle, the higher the current ratio.The current ratio compared to the same enterprise in different periods, and compared with the industry average, will help to dry to determine the high or low current ratio. This comparison does not explain why or why low. We can find out the reasons from the by-point analysis of the current assets and current liabilities. The main reason for the exception of the current ratio should be to find out the results of a detailed analysis of accounts receivable and inventory.Flow ratio better than working capital performance of enterprise short-term solvency. Working capital reflect only current assets and current liabilities, the absolute number of differences. The current ratio is also considered the relationship between the current asset size and the size of the current liabilities, make the indicators more comparable. For example, the current ratio between General Motors and Chrysler Motors Corporation. The comparison between the two companies working capital is meaningless, because the two companies of different sizes.Inventory using LIFO France will flow ratio cause problems, this is because the stock is undervalued. The result will be to underestimate the current ratio. Therefore, when compared to using the LIFO method businesses and other costs of the enterprise should pay particular attention to this.Compare the current ratio, analysts should calculate the accounts receivable turnover rate and commodity inventory turnover. This calculation enables the analysis of proposed liquidity problems exist in shouldReceived the views of the accounts and (or) Inventories. Views or opinions on the current ratio of accounts receivable and the deposit will affect the analyst. If the receivables I receivable and liquidity problems, require current ratio higher.Third, the acid test ratio (quick ratio)The current ratio is the evaluation of the liquidity conditions in the current assets and current liabilities. Often, people expect to get more immediate than the current ratio reflect the situation. The acid test ratio (liquid rate) on the relationship of current assets to current liabilities.To calculate the acid test (quick) ratio. From the current assets excluding inventory part. This is because of the slow flow of inventory, the inventory may be obsolete inventory may also be used as a specific creditor's security. For example, the winery's products to Tibet for a long period of time before sold. If you calculate the acid test (liquid) to including wine obstruct inventory will overestimate the enterprise mobility. Inventory valuation, because the cost data may be related to the current price level difference ...Section VI analytical screening proceduresAuditing Standards Description No. 23. Analytical screening procedures, provides guidance for the use of this procedure in the audit. Analytical inspection program goal is to identify significant changes from the business statistics and unusual items.Analytical screening procedures during the audit can run a different number of times, including the planning phase, the audit of the implementation phase and the completion of the audit stage. Analytical inspection procedures can lead to a special audit procedures, such as:Transverse the same type of analysis of the income statement shows an item, such as cost of sales during that period abnormal. This will lead to a careful review of the project cost of sales. The income statement vertical the same type of analysis by comparison with the previous saddle, can be found already for sale to the harmonious proportions of the amount of commodity costs and sales revenue.Accounts receivable turnover ratio and industry data comparison may show the typical speed of the accounts receivable turnover rate is far below the industry. This shows that a careful analysis of the response to accounts receivable.4 and debt compared to cash flow has significantly decreased ability to repay the debt with internally generated cash flow is essentially dropped.5 aldehyde test ratio decreased significantly, indicating that the ability to repay current liabilities with current assets other than inventory outside is essentially droppedWhen the auditors found that the report or an important trend than the string, the next procedure should be carried out to determine why this trend. This study (survey) can often lead to important discoveries.......Section VI analytical screening proceduresAuditing Standards Description No. 23. Analytical screening procedures, provides guidance for the use of this procedure in the audit. Analytical inspection program goal is to identify significant changes from the business statistics andunusual items.Analytical screening procedures during the audit can run a different number of times, including the planning phase, the audit of the implementation phase and the completion of the audit stage. Analytical inspection procedures can lead to a special audit procedures, such as:Transverse the same type of analysis of the income statement shows an item, such as cost of sales during that period abnormal. This will lead to a careful review of the project cost of sales. The income statement vertical the same type of analysis by comparison with the previous saddle, can be found already for sale to the harmonious proportions of the amount of commodity costs and sales revenue.Accounts receivable turnover ratio and industry data comparison may show the typical speed of the accounts receivable turnover rate is far below the industry. This shows that a careful analysis of the response to accounts receivable.4 and debt compared to cash flow has significantly decreased ability to repay the debt with internally generated cash flow is essentially dropped.5 aldehyde test ratio decreased significantly, indicating that the ability to repay current liabilities with current assets other than inventory outside is essentially droppedWhen the auditors found that the report or an important trend than the string, the next procedure should be carried out to determine why this trend. This study (survey) can often lead to important discoveries.2.译文财务报表分析——利用财务会计信息。
银行财务报表分析中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)Banks analysis of financial dataAbstractA stochastic analysis of financial data is presented. In particular we investigate how the statistics of log returns change with different time delays t. The scale-dependent behaviour of financial data can be divided into two regions. The first time range, the small-timescale region (in the range of seconds) seems to be characterised by universal features. The second time range, the medium-timescale range from several minutes upwards can be characterised by a cascade process, which is given by a stochastic Markov process in the scale τ. A corresponding Fokker–Planck equation can be extracted from given data and provides a non-equilibrium thermodynamical description of the complexity of financial data.Keywords:Banks; Financial markets; Stochastic processes;Fokker–Planck equation1.IntroductionFinancial statements for banks present a different analytical problem than manufacturing and service companies. As a result, analysis of a bank’s financial statements requires a distinct approach that recognizes a bank’s somewhat unique risks.Banks take deposits from savers, paying interest on some of these accounts. They pass these funds on to borrowers, receiving interest on the loans. Their profits are derived from the spread between the rate they pay forfunds and the rate they receive from borrowers. This ability to pool deposits from many sources that can be lent to many different borrowers creates the flow of funds inherent in the banking system. By managing this flow of funds, banks generate profits, acting as the intermediary of interest paid and interest received and taking on the risks of offering credit.2. Small-scale analysisBanking is a highly leveraged business requiring regulators to dictate minimal capital levels to help ensure the solvency of each bank and the banking system. In the US, a bank’s primary regulator could be the Federal Reserve Board, the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency, the Office of Thrift Supervision or any one of 50 state regulatory bodies, depending on the charter of the bank. Within the Federal Reserve Board, there are 12 districts with 12 different regulatory staffing groups. These regulators focus on compliance with certain requirements, restrictions and guidelines, aiming to uphold the soundness and integrity of the banking system.As one of the most highly regulated banking industries in the world, investors have some level of assurance in the soundness of the banking system. As a result, investors can focus most of their efforts on how a bank will perform in different economic environments.Below is a sample income statement and balance sheet for a large bank. The first thing to notice is that the line items in the statements are not the same as your typical manufacturing or service firm. Instead, there are entries that represent interest earned or expensed as well as deposits and loans.As financial intermediaries, banks assume two primary types of risk as they manage the flow of money through their business. Interest rate risk is the management of the spread between interest paid on deposits and received on loans over time. Credit risk is the likelihood that a borrower will default onits loan or lease, causing the bank to lose any potential interest earned as wellas the principal that was loaned to the borrower. As investors, these are the primary elements that need to be understood when analyzing a bank’s financial statement.3. Medium scale analysisThe primary business of a bank is managing the spread between deposits. Basically when the interest that a bank earns from loans is greater than the interest it must pay on deposits, it generates a positive interest spread or net interest income. The size of this spread is a major determinant of the profit generated by a bank. This interest rate risk is primarily determined by the shape of the yield curve.As a result, net interest income will vary, due to differences in the timing of accrual changes and changing rate and yield curve relationships. Changes in the general level of market interest rates also may cause changes in the volume and mix of a bank’s balance sheet products. For example, when economic activity continues to expand while interest rates are rising, commercial loan demand may increase while residential mortgage loan growth and prepayments slow.Banks, in the normal course of business, assume financial risk by making loans at interest rates that differ from rates paid on deposits. Deposits often have shorter maturities than loans. The result is a balance sheet mismatch between assets (loans) and liabilities (deposits). An upward sloping yield curve is favorable to a bank as the bulk of its deposits are short term and their loans are longer term. This mismatch of maturities generates the net interest revenue banks enjoy. When the yield curve flattens, this mismatch causes net interest revenue to diminish.4.Even in a business using Six Sigma® methodology. an “optimal” level of working capital manageme nt needs to beidentified.The table below ties together the bank’s balance sheet with the income statement and displays the yield generated from earning assets and interest bearing deposits. Most banks provide this type of table in their annual reports. The following table represents the same bank as in the previous examples: First of all, the balance sheet is an average balance for the line item, rather than the balance at the end of the period. Average balances provide a better analytical framework to help understand the bank’s financial performance. Notice that for each average balance item there is a correspondinginterest-related income, or expense item, and the average yield for the time period. It also demonstrates the impact a flattening yield curve can have on a bank’s net interest income.The best place to start is with the net interest income line item. The bank experienced lower net interest income even though it had grown average balances. To help understand how this occurred, look at the yield achieved on total earning assets. For the current period ,it is actually higher than the prior period. Then examine the yield on the interest-bearing assets. It is substantially higher in the current period, causing higher interest-generating expenses. This discrepancy in the performance of the bank is due to the flattening of the yield curve.As the yield curve flattens, the interest rate the bank pays on shorter term deposits tends to increase