国际经济学英文版上册(第八版)章节练习第六章

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克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第八版课后答案(英文)-Ch02.doc

Chapter 2World Trade: An Overview⏹Chapter OrganizationWho Trades with Whom?Size Matters: the Gravity ModelThe Logic of the Gravity ModelUsing the Gravity Model: Looking for AnomaliesImpediments to Trade: Distance, Barriers, and BordersThe Changing Pattern of World TradeHas the World Gotten SmallerWhat Do We Trade?Service OutsourcingDo Old Rules Still Apply?Summary⏹Key ThemesBefore entering into a series of theoretical models that explain why countries trade across borders and the benefits of this trade (Chapters 3–11), Chapter 2 considers the pattern of world trade which we observe today. The core idea of the chapter is the empirical model known as the gravity model. The gravity model is based on the observations that: (1) countries tend to trade with other nearby economies and (2) countries’ trade is proportional to their size. The model is called the gravity model as it is similar in form to the physics equation that describes the pull of one body on another as proportional to their size and distance.The basic form of the gravity equation is T ij=A⨯Y i⨯Y j/D ij. The logic supporting this equation is that large countries have large incomes to spend on imports and produce a large quantity of goods to sell as exports. This means that the larger either trade partner, the larger the volume of trade between them. At the same time, the distance between two trade partners can substitute for the transport costs that they face as well as proxy for more intangible aspects of a trading relationship such as the ease of contact for firms. This model can be used to estimate the predicted trade between two countries and look for anomalies in trade patterns. The text shows an example where the gravity model can be used to demonstrate the importance of national borders in determining trade flows. According to many estimates, the border between the U.S. and Canada has the impact on trade equivalent to roughly 2000 miles of distance. Other factors, such as tariffs, trade agreements, and common language can all affect trade and can be incorporated into the gravity model.The chapter also considers the way trade has evolved over time. While people often feel that the modern era has seen unprecedented globalization, in fact, there is precedent. From the end of the 19th century to World War I, the economies of different countries were quite connected. Trade as a share of GDP was higher in 1910 than 1960, and only recently have trade levels surpassed the pre World War trade. The nature of trade has change though. The majority of trade is in manufactured goods with agriculture and mineral products (and oil) making up less than 20% of world trade. Even developing countries now export primarily manufactures. In contrast, a century ago, more trade was in primary products as nations tended to trade for things that literally could not be grown or found at home. Today, the reasons for trade are more varied and the products we trade are ever changing (for example, the rise in trade of things like call centers). Th e chapter concludes by focusing on one particular expansion of what is “tradable”—the increase in services trade. Modern information technology has greatly expanded what can be traded as the person staffing a call center, doing your accounting, or reading your X-ray can literally be half-way around the world. While still relatively rare, the potential for a large increase in service outsourcing is an important part of how trade will evolve in the coming decades. The next few chapters will explain the theory of why nations trade.Answers to Textbook Problems1. We saw that not only is GDP important in explaining how much two countries trade, but also,distance is crucial. Given its remoteness, Australia faces relatively high costs of transporting imports and exports, thereby reducing the attractiveness of trade. Since Canada has a border with a largeeconomy (the U.S.) and Australia is not near any other major economy, it makes sense that Canada would be more open and Australia more self-reliant.2. Mexico is quite close to the U.S., but it is far from the European Union (EU). So it makes sense thatit trades largely with the U.S. Brazil is far from both, so its trade is split between the two. Mexico trades more than Brazil in part because it is so close to a major economy (the U.S.) and in partbecause it is a member of a free trade agreement with a large economy (NAFTA). Brazil is farther away from any large economy and is in a free trade agreement with relatively small countries.3. No, if every country’s GDP were to double, world trade would not quadruple. One way to see thisusing the example from Table 2-2 would simply be to quadruple all the trade flows in 2-2 and also double the GDP in 2-1. We would see that the first line of Table 2-2 would be—, 6.4, 1.6, 1.6. If that were true, Country A would have exported $8 trillion which is equal to its entire GDP. Likewise, it would have imported $8 trillion, meaning it had zero spending on its own goods (highly unlikely). If instead we filled in Table 2-2 as before, by multiplying the appropriate shares of the world economy times a country’s GDP, we would see the first line of Table 2-2 reads—, 3.2, 0.8, 0.8. In this case, 60% of Country A’s GDP is exported, the same as before. The logic is that while the world G DP has doubled, increasing the likelihood of international trade, the local economy has doubled, increasing the likelihood of domestic trade. The gravity equation still holds. If you fill in the entire table, you will see that where before the equation was 0.1 ⨯ GDP i⨯ GDP j, it now is 0.05 ⨯ GDP i⨯ GDP j. The coefficient on each GDP is still one, but the overall constant has changed.4. As the share of world GDP which belongs to East Asian economies grows, then in every traderelationship which involves an East Asian economy, the size of the East Asian economy has grown.This makes the trade relationships with East Asian countries larger over time. The logic is similar for why the countries trade more with one another. Previously, they were quite small economies, meaning that their markets were too small to import a substantial amount. As they became morewealthy and the consumption demands of their populace rose, they were each able to importmore. Thus, while they previously had focused their exports to other rich nations, over time, they became part of the rich nation club and thus were targets for one another’s exports. Again, using the gravity model, when South Korea and Taiwan were both small, the product of their GDPs was quite small, meaning despite their proximity, there was little trade between them. Now that they have both grown considerably, their GDPs predict a considerable amount of trade.5. As the chapter discusses, a century ago, much of world trade was in commodities that in many wayswere climate or geography determined. Thus, the UK imported goods that it could not make itself.This meant importing things like cotton or rubber from countries in the Western Hemisphere or Asia.As the UK’s climate and natural resource endowments were fairly similar to those in the rest of Europe, it had less of a need to import from other European countries. In the aftermath of the IndustrialRevolution, where manufacturing trade accelerated and has continued to expand with improvements in transportation and communications, it is not surprising that the UK would turn more to the nearby and large economies in Europe for much of its trade. This is a direct prediction of the gravity model.。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第八版课后答案(英文)-Ch05

