语言学名词解释

is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.linguistic symbol and what the symbol stands for(meaning and sounds).that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness.be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation. The details of the linguistic system must be learned by each speaker.means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.means the linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.correct and standard behavior in using language to tell people what they should say and not say.in which languages are treated as self-contained systems of communication at any particular time在那一刻、时、块的情况（当代、古代）历时 in which the changes to which languages are subject in the course of time and treated historically.(在过程中都有什么变化、区别、有大时间变化)2个共时即为历时点。

perceived; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.the oral cavity。

Vowels： are produced when the air stream meets with no obstruction。

are additional symbols or marks used together with the consonant and vowel symbols to indicate nuances of change in their pronunciation.languages. It aims to discover the principles that governs the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.studies of the production of speech sounds.studies of the physical properties of speech soundsis concerned with the perception of speech sounds同发音means when a speech sound changes and becomes more like another sound which follows it on precedes it Anticipatory coarticulation: a sound becomes more like the following sound. Eg: lambPerseverative coarticulation: the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound. Eg: mapNarrow transcription: the transcription with letters,symbols togetherwith the diacritics.produce during linguistic communication are all phones.But a phone does not distinguish meaning.in a language which can distinguish two words.in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. The choice of an allophone is not random, it is rule-governed in different contextsdiffer from each other by only one distinctive sound and which also differ in meaning.24.Allophones of a phoneme always occur in different phonetic environment, so they are said to be in complementary distribution. 25.If the phonetically similar sounds are 2 distinctive phonemes,they are said to form a phonemic contrast.position without any apparent change of meaning they are in free variation.is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound。

a following sound influencing a preceding sounda preceding sound influences a following sound.音位变化规则：three aspects： a set of sounds to undergo the process;a set of sounds produced by the process ; a set of situations in which the process applies.meaning and syntactic function.is the smallest meaningful unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical词汇的 or grammatical.30studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed.31.Endocentric compound: is one in which one constituent is the center and the other is the modifier.Exocentric compound: is one in which there is on focal element and the whole refers to sth else rather than what either of the constituents denotesof the different shapes or phonetic forms of a morphemea type of irregularity in which there is a complete change in the shape of a word in its various formsis the study of the rules governing the ways different constituents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationships between elements in sentence structures.be used to mean any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguistically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains.below the level of a construction, even a word which can be further analyzed into morphemes(Bloomfield)the analysis of the a sentence in terms of its immediate constituent-word groups which are in turn analyzed into the immediate constituent of their own,and the process goes on until the ultimateconstituent are reached.the intermediate level-the word group-in the analysis of a sentence,seeing a hierarchical structure of the sentence.the internal structure of a sentence is demonstrated and ambiguity can be revealed.construction is one whose distribution is functionally 功能相同equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents, a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable center or head一个词或一组词是整个结构的核心或中心refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable centre or head inside the group.repeated use of the same rule to create infinite sentences.the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction.Surface structure: the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction, which closely correspond to the structural organization of a construction people actually produce and receive.written texts.word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation.study of linguistic meaning, the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences.means the theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for.word and a thing it refers to is not direct.(concept)one can derive meaning from observable contexts which include situational context and the linguistic context.meaning is the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls for the in the hearer.is the approach that analyze word meaning by decomposing is into its atomic原子的 features. It shows the semantic features 语义特征of a word.X John killed BillY Bill diedIf X entails Y, the meaning of X is included in Y.(if x is true, y is true; y is false, x is false)X John’s bike needs repairingY John has a bikeY is a prerequisite of x.(if x is true, y is true; if x is false, y is true)语用学 is the study of those relations between language and context that are grammaticalized or encoded in the structure of a language.when we speak we move our vocal organs and produce a number of sounds,organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning.The act performed in the sense is called ~行事行为（以言行事言外之意）when we speak, we not only produce some units of language with certain meaning(locution), but also make our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood,this is the~,which indicates the speaker’s intention.The utterances have some illocutionary forces行事语力（以言成事）It refers to the consequential effects of a locution语句 upon the hearer.required ,at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.四个准侧：maxim Of quantity 数量准则； maxim of quality 质量准则（修辞）；relation；manner。