faster than the rates it can earn from its loans. This causes the net interest income line to narrow, as shown above. One way banks try o overcome the impact of the flattening of the yield curve is to increase the fees they charge for services. As these fees become a larger portion of the bank’s income, it b ecomes less dependent on net interest income to drive earnings.Changes in the general level of interest rates may affect the volume ofcertain types of banking activities that generate fee-related income. For example, the volume of residential mortgage loan originations typically declines as interest rates rise, resulting in lower originating fees. In contrast, mortgage servicing pools often face slower prepayments when rates are rising, since borrowers are less likely to refinance. Ad a result, fee income and associated economic value arising from mortgage servicing-related businesses may increase or remain stable in periods of moderately rising interest rates.When analyzing a bank you should also consider how interest rate risk may act jointly with other risks facing the bank. For example, in a rising rate environment, loan customers may not be able to meet interest payments because of the increase in the size of the payment or reduction in earnings. The result will be a higher level of problem loans. An increase in interest rate is exposes a bank with a significant concentration in adjustable rate loans to credit risk. For a bank that is predominately funded with short-term liabilities, a rise in rates may decrease net interest income at the same time credit quality problems are on the increase.5.Related LiteratureThe importance of working capital management is not new to the finance literature. Over twenty years ago. Largay and Stickney (1980) reported that the then-recent bankruptcy of W.T. Grant. a nationwide chain of department stores. should have been anticipated because the corporation had been running a deficit cash flow from operations for eight of the last ten years of its corporate life. As part of a study of the Fortune 500’s financial management practices. Gilbert and Reichert (1995) find that accounts receivable management models are used in 59 percent of these firms to improve working capital projects. while inventory management models were used in 60 percent of the companies. More recently. Farragher. Kleiman andSahu (1999) find that 55 percent of firms in the S&P Industrial index complete some form of a cash flow assessment. but did not present insights regarding accounts receivable and inventory management. or the variations of any current asset accounts or liability accounts across industries. Thus. mixed evidence exists concerning the use of working capital management techniques.Theoretical determination of optimal trade credit limits are the subject of many articles over the years (e.g.. Schwartz 1974; Scherr 1996). with scant attention paid to actual accounts receivable management. Across a limited sample. Weinraub and Visscher (1998) observe a tendency of firms with low levels of current ratios to also have low levels of current liabilities. Simultaneously investigating accounts receivable and payable issues. Hill. Sartoris. and Ferguson (1984) find differences in the way payment dates are defined. Payees define the date of payment as the date payment is received. while payors view payment as the postmark date. Additional WCM insight across firms. industries. and time can add to this body of research.Maness and Zietlow (2002. 51. 496) presents two models of value creation that incorporate effective short-term financial management activities. However. these models are generic models and do not consider unique firm or industry influences. Maness and Zietlow discuss industry influences in a short paragraph that includes the observation that. “An industry a company is located in may ha ve more influence on that company’s fortunes than overall GNP” (2002. 507). In fact. a careful review of this 627-page textbook finds only sporadic information on actual firm levels of WCM dimensions. virtually nothing on industry factors except for some boxed items with titles such as. “Should a Retailer Offer an In-House Credit Card” (128) and nothing on WCM stability over time. This research will attempt to fill thisvoid by investigating patterns related to working capital measures within industries and illustrate differences between industries across time.An extensive survey of library and Internet resources provided very few recent reports about working capital management. The most relevant set of articles was Weisel and Bradley’s (2003) article on c ash flow management and one of inventory control as a result of effective supply chain management by Hadley (2004).6.Research MethodThe CFO RankingsThe first annual CFO Working Capital Survey. a joint project with REL Consultancy Group. was published in the June 1997 issue of CFO (Mintz and Lezere 1997). REL is a London. England-based management consulting firm specializing in working capital issues for its global list of clients. The original survey reports several working capital benchmarks for public companies using data for 1996. Each company is ranked against its peers and also against the entire field of 1.000 companies. REL continues to update the original information on an annual basis.REL uses the “cash flow from operations” value located on firm cash flow statements to estimate cash conversion efficiency (CCE). This value indicates how well a company transforms revenues into cash flow. A “days of working capital” (DWC) value is based on the dollar amount in each of the aggregate. equally-weighted receivables. inventory. and payables accounts. The “days of working capital” (DNC) represents the time period between purchase of inventory on acccount from vendor until the sale to the customer. the collection of the receivables. and payment receipt. Thus. it reflects the company’s ability to finance its core operations with vendor credit. A detailed investigation of WCM is possible because CFO also provides firmand industry values for days sales outstanding (A/R). inventory turnover. and days payables outstanding (A/P).7.Research FindingsAverage and Annual Working Capital Management Performance Working capital management component definitions and average values for the entire 1996 – 2000 period . Across the nearly 1.000 firms in the survey. cash flow from operations. defined as cash flow from operations divided by sales and referred to as “cash conversion efficiency” (CCE). averages 9.0 percent. Incorporating a 95 percent confidence interval. CCE ranges from 5.6 percent to 12.4 percent. The days working capital (DWC). defined as the sum of receivables and inventories less payables divided by daily sales. averages 51.8 days and is very similar to the days that sales are outstanding (50.6). because the inventory turnover rate (once every 32.0 days) is similar to the number of days that payables are outstanding (32.4 days). In all instances. the standard deviation is relatively small. suggesting that these working capital management variables are consistent across CFO reports.8.Industry Rankings on Overall Working Capital Management PerformanceCFO magazine provides an overall working capital ranking for firms in its survey. using the following equation:Industry-based differences in overall working capital management are presented for the twenty-six industries that had at least eight companies included in the rankings each year. In the typical year. CFO magazine ranks 970 companies during this period. Industries are listed in order of the mean overall CFO ranking of working capital performance. Since the best average ranking possible for an eight-company industry is 4.5 (this assumes that the eight companies are ranked one through eight for the entire survey). it is quite obvious that all firms in the petroleumindustry must have been receiving very high overall working capital management rankings. In fact. the petroleum industry is ranked first in CCE and third in DWC (as illustrated in Table 5 and discussed later in this paper). Furthermore. the petroleum industry had the lowest standard deviation of working capital rankings and range of working capital rankings. The only other industry with a mean overall ranking less than 100 was the Electric & Gas Utility industry. which ranked second in CCE and fourth in DWC. The two industries with the worst working capital rankings were Textiles and Apparel. Textiles rank twenty-second in CCE and twenty-sixth in DWC. The apparel industry ranks twenty-third and twenty-fourth in the two working capital measures9. Results for Bayer dataThe Kramers–Moyal coefficients were calculated according to Eqs. (5) and (6). The timescale was divided into half-open intervalsassuming that the Kramers–Moyal coefficients are constant with respect to the timescaleτin each of these subintervals of the timescale. The smallest timescale considered was 240 s and all larger scales were chosen such that τi ＝0.9*τi+1. The Kramers–Moyal coefficients themselves were parameterised in the following form:This result shows that the rich and complex structure of financial data, expressed by multi-scale statistics, can be pinned down to coefficients with a relatively simple functional form.10. DiscussionCredit risk is most simply defined as the potential that a bank borrower or counter-party will fail to meet its obligations in accordance with agreed terms. When this happens, the bank will experience a loss of some or all of the credit it provide to its customer. To absorb these losses, banks maintain anallowance for loan and lease losses. In essence, this allowance can be viewed as a pool of capital specifically set aside to absorb estimated loan losses. This allowance should be maintained at a level that is adequate to absorb the estimated amount of probable losses in the institution’s loan portfolio.A careful review of a bank’s financial statements can highlight the key factors that should be considered becomes before making a trading or investing decision. Investors need to have a good understanding of the business cycle and the yield curve-both have a major impact on the economic performance of banks. Interest rate risk and credit risk are the primary factors to consider as a bank’s financial performance follows the yield curve. When it flattens or becomes inverted a bank’s net interest revenue is put under greater pressure. When the yield curve returns to a more traditional shape, a bank’s net interest revenue usually improves. Credit risk can be the largest contributor to the negative performance of a bank, even causing it to lose money. In addition, management of credit risk is a subjective process that can be manipulated in the short term. Investors in banks need to be aware of these factors before they commit their capital.银行的金融数据分析摘要财务数据随机分析已经被提出，特别是我们探讨如何统计在不同时间τ记录返回的变化。
审计报告中英文对照
审计报告中英文对照Audit Report审计报告致：XYZ公司管理层我们对XYZ公司及其附属公司（统称为“集团”）2024年12月31日的合并财务报表以及截至该日的年度进行了审计。
合并财务报表包括截至2024年12月31日的合并资产负债表，年度综合收益表，股东权益变动表和合并现金流量表，以及合并财务报表的附注。
Responsibility of the Management for the Consolidated Financial Statements管理层对合并财务报表的责任The management of the Group is responsible for the preparation and fair presentation of these consolidatedfinancial statements in accordance with International Financial Reporting Standards. This responsibility includes designing, implementing, and maintaining internal control relevant to the preparation and fair presentation of consolidated financial statements that are free from material misstatement, whether due to fraud or error.集团管理层负责根据国际财务报告准则编制并公正呈现这些合并财务报表。
这一责任包括设计、实施和维护与合并财务报表编制和公正呈现有关的内部控制，确保合并财务报表不存在重大错误或舞弊。
Responsibility of the Auditor审计师的责任我们的责任是根据我们所进行的审计，对这些合并财务报表发表意见。
审计报告中英文对照终审稿)
The report was made by Chinese and English. If the two files differ, the standard will be Chinese.
山西**联合会计师事务所 中国注册会计师：
ShanXi** Unite Accountant OfficeCertifiedPublic Accountant:
我们审计了后附的**铸造有限公司（以下简称贵公司）财务报表，包括2006年12月31 日的资产负债表，2006年度的利润表以及财务报表附注。
We have audited the accompanying balance sheet of** foundry Co., Ltd (the “Company”)as of Dec.31,2006, and the related consolidated income statement for the 2006 then ended, and a summary of significant accounting policies and other explanatory notes.
三、审计意见
3. Opinion
我们认为, 贵公司财务报表已经按照企业会计准则和《企业会计制度》的规定编制，在所有重大方面公允反映了贵公司2006年12月31 日的财务状况以及 2006年度的经营成果。
In our opinion, the financial statements give a true and fair view of the financial position of the Company as of Dec.31, 2006, and of its financial performance for the 2006 years then ended in accordance with theAccounting Standards for Business EnterprisesandChina Accounting System for Business Enterprises.