Chapter 5The Standard Trade ModelChapter OrganizationA Standard Model of a Trading EconomyProduction Possibilities and Relative SupplyRelative Prices and DemandThe Welfare Effect of Changes in the Terms of TradeDetermining Relative PricesEconomic Growth: A Shift of the RS CurveGrowth and the Production Possibility FrontierRelative Supply and the Terms of TradeInternational Effects of GrowthCase Study: Has the Growth of Newly Industrializing Countries Hurt Advanced Nations? International Transfers of Income: Shifting the RD CurveThe Transfer ProblemEffects of a Transfer on the Terms of TradePresumptions about the Terms of Trade Effects of TransfersCase Study: The Transfer Problem and the Asian CrisisTariffs and Export Subsidies: Simultaneous Shifts in RS and RDRelative Demand and Supply Effects of a TariffEffects of an Export SubsidyImplications of Terms of Trade Effects: Who Gains and Who Loses?SummaryAppendix: Representing International Equilibrium with Offer CurvesDeriving a Country’s Offer CurveInternational EquilibriumChapter 5 The Standard Trade Model 17Chapter OverviewPrevious chapters have highlighted specific sources of comparative advantage which give rise to international trade. This chapter presents a general model which admits previous models as special cases. This “standard trade model” is the workhorse of international trade theory and can be used to address a wide range of issues. Some of these issues, such as the welfare and distributional effects of economic growth, transfers between nations, and tariffs and subsidies on traded goods are considered in this chapter. The standard trade model is based upon four relationships. First, an economy will produce at the point where the production possibilities curve is tangent to the relative price line (called the isovalue line). Second, indifference curves describe the tastes of an economy, and the consumption point for that economy is found at the tangency of the budget line and the highest indifference curve. These two relationships yield the familiar general equilibrium trade diagram for a small economy (one which takes as given the terms of trade), where the consumption point and production point are the tangencies of the isovalue line with the highest indifference curve and the production possibilities frontier, respectively.You may want to work with this standard diagram to demonstrate a number of basic points. First, an autarkic economy must produce what it consumes, which determines the equilibrium price ratio; and second, opening an economy to trade shifts the price ratio line and unambiguously increases welfare. Third, an improvement in the terms of trade increases welfare in the economy. Fourth, it is straightforward to move from a small country analysis to a two country analysis by introducing a structure of world relative demand and supply curves which determine relative prices.These relationships can be used in conjunction with the Rybczynski and the Stolper-Samuelson Theorems from the previous chapter to address a range of issues. For example, you can consider whether the dramatic economic growth of countries like Japan and Korea has helped or hurt the United States as a whole, and also identify the classes of individuals within the United States who have been hurt by the particular growth biases of these countries. In teaching these points, it might be interesting and useful to relate them to current events. For example, you can lead a class discussion of the implications for the United States of the provision of forms of technical and economic assistance to the emerging economies around the world or the ways in which a world recession can lead to a fall in demand for U.S. export goods.The example provided in the text considers the popular arguments in the media that growth in Japan or Korea hurts the United States. The analysis presented in this chapter demonstrates that the bias of growth is important in determining welfare effects rather than the country in which growth occurs. The existence of biased growth, and the possibility of immiserizing growth is discussed. The Relative Supply (RS) and Relative Demand (RD) curves illustrate the effect of biased growth on the terms of trade. The new terms of trade line can be used with the general equilibrium analysis to find the welfare effects of growth. A general principle which emerges is that a country which experiences export-biased growth will have a deterioration in its terms of trade, while a country which experiences import-biased growth has an improvement in its terms of trade. A case study points out that growth in the rest of the world has made other countries more like the United States. This import-biased growth has worsened the terms of trade for the United States. The second issue addressed in the context of the standard trade model is the effect of international transfers. The salient point here is the direction, if any, in which the relative demand curve shifts in response to the redistribution of income from a transfer. A transfer worsens the donor’s ter ms of trade if it has a higher marginal propensity to consume its export good than the recipient. The presence of non-traded goods tends to reinforce the deterioration of terms of trade for the donor country. The case study attendant to this issue involves the deterioration of many Asian countries’ terms of trade due to the large capital withdrawals at the end of the 1990s.18 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth EditionThe third area to which the standard trade model is applied are the effects of tariffs and export subsidies on welfare and terms of trade. The analysis proceeds by recognizing that tariffs or subsidies shift both the relative supply and relative demand curves. A tariff on imports improves the terms of trade, expressed in external prices, while a subsidy on exports worsens terms of trade. The size of the effect depends upon the size of the country in the world. Tariffs and subsidies also impose distortionary costs upon the economy. Thus, if a country is large enough, there may be an optimum, non-zero tariff. Export subsidies, however, only impose costs upon an economy. Intranationally, tariffs aid import-competing sectors and hurt export sectors while subsidies have the opposite effect. An appendix presents offer curve diagrams and explains this mode of analysis.Answers to Textbook Problems1.Note how welfare in both countries increases as the two countries move from productionpatterns governed by domestic prices (dashed line) to production patterns governed by worldprices (straight line).2.3. An increase in the terms of trade increases welfare when the PPF is right-angled. The production pointis the corner of the PPF. The consumption point is the tangency of the relative price line and the highest indifference curve. An improvement in the terms of trade rotates the relative price line about its intercept with the PPF rectangle (since there is no substitution of immobile factors, the production point stays fixed). The economy can then reach a higher indifference curve. Intuitively, although there is no supply response, the economy receives more for the exports it supplies and pays less for the imports it purchases.Chapter 5 The Standard Trade Model 19 4. The difference from the standard diagram is that the indifference curves are right angles rather thansmooth curves. Here, a terms of trade increase enables an economy to move to a higher indifference curve. The income expansion path for this economy is a ray from the origin. A terms of tradeimprovement moves the consumption point further out along the ray.5. The terms of trade of Japan, a manufactures (M) exporter and a raw materials (R) importer, is the worldrelative price of manufactures in terms of raw materials (p M/p R). The terms of trade change can be determined by the shifts in the world relative supply and demand (manufactures relative to raw materials) curves. Note that in the following answers, world relative supply (RS) and relative demand (RD) are always M relative to R. We consider all countries to be large, such that changes affect the world relative price.a. Oil supply disruption from the Middle East decreases the supply of raw materials, which increasesthe world relative supply. The world relative supply curve shifts out, decreasing the world relative price of manufactured goods and deteriorating Japan’s terms of t rade.b. Korea’s increased automobile production increases the supply of manufactures, which increasesthe world RS. The world relative supply curve shifts out, decreasing the world relative price ofmanufactured goods and deteriorating Japan’s terms of tr ade.c. U.S. development of a substitute for fossil fuel decreases the demand for raw materials. Thisincreases world RD, and the world relative demand curve shifts out, increasing the world relative price of manufactured goods and improving Japan’s terms of trade. This occurs even if no fusion reactors are installed in Japan since world demand for raw materials falls.d. A harvest failure in Russia decreases the supply of raw materials, which increases the world RS.The world relative supply curve shifts o ut. Also, Russia’s demand for manufactures decreases,which reduces world demand so that the world relative demand curve shifts in. These forcesdecrease the world relative price of manufactured goods and deteriorate Japan’s terms of trade.e. A reduction in Japan’s tariff on raw materials will raise its internal relative price of manufactures.This price change will increase Japan’s RS and decrease Japan’s RD, which increases the worldRS and decreases the world RD (i.e., world RS shifts out and world RD shifts in). The worldrelative price of manufactures declines and Japan’s terms of trade deteriorate.6. The declining price of services relative to manufactured goods shifts the isovalue line clockwise sothat relatively fewer services and more manufactured goods are produced in the United States, thus reducing U.S. welfare.20 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth Edition7. These results acknowledge the biased growth which occurs when there is an increase in one factor ofproduction. An increase in the capital stock of either country favors production of Good X, while an increase in the labor supply favors production of Good Y. Also, recognize the Heckscher-Ohlin result that an economy will export that good which uses intensively the factor which that economy has in relative abundance. Country A exports Good X to Country B and imports Good Y from Country B.The possibility of immiserizing growth makes the welfare effects of a terms of trade improvement due to export-biased growth ambiguous. Import-biased growth unambiguously improves welfare for the growing country.a. A’s terms of trade worsen, A’s welfare may increase or, less likely, decrease, and B’s welfareincreases.b. A’s terms of trade improve, A’s welfare increases and B’s welfare decreases.c. B’s terms of trade improve, B’s welfare increases and A’s welfare decreases.d. B’s terms of trade worsen, B’s welfare may increase or, less likely, decrease, and A’s welfareincreases.8. Immiserizing growth occurs when the welfare deteriorating effects of a worsening in an economy’sterms of trade swamp the welfare improving effects of growth. For this to occur, an economy must undergo very biased growth, and the economy must be a large enough actor in the world economy such that its actions spill over to adversely alter the terms of trade to a large degree. This combination of events is unlikely to occur in practice.9. India opening should be good for the U.S. if it reduces the relative price of goods that China sends tothe U.S. and hence increases the relative price of goods that the U.S. exports. Obviously, any sector in the U.S. hurt by trade with China would be hurt again by India, but on net, the U.S. wins. Note that here we are making different assumptions about what India produces and what is tradable than we are in Question #6. Here we are assuming India exports products the U.S. currently imports and China currently exports. China will lose by having the relative price of its export good driven down by the increased production in India.10. Aid which must be spent on exports increases the demand for those export goods and raises their pricerelative to other goods. There will be a terms of trade deterioration for the recipient country. This can be viewed as a polar case of the effect of a transfer on the terms of trade. Here, the marginal propensity to consume the export good by the recipient country is 1. The donor benefits from a terms of trade improvement. As with immiserizing growth, it is theoretically possible that a transfer actuallyworsens the welfare of the recipient.11. When a country subsidizes its exports, the world relative supply and relative demand schedules shiftsuch that the terms of trade for the country worsen. A countervailing import tariff in a second country exacerbates this effect, moving the terms of trade even further against the first country. The firstcountry is worse off both because of the deterioration of the terms of trade and the distortionsintroduced by the new internal relative prices. The second country definitely gains from the firstcountry’s export su bsidy, and may gain further from its own tariff. If the second country retaliated with an export subsidy, then this would offset the initial improvement in the terms of trade; the“retaliatory” export subsidy definitely helps the first country and hurts th e second.。