审计报告附注中英文
审计报告附注中英文审计报告附注中英文范本山西**联合会计师事务所ShanXi**Unite Accountant Office审计报告AUDITOR’S REPORT晋**审字(2007)第000**号Jin ** (2007) Audit No.00** **铸造有限公司：To **foundry Co., Ltd:我们审计了后附的**铸造有限公司(以下简称贵公司)财务报表，包括2006年12月 31 日的资产负债表，2006年度的利润表以及财务报表附注。
We have audited the accompanying balance sheet of ** foundry Co., Ltd (the “Company”) as of Dec.31,2006, and the related consolidated income statement for the 2006 then ended, and a summary of significant accounting policies and other explanatory notes.一、管理层对财务报表的责任1.Management’s Responsibility for the Financial Statements按照企业会计准则和《企业会计制度》的规定编制财务报表是贵公司管理层的责任。
这种责任包括：(1)设计、实施和维护与财务报表编制相关的内部控制，以使财务报表不存在由于舞弊或错误而导致的重大错报：(2)选择和运用恰当的会计政策：(3)作出合理的会计估计。
The management is responsible for the preparation and fair presentation of these financial statements in accordance with the Accounting Standards for Business Enterprises and China Accounting System for Business Enterprises. This responsibilityincludes: (i) designing, implementing and maintaining internal control relevant to the preparation and fair presentation of financial statements that are free from material misstatement, whether due to fraud or error; (ii) selecting and applying appropriate accounting policies; and (iii) making accounting estimates that are reasonable in the circumstances.二、注册会计师的责任2. Auditor’s Responsibility我们的责任是在实施审计工作的基础上对财务报表发表审计意见。
财务报表分析中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文：ANALYSIS OF FINANCIAL STATEMENTSWe need to use financial ratios in analyzing financial statements.—— The analysis of comparative financial statements cannot be made really effective unless it takes the form of a study of relationships between items in the statements. It is of little value, for example, to know that, on a given date, the Smith Company has a cash balance of $1oooo. But suppose we know that this balance is only -IV per cent of all current liabilities whereas a year ago cash was 25 per cent of all current liabilities. Since the bankers for the company usually require a cash balance against bank lines, used or unused, of 20 per cent, we can see at once that the firm's cash condition is exhibiting a questionable tendency.We may make comparisons between items in the comparative financial statements as follows:1. Between items in the comparative balance sheeta) Between items in the balance sheet for one date, e.g., cash may be compared with current liabilitiesb) Between an item in the balance sheet for one date and the same item in the balance sheet for another date, e.g., cash today may be compared with cash a year agoc) Of ratios, or mathematical proportions, between two items in the balance sheet for one date and a like ratio in the balance sheet for another date, e.g., the ratio of cash to current liabilities today may be compared with a like ratio a year ago and the trend of cash condition noted2. Between items in the comparative statement of income and expensea) Between items in the statement for a given periodb) Between one item in this period's statement and the same item in last period's statementc) Of ratios between items in this period's statement and similar ratios in last period's statement3. Between items in the comparative balance sheet and items in the comparative statement of income and expensea) Between items in these statements for a given period, e.g., net profit for this year may be calculated as a percentage of net worth for this yearb) Of ratios between items in the two statements for a period of years, e.g., the ratio of net profit to net worth this year may-be compared with like ratios for last year, and for the years preceding thatOur comparative analysis will gain in significance if we take the foregoing comparisons or ratios and; in turn, compare them with:I. Such data as are absent from the comparative statements but are of importance in judging a concern's financial history and condition, for example, the stage of the business cycle2. Similar ratios derived from analysis of the comparative statements of competing concerns or of concerns in similar lines of business What financialratios are used in analyzing financial statements.- Comparative analysis of comparative financial statements may be expressed by mathematical ratios between the items compared, for example, a concern's cash position may be tested by dividing the item of cash by the total of current liability items and using the quotient to express the result of the test. Each ratio may be expressed in two ways, for example, the ratio of sales to fixed assets may be expressed as the ratio of fixed assets to sales. We shall express each ratio in such a way that increases from period to period will be favorable and decreases unfavorable to financial condition.We shall use the following financial ratios in analyzing comparative financial statements:I. Working-capital ratios1. The ratio of current assets to current liabilities2. The ratio of cash to total current liabilities3. The ratio of cash, salable securities, notes and accounts receivable to total current liabilities4. The ratio of sales to receivables, i.e., the turnover of receivables5. The ratio of cost of goods sold to merchandise inventory, i.e., the turnover of inventory6. The ratio of accounts receivable to notes receivable7. The ratio of receivables to inventory8. The ratio of net working capital to inventory9. The ratio of notes payable to accounts payableIO. The ratio of inventory to accounts payableII. Fixed and intangible capital ratios1. The ratio of sales to fixed assets, i.e., the turnover of fixed capital2. The ratio of sales to intangible assets, i.e., the turnover of intangibles3. The ratio of annual depreciation and obsolescence charges to the assetsagainst which depreciation is written off4. The ratio of net worth to fixed assetsIII. Capitalization ratios1. The ratio of net worth to debt.2. The ratio of capital stock to total capitalization .3. The ratio of fixed assets to funded debtIV. Income and expense ratios1. The ratio of net operating profit to sales2. The ratio of net operating profit to total capital3. The ratio of sales to operating costs and expenses4. The ratio of net profit to sales5. The ratio of net profit to net worth6. The ratio of sales to financial expenses7. The ratio of borrowed capital to capital costs8. The ratio of income on investments to investments9. The ratio of non-operating income to net operating profit10. The ratio of net operating profit to non-operating expense11. The ratio of net profit to capital stock12. The ratio of net profit reinvested to total net profit available for dividends on common stock13. The ratio of profit available for interest to interest expensesThis classification of financial ratios is permanent not exhaustive. -Other ratios may be used for purposes later indicated. Furthermore, some of the ratios reflect the efficiency with which a business has used its capital while others reflect efficiency in financing capital needs. The ratios of sales to receivables, inventory, fixed and intangible capital; the ratios of net operating profit to total capital and to sales; and the ratios of sales to operating costs and expenses reflect efficiency in the use of capital.' Most of the other ratios reflect financial efficiency.B. Technique of Financial Statement AnalysisAre the statements adequate in general?-Before attempting comparative analysis of given financial statements we wish to be sure that the statements are reasonably adequate for the purpose. They should, of course, be as complete as possible. They should also be of recent date. If not, their use must be limited to the period which they cover. Conclusions concerning 1923 conditions cannot safely be based upon 1921 statements.Does the comparative balance sheet reflect a seasonable situation? If so, it is important to know financial conditions at both the high and low points of the season. We must avoid unduly favorable judgment of the business at the low point when assets are very liquid and debt is low, and unduly unfavorable judgment at the high point when assets are less liquid and debt likely to be relatively high.Does the balance sheet for any date reflect the estimated financial condition after the sale of a proposed new issue of securities? If so, in order to ascertain the actual financial condition at that date it is necessary to subtract the amount of the security issue from net worth, if the. issue is of stock, or from liabilities, if bonds are to be sold. A like amount must also be subtracted from assets or liabilities depending upon how the estimated proceeds of the issue are reflected in the statement.Are the statements audited or unaudited? It is often said that audited statements, that is, complete audits rather than statements "rubber stamped" by certified public accountants, are desirable when they can be obtained. This is true, but the statement analyst should be certain that the given auditing film's reputation is beyond reproach.Is working-capital situation favorable ?-If the comparative statements to be analyzed are reasonably adequate for the purpose, the next step is to analyze the concern's working-capital trend and position. We may begin by ascertaining the ratio of current assets to current liabilities. This ratioaffords-a test of the concern's probable ability to pay current obligations without impairing its net working capital. It is, in part, a measure of ability to borrow additional working capital or to renew short-term loans without difficulty. The larger the excess of current assets over current liabilities the smaller the risk of loss to short-term creditors and the better the credit of the business, other things being equal. A ratio of two dollars of current assets to one dollar of current liabilities is the "rule-of-thumb" ratio generally considered satisfactory, assuming all current assets are conservatively valued and all current liabilities revealed.The rule-of-thumb current ratio is not a satisfactory test ofworking-capital position and trend. A current ratio of less than two dollars for one dollar may be adequate, or a current ratio of more than two dollars for one dollar may be inadequate. It depends, for one thing, upon the liquidity of the current assets.The liquidity of current assets varies with cash position.-The larger the proportion of current assets in the form of cash the more liquid are the current assets as a whole. Generally speaking, cash should equal at least 20 per cent of total current liabilities (divide cash by total current liabilities). Bankers typically require a concern to maintain bank balances equal to 20 per cent of credit lines whether used or unused. Open-credit lines are not shown on the balance sheet, hence the total of current liabilities (instead of notes payable to banks) is used in testing cash position. Like the two-for-one current ratio, the 20 per cent cash ratio is more or less a rule-of-thumb standard.The cash balance that will be satisfactory depends upon terms of sale, terms of purchase, and upon inventory turnover. A firm selling goods for cash will find cash inflow more nearly meeting cash outflow than will a firm selling goods on credit. A business which pays cash for all purchases will need more ready money than one which buys on long terms of credit. The more rapidly the inventory is sold the more nearly will cash inflow equal cash outflow, other things equal.Needs for cash balances will be affected by the stage of the business cycle. Heavy cash balances help to sustain bank credit and pay expenses when a period of liquidation and depression depletes working capital and brings a slump in sales. The greater the effects of changes in the cycle upon a given concern the more thought the financial executive will need to give to the size of his cash balances.Differences in financial policies between different concerns will affect the size of cash balances carried. One concern may deem it good policy to carry as many open-bank lines as it can get, while another may carry only enough lines to meet reasonably certain needs for loans. The cash balance of the first firm is likely to be much larger than that of the second firm.The liquidity of current assets varies with ability to meet "acid test."- Liquidity of current assets varies with the ratio of cash, salable securities, notes and accounts receivable (less adequate reserves for bad debts), to total current liabilities (divide the total of the first four items by total current liabilities). This is the so-called "acid test" of the liquidity of current condition. A ratio of I: I is considered satisfactory since current liabilities can readily be paid and creditors risk nothing on the uncertain values of merchandise inventory. A less than 1:1 ratio may be adequate if receivables are quickly collected and if inventory is readily and quickly sold, that is, if its turnover is rapid andif the risks of changes in price are small.The liquidity of current assets varies with liquidity of receivables. This may be ascertained by dividing annual sales by average receivables or by receivables at the close of the year unless at that date receivables do not represent the normal amount of credit extended to customers. Terms of sale must be considered in judging the turnover of receivables. For example, if sales for the year are $1,200,000 and average receivables amount to $100,000, the turnover of receivables is $1,200,000/$100,000=12. Now, if credit terms to customers are net in thirty days we can see that receivables are paid promptly.Consideration should also be given market conditions and the stage of the business cycle. Terms of credit are usually longer in farming sections than in industrial centers. Collections are good in prosperous times but slow in periods of crisis and liquidation.Trends in the liquidity of receivables will also be reflected in the ratio of accounts receivable to notes receivable, in cases where goods are typically sold on open account. A decline in this ratio may indicate a lowering of credit standards since notes receivable are usually given to close overdue open accounts. If possible, a schedule of receivables should be obtained showing those not due, due, and past due thirty, sixty, and ninety days. Such a, schedule is of value in showing the efficiency of credits and collections and in explaining the trend in turnover of receivables. The more rapid the turnover of receivables the smaller the risk of loss from bad debts; the greater the savings of interest on the capital invested in receivables, and the higher the profit on total capital, other things being equal.Author(s): C. O. Hardy and S. P. Meech译文：财务报表分析A.财务比率我们需要使用财务比率来分析财务报表，比较财务报表的分析方法不能真正有效的得出想要的结果，除非采取的是研究在报表中项目与项目之间关系的形式。
财务报表分析外文文献及翻译
财务报表分析外文文献及翻译LNTU---Acc附录A财务报表分析的杠杆左右以及如何体现盈利性和值比率摘要关键词:财政杠杆;运营债务杠杆;股本回报率;值比率传统观点认为，杠杆效应是从金融活动中产生的:公司通过借贷来增加运营的资金。
杠杆作用的衡量标准是负债总额与股东权益。
然而，一些负债——如银行贷款和发行的债券，是由于资金筹措，其他一些负债——如贸易应付账款，预收收入和退休金负债，是由于在运营过程中与供应商的贸易，与顾客和雇佣者在结算过程中产生的负债。
融资负债通常交易运作良好的资本市场其中的发行者是随行就市的商人。
与此相反，在运营中公司能够实现高增值。
因为业务涉及的是与资本市场相比，不太完善的贸易的输入和输出的市场。
因此，考虑到股票估值，运营负债和融资负债的区别的产生有一些先验的原因。
我们研究在资产负债表上，运营负债中的一美元是否与融资中的一美元等值这个问题。
因为运营负债和融资负债是股票价值的组成部分，这个问题就相当于问是否股价与账面价值比率是否取决于账面净值的组成。
价格与账面比率是由预期回报率的账面价值决定的。
所以，如果部分的账面价值要求不同的溢价，他们必须显示出不同的账面价值的预期回报率。
因此，标准的财务报表分析的能够区分股东从运营中和借贷的融资业务中产生的利润。
因此，资产回报有别于股本回报率，这种差异是由于杠杆作用。
然而，在标准的分析中，经营负债不区别于融资负债。
因此，为了制定用于实证分析的规范，我们的研究结果是用于愿意分析预期公司的收益和账面收益率。
这些预测和估值依赖于负债的组成。
这篇文章结构如下。
第一部分概述并指出了了能够判别两种杠杆作用类型，连接杠杆作用和盈利的财务报表分析第二节将杠杆作用，股票价值和价格与账面比率联系在一起。
第三节中进行实证分析，第四节进行了概述与结论。
1 杠杆作用的财务报表分析以下财务报表分析将融资债务和运营债务对股东权益的影响区别开。
这个分析从实证的详细分析中得出了精确的杠杆效应等式普通股产权资本收益率=综合所得?普通股本(1) 杠杆影响到这个盈利等式的分子和分母。
审计监督中英文对照外文翻译文献
中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)原文:The Legal Framework of Audit SupervisionChinese Legal System & Current Legal Reform. (Jan 1999).The legal system of audit supervision is an important part of Chinese economic law. The Auditing Law was promulgated on 31 August 1994 in order to improveState audit supervision, to maintain the financial and economic order of the State, to promote the building of a corruption-free government, and to safeguard the stable, healthy and continuous development of the national economy. The Auditing Law is composed of general principles, auditing of_ fices and auditors, duties of an auditing office, powers and functions of an auditing office, auditing procedure, legal liability and supplementary principles. This Law explicitly stipulates that the fiscal revenue and expenditure of various departments of the State Council, local people's governments at all levels and their business departments, the financial income and expenditure of State-owned finance organs, enterprises and institutional units, as wellas fiscal revenue and expenditure and financial income and expenditure which should be subject to auditing as stipulated by this Law, shall be subject to audit supervision in accordance with the provisions of this Law.Other than the national auditing system, there are also internal auditing system and social auditing system in China. The former internal auditing system was established by various departments of the State Council, local people's govermnents at all levels, state-owned financial institutions, enterprises and institutions; the latter is the auditing system by which the social independent auditing institutions carry out audit supervision.In order to ensure the authority and effectiveness of the auditing works, according to this Law, people's governments at all levels are required to submit annual audit work reports on budget implementation and other fiscal revenue and expenditure to the people's congress at their respective levels.1. Auditing offices and auditorsThe State Council and local people's governments above county level shall establish auditing administrations. The State Council shall establish an Auditing Administration, under the leadership of the Premier of the State Council, be in charge of all ofthe audit work throughout the country. The auditor-General shall be the administrative leader of the national auditing Administration. Auditing offices of the people's governments of provinces, autonomous regions, municipalities directly under the central government, munic ipalities divided into districts, autonomous prefectures, counties, autonomous counties, cities not divided into districts shall be in charge of the audit work within their respective administrative areas under the respective leadership of governors of provinces, chairmen of autonomous regions, prefecture heads, counties' head or district heads respectively, as well as under the leadershipof audit institutions at the next higher levels.The various levels of the local auditing offices shall be responsible to and report their work to the people's government at the same level and to the auditing office at the next higher level.Audit operations shall be undertaken primarily under the leadership of the auditing offices at the next higher level.An auditing office may, in line with work requirements, send its special auditors to places or departments within its jurisdiction. A special auditor shall, according to the authorisation of his/her auditing office, undertake auditing work in accordance with the law.An auditing office shall exercise independent audit supervision rights in accordance with the law and no other administrative organ, social group or individual shall be permitted to interfere. Auditors exercise their powers of office in accordance with the law and shall receive the protection of the law. In handling audit matters, auditing offices and auditors shall be objective and impersonal, practical and realistic, and honest when performing their official duties, and they shall maintain confidentiality.2. Duties of auditing office scope of auditingThe auditing offices at various levels shall conduct audit supervision over the following items:----The various departments at the equivalent level (including units directly under such departments) and lower level government authorities on financial budget implementation and final financial accounts, as well as the administration and use of non-budgetary funds;---- Assets, liabilities, losses and profits of State-owned financial institutions;----Financial income and expenditure of government institutions;---- Assets, liabilities, losses and profits of State-owned enterprises;---- State-owned enterprises which play an important role in the national economy and the people's livelihood, State-owned enterprises which receive excessive financial allowances or which incur a relatively large amount of losses, and State-owned enterprises designated by the State Council and the local people's government at the equivalent level;---- Enterprises in which State assets comprise a proprietary or prime position;---- Budget implementation and final accounts of State construction projects;---- Financial