克鲁格曼国际经济学第八版上册课后答案

Chapter 4Resources, Comparative Advantage, and Income DistributionChapter OrganizationA Model of a Two-Factor EconomyPrices and ProductionChoosing the Mix of InputsFactor Prices and Goods PricesResources and OutputEffects of International Trade Between Two-Factor Economies Relative Prices and the Pattern of TradeTrade and the Distribution of IncomeFactor Price EqualizationTrade and Income Distribution in the Short RunCase Study: North-South Trade and Income InequalityThe Political Economy of Trade: A Preliminary ViewThe Gains from Trade, RevisitedOptimal Trade PolicyIncome Distribution and Trade PoliticsBox: Income Distribution and the Beginnings of Trade Theory Empirical Evidence on the Heckscher-Ohlin ModelTesting the Heckscher-Ohlin ModelImplications of the TestsSummaryAppendix: Factor Prices, Goods Prices, and Input Choices Choice of TechniqueGoods Prices and Factor PricesChapter OverviewIn Chapter 3, trade between nations was motivated by differences internationally in the relative productivity of workers when producing a range of products. In Chapter 4, this analysis goes a step further by introducing the Heckscher-Ohlin theory.The Heckscher-Ohlin theory considers the pattern of production and trade which will arise when countries have different endowments of factors of production, such as labor, capital, and land. The basic point is that countries tend to export goods that are intensive in the factors with which they are abundantly supplied. Trade has strong effects on the relative earnings of resources, and tends to lead to equalization across countries of prices of the factors of production. These theoretical results and related empirical findings are presented in this chapter.The chapter begins by developing a general equilibrium model of an economy with two goods which are each produced using two factors according to fixed coefficient production functions. The assumption of fixed coefficient production functions provides an unambiguous ranking of goods in terms of factor intensities. (The appendix develops the model when the production functions have variable coefficients.) Two important results are derived using this model. The first is known as the Rybczynski effect. Increasing the relative supply of one factor, holding relative goods prices constant, leads to a biased expansion of production possibilities favoring the relative supply of the good which uses that factor intensively.The second key result is known as the Stolper-Samuelson effect. Increasing the relative price of a good, holding factor supplies constant, increases the return to the factor used intensively in the production of that good by more than the price increase, while lowering the return to the other factor. This result has important income distribution implications.It can be quite instructive to think of the effects of demographic/labor force changes on the supply of different products. For example, how might the pattern of production during the productive years of the “Baby Boom” generation differ from the pattern of production for post Baby Boom generations? What does this imply for returns to factors and relative price behavior?The central message concerning trade patterns of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory is that countries tend to export goods whose production is intensive in factors with which they are relatively abundantly endowed. This is demonstrated by showing that, using the relative supply and relative demand analysis, the country relatively abundantly endowed with a certain factor will produce that factor more cheaply than the other country. International trade leads to a convergence of goods prices. Thus, the results from the Stolper-Samuelson effect demonstrate that owners of a country’s abundant factors gain from trade, but ownersof a country’s scarce factors lose. The extension of this result is the important Factor Price Equalization Theorem, which states that trade in (and thus price equalization of) goods leads to an equalization in the rewards to factors across countries. The political implications of factor price equalization should be interesting to students.The chapter also introduces some political economy considerations. First, it briefly notes that many of the results regarding trade and income distribution assume full and swift adjustment in the economy. In the short run, though, labor and capital that are currently in a particular industry may have sector-specific skills or knowledge and are being forced to move to another sector, and this involves costs. Thus, even if a shift in relative prices were to improve the lot of labor, for those laborers who must change jobs, there is a short run cost.The core of the political economy discussion focuses on the fact that when opening to trade, some may benefit and some may lose, but the expansion of economic opportunity should allow society to redistribute some of the gains towards those who lose, making sure everyone benefits on net. In practice, though, those who lose are often more concentrated and hence have more incentive to try to affect policy. Thus, trade policy is not always welfare maximizing, but may simply reflect the preferences of the loudest and best organized in society.Empirical results concerning the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, beginning with the Leontief paradox and extending to current research, do not support its predictions concerning resource endowments explaining overall patterns of trade, though some patterns do match the broad outlines of its theory (e.g., theUnited States imports more low-skill products from Bangladesh and more high-skill products from Germany). This observation has motivated many economists to consider motives for trade between nations that are not exclusively based on differences across countries. These concepts will be exploredin later chapters. Despite these shortcomings, important and relevant results concerning income distribution are obtained from the Heckscher-Ohlin theory.Answers to Textbook Problems1. The definition of cattle growing as land intensive depends on the ratio of land to labor used inproduction, not on the ratio of land or labor to output. The ratio of land to labor in cattle exceeds the ratio in wheat in the United States, implying cattle is land intensive in the United States. Cattle is land intensive in other countries as well if the ratio of land to labor in cattle production exceeds the ratio in wheat production in that country. Comparisons between another country and the United States is less relevant for this purpose.2. a. The box diagram has 600 as the length of two sides (representing labor) and 60 as the lengthof the other two sides (representing land). There will be a ray from each of the two cornersrepresenting the origins. To find the slopes of these rays we use the information from the questionconcerning the ratios of the production coefficients. The question states that a LC/a TC= 20 anda LF/a TF= 5.Since a LC/a TC= (L C/Q C)/(T C/Q C) =L C/T C we have L C= 20T C. Using the same reasoning,a LF/a TF= (L F/Q F)/(T F/Q F) =L F/T F and since this ratio equals 5, we have L F= 5T F. We cansolve this algebraically since L=L C+ L F= 600 and T=T C+ T F= 60.The solution is L C= 400, T C= 20, L F= 200 and T F= 40.b. The dimensions of the box change with each increase in available labor, but the slopes of the raysfrom the origins remain the same. The solutions in the different cases are as follows.L= 800: T C= 33.33, L C= 666.67, T F= 26.67, L F= 133.33L= 1000: T C= 46.67, L C= 933.33, T F= 13.33, L F= 66.67L= 1200: T C= 60, L C= 1200, T F= 0, L F= 0. (complete specialization).c. At constant factor prices, some labor would be unused, so factor prices would have to change, orthere would be unemployment.3. This question is similar to an issue discussed in Chapter 3. What matters is not the absolute abundanceof factors, but their relative abundance. Poor countries have an abundance of labor relative to capital when compared to more developed countries.4. In the Ricardian model, labor gains from trade through an increase in its purchasing power. Thisresult does not support labor union demands for limits on imports from less affluent countries. The Heckscher-Ohlin model directly addresses distribution by considering the effects of trade on theowners of factors of production. In the context of this model, unskilled U.S. labor loses fromtrade since this group represents the relatively scarce factors in this country. The results from theHeckscher-Ohlin model support labor union demands for import limits. In the short run, certainunskilled unions may gain or lose from trade depending on in which sector they work, but in theory, in the longer run, the conclusions of the Heckscher-Ohlin model will dominate.5. Specific programmers may face wage cuts due to the competition from India, but this is not inconsistentwith skilled labor wages rising. By making programming more efficient in general, this development may have increased wages for others in the software industry or lowered the prices of the goodsoverall. In the short run, though, it has clearly hurt those with sector specific skills who will facetransition costs. There are many reasons to not block the imports of computer programming services (or outsourcing of these jobs). First, by allowing programming to be done more cheaply, it expands the production possibilities frontier of the U.S., making the entire country better off on average.Necessary redistribution can be done, but we should not stop trade which is making the nation as a whole better off. In addition, no one trade policy action exists in a vacuum, and if the U.S. blocked the programming imports, it could lead to broader trade restrictions in other countries.6. The factor proportions theory states that countries export those goods whose production is intensivein factors with which they are abundantly endowed. One would expect the United States, whichhas a high capital/labor ratio relative to the rest of the world, to export capital-intensive goods if the Heckscher-Ohlin theory holds. Leontief found that the United States exported labor-intensive goods.Bowen, Leamer and Sveikauskas found for the world as a whole the correlation between factorendowment and trade patterns to be tenuous. The data do not support the predictions of the theory that countries’ e xports and imports reflect the relative endowments of factors.7. If the efficiency of the factors of production differs internationally, the lessons of the Heckscher-Ohlin theory would be applied to “effective factors” which adjust for the differences in technology or worker skills or land quality (for example). The adjusted model has been found to be moresuccessful than the unadjusted model at explaining the pattern of trade between countries. Factor-price equalization concepts would apply to the effective factors. A worker with more skills or in a country with better technology could be considered to be equal to two workers in another country. Thus, the single person would be two effective units of labor. Thus, the one high-skilled workercould earn twice what lower-skilled workers do, and the price of one effective unit of labor would still be equalized.。