income and expenditure relating to social welfare funds and financial resources from public donations, as well as other relevant funds which are managed by government departments and the social organisations entrusted by government authorities;---- Other matters which require auditing by auditing offices in accordance with the provisions of other laws and statutory regulations.In addition, the Auditing Administration shall conduct audit supervision of the financial income and expenditure of the Central Bank.3. Specific audit investigationAn auditing office shall have the right to conduct a special audit investigation of relevant local government authorities, departments or units on specific matters relating to State fiscal revenues and expenditures, anaudit investigation result shall be reported to the people's government at the equivalent level and to the superior level auditing office.4. Scope of audit jurisdictionThe scope of audit jurisdiction shall be determined by auditing offices at the various levels in accordance with the jurisdictional framework of the financial affairs or the state asset supervision and management of the unit to be audited.5. Powers of auditing officeAn auditing office shall,----Have the power to compel a unit being audited to submit its fiscal budget or financial income and expenditure plans, budget implementation details, final accounts, final reports, audit report prepared by a public auditing body and other materials relating to fiscal revenue and expenditure or financial income and expenditure, and that Unit shall not be permitted to refuse, delay or make false submission;----Inspect the accounting vouchers, account books, accounting statements and other materials and assets relating to fiscal revenue and expenditure or financial income and expenditure, of the unit being audited, and that unit shall not be permitted to refuse to provide such access;----Investigate the relevant unit or individual involved with respect to matters relating to the audit and shall obtain related testimonial materials. The unit and/or individual involved with matters relating to an audit shall support and assist the auditing office in its work and shall report the situation accurately and provide the auditing office with all relevant testimonial materials;----Make a stay ruling in a case where an act by a unit being audited which is in violation of regulations of the State on fiscal revenue and expenditure or financial income and expenditure and if the stay proves ineffectual, subject to approval by the person in charge of the auditing office at county level or above, the auditing office shall have the power to notify the relevant financial department or competent department to temporarily suspend access to relevant funds directly relating to the act which is in violation of those regulations of the State. In the event of the aforesaid fund already having been allocated, that fund shall be temporarily suspended from use;----If it is deemed by an auditing office that the rules of the superior level competent department concerning fiscal revenue and expenditure or financial income and expenditure implemented by the unit being audited are in conflict with the provisions of laws and statutory regulations, the auditing office shall request the competent department to make correction; if such correction is not made by the competent department, the auditing office shall request the authority with power to handle the matter in accordance with the law;----Circulate a notice of an audit result to the relevant government departments or may make a public announcement of an audit result.6. Audit procedureAn auditing office shall form an auditing group on the basis of the matter for audit, clarified according to theaudit project plan, and shall send an audit notice to the unit to be audited three days prior to the commencement of the audit.A unit being audited shall co-operate with the work of the auditing office and shall provide necessary convenience to facilitate the work of the auditing office.An auditor shall conduct an audit Based on means such as inspection of accounting vouchers, account books and accounting statements, consultation of documents and information relating to the matter for audit, examination of cash, goods and marketable securities, and investigation of related units and individuals and the acquisition of testimonial material.When investigating related units and individuals, an auditor shall produce employment credentials and a copy of the audit notice.After an auditing group has concluded an audit, an audit report shall be presented to the auditing office. The opinion of the unit being audited shall be sought regarding the audit report before submission of the auditreport to the auditing office. The unitbeing audited shall submit a written response to the auditing group or to the auditing office within ten days of receiving the audit report.After an auditing office has examined and approved an audit report and made conclusions concerning theaudit, an audit opinion shall be provided; in a case where an act in violation of State regulations concerning fiscal revenue and expenditure or financial income and expenditure which needs to be handled or penalised in accordance with the law, the audit decision shall be made within the scope of statutory powers, or the handling and penalty decision shall be provided by the relevant competent authority. Within thirty days of receiving an audit report,an audit office shall deliver an audit opinion and audit decision to the unit which has been audited and relevant units. An audit decision shall take effect from the date on which it is delivered.译文:审计监督的法律框架审计监督的法律体系是中国经济法的重要组成部分。
财务报表分析外文文献及翻译
本科毕业设计外文文献学院经济管理学院专业名称会计年级班级会计S10-5班学生姓名何高举指导教师王志红年月日Financial Statement Analysis of Leverage and How It Informs About Profitability and Price-to-Book Ratios DORON NISSIM, STEPHEN H. PENMANABSTRACTThis paper presents a financial statement analysis that distinguishes leverage that arises in financing activities from leverage that arises in operations. The analysis yields two leveraging equations, one for borrowing to finance operations and one for borrowing in the course of operations. These leveraging equations describe how the two types of leverage affect book rates of return on equity. An empirical analysis shows that the financial statement analysis explains cross-sectional differences in current and future rates of return as well as price-to-book ratios, which are based on expected rates of return on equity. The paper therefore concludes that balance sheet line items for operating liabilities are priced differently than those dealing with financing liabilities. Accordingly, financial statement analysis that distinguishes the two types of liabilities informs on future profitability and aids in the evaluation of appropriate price-to-book ratios. Keywords: financing leverage; operating liability leverage; rate of return on equity; price-to-book ratio Leverage is traditionally viewed as arising from financing activities: Firms borrow to raise cash for operations. This paper shows that, for the purposes of analyzing profitability and valuing firms, two types of leverage are relevant, one indeed arising from financing activities but another from operating activities. The paper supplies a financial statement analysis of the two types of leverage that explains differences in shareholder profitability and price-to-book ratios.The standard measure of leverage is total liabilities to equity. However, while some liabilities—like bank loans and bonds issued—are due to financing, other liabilities—like trade payables, deferred revenues, and pension liabilities—result from transactions with suppliers, customers and employees in conducting operations. Financing liabilities are typically traded in well-functioning capital markets where issuers are price takers. In contrast, firms are able to add value in operations because operations involve trading in input and output markets that are less perfect than capital markets. So, with equity valuation in mind, there are a priori reasons for viewing operating liabilities differently from liabilities that arise in financing .Our research asks whether a dollar of operating liabilities on the balance sheet is priced differently from a dollar of financing liabilities. As operating and financing liabilities are components of the book value of equity, the question is equivalent to asking whether price-to-book ratios depend on the composition of book values. The price-to-book ratio is determined by the expected rate of return on the book value so, if components of book value command different price premiums, they must imply different expected rates of return on book value. Accordingly, the paper also investigates whether the two types of liabilities are associated with differences in future book rates of return.Standard financial statement analysis distinguishes shareholder profitability that arises from operations from that which arises from borrowing to finance operations. So, return on assets is distinguished from return on equity, with the difference attributed to leverage. However, in the standard analysis, operating liabilities are not distinguished from financing liabilities. Therefore, to develop the specifications for the empirical analysis, the paper presents a financial statement analysis that identifies the effects of operating and financing liabilities on rates of return on book value—and so on price-to-book ratios—with explicit leveraging equations that explain when leverage from each type of liability is favorable or unfavorable.The empirical results in the paper show that financial statement analysis that distinguishes leverage in operations from leverage in financing also distinguishes differences in contemporaneous and future profitability among firms. Leverage from operating liabilities typically levers profitability more than financing leverage and has a higher frequency of favorable effects. Accordingly, for a given total leverage from both sources, firms with higher leverage from operations have higher price-to-book ratios, on average. Additionally, distinction between contractual and estimated operating liabilities explains further differences in firm s’ profitability and their price-to-book ratios.Our results are of consequence to an analyst who wishes to forecast earnings and book rates of return to value firms. Those forecasts—and valuations derived from them—depend, we show, on the composition of liabilities. The financial statement analysis of the paper, supported by the empirical results, shows how to exploit information in the balance sheet for forecasting and valuation.The paper proceeds as follows. Section 1 outlines the financial statements analysis thatidentifies the two types of leverage and lays out expressions that tie leverage measures to profitability. Section 2 links leverage to equity value and price-to-book ratios. The empirical analysis is in Section 3, with conclusions summarized in Section 4.1 Financial Statement Analysis of LeverageThe following financial statement analysis separates the effects of financing liabilities and operating liabilities on the profitability of shareholders’ equity. The analysis yields explicit leveraging equations from which the specifications for the empirical analysis are developed. Shareholder profitability, return on common equity, is measured asReturn on common equity (ROCE) = comprehensive net income ÷common equity (1) Leverage affects both the numerator and denominator of this profitability measure. Appropriate financial statement analysis disentangles the effects of leverage. The analysis below, which elaborates on parts of Nissim and Penman (2001), begins by identifying components of thebalance sheet and income statement that involve operating and financing activities. The profitability due to each activity is then calculated and two types of leverage are introduced toexplain both operating and financing profitability and overall shareholder profitability.1.1 Distinguishing the Profitability of Operations from the Profitability of Financing ActivitiesWith a focus on common equity (so that preferred equity is viewed as a financial liability),the balance sheet equation can be restated as follows:Common equity =operating asset s＋financial assets－operating liabilities－Financial liabilities (2) The distinction here between operating assets (like trade receivables, inventory and property,plant and equipment) and financial assets (the deposits and marketable securities that absorbexcess cash) is made in other contexts. However, on the liability side, financing liabilities arealso distinguished here from operating liabilities. Rather than treating all liabilities as financingdebt, only liabilities that raise cash for operations—like bank loans, short-term commercial paperand bonds—are classified as such. Other liabilities—such as accounts payable, accrued expenses, deferred revenue, restructuring liabilities and pension liabilities—arise from operations. The distinction is not as simple as current versus long-term liabilities; pension liabilities, for example,are usually long-term, and short-term borrowing is a current liability.Rearranging terms in equation (2),Common equity = (operating asset s－operating liabilities)－(financial liabilitie s－financial assets)Or,Common equity = net operating asset s－net financing debt (3) This equation regroups assets and liabilities into operating and financing activities. Net operating assets are operating assets less operating liabilities. So a firm might invest in inventories, but to the extent to which the suppliers of those inventories grant credit, the net investment in inventories is reduced. Firms pay wages, but to the extent to which the payment of wages is deferred in pension liabilities, the net investment required to run the business is reduced. Net financing debt is financing debt (including preferred stock) minus financial assets. So, a firm may issue bonds to raise cash for operations but may also buy bonds with excess cash from operations. Its net indebtedness is its net position in bonds. Indeed a firm may be a net creditor (with more financial assets than financial liabilities) rather than a net debtor.The income statement can be reformulated to distinguish income that comes from operating and financing activities:Comprehensive net income = operating incom e－net financing expense (4) Operating income is produced in operations and net financial expense is incurred in the financing of operations. Interest income on financial assets is netted against interest expense on financial liabilities (including preferred dividends) in net financial expense. If interest income is greater than interest expense, financing activities produce net financial income rather than net financial expense. Both operating income and net financial expense (or income ) are after tax.3 Equations (3) and (4) produce clean measures of after-tax operating profitability and the borrowing rate:Return on net operating assets (RNOA) = operating income ÷net operating assets (5) andNet borrowing rate (NBR) = net financing expense ÷net financing debt (6) RNOA recognizes that profitability must be based on the net assets invested in operations. So firms can increase their operating profitability by convincing suppliers, in the course of business, to grant or extend credit terms; credit reduces the investment that shareholders would otherwise have to put in the business. Correspondingly, the net borrowing rate, by excluding non-interest bearing liabilities from the denominator, gives the appropriate borrowing rate for the financing activities.Note that RNOA differs from the more common return on assets (ROA), usually defined as income before after-tax interest expense to total assets. ROA does not distinguish operating andfinancing activities appropriately. Unlike ROA, RNOA excludes financial assets in the denominator and subtracts operating liabilities. Nissim and Penman (2001) report a median ROA for NYSE and AMEX firms from 1963–1999 of only 6.8%, but a median RNOA of 10.0%—much closer to what one would expect as a return to business operations.1.2 Financial Leverage and its Effect on Shareholder ProfitabilityFrom expressions (3) through (6), it is straightforward to demonstrate that ROCE is a weighted average of RNOA and the net borrowing rate, with weights derived from equation (3): ROCE= [net operating assets ÷common equity× RNOA]－[net financing debt÷common equity ×net borrowing rate] (7) Additional algebra leads to the following leveraging equation:ROCE = RNO A＋[FLEV× ( RNO A－net borrowing rate )] (8) where FLEV, the measure of leverage from financing activities, isFinancing leverage (FLEV) =net financing debt ÷common equity (9) The FLEV measure excludes operating liabilities but includes (as a net against financing debt) financial assets. If financial assets are greater than financial liabilities, FLEV is negative. The leveraging equation (8) works for negative FLEV (in which case the net borrowing rate is the return on net financial assets).This analysis breaks shareholder profitability, ROCE, down into that which is due to operations and that which is due to financing. Financial leverage levers the ROCE over RNOA, with the leverage effect determined by the amount of financial leverage (FLEV) and the spread between RNOA and the borrowing rate. The spread can be positive (favorable) or negative (unfavorable).1.3 Operating Liability Leverage and its Effect on Operating ProfitabilityWhile financing debt levers ROCE, operating liabilities lever the profitability of operations, RNOA. RNOA is operating income relative to net operating assets, and net operating assets are operating assets minus operating liabilities. So, the more operating liabilities a firm has relative to operating assets, the higher its RNOA, assuming no effect on operating income in the numerator. The intensity of the use of operating liabilities in the investment base is operating liability leverage:Operating liability leverage (OLLEV) =operating liabilities ÷net operating assets (10)Using operating liabilities to lever the rate of return from operations may not come for free, however; there may be a numerator effect on operating income. Suppliers provide what nominally may be interest-free credit, but presumably charge for that credit with higher pricesfor the goods and services supplied. This is the reason why operating liabilities are inextricably apart of operations rather than the financing of operations. The amount that suppliers actuallycharge for this credit is difficult to identify. But the market borrowing rate is observable. Theamount that suppliers would implicitly charge in prices for the credit at this borrowing rate canbe estimated as a benchmark:Market interest on operating liabilities= operating liabilitie s×market borrowing ratewhere the market borrowing rate, given that most credit is short term, can be approximated bythe after-tax short-term borrowing rate. This implicit cost is benchmark, for it is the cost thatmakes suppliers indifferent in supplying credit suppliers are fully compensated if they chargeimplicit interest at the cost borrowing to supply the credit. Or, alternatively, the firm buying thegoods or services is indifferent between trade credit and financing purchases at the borrowingrate.To analyze the effect of operating liability leverage on operating profitability, we define:Return on operating assets (ROOA) =(operating incom e＋market interest on operating liabilities)÷operating assets(11)The numerator of ROOA adjusts operating income for the full implicit cost of trade credit.If suppliers fully charge the implicit cost of credit, ROOA is the return of operating assets thatwould be earned had the firm no operating liability leverage. suppliers do not fully charge for thecredit, ROOA measures the return fro operations that includes the favorable implicit credit termsfrom suppliers.Similar to the leveraging equation (8) for ROCE, RNOA can be expressed as:RNOA = ROOA＋[ OLLEV ×(ROO A－market borrowing rate )] (12)where the borrowing rate is the after-tax short-term interest rate. Given ROOA, the effect of leverage on profitability is determined by the level of operating liability leverage and the spread between ROOA and the short-term after-tax interest rate. Like financing leverage, the effect canbe favorable or unfavorable: Firms can reduce their operating profitability through operatingliability leverage if their ROOA is less than the market borrowing rate. However, ROOA will also be affected if the implicit borrowing cost on operating liabilities is different from the market borrowing rate.1.4 Total Leverage and its Effect on Shareholder ProfitabilityOperating liabilities and