克鲁格曼国际经济学第八版答案

克鲁格曼国际经济学第八版答案【篇一：克鲁格曼国际经济学课后答案英语版】labor productivity and comparative advantage: the ricardian modelanswers to textbook problems1. a. the production possibility curve is a straight line that intercepts the apple axis at 400(1200/3) and the banana axis at 600 (1200/2).b. the opportunity cost of apples in terms of bananas is 3/2. it takes three units of labor to harvest an apple but only two units of labor to harvest a banana. if one foregoes harvesting an apple, this frees up three units of labor. these 3 units of labor could then be used to harvest 1.5 bananas.c. labor mobility ensures a common wage in each sector and competition ensures the price of goods equals their cost of production. thus, the relative price equals the relative costs, which equals the wage times the unit labor requirement for apples divided by the wage times the unit labor requirement for bananas. since wages are equal across sectors, the price ratio equals the ratio of the unit labor requirement, which is 3 apples per 2 bananas.2. a. the production possibility curve is linear, with the intercept on the apple axis equal to160 (800/5) and the intercept on the banana axis equal to 800 (800/1).b. the world relative supply curve is constructed by determining the supply of apples relative to the supply of bananas at each relative price. the lowest relative price at which apples are harvested is 3 apples per 2 bananas. the relative supply curve is flat at this price. the maximum number of apples supplied at the price of 3/2 is 400 supplied by home while, at this price, foreign harvests 800 bananas and no apples, giving a maximum relative supply at this price of 1/2. this relative supply holds for any price between 3/2 and 5. at the price of 5, both countries would harvest apples. the relative supply curve is again flat at 5. thus, the relative supply curve is step shaped, flat at the price 3/2 from the relativesupply of 0 to 1/2, vertical at the relative quantity 1/2 risingfrom 3/2 to 5, and then flat again from 1/2 to infinity.3. a. the relative demand curve includes the points (1/5, 5), (1/2, 2), (1,1), (2,1/2).b. the equilibrium relative price of apples is found at the intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves. this is the point (1/2, 2), where the relativedemand curve intersects the vertical section of the relative supply curve. thus the equilibrium relative price is 2.c. home produces only apples, foreign produces only bananas, and each country trades some of its product for the product of the other country.d. in the absence of trade, home could gain three bananas by foregoing two apples, and foreign could gain by one apple foregoing five bananas. trade allows each country to trade two bananas for one apple. home could then gain four bananas by foregoing two apples while foreign could gain one apple by foregoing only two bananas. each country is better off with trade.4.the increase in the number of workers at home shifts outthe relative supply schedulesuch that the corner points are at (1, 3/2) and (1, 5) instead of (1/2, 3/2) and (1/2, 5). the intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves is now in the lower horizontal section, at the point (2/3, 3/2). in this case, foreign still gains from trade but the opportunity cost of bananas in terms of apples for home is the same whether or not there is trade, so home neither gains nor loses from trade.5.this answer is identical to that in 3. the amount of effective labor has not changedsince the doubling of the labor force is accompanied by a halving of the productivity of labor.6.this statement is just an example of the pauper labor argument discussed in the chapter.the point is that relative wage rates do not come out of thin air; they are determined by comparative productivity and the relative demand for goods. the box in the chapter providesdata which shows the strong connection between wages and productivity. koreas low wage presumably reflects the fact that korea is less productive than the united states in mostindustries. as the test example illustrated, a highly productive country that trades with a less productive, low-wage country will raise, not lower, its standard of living.7.the problem with this argument is that it does not use all the information needed fordetermining comparative advantage in production: this calculation involves the four unit labor requirements (for both the industry and service sectors, not just the two for the service sector). it is not enough to compare only services unit labor requirements. if als als*, home labor is more efficient than foreign labor in services. while this demonstrates that the united states has an absolute advantage in services, this is neithera necessary nor a sufficient condition for determining comparative advantage. for this determination, the industry ratios are also required. the competitive advantage of any industry depends on both the relative productivities of the industries and the relative wages across industries.8.while japanese workers may earn the equivalent wages of u.s. workers, the purchasingpower of their income is one-third less. this implies that although w=w* (more or less), pp* (since 3p=p*). since the united states is considerably more productive in services, service prices are relatively low. this benefits and enhances u.s. purchasing power. however, many of these services cannot be transported and hence, are not traded. this implies that the japanese may not benefit from the lower u.s. services costs, and do not face an international price which is lower than their domestic price. likewise, the price of services in united states does not increase with the opening of trade since these services are non-traded. consequently, u.s. purchasing power is higher than that of japan due to its lower prices on non-traded goods.9.gains from trade still exist in the presence of nontraded goods. the gains from tradedecline as the share of nontraded goods increases. in other words, the higher the portion of goods which do not enter international marketplace, the lower the potential gains from trade. if transport costs were high enough so that no goodswere traded then, obviously, there would be no gains from trade.10.the world relative supply curve in this case consists of a step function, with as manysteps (horizontal portions) as there are countries with different unit labor requirement ratios. any countries to the left of the intersection of the relative demand and relative supply curves export the good in which they have a comparative advantage relative to any country to the right of the intersection. if the intersection occurs in a horizontal portion then the country with that price ratio produces both goods.chapter 3specific factors and income distributionanswers to textbook problems1.texas and louisiana are states with large oil-producing sectors. the real wage of oil-producing factors of production in terms of other goods falls when the price of oil falls relative to the price of other goods. this was the source of economic decline in these states in 1986.2.to analyze the economys production possibility frontier, consider how the output mixchanges as labor is shifted between the two sectors.a. the production functions for goods 1 and 2 are standard plots with quantities on the vertical axis, labor on the horizontal axis, and q1= q1(k1,l1) with slope equal to the mpl1, and on another graph, q2= q2(k2,l2) with slope equal to thempl2.figure 3-1b. to graph the production possibilities frontier, combine the production function diagrams with the economys allocation of labor in a four quadrant diagram. the economys ppf is in the upper right hand corner, as is illustrated in the four quadrant diagram above. the ppf is curved due to declining marginal product of labor in each good.3. a. to solve this problem, one can graph the demand curve for labor in sector 1,represented by (w=mpl1=demand for l1) and the demand curve for labor in sector 2, represented by (w=mpl2=demand for l2) . since the total supply of labor is given by the horizontalaxis, the labor allocation between the sectors is approximately l1=27 and l2=73. the wage rate is approximately $0.98.wl127l2figure 3-2 100lb. use the same type of graph as in problem 2b to show that sectoral output is q1=44 and q2=90. (this involves combining the production function diagrams with the economys allocation of labor in a four quadrant diagram. the economys ppf is in the upper right hand corner, as illustrated in the text.)e a graph of labor demands, as in part a, to show that the intersection of the demand curves for labor occurs at a wage rate approximately equal to $0.74. the relative decline in the price of good 2 caused labor to be reallocated: labor is drawn out of production of good 2 and enters production of good 1 (l1=62, l2=38). this also leads【篇二：克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第八版课后答案(英文)-ch18】monetary system, 1870–1973? chapter organizationmacroeconomic policy goals in an open economyinternal balance: full employment and price-level stabilityexternal balance: the optimal level of the current accountinternational macroeconomic policy under the gold standard, 1870–1914origins of the gold standardexternal balance under the gold standardthe price-specie-flow mechanismthe gold standard “rules of the game”: myth and realitybox: hume v. the mercantilistsinternal balance under the gold standardcase study: the political economy of exchange rate regimes: conflict over america’s monetary standard during the 1890sthe interwar years, 1918–1939the fleeting return to goldinternational economic disintegrationcase study: the international gold standard and the great depressionthe bretton woods system and the international monetary fundgoals and structure of the imfconvertibility and the expansion of private capital flowsspeculative capital flows and crisesanalyzing policy options under the bretton woods systemmaintaining internal balancemaintaining external balanceexpenditure-changing and expenditure-switching policiesthe external-balance problem of the united statescase study: the decline and fall of the bretton woods systemworldwide inflation and the transition to floating ratessummarychapter 18 the international monetary system, 1870–1973 95 ? chapter overviewthis is the first of five international monetary policy chapters. these chapters complement the preceding theory chapters in several ways. they provide the historical and institutional background students require to place their theoretical knowledge in a useful context. the chapters also allow students, through study of historical and current events, to sharpen their grasp of the theoretical models and to develop the intuition those models can provide. (application of the theory to events of current interest will hopefully motivate students to return to earlier chapters and master points that may have been missed on the first pass.) chapter 18 chronicles the evolution of the international monetary system from the gold standard of 1870–1914, through the interwar years, andup to and including the post-world war ii bretton woods regime that ended in march 1973. the central focus of the chapter is the manner in which each system addressed, or failed to address, the requirements of internal and external balance for its participants. a country is in internal balance when its resources are fully employed and there is price level stability. external balance implies an optimal time path of the current account subject to its being balanced over the long run. other factors have been important in the definition of external balance at various times, and these are discussed in the text. the basic definition of external balance as an appropriate current-account level, however, seems to capture a goal that most policy-makers share regardless of the particular circumstances. the price-specie-flow mechanism described bydavid hume shows how the gold standard could ensure convergence to external balance. you may want to present the following model of the price-specie-flow mechanism. this model is based upon three equations:1.2.3. the balance sheet of the central bank. at the most simple level, this is just gold holdings equals the money supply: g ? m. the quantity theory. with velocity and output assumed constant and both normalized to 1, this yields the simple equation m ? p.a balance of payments equation where the current account is a function of the real exchange rate andthere are no private capital flows: ca ? f(e ? p*/p)these equations can be combined in a figure like the one below. the 45? line represents the quantity theory, and the vertical line is the price level where the real exchange rate results in a balanced current account. the economy moves along the 45? line back towards the equilibrium point 0 whenever it is out of equilibrium. for example, the loss of four-fifths of a country’s gold would put that country at point a with lower prices and a lower money supply. the resulting real exchange rate depreciation causes a current account surplus which restores money balances as the country proceeds upthe 45? line from ato 0.figure 18.1the automatic adjustment process described by the price-specie-flow mechanism is expedited by following “rules of the game” under which governments contract the domestic source components oftheir monetary bases when gold reserves are falling (corresponding to a current-account deficit) and expand when gold reserves are rising (the surplus case).in practice, there was little incentive for countries with expanding gold reserves to follow the “rules of the game.” this increased the contractionary burden shouldered by countries with persistent current account deficits. the gold standard also subjugated internal balance to the demands of external balance. research suggests price-level stability and highemployment were attained less consistently under the gold standard than in the post-1945 period.the interwar years were marked by severe economic instability. the monetization of war debt and of reparation payments led to episodes of hyperinflation in europe. an ill-fated attempt to return to the pre-war gold parity for the pound led to stagnation in britain. competitive devaluations and protectionism were pursued in a futile effort to stimulate domestic economic growth during the great depression. these beggar-thy-neighbor policies provoked foreign retaliation and led to the disintegration of the world economy. as one of the case studies shows, strict adherence to the gold standard appears to have hurt many countries during the great depression.determined to avoid repeating the mistakes of the interwar years, allied economic policy-makers met at bretton woods in 1944 to forge a new international monetary system for the postwar world. the exchange-rate regime that emerged from this conference had at its center the u.s. dollar. all other currencies had fixed exchange rates against the dollar, which itself had a fixed value in terms of gold. an international monetary fund was set up to oversee the system and facilitate its functioning by lending to countries with temporary balance of payments problems.a formal discussion of internal and external balance introduces the concepts of expenditure-switching and expenditure-changing policies. the bretton woods system, with its emphasis on infrequent adjustment of fixed parities, restricted the use of expenditure-switching policies. increases in u.s. monetary growth to finance fiscal expenditures after the mid-1960s led to a loss of confidence in the dollar and the termination of the dollar’s convertibil ity into gold. the analysis presented in the text demonstrateshow the bretton woods system forced countries to “import” inflation from the united states and shows that the breakdown of the system occurred when countries were no longer willing to accept this burden. ? answers to textbook problems1. a. since it takes considerable investment to develop uranium mines, you would want a larger currentaccount deficit to allow your country to finance some of the investment with foreign savings.b. a permanent increase in the world price of copper would cause a short-term current accountdeficit if the price rise leads you to invest more in copper mining. if there are no investmenteffects, you would not change your external balance target because it would be optimal simply to spend your additional income.c. a temporary increase in the world price of copper would cause a current account surplus. youwould want to smooth out your country’s consumption by saving some of its temporarily higher income.d. a temporary rise in the world price of oil would cause a current account deficit if you were animporter of oil, but a surplus if you were an exporter of oil. chapter 18 the international monetary system, 1870–1973 972. because the marginal propensity to consume out of income is less than 1, a transfer of income from bto a increases savings in a and decreases savings in b. therefore, a has a current account surplus and b has a corresponding deficit. this corresponds to a balance of payments disequilibrium inhume’s world, which must be financed by gold flows from b to a. these gold flows increase a’s money supply and decrease b’s money supply, pushing up prices in a and depressing prices in b.these price changes cease once balance of payments equilibrium has been restored.3. changes in parities reflected both initial misalignments and balance of payments crises. attempts toreturn to the parities of the prewar period after the war ignored the changes in underlying economic fundamentals that the war caused. this made some exchange rates less than fully credible andencouraged balance of payments crises. central bank commitments to the gold parities were also less than credible after the wartime suspension of the gold standard, and as a result of the increasingconcern of governments with internal economic conditions.4. a monetary contraction, under the gold standard, will lead to an increase in the gold holdings of thecontracting country’s central bank if other countries do not pursue a similar policy. all countriescannot succeed in doing this simultaneously since the total stock of gold reserves is fixed in the short run. under a reserve currency system, however, a monetary contraction causes an incipient rise in the domestic interest rate, which attracts foreign capital. the central bank must accommodate the inflow of foreign capital to preserve the exchange rate parity. there is thus an increase in the central bank’s holdings of foreign reserves equal to the fall in its holdings of domestic assets. there is no obstacle to a simultaneous increase in reserves by all central banks because central banks acquire more claims on the reserve currency country while their citizens end up with correspondingly greater liabilities.5. the increase in domestic prices makes home exports less attractive and causes a current accountdeficit. this diminishes the money supply and causes contractionary pressures in the economywhich serve to mitigate and ultimately reverse wage demands and price increases.6. a “demand determined” increase in dollar reserve holdings would not affect the world supply ofmoney as central banks merely attempt to trade their holdings of domestic assets for dollar reserves.a “supply determined” increase in reserve holdings, however, would result from expansionarymonetary policy in the united states (the reserve center). at least at the end of the bretton woods era the increase in world dollar reserves arose in part because of an expansionary monetary policy in the united states rather than a desire by other central banks to increase their holdings of dollar assets. only the “supply determined” increase in dollar reserves is relevant for analyzing therelationship between world holdings of dollar reserves by central banks and inflation.7. an increase in the world interest rate leads to a fall in a central bank’s holdings of foreign reserves asdomestic residents trade in their cash for foreign bonds. this leads to a decline in the home country’s money supply. the central bank of a “small” country cannot offset these effects sinceit cannot alter the world interest rate. an attempt to sterilize the reserve loss through open market purchases would fail unless bonds are imperfect substitutes.8. capital account restrictions insulate the domestic interest rate from the world interest rate. monetarypolicy, as well as fiscal policy, can be used to achieve internal balance. because there are nooffsetting capital flows, monetary policy, as well as fiscal policy, can be used to achieve internalbalance. the costs of capital controls include the inefficiency which is introduced when the domestic interest rate differs from the world rate and the high costs of enforcing the controls.9. yes, it does seem that the external balance problem of a deficit country is more severe. while themacroeconomic imbalance may be equally problematic in the long run regardless of whether it is a deficit or surplus, large external deficits involve the risk that the market will fix the problem quickly by ceasing to fund the external deficit. in this case, there may have to be rapid adjustment that could be disruptive. surplus countries are rarely forced into rapid adjustments, making the problems less risky.10. an inflow attack is different from capital flight, but many parallels exist. in an “outflow” attack,speculators sell the home currency and drain the central bank of its foreign assets. the central bank could always defend if it so chooses (they can raise interest rates to improbably high levels), but if it is unwilling to cripple the economy with tight monetar y policy, it must relent. an “inflow” attack issimilar in that the central bank can always maintain the peg, it is just that the consequences of doing so may be more unpalatable than breaking the peg. if money flows in, the central bank must buy foreign assets to keep the currency from appreciating. if the central bank cannot sterilize all the inflows (eventually they may run out of domestic assets to sell to sterilize the transactions where they are buying foreignassets), it will have to either let the currency appreciate or letthe money supply rise. if it is unwilling to allow and increase in inflation due to a rising money supply, breaking the peg maybe preferable.11. a. we know that china has a very large current account surplus, placing them high above the xxline. they also have moderate inflationary pressures (described as “gathering” in the question, implying they arenot yet very strong). this suggests that china is above the ii line, but not too farabove it. it would be placed in zone 1 (see below).b. china needs to appreciate the exchange rate to move down on the graph towards balance.(shown on the graph with the dashed line down)c. china would need to expand government spending to moveto the right and hit the overall balancepoint. such a policy would help cushion the negativeaggregate demand pressurethat the appreciation might generate.【篇三：克鲁格曼《国际经济学》计算题及答案】0名劳动力，如果生产棉花的话，a国的人均产量是2吨，b国也是2吨；要是生产大米的话，a国的人均产量是10吨，b国则是16吨。

国际经济学作业答案-第六章【范本模板】

Chapter 6 Economies of Scale， Imperfect Competition，and International TradeMultiple Choice Questions1。

External economies of scale arise when the cost per unit（a) rises as the industry grows larger.(b）falls as the industry grows larger rises as the average firm grows larger。

(c）falls as the average firm grows larger.（d) remains constant。

(e) None of the above.Answer： B2。

Internal economies of scale arise when the cost per unit(a) rises as the industry grows larger。

（b) falls as the industry grows larger。

(c）rises as the average firm grows larger.（d）falls as the average firm grows larger.(e）None of the above。

Answer： D3。

External economies of scale(a）may be associated with a perfectly competitive industry.（b）cannot be associated with a perfectly competitive industry。

（c) tends to result in one huge monopoly。

(d）tends to result in large profits for each firm。

国际经济学英文版（第八版）章节练习第一章

国际经济学英⽂版（第⼋版）章节练习第⼀章International Economics, 8e (Krugman)Chapter 1 Introduction1.1 What Is International Economics About?1) Historians of economic thought often describe ________ written by ________ and published in ________ as the first real exposition of an economic model.A) ”Of the Balance of Trade,” David Hume, 1776B) ”Wealth of Nations,” David Hume, 1758C) ”Wealth of Nations,” Adam Smith, 1758D) ”Wealth of Nations,” Adam Smith, 1776E) ”Of the Balance of Trade,” David Hume, 1758Answer: E2) 2)Ancient theories of international economics from the 18th and 19th Centuries areA) not relevant to current policy analysis.B) are only of moderate relevance in today’s modern international economy.C) are highly relevant in today’s modern international economy.D) are the only theories that actually relevant to modern international economy.E) are not well understood by modern mathematically oriented theorists.Answer: C3) An important insight of international trade theory is that when countries exchange goods and services one with the other itA) is always beneficial to both countries.B) is usually beneficial to both countries.C) is typically beneficial only to the low wage trade partner country.D) is typically harmful to the technologically lagging country.E) tends to create unemployment in both countries.Answer: B4) If there are large disparities in wage levels between countries, thenA) trade is likely to be harmful to both countries.B) trade is likely to be harmful to the country with the high wages.C) trade is likely to be harmful to the country with the low wages.D) trade is likely to be harmful to neither country.E) trade is likely to have no effect on either country.Answer: D5) Who sells what to whomA) has been a major preoccupation of international economics.B) is not a valid concern of international economics.C) is not considered important for government foreign trade policy since such decisions are made in the private competitive market.D) is determined by political rather than economic factors.E) None of the aboveAnswer: A6) The insight that patterns of trade are primarily determined by international differences in labor productivity was first proposed byA) Adam Smith.B) David Hume.C) David Ricardo.D) Eli Heckscher.E) Lerner and Samuelson. Answer: C7) The euro, a common currency for most of the nations of Western Europe, was introducedA) before 1900.B) before 1990.C) before 2000.D) in order to snub the pride of the U.S.E) None of the above.Answer: C8) For the 50 years preceding 1994, international trade policies have been governedA) by the World Trade Organization.B) by the International Monetary Fund.C) by the World.D) by an international treaty known as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT).E) None of the above.Answer: D9) The international capital market isA) the place where you can rent earth moving equipment anywhere in the world.B) a set of arrangements by which individuals and firms exchange money now for promises to pay in the future.C) the arrangement where banks build up their capital by borrowing from the Central Bank.D) the place where emerging economies accept capital invested by banks.E) None of the above.Answer: B10) Since 1994, trade rules have been enforced byA) the WTO.B) the G10.C) the GATT.D) The U.S. Congress.E) None of the above.Answer:A11) Cost-benefit analysis of international tradeA) is basically useless.B) is empirically intractable.C) focuses attention primarily on conflicts of interest within countries.D) focuses attention on conflicts of interests between countries.E) None of the above.Answer: C12) An improvement in a country’s balance of payments means a decrease in its balance of payments deficit, or an increase in its surplus. In fact we know that a surplus in a balance of paymentsA) is good.B) is usually good.C) is probably good.D) may be considered bad.E) is always bad.Answer: D13) The GATT wasA) an international treaty.B) an international U.N. agency.C) an international IMF agency.D) a U.S. government agency.E) a collection of tariffs.Answer: A14) International economics can be divided into two broad sub-fieldsA) macro and micro.B) developed and less developed.C) monetary and barter.D) international trade and international money.E) static and dynamic.Answer: DInternational Economics, 8e (Krugman)Chapter 2 World Trade: An Overview2.1 Who Trades with Whom?1) What percent of all world production of goods and services is exported to other countries?A) 10%B) 30%C) 50%D) 100%E) None of the above.Answer: B2) The gravity model offers a logical explanation for the fact thatA) trade between Asia and the U.S. has grown faster than NAFTA trade.B) trade in services has grown faster than trade in goods.C) trade in manufactures has grown faster than in agricultural products.D) Intra-European Union trade exceeds International Trade of the European Union.E) None of the above.Answer: D3) According to the gravity model, a characteristic that tends to affect the probability of trade existing betweenany two countries isA) their cultural affinity.B) the average weight/value of their traded goods.C) their colonial-historical ties.D) the distance between them.E) the number of varieties produced on the average by their industries.Answer: D4) Why does the gravity model work?A) Large economies became large because they were engaged in international trade.B) Large economies have relatively large incomes, and hence spend more on government promotion of trade and investment.C) Large economies have relatively larger areas which raises the probability that a productive activity will take place within the borders of that country.D) Large economies tend to have large incomes and tend to spend more on imports.E) None of the above.Answer: D5) The two neighbors of the United States do a lot more trade with the United States than European economiesof equal size.A) This contradicts predictions from gravity models.B) This is consistent with predictions from gravity models.C) This is relevant to any inferences that may be drawn from gravity models.D) This is because these neighboring countries have exceptionally large GDPs.E) None of the above.Answer: B6) Since World War II (the early 1950s), the proportion of most countries' production being used in some other countryA) remained constant.B) increased.C) decreased.D) fluctuated widely with no clear trend.E) both A and D above.Answer: B7) Since World War II, the relative importance of raw materials, including oil, in total world tradeA) remained constant.B) increased.C) decreased.D) fluctuated widely with no clear trendE) both A and D above.Answer: C8) In the current Post-Industrial economy, international trade in services (including banking and financial services)A) dominates world trade.B) does not exist.C) is relatively small.D) is relatively stagnant.E) None of the above.Answer: C9) In the pre-World War I period, the U.S. exported primarilyA) manufactured goods.B) services.C) primary products including agricultural.D) technology intensive products.E) None of the above.Answer: C10) In the pre-World War I period, the United Kingdom exported primarilyA) manufactured goods.B) services.C) primary products including agricultural.D) technology intensive products.E) None of the above.Answer:A11) In the present, most of the exports from China are inA) manufactured goods.B) services.C) primary products including agricultural.D) technology intensive products.E) None of the above.Answer: AInternational Economics, 8e (Krugman)Chapter 3 Labor Productivity and Comparative Advantage: The Ricardian Model1) Trade between two countries can benefit both countries ifA) each country exports that good in which it has a comparative advantage.B) each country enjoys superior terms of trade.C) each country has a more elastic demand for the imported goods.D) each country has a more elastic supply for the exported goods.E) Both C and D.Answer: A2) In order to know whether a country has a comparative advantage in the production of one particular product we need information on at least ________ unit labor requirementsA) oneB) twoC) threeD) fourE) fiveAnswer: D3) A country engaging in trade according to the principles of comparative advantage gains from trade because itA) is producing exports indirectly more efficiently than it could alternatively.B) is producing imports indirectly more efficiently than it could domestically.C) is producing exports using fewer labor units.D) is producing imports indirectly using fewer labor units.E) None of the above.Answer: B4) Given the information in the table above, if it is ascertained that Foreign uses prison-slave labor to produce its exports, then home shouldA) export cloth.B) export widgets.C) export both and import nothing.D) export and import nothing.E) All of the above.Answer: A5) Given the information in the table above, if the Home economy suffered a meltdown, and theUnit Labor Requirements doubled to 30 for cloth and 60 for widgets then home shouldA) export cloth.B) export widgets.C) export both and import nothing.D) export and import nothing.E) All of the above.Answer: A6) The earliest statement of the principle of comparative advantage is associated withA) David Hume.B) David Ricardo.C) Adam Smith.D) Eli Heckscher.E) Bertil Ohlin.Answer: B7) The Gains from Trade associated with the principle of Comparative Advantage depends onA) the trade partners must differ in technology or tastes.B) there can be no more goods traded than the number of trade partners.C) there may be no more trade partners than goods traded.D) All of the above.E) None of the above.Answer: A8) The Ricardian model demonstrates thatA) trade between two countries will benefit both countries.B) trade between two countries may benefit both regardless of which good each exports.two countries may benefit both if each exports the product in which it has a comparative advantage. C)trade betweenD) trade between two countries may benefit one but harm the other.E) None of the above.Answer: C9) Given the information in the table aboveA) neither country has a comparative advantage.B) Home has a comparative advantage in cloth.C) Foreign has a comparative advantage in cloth.D) Home has a comparative advantage in widgets.E) Home has a comparative advantage in both products.Answer: B10) Given the information in the table above, if wages were to double in Home, then Home shouldA) export cloth.B) export widgets.C) export both and import nothing.D) export and import nothing.E) All of the above.Answer: A11) In a two product two country world, international trade can lead to increases inA) consumer welfare only if output of both products is increased.B) output of both products and consumer welfare in both countries.C) total production of both products but not consumer welfare in both countries.D) consumer welfare in both countries but not total production of both products.E) None of the above.Answer: B12) A nation engaging in trade according to the Ricardian model will find its consumption bundleA) inside its production possibilities frontier.B) on its production possibilities frontier.C) outside its production possibilities frontier.D) inside its trade-partner's production possibilities frontier.E) on its trade-partner's production possibilities frontier.Answer: C13) In the Ricardian model, if a country's trade is restricted, this will cause all except which?A) limit specialization and the division of laborB) reduce the volume of trade and the gains from tradeC) cause nations to produce inside their production possibilities curvesD) may result in a country producing some of the product of its comparative disadvantageE) None of the above.Answer: C14) If the world terms of trade for a country are somewhere between the domestic cost ratio of Hand that of F, thenA) country H but not country F will gain from trade.B) country H and country F will both gain from trade.C) neither country H nor F will gain from trade.D) only the country whose government subsidizes its exports will gain.E) None of the above.Answer: B15) According to Ricardo, a country will have a comparative advantage in the product in which itsA) labor productivity is relatively low.B) labor productivity is relatively high.C) labor mobility is relatively low.D) labor mobility is relatively high.E) None of the above.Answer: B16)Assume that labor is the only factor of production and that wages in the United States equal $20 per hour while wages in Japan are $10 per hour. Production costs would be lower in the United States as compared to Japan ifA) U.S. labor productivity equaled 40 units per hour and Japan's 15 units per hour.B) U.S. productivity equaled 30 units per hour whereas Japan's was 20.C) U.S. labor productivity equaled 20 and Japan's 30.D) U.S. labor productivity equaled 15 and Japan's 25 units per hour.E) None of the above.Answer: A17) Let us define the real wage as the purchasing power of one hour of labor. In the Ricardian 2X2 model, if twocountries under autarky engage in trade thenA) the