net financing debt combine into a total leverage measure: Total leverage (TLEV) = ( net financing deb t＋operating liabilities)÷common equityThe borrowing rate for total liabilities is:Total borrowing rate = (net financing expense＋market interest on operating liabilities) ÷net financing debt＋operating liabilitiesROCE equals the weighted average of ROOA and the total borrowing rate, where the weights are proportional to the amount of total operating assets and the sum of net financing debt and operating liabilities (with a negative sign), respectively. So, similar to the leveraging equations (8) and (12):ROCE = ROOA＋[TLEV×(ROOA－total borrowing rate)] (13) In summary, financial statement analysis of operating and financing activities yields three leveraging equations, (8), (12), and (13). These equations are based on fixed accounting relations and are therefore deterministic: They must hold for a given firm at a given point in time. The only requirement in identifying the sources of profitability appropriately is a clean separation between operating and financing components in the financial statements.2 Leverage, Equity Value and Price-to-Book RatiosThe leverage effects above are described as effects on shareholder profitability. Our interest is not only in the effects on shareholder profitability, ROCE, but also in the effects on shareholder value, which is tied to ROCE in a straightforward way by the residual income valuation model. As a restatement of the dividend discount model, the residual income model expresses the value of equity at date 0 (P0) as:B is the book value of common shareholders’ equity, X is comprehensive income to common shareholders, and r is the required return for equity investment. The price premium over book value is determined by forecasting residual income, Xt – rBt-1. Residual income is determined in part by income relative to book value, that is, by the forecasted ROCE. Accordingly, leverage effects on forecasted ROCE (net of effects on the required equity return) affect equity value relative to book value: The price paid for the book value depends on the expected profitability of the book value, and leverage affects profitability.So our empirical analysis investigates the effect of leverage on both profitability and price-to-book ratios. Or, stated differently, financing and operating liabilities are distinguishable components of book value, so the question is whether the pricing of book values depends on the composition of book values. If this is the case, the different components of book value must imply different profitability. Indeed, the two analyses (of profitability and price-to-book ratios) are complementary.Financing liabilities are contractual obligations for repayment of funds loaned. Operating liabilities include contractual obligations (such as accounts payable), but also include accrual liabilities (such as deferred revenues and accrued expenses). Accrual liabilities may be based on contractual terms, but typically involve estimates. We consider the real effects of contracting and the effects of accounting estimates in turn. Appendix A provides some examples of contractual and estimated liabilities and their effect on profitability and value.2.1 Effects of Contractual liabilitiesThe ex post effects of financing and operating liabilities on profitability are clear fromleveraging equations (8), (12) and (13). These expressions always hold ex post, so there is no issue regarding ex post effects. But valuation concerns ex ante effects. The extensive research on the effects of financial leverage takes, as its point of departure, the Modigliani and Miller (M&M) (1958) financing irrelevance proposition: With perfect capital markets and no taxes or information asymmetry, debt financing has no effect on value. In terms of the residual income valuation model, an increase in financial leverage due to a substitution of debt for equity may increase expected ROCE according to expression (8), but that increase is offset in the valuation (14) by the reduction in the book value of equity that earns the excess profitability and the increase in the required equity return, leaving total value (i.e., the value of equity and debt) unaffected. The required equity return increases because of increased financing risk: Leverage may be expected to be favorable but, the higher the leverage, the greater the loss to shareholders should the leverage turn unfavorable ex post, with RNOA less than the borrowing rate.In the face of the M&M proposition, research on the value effects of financial leverage has proceeded to relax the conditions for the proposition to hold. Modigliani and Miller (1963) hypothesized that the tax benefits of debt increase after-tax returns to equity and so increase equity value. Recent empirical evidence provides support for the hypothesis (e.g., Kemsley and Nissim, 2002), although the issue remains controversial. In any case, since the implicit cost of operating liabilities, like interest on financing debt, is tax deductible, the composition of leverage should have no tax implications.Debt has been depicted in many studies as affecting value by reducing transaction and contracting costs. While debt increases expected bankruptcy costs and introduces agency costs between shareholders and debt holders, it reduces the costs that shareholders must bear in monitoring management, and may have lower issuing costs relative to equity.One might expect these considerations to apply to operating debt as well as financing debt, with the effects differing only by degree. Indeed papers have explained the use of trade debt rather than financing debt by transaction costs (Ferris, 1981), differential access of suppliers and buyers to financing (Schwartz,1974), and informational advantages and comparative costs of monitoring (Smith, 1987; Mian and Smith, 1992; Biais and Gollier, 1997). Petersen and Rajan (1997) provide some tests of these explanations.In addition to tax, transaction costs and agency costs explanations for leverage, research hasalso conjectured an informational role. Ross (1977) and Leland and Pyle (1977) characterized financing choice as a signal of profitability and value, and subsequent papers (for example, Myers and Majluf, 1984) have carried the idea further. Other studies have ascribed an informational role also for operating liabilities. Biais and Gollier (1997) and Petersen and Rajan (1997), for example, see suppliers as having more information about firms than banks and the bond market, so more operating debt might indicate higher value. Alternatively, high trade payables might indicate difficulties in paying suppliers and declining fortunes.Additional insights come from further relaxing the perfect frictionless capital markets assumptions underlying the original M&M financing irrelevance proposition. When it comes to operations, the product and input markets in which firms trade are typically less competitive than capital markets. Indeed, firms are viewed as adding value primarily in operations rather than in financing activities because of less than purely competitive product and input markets. So, whereas it is difficult to ‘‘make money off the debt holders,’’ firm s can be seen as ‘‘making money off the trade creditors.’’ In operations, firms can exert monopoly power, extracting value from suppliers and employees. Suppliers may provide cheap implicit financing in exchange for information about products and markets in which the firm operates. They may also benefit from efficiencies in the firm’s supply and distribution chain, and may grant credit to capture future business.2.2 Effects of Accrual Accounting EstimatesAccrual liabilities may be based on contractual terms, but typically involve estimates. Pension liabilities, for example, are based on employment contracts but involve actuarial estimates. Deferred revenues may involve obligations to service customers, but also involve estimates that allocate revenues to periods. While contractual liabilities are typically carried on the balance sheet as an unbiased indication of the cash to be paid, accrual accounting estimates are not necessarily unbiased. Conservative accounting, for example, might overstate pension liabilities or defer more revenue than required by contracts with customers.Such biases presumably do not affect value, but they affect accounting rates of return and the pricing of the liabilities relative to their carrying value (the price-to-book ratio). The effect of accounting estimates on operating liability leverage is clear: Higher carrying values for operatingliabilities result in higher leverage for a given level of operating assets. But the effect on profitability is also clear from leveraging equation (12): While conservative accounting for operating assets increases the ROOA, as modeled in Feltham and Ohlson (1995) and Zhang (2000), higher book values of operating liabilities lever up RNOA over ROOA. Indeed, conservative accounting for operating liabilities amounts to leverage of book rates of return. By leveraging equation (13), that leverage effect flows through to shareholder profitability, ROCE. And higher anticipated ROCE implies a higher price-to-book ratio.The potential bias in estimated operating liabilities has opposite effects on current and future profitability. For example, if a firm books higher deferred revenues, accrued expenses or other operating liabilities, and so increases its operating liability leverage, it reduces its current profitability: Current revenues must be lower or expenses higher. And, if a firm reports lower operating assets (by a write down of receivables, inventories or other assets, for example), and so increases operating liability leverage, it also reduces current profitability: Current expenses must be higher. But this application of accrual accounting affects future operating income: All else constant, lower current income implies higher future income. Moreover, higher operating liabilities and lower operating assets amount to lower book value of equity. The lower book value is the base for the rate of return for the higher future income. So the analysis of operating liabilities potentially identifies part of the accrual reversal phenomenon documented by Sloan (1996) and interprets it as affecting leverage, forecasts of profitability, and price-to-book ratios.3 Empirical AnalysisThe analysis covers all firm-year