real wage will not be affected since this is a financial variable.B) the real wage will increase only if a country attains full specialization.C) the real wage will increase in one country only if it decreases in the other.D) the real wage will rise in both countries.E) None of the above.Answer: D18) In a two country and two product Ricardian model, a small country is likely to benefit more than the largecountry becauseA) the large country will wield greater political power, and hence will not yield to market signals.B) the small country is less likely to trade at price equal or close to its autarkic (domestic) relative prices.C) the small country is more likely to fully specialize.D) the small country is less likely to fully specialize.E) None of the above.Answer: B19) An examination of the Ricardian model of comparative advantage yields the clear result thattrade is (potentially) beneficial for each of the two trading partners since it allows for anexpanded consumption choice for each. However, for the world as a whole the expansion ofproduction of one product must involve a decrease in the availability of the other, so that it isnot clear that trade is better for the world as a whole as compared to an initial situation ofnon-trade (but efficient production in each country). Are there in fact gains from trade for theworld as a whole? Explain.Answer: If we were to combine the production possibility frontiers of the two countries to create a single world production possibility frontier, then it is true that any change in production points (from autarky tospecialization with trade) would involve a tradeoff of one good for another from the world'sperspective. In other words, the new solution cannot possibly involve the production of more of bothgoods. However, since we know that each country is better off at the new solution, it must be true thatthe original points were not on the trade contract curve between the two countries, and it was in factpossible to make some people better off without making others worse off, so that the new solutiondoes indeed represent a welfare improvement from the world's perspective.20）Given the information in the table above. What is the opportunity cost of Cloth in terms of Widgets in Foreign? Answer: One half a widget.21) Given the information in the table above. If these two countries trade these two goods in the context of the Ricardian model of comparative advantage, then what is the lower limit of the world equilibrium price of widgets? Answer: 1/2 Cloths.22) Given the information in the table above. If these two countries trade these two goods with each other incontext of the Ricardian model of comparative advantage, what is the lower limit for the price of cloth? Answer: One half a widget.23) Given the information in the table above. What is the opportunity cost of cloth in terms of Widgets inForeign?Answer: 2 widgets.24) If a production possibilities frontier is bowed out (concave to the origin), then production occurs underconditions ofA) constant opportunity costs.B) increasing opportunity costs.C) decreasing opportunity costs.D) infinite opportunity costs.E) None of the above.Answer: B25) If the production possibilities frontier of one the trade partners ("Country A") is bowed out (concave to theorigin), then increased specialization in production by that country willA) increase the economic welfare of both countries.B) increase the economic welfare of only Country A.C) decrease the economic welfare of Country A.D) decrease the economic welfare of Country B.E) None of the above.Answer: A26)If one country's wage level is very high relative to the other's (the relative wage exceeding the relative productivity ratios), thenA) it is not possible that producers in each will find export markets profitable.B) it is not possible that consumers in both countries will enhance their respective welfares throughimports.C) it is not possible that both countries will find gains from trade.D) it is possible that both will enjoy the conventional gains from trade.E) None of the above.Answer: D27) In a two-country, two-product world, the statement "Germany enjoys a comparative advantageover France in autos relative to ships" is equivalent toA) France having a comparative advantage over Germany in ships.B) France having a comparative disadvantage compared to Germany in autos and ships.C) Germany having a comparative advantage over France in autos and ships.D) France having no comparative advantage over Germany.E) None of the above.Answer: A28) Suppose the United states production possibility frontier was flatter to the widget axis, whereasGermany's was flatter to the butter axis. We now learn that the German wage doubles, but U.S.wages do not change at all. We now know thatA) the United States has no comparative advantage.B) Germany has a comparative advantage in butter.C) the United States has a comparative advantage in butter.D) Not enough information is given.E) None of the above.Answer: B29) We know that in antiquity, China exported silk because no-one in any other country knew how to producethis product. From this information we learn thatA) China enjoyed a comparative advantage in silk.B) China enjoyed an absolute advantage, but not a comparative advantage in silk.C) no comparative advantage exists because technology was not diffused.D) China should have exported silk even though it had no comparative advantage.E) None of the above.Answer: A30) The evidence cited in the chapter using the examples of the East Asia New IndustrializingCountries suggests that as international productivities converge, so do international wage levels.Why do you suppose this happened for the East Asian NICs? In light of your answer, what doyou think is likely to happen to the relative wages (relative to those in the United States) ofChina in the coming decade? Explain your reasoning.Answer: Following the logic of the Ricardian model of comparative advantage, the East Asian countries played to their respective comparative advantages. This allowed the world demand to provide excessdemands for their relatively abundant labor, which in turn tended to raise these wages. If Chinafollows the same pattern, their wages levels should also be expected over time to converge to those intheir industrialized country markets.Answers to Textbook Problems1. a. The production possibility curve is a straight line that intercepts the apple axis at 400(1200/3)and the banana axis at 600(1200/2).b. The opportunity cost of apples in terms of bananas is 3/2. It takes three units of labor toharvest an apple but only two units of labor to harvest a banana. If one foregoes harvesting an apple,this frees up three units of labor. These 3 units of labor could then be used to harvest 1.5 bananas.c. Labor mobility ensures a common wage in each sector and competition ensures the price ofgoods equals their cost of production. Thus, the relative price equals the relative costs, which equalsthe wage times the unit labor requirement for apples divided by the wage times the unit laborrequirement for bananas. Since wages are equal across sectors, the price ratio equals the ratio of the unit labor requirement, which is 3 apples per 2 bananas. 2. a. The production possibility curve is linear, with the intercept on the apple axis equal to 160(800/5) and the intercept on the banana axis equal to 800(800/1).b. The world relative supply curve is constructed by determining the supply of apples relative to the supply of bananas at each relative price. The lowest relative price at which apples are harvested is 3 apples per 2 bananas. The relative supply curve is flat at this price. The maximum number of apples supplied at the price of 3/2 is 400 supplied by Home while, at this price, Foreign harvests 800 bananas and no apples, giving a maximum relative supply at this price of 1/2. This relative supply holds for any price between 3/2 and 5. At the price of 5, both countries would harvest apples. The relative supply curve is again flat at 5. Thus, the relative supply curve is step shaped, flat at the price 3/2 from the relative supply of 0 to 1/2, vertical at the relative quantity 1/2 rising from 3/2 to 5, and then flat again from 1/2 to infinity.International Economics, 8e (Krugman)Chapter 4 Resources, Comparative Advantage, and Income Distribution1) In the 2-factor, 2 good Heckscher-Ohlin model, an influx of workers from across the border wouldA) move the point of production along the production possibility curve.B) shift the production possibility curve outward, and increase the production of both goods.C) shift the production possibility curve outward and decrease the production of the labor-intensiveproduct.D) shift the production possibility curve outward and decrease the production of the capital-intensiveproduct.E) None of the above.Answer: D2) In the 2-factor, 2 good Heckscher-Ohlin model, the two countries differ inA) tastes.B) military capabilities.C) size.D) relative availabilities of factors of production.E) labor productivities.Answer: D3) The Heckscher-Ohlin model differs from the Ricardian model of Comparative Advantage in that the formerA) has only two countries.B) has only two products.C) has two factors of production.D) has two production possibility frontiers (one for each country).E) None of the above.Answer: C4) "A good cannot be both land- and labor-intensive." Discuss.Answer: In a two good, two factor model, such as the original Heckscher-Ohlin framework, the factorintensities are relative intensities. Hence, the relevant statistic is either workers per acre (or acres perworker); or wage per rental unit (or rental per wage). In order to illustrate the logic of the statementabove, let us assume that the production of a broom requires 4 workers and 1 acre. Also, let us assumethat the production of one bushel of wheat requires 40 workers and 80 acres. In this case the acres perperson required to produce a broom is one quarter, whereas to produce a bushel of wheat requires 2 acres per person. The wheat is therefore (relatively) land intensive, and the broom is (relatively) labor intensive.5) "No country is abundant in everything." Discuss.Answer: The concept of relative (country) factor abundance is (like factor intensities) a relative concept. When we identify a country as being capital intensive, we mean that it has more capital per worker than doesthe other country. If one country has more capital worker than another, it is an arithmeticimpossibility that it also has more workers per unit capital.6) Refer to above figure. Can you guess which group of producers in Country P might lobby against free trade? Answer:In Country P, the owners of the relatively scarce factor of production are the owners of capital. Their relative and realincomes will decrease, and so they may well attempt to lobby for protectionism, which may prevent the country frommoving to a free trade equilibrium.An Economy can produce good 1 using labor and capital and good 2 using labor and land. The total supply of labor is 100 units. Given the supply of capital, the outputs of the two goods depends on labor input as follows:7) Refer to the table above.(a) Graph the production functions for good 1 and good 2(b) Graph the production possibility frontier. Why is it curved?Answer: The production possibility frontier is curved because of the diminishing returns associated with the expansion of output in the short run in each of the two industries.8) In the 2-factor, 2 good Heckscher-Ohlin model, a change from autarky (no trade) to trade will benefit theowners ofA) capital.B) the relatively abundant factor of production.C) the relatively scarce factor of production.D) the relatively inelastic factor of production.E) the factor of production with the largest elasticity of substitution.Answer: B9) According to the Heckscher-Ohlin model, the source of comparative advantage is a country'sA) technology.B) advertising.C) human capital.D) factor endowments.E) Both A and B.Answer: D10) The Hechscher-Ohlin model states that a country will have a comparative advantage in the good or servicewhose production is relatively intensive in the ________ with which the country is relatively abundant.A) tastesB) technologyC) factor of productionD) opportunity costE) scale economyAnswer: C11) According to the Hecksher-Ohlin model,A) everyone automatically gains from trade.B) the scarce factor necessarily gains from trade.C) the gainers could compensate the losers and still retain gains.D) a country gains if its exports have a high value added.E) None of the above.Answer:CAssume that only two countries, A and B, exist.12) Refer to the table above. If good S is capital intensive, then following the Heckscher-Ohlin Theory,A) country A will export good S.B) country B will export good S.C) both countries will export good S.D) trade will not occur between these two countries.E) Insufficient information is given.Answer: B13) In international-trade equilibrium in the Heckscher-Ohlin model,A) the capital rich country will charge less for the capital intensive good than the price paid by the capital poor country for the capital-intensive good.B) the capital rich country will charge the same price for the capital intensive good as that paid for it by the capital poor country.C) the capital rich country will charge more for the capital intensive good than the price paid by the capital poor country for the capital-intensive good.D) the workers in the capital rich country will earn more than those in the poor country.E) the workers in the capital rich country will earn less than those in the poor country.Answer: B14) The Heckscher-Ohlin model predicts all of the following exceptA) which country will export which product.B) which factor of production within each country will gain from trade.C) the volume of trade.D) that wages will tend to become equal in both trading countries.。

国际经济学英文版上册第八版章节练习第五章

International Economics, 8e (Krugman)Chapter 5 The Standard Trade Model1) The concept "terms of trade" meansA) the amount of exports sold by a country、B) the price conditions bargained for in international markets、C) the price of a country's exports divided by the price of its imports、D) the quantities of imports received in free trade、E) None of the above、Answer: C2) A country cannot produce a mix of products with a higher value than whereA) the isovalue line intersects the production possibility frontier、B) the isovalue line is tangent to the production possibility frontier、C) the isovalue line is above the production possibility frontier、D) the isovalue line is below the production possibility frontier、E) the isovalue line is tangent with the indifference curve、Answer: B3) Tastes of individuals are represented byA) the production possibility frontier、B) the isovalue line、C) the indifference curve、D) the production function、E) None of the above、Answer: C4) If P C/P F were to increase in the international marketplace, thenA) all countries would be better off、B) the terms of trade of cloth exporters improve、C) the terms of trade of food exporters improve、D) the terms of trade of all countries improve、E) None of the above、Answer: B5) If P C/P F were to increase,A) the cloth exporter would increase the quantity of cloth exports、B) the cloth exporter would increase the quantity of cloth produced、C) the food exporter would increase the quantity of food exports、D) Both A and C、E) None of the above、Answer: B6) If a small country were to levy a tariff on its imports then this wouldA) have no effect on that country's economic welfare、B) increase the country's economic welfare、C) decrease the country's economic welfare、D) change the terms of trade、E) None of the above、Answer: C7) Suppose now that Home experiences growth strongly biased toward its export, cloth,A) this will tend to worsen Home's terms of trade、B) this will tend to improve Home's terms of trade、C) this will tend to worsen Foreign's terms of trade、D) this will have no effect on Foreign's terms of trade、E) None of the above、Answer: A8) Suppose that Home is a "small country," and it experiences growth strongly biased toward its export, clothA) this will tend to worsen Home's terms of tradeB) this will tend to improve Home's terms of tradeC) this will tend to worsen Foreign's terms of tradeD) this will have no effect on Foreign's terms of tradeE) None of the aboveAnswer: D9) When the production possibility frontier shifts out relatively more in one direction, we haveA) biased growth、B) unbiased growth、C) immiserizing growth、D) balanced growth、E) imbalanced growth、Answer: D10) Export-biased growth in Country H willA) improve the terms of trade of Country H、B) trigger anti-bias regulations of the WTO、C) worsen the terms of trade of Country F (the trade partner)、D) improve the terms of trade of Country F、E) decrease economic welfare in Country H、Answer: D11) If the poor USAID recipient countries have a higher marginal propensity to consume each and every productthan does the United States, then such aid willA) worsen the U.S. terms of trade、B) improve the U.S. terms of trade、C) leave the world terms of trade unaffected、D) worsen the terms of trade of both donor and recipient countries、E) None of the above、Answer: B12) If, beginning from a free trade equilibrium, the (net barter) terms of trade improve for a country, then it willA) increase production of its import competing good、B) increase consumption of its export good、C) increase the quantity of its imports、D) experience an export-biased shift in its production possibility frontier、E) None of the above、Answer: C13) After WWI, Germany was forced to make large reparations-transfers of real income- to France、If themarginal propensity to consume was equal in both countries, and if France's demand was biased toward food (relative to Germany's demand pattern) then we would expect to findA) the world's relative price for food remains unchanged、B) the world's relative price for food increase、C) the world's relative price for food decrease、D) the world relative price for both food and non-food rise、E) None of the above、Answer: B14) During the 19th Century, economic growth of the major trading countries was biased toward manufacturesand away from food、The less developed countries of that time were net exporters of food、From this information, we would expect to have observedA) falling terms of trade for the less developed countries、B) improving (rising) terms of trade for the less developed countries、C) no change at all in the terms of trade of the less developed countries、D) a decrease in the relative price of food、E) None of the above、Answer: B15) Immiserizing growth could occur toA) a poor country experiencing export-biased economic growth、B) a poor country experiencing import-biased economic growth、C) a poor country experiencing growth in its non-traded sector、D) a poor country experiencing capital-intensive biased growth、E) None of the above、Answer: A16) A large country experiencing import-biased economic growth will tend to experienceA) positive terms of trade、B) deteriorating terms of trade、C) improving terms of trade、D) immiserizing terms of trade、E) None of the above、Answer: C17) If a there are no international loans or capital flows, then if a country's terms of trade improve, we wouldfind thatA) the value of its exports exceeds the value of its imports、B) the value of its exports becomes less than that of its imports、C) the value of its exports exactly equals that of its imports、D) the quantity of its exports equals that of its imports、E) None of the above、Answer: C18) If the U、S、Agency for International Development transfers funds to poor countries in Sub-Saharan Africa,the conventional assumption, following Keynes' analysis would presume that this would tend toA) worsen the U.S. terms of trade、B) improve the U.S. terms of trade、C) worsen the terms of trade of the African aid recipients、D) improve the terms of trade of the African aid recipients、E) None of the above、Answer: A19) If a country's growth is biased in favor of its import, this should unequivocally improve its terms of tradeand its economic welfare、Discuss、Answer: Suppose Japan experiences economic growth biased in favor of its import substitutes、For example, assume that Japan imports components and exports final goods, but that it experiences a major growthin its components manufacture sector、Since Japan is internationally a large country in these markets,this would tend to hurt its component supplier's terms of trade (and help Japan's)、However, such abias in economic growth may tend to lessen the volume of international trade、At an extreme, Japanmay become an exporter of components and an importer of final goods、If the result is a lessening ofspecialization and of the volume of trade, then this effect will lower Japan's welfare associated withgains from trade、If an actual change in the pattern of comparative advantage occurs (a possibility)this may cause dynamic dislocations whose harm overpowers static gains for a relatively long periodof time、20) At the conclusion of World War I, Germany, as a punishment, was obliged to make a large transfer to Francein the form of reparations、Is it possible that the actual reparations may have improved Germany'seconomic welfare?Answer: Such a result is not likely、However, theoretically, if France's income elasticity of demand for Germany's exports was higher than Germany's income elasticity of demand for its own exportable,then the real income transfer associated with these reparations may have improved Germany's termsof trade, and improved its balance of payments, thus helping Germany in manner unanticipated in theTreaty of Verssaille、Explain、21) If the U.S. (a large country) imposes a tariff on its imported good, this will tend toA) have no effect on terms of trade、B) improve the terms of trade of all countries、C) improve the terms of trade of the United States、D) cause a deterioration of U.S. terms of trade、E) raise the world price of the good imported by the United States、Answer: C22) If Slovenia is a small country in world trade terms, then if it imposes a large series of tariffs on many of itsimports, this wouldA) have no effect on its terms of trade、B) improve its terms of trade、C) deteriorate its terms of trade、D) decrease its marginal propensity to consume、E) None of the above、Answer: A23) If Slovenia were a large country in world trade, then if it instituted a large set of subsidies for its exports, thismustA) have no effect on its terms of trade、B) improve its terms of trade、C) deteriorate its terms of trade、D) decrease its marginal propensity to consume、E) None of the above、Answer: C24) If Slovenia were a large country in world trade, then if it instituted a large set of subsidies for its exports, thismustA) cause retaliation on the part of its trade partners、B) harm Slovenia's real income、C) improve Slovenia's real income、D) improve the real income of its trade partners、E) None of the above、Answer: D25) An export subsidy has the opposite effect on terms of trade to the effect of an import tariff、Domestically atariff will raise the price of the import good, deteriorating the domestic terms of trade、A productionsubsidy for the export product will lower the local price of the export good, lowering the domestic terms of trade for the country、Hence the export subsidy and the import tariff have the same effect、This analysis seems to contradict the first sentence in this paragraph、Discuss this paradox、Answer: While this (Lerner) equivalence may well occur domestically, internationally the tariff will improve a country's terms of trade、An export subsidy on the other hand will in fact lower the internationalprice of the (now readily available) export good, hence hurting a country's terms of trade、26) Suppose, as a result of various dynamic factors associated with exposure to international competition,Albania's economy grew, and is now represented by the rightmost production possibility frontier in the figure above、If its point of production with trade was point c, would you consider this growth to beexport-biased or import biased? If Albania were a large country with respect to the world trade of A and B, how would this growth affect Albania's terms of trade? Its real income?Answer: If point c is the production point with trade, then Albania has a comparative advantage in good B、Therefore, from the shape of the new production possibility frontier (as compared to the original one),this is clearly an export-biased growth、This ceteris paribus would tend to worsen Albania's terms oftrade、The terms of trade effect would, again ceteris paribus, worsen its real income、However, thegrowth itself acts in the opposite direction、27) Suppose, as a result of various dynamic factors associated with exposure to international competition,Albania's economy grew, and is now represented by the rightmost production possibility frontier in the figure above、If its point of production with trade was point b, would you consider this growth to beexport-biased or import biased? If Albania were a large country with respect to the world trade of A and B, how would this growth affect Albania's terms of trade? Its real income? What if Albania were a small country?Answer: If the production with trade point was point b, then the observed growth is a case of import-biased growth, and would improve Albania's terms of trade、If Albania were a small country, the world'sterms of trade would not change at all、In such a case, economic growth (with no induced change inincome distributions) would always increase its real income、。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第八版课后答案(英文)-Ch08