observations on the combined COMPUSTAT (Industry and Research) files for any of the 39 years from 1963 to 2001 that satisfy the following requirements: (1) the company was listed on the NYSE or AMEX; (2) the company was not a financial institution (SIC codes 6000–6999), thereby omitting firms where most financial assets and liabilities are used in operations; (3) the book value of common equity is at least $10 million in 2001 dollars; and (4) the averages of the beginning and ending balance of operating assets, net operating assets and common equity are positive (as balance sheet variables are measured in the analysis using annual averages). These criteria resulted in a sample of 63,527 firm-year observations.Appendix B describes how variables used in the analysis are measured. One measurement issue that deserves discussion is the estimation of the borrowing cost for operating liabilities. As most operating liabilities are short term, we approximate the borrowing rate by the after-tax risk-free one-year interest rate. This measure may understate the borrowing cost if the risk associated with operating liabilities is not trivial. The effect of such measurement error is to induce a negative correlation between ROOA and OLLEV. As we show below, however, even with this potential negative bias we document a strong positive relation between OLLEV and ROOA.ConclusionTo finance operations, firms borrow in the financial markets, creating financing leverage. In running their operations, firms also borrow, but from customers, employees and suppliers, creating operating liability leverage. Because they involve trading in different types of markets, the two types of leverage may have different value implications. In particular, operating liabilities may reflect contractual terms that add value in different ways than financing liabilities, and so they may be priced differently. Operating liabilities also involve accrual accounting estimates that may further affect their pricing. This study has investigated the implications of the two types of leverage for profitability and equity value.The paper has laid out explicit leveraging equations that show how shareholder profitability is related to financing leverage and operating liability leverage. For operating liability leverage, the leveraging equation incorporates both real contractual effects and accounting effects. As price-to-book ratios are based on expected profitability, this analysis also explains how price-to-book ratios are affected by the two types of leverage. The empirical analysis in the paper demonstrates that operating and financing liabilities imply different profitability and are priced differently in the stock market.Further analysis shows that operating liability leverage not only explains differences in profitability in the cross-section but also informs on changes in future profitability from current profitability. Operating liability leverage and changes in operating liability leverage are indicators of the quality of current reported profitability as a predictor of future profitability. Our analysis distinguishes contractual operating liabilities from estimated liabilities, but further research might examine operating liabilities in more detail, focusing on line items such as accrued expenses and deferred revenues. Further research might also investigate the pricing of operating liabilities under differing circumstances; for example, where firm s have ‘‘market power’’ over their suppliers.。
审计报告翻译
最新审计报告中英文对照（转载）审计报告中英对照 2008-12-27 13:38:21 阅读2557 评论5 字号：大中小订阅山西**联合会计师事务所shanxi**unite accountant office审计报告auditor’s report晋**审字（2007）第000**号jin ** (2007) audit no.00****铸造有限公司：to **foundry co., ltd:我们审计了后附的**铸造有限公司（以下简称贵公司）财务报表，包括2006年12月31 日的资产负债表，2006年度的利润表以及财务报表附注。
2006 then ended, and a summary of significant accounting policies and otherexplanatory notes.一、管理层对财务报表的责任1.management’s responsibi lity for the financial statements按照企业会计准则和《企业会计制度》的规定编制财务报表是贵公司管理层的责任。
这种责任包括：（1）设计、实施和维护与财务报表编制相关的内部控制，以使财务报表不存在由于舞弊或错误而导致的重大错报：（2）选择和运用恰当的会计政策：（3）作出合理的会计估计。
the management is responsible for the preparation and fair presentation of thesefinancial statements in accordance with the accounting standards for business enterprises and china accounting system for business enterprises. this responsibility includes: (i) designing, implementing and maintaining internal control relevant to the preparation and fair presentation of financial statements that are free from material misstatement, whether due to fraud or error; (ii) selecting and applying appropriate accounting policies; and (iii) making accounting estimates that are reasonable in thecircumstances.二、注册会计师的责任2.auditor’s responsibility我们的责任是在实施审计工作的基础上对财务报表发表审计意见。
审计报告翻译
最新审计报告中英文对照（转载）审计报告中英对照 2008-12-27 13:38:21 阅读2557 评论5 字号：大中小订阅山西**联合会计师事务所shanxi**unite accountant office 审计报告auditor’s report 晋**审字（2007）第000**号jin ** (2007) audit no.00****铸造有限公司：to **foundry co., ltd: 我们审计了后附的**铸造有限公司（以下简称贵公司）财务报表，包括2006年12月31 日的资产负债表，2006年度的利润表以及财务报表附注。
2006 then ended, and a summary of significant accounting policies and other explanatory notes.一、管理层对财务报表的责任1.management’s responsibility for the financial statements按照企业会计准则和《企业会计制度》的规定编制财务报表是贵公司管理层的责任。
这种责任包括：（1）设计、实施和维护与财务报表编制相关的内部控制，以使财务报表不存在由于舞弊或错误而导致的重大错报：（2）选择和运用恰当的会计政策：（3）作出合理的会计估计。
the management is responsible for the preparation and fair presentation of these financial statements in accordance with the accounting standards for businessenterprises and china accounting system for business enterprises. thisresponsibility includes: (i) designing, implementing and maintaining internalcontrol relevant to the preparation and fair presentation of financial statementsthat are free from material misstatement, whether due to fraud or error; (ii)selecting and applying appropriate accounting policies; and (iii) making accountingestimates that are reasonable in the circumstances.二、注册会计师的责任2. auditor’s responsibility我们的责任是在实施审计工作的基础上对财务报表发表审计意见。
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财务报表审阅中英文对照外文翻译文献财务报表审阅中英文对照外文翻译文献(文档含英文原文和中文翻译)国际审计准则第910号：财务报表审阅（一）引言1.本准则旨在为审计人员接受委托从事财务报表审阅的职业责任，以及出具审阅报告的格式和内容建立标准，提供指导。
2.本准则是针对财务报表审阅制定的。
然而，它也适用于审阅财务信息或其他信息的业务。
本准则要连同国际审计准则120号“国际审计准则框架”一并阅读。
其他国际审计准则的有关内容对审计人员运用这一谁则可以有所帮助。
审阅业务的目的3.财务报表审阅的目的是为了使审计人员能够表明，根据实施的程序(这些程序并不提供象在审计业务中所要求获取的所有证据)，是否存在审计人员注意到的，使得审计人员认为财务报表在所有重大方面没有按照指明的财务报告框架编制的情况(消极保证)。
审阅业务的一般原则4.审计人员应当遵循国际会计师联合会颁布的“职业会计师道德守则”。
统驭审计人员职业责任的道德原则是:(I)独立;(2)公正;(3)客观;(4)职业胜任能力及应有关注;(5)保密;(6)职业行为;(7)技术准则。
5.审计人员应当按照本准则执行审阅工作。
6.审计人员应当以职业怀疑的态度计划和执行审阅工作，以识别可能存在的导致财务报表重大错报的情况。
7.为了在审阅报告中发表消极保证的意见，审计人员应当主要通过查询和分析程序获取充分、适当的证据，形成结论。
审阅范围8．“审阅范围”是指为了实现审阅目的，在各种情况下认为必要的审阅程序。
执行财务报表审阅所要求的程序，由审计人员根据国际审计准则、有关专业团体、法律和法规的要求，以及审阅业务约定条件及报告要求确定。
适当的保证9.审阅业务提供了一个适当程度的保证，即审阅的信息不存在重大的错报，这是用消极保证的方式发表意见。
业务约定条款10.审计人员和客户应当就业务约定条款达成一致意见。
达成一致的条款应当记录在业务委托书或其他适当的类似合同中。
11.业务委托书有助于制定审阅工作计划。
审计人员致送记录委托关键条款的业务委托书，对客户和审计人员均有益处。
业务委托书确定了审计人员接受的委托，并有助于避免对诸如委托目的及范围、审计人员的责任程度及出具报告的形式等事项发生误解。
12.业务委托书中应当包括的事项:·提供服务的目的。
·管理当局对财务报表的责任。
·审阅范围，包括提及本准则(或有关国家准则或惯例)。
·不受限制地接触审阅中所需要的记录、文件及其他信息。
·拟提交的报告样本。
财务报表审阅中英文对照外文翻译文献·表明该项事实，即不能依赖业务委托揭示错误、非法行为或其他违法行为，例如，可能存在的舞弊或盗用公款。
应当声明审计人员没有实施审计，因而不能发表审计意见。
为了强调这一点，避免引起混淆，审计人员还应考虑指出审阅业务不能满足任何法定或第三方对审计的要求。
财务报表审阅业务委托书范例见本准则附录1计划13.审计人员应当对工作进行计划，以执行审阅业务委托。
14.在制定财务报表审阅计划时，审计人员应当获得或更新对企业情况的了解，包括组织结构、会计系统、经营特点，资产、负债、收人及费用性质等。
15.审计人员需要掌握与财务报表相关的各类情况，例如，了解企业生产及分配方法、生产线、经营网点及关联方等。
审计人员需要了解这些情况，以便能够进行有关查询，设计适当程序，并有利于评价各方反应及获得的其他信息。
其他人员执行的工作16.当利用其他审计人员或专家执行的工作时，审计人员应当断定这些工作用于审阅目的是适当的。
文件17.审计人员应当记录重要的事项，即为支持审阅报告提供的证据，以及按照本准则执行审阅提供的证据。
程序及证据18.审计人员在确定审阅程序的特定性质、时间及范围时应当运用判断。
下列各项将为审计人员提供指南:前期执行财务报表审计或审阅获得的信息。
审计人员对企业情况的了解，包括对会计原则及企业所在行业惯例的了解。
企业的会计系统特定项目受管理当局判断影响的程度。
交易及账户余额的重要性19.审计人员在审阅时，运用的重要性应当与对财务报表发表审计意见时所运用的相同。
尽管在审阅中没有发现错报的风险大于审计，但是，对重要性的判断取决于由审计人员出具报告涉及的信息及信息需求者的需要，而与提供的保证程度无关。
20.通常，财务报表审阅程序包括:·获得对企业及企业所在行业的了解。
·查询企业的会计原则及惯例。
·企业查询有关程序，包括对交易进行记录、分类和汇总、财务报表中披露信息的归集及财务报表编制等程序。
·查询财务报表中所有重要认定。
·设计分析程序以识别出现的异常的关系及特定项目。
这些程序包括:一财务报表与以前期间财务报表的比较。
一财务报表与预期的成果及财务状况的比较。
一研究财务报表要素之间的关系，是否根据企业的经验或行业标准建立起的预测模型相一致。
在运用这些程序时，审计人员应当考虑以前各期要求会计调整事项的类型。
·查询在股东会、董事会、董事会下设的委员会的会议上及可能影响财务报表的其他会议上采取的措施。
·以引起审计人员注意的信息为基础，阅读财务报表以考虑财务报表是否符合指明的会计基础。
·如果认为必要，从已接受委托对企业组成部分的财务报表进行审计或审阅的审计人员那里获得报告。
·询问对有关的财务、会计事项负有责任的人员，例如:一所有的交易是否已经记录。
一是否已按指明的会计基础编制了财务报表。
一企业经营活动、会计原则及惯例的变动。
一在运用以前程序过程中已经产生问题的事项。
一认为适当时，获得管理当局书面声明。
本准则附录2提供了通常使用的程序说明。
列示的项目不是全部内容，也无意对每一个审阅业务提供全部的程序。
财务报表审阅中英文对照外文翻译文献21.审计人员应当查询在财务报表中需要调整或披露的财务报表日后的事项。
审计人员没有责任实施程序以识别审阅报告日后发生的事项。
22.如果审计人员有理由相信所审阅信息可能存在重大的错报，审计人员应当实施追加或更进一步的程序，以便能够发表消极保证的意见或确定所要求的修饰报告。
结论和报告23.审阅报告包含有表示消极保证的措辞。
审计人员应当复核和评价根据所获取证据所形成的结论，以作为发表消极保证意见的基础。
24.根据所执行工作，审计人员应当评价在审阅期间获得的信息是否表明财务报表没有按照指明的财务报告框架进行真实、公允地反映(或在所有的重大方面没有公允地反映)。
25.财务报表审阅报告阐述的审计范围是为了使阅读者了解审阅工作的性质，并明确没有执行审计，因此不能表达审计意见。
26.财务报表审阅报告应当包括的基本要素，通常如下:(1)标题;(2)地址;(3)开始或引言段，包括:A指明所审阅的财务报表;B被审阅单位管理当局及审计人员责任的声明;(4)范围段，描述审阅的性质，包括:A提及适用于审阅业务的本淮则或有关国家准则或惯例;B审阅主要限于查阅及分析程序的声明;C没有实施审计，审阅所实施的程序提供的保证程度要比审计的低，并且不发表审计意见的声明;(5)消极保证声明;(6)报告日期;(7)审计人员的地址;(8)审计人员的签章。
本准则附录3和4包括审阅报告的举例27.审阅报告应当:(1)说明在审阅过程中审计人员没有注意到任何使其相信财务报表没有按照指明的财务报告框架进行真实、公允地反映(或在所有重大方面没有公允地反映)(消极保证);(2)相反，如果审计人员已经注意到有关问题，要说明损害按照指明的财务报告框架进行真实、公允反映(或在所有重大方面)的事项，包括(除非无法实行)对财务报表金额可能的影响。
并:A发表消极保证的修饰意见;B当某一事项对财务报表的影响非常重大和广泛，以至于审计人员断定修饰意见不足以披露误导或财务报表的不完整，应当给予否定的声明，即财务报表没有按照指明的财务报告框架进行真实、公允地反映，或在重大方面没有公允地反映;(3)如果存在重大的范围限制，说明限制情况，并:A如果限制不存在，可能需要对财务报表进行调整;因范围的限制，要发表消极保证的修饰意见;B当限制的可能影响非常重大和广泛，以至于审计人员认为不能提供任何程度的保证，因而不能提供保证。
28.审计人员签署审阅报告的日期应当是完成审阅工作的那一天，包括对截至审阅报告日发生的有关事项实施审阅程序。
然而，因为审计人员的责任是对管理当局编报的财务报表进行报告，审计人员签署审阅报告日期不应早于管理当局批准的财务报表的日期。
财务报表审阅（二）附录1财务报表审阅委托书范例以下提供的委托书仅作指南之用，可结合本国际审计谁则第10段(业务约定条款))}f，列示的内容一并考虑，并需要根据每个项目的要求和情况作调整。
提供给董事会(或高级管理层的适当代表):本委托书是为了确认我们对委托的条件和目标，以及我们所提供服务的性质及限制条件的理解。
我们将提供下列服务:我们将根据适用于审阅的国际审计准则(或有关国家的准则或惯例)的要求审阅ABC公司19“年12月31日的资产负债表，以及该年度的损益表及现金流量表。
我们不对这些报表实施审计，因此，我们不对它们发表审计意见。
故而，我们希望以下列形式对财务报表出具报告:(见本准则附录3)财务报表审阅中英文对照外文翻译文献对财务报表的责任，包括适当的披露，由公司管理当局负责。
此项责任包括适当的会计记录和内部控制的维护，以及会计政策的选择与运用。
(作为审阅过程的组成部分，我们要求从管理当局获取与审阅相关的声明的书面陈述。
) (如果适用)本委托书在以后年度长期有效，除非被终止、修改或替代。
不要依赖我们的委托工作来揭示是否存在欺诈、错误或不合法的行为。
但是，我们会将我们注意到的任何重大事项告知你们。
请返回经签字的委托书复印件，以表明为我们审阅财务报表所作的安排符合你们的理解。
经ABC公司代表确认（签字）姓名及职务日期附录2在执行财务报表审阅工作中匆可能要执行的详细程序说明1.在财务报表审阅中执行的调查和分析性程序由审计人员判断确定。
以下列示的毒呈序仅供说明之用。
不打算提供适用于每一项审阅蔗勤三的全部程序。
本附录不具有审阅方案或清单的作溺翼一般程序2.与委托人及审阅小组探讨委托条款及范围。
3.起草一份确定委托条件及范围的委托书。
4.了解企业经营活动以及记录财务信息和编制财务报告的系统。
5.调查是否所有的财务信息已记录:A、完整性B、及时性C.具有必要的授权6.获得试算平衡并确定是否与总账和财务报表一致。
7.考虑以前审计及审阅工作结果，包括需要进行的会计调整。
8调查上年度以来是否发生了重大变化(即，所有权或资本结构的变化)。
9.调查会计政策并考虑是否:A、符合本地或国际准则;B、已经被恰当地执行;c、已经被一贯地执行，如果没有执行，会计政策的变化是否已经被揭示。