Chapter 8The Instruments of Trade PolicyChapter OrganizationBasic Tariff AnalysisSupply, Demand, and Trade in a Single IndustryEffects of a TariffMeasuring the Amount of ProtectionCosts and Benefits of a TariffConsumer and Producer SurplusMeasuring the Costs and BenefitsOther Instruments of Trade PolicyExport Subsidies: TheoryCase Study: Europe’s Common Agricultural PolicyImport Quotas: TheoryCase Study: An Import Quota in Practice: U.S. SugarVoluntary Export RestraintsCase Study: A Voluntary Export Restraint in Practice: Japanese Autos Local Content RequirementsBox: American Buses, Made in HungaryOther Trade Policy InstrumentsThe Effects of Trade Policy: A SummarySummaryAppendix I: Tariff Analysis in General EquilibriumA Tariff in a Small CountryA Tariff in a Large CountryAppendix II: Tariffs and Import Quotas in the Presence of Monopoly The Model with Free TradeThe Model with a TariffThe Model with an Import QuotaComparing a Tariff with a QuotaChapter 8 The Instruments of Trade Policy 33Chapter OverviewThis chapter and the next three focus on international trade policy. Students will have heard various arguments for and against restrictive trade practices in the media. Some of these arguments are sound and some are clearly not grounded in fact. This chapter provides a framework for analyzing the economic effects of trade policies by describing the tools of trade policy and analyzing their effects on consumers and producers in domestic and foreign countries. Case studies discuss actual episodes of restrictive trade practices. An instructor might try to underscore the relevance of these issues by having students scan newspapers and magazines for other timely examples of protectionism at work.The analysis presented here takes a partial equilibrium view, focusing on demand and supply in one market, rather than the general equilibrium approach followed in previous chapters. Import demand and export supply curves are derived from domestic and foreign demand and supply curves. There are a number of trade policy instruments analyzed in this chapter using these tools. Some of the important instruments of trade policy include specific tariffs, defined as taxes levied as a fixed charge for each unit of a good imported; ad valorem tariffs, levied as a fraction of the value of the imported good; export subsidies, which are payments given to a firm or industry that ships a good abroad; import quotas, which are direct restrictions on the quantity of some good that may be imported; voluntary export restraints, which are quotas on trading that are imposed by the exporting country instead of the importing country; and local content requirements, which are regulations that require that some specified fraction of a good is produced domestically.The import supply and export demand analysis demonstrates that the imposition of a tariff drives a wedge between prices in domestic and foreign markets, and increases prices in the country imposing the tariff and lowers the price in the other country by less than the amount of the tariff. This contrasts with most textbook presentations which make the small country assumption that the domestic internal price equals the world price times one plus the tariff rate. The actual protection provided by a tariff willnot equal the tariff rate if imported intermediate goods are used in the production of the protected good. The proper measurement, the effective rate of protection, is described in the text and calculated for a sample problem.The analysis of the costs and benefits of trade restrictions require tools of welfare analysis. The text explains the essential tools of consumer and producer surplus. Consumer surplus on each unit sold is defined as the difference between the actual price and the amount that consumers would have been willing to pay for the product. Geometrically, consumer surplus is equal to the area under the demand curve and above the price of the good. Producer surplus is the difference between the minimum amount for which a producer is willing to sell his product and the price which he actually receives. Geometrically, producer surplus is equal to the area above the supply curve and below the price line. These tools are fundamental to the student’s understanding of the implications of trade polici es and should be developed carefully. The costs of a tariff include distortionary efficiency losses in both consumption and production. A tariff provides gains from terms of trade improvement when and if it lowers the foreign export price. Summing the areas in a diagram of internal demand and supply provides a method for analyzing the net loss or gain from a tariff.Other instruments of trade policy can be analyzed with this method. An export subsidy operates in exactly the reverse fashion of an import tariff. An import quota has similar effects as an import tariff upon prices and quantities, but revenues, in the form of quota rents, accrue to foreign producers of the protected good. Voluntary export restraints are a form of quotas in which import licenses are held by foreign governments. Local content requirements raise the price of imports and domestic goods and do not result in either government revenue or quota rents.34 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth EditionThroughout the chapter the analysis of different trade restrictions are illustrated by drawing upon specific episodes. Europe’s common agricultural policy provides and example of export subsidies in action. The case study corresponding to quotas describes trade restrictions on U.S. sugar imports. Voluntary export restraints are discussed in the context of Japanese auto sales to the United States. The oil import quota in the United States in the 1960’s provides an example of a local content scheme.There are two appendices to this chapter. Appendix I uses a general equilibrium framework to analyze the impact of a tariff, departing from the partial equilibrium approach taken in the chapter. When a small country imposes a tariff, it shifts production away from its exported good and toward the imported good. Consumption shifts toward the domestically produced goods. Both the volume of trade and welfare of the country decline. A large country imposing a tariff can improve its terms of trade by an amount potentially large enough to offset the production and consumption distortions. For a large country, a tariff may be welfare improving.Appendix II discusses tariffs and import quotas in the presence of a domestic monopoly. Free trade eliminates the monopoly power of a domestic producer and the monopolist mimics the actions of a firm in a perfectly competitive market, setting output such that marginal cost equals world price. A tariff raises domestic price. The monopolist, still facing a perfectly elastic demand curve, sets output such that marginal cost equals internal price. A monopolist faces a downward sloping demand curve under a quota.A quota is not equivalent to a tariff in this case. Domestic production is lower and internal price higher when a particular level of imports is obtained through the imposition of a quota rather than a tariff.Answers to Textbook Problems1. The import demand equation, MD, is found by subtracting the home supply equation from the homedemand equation. This results in MD= 80 - 40 ⨯P. Without trade, domestic prices and quantities adjust such that import demand is zero. Thus, the price in the absence of trade is 2.2. a. Foreign’s export supply curve, XS, is XS=-40 + 40⨯P. In the absence of trade, the price is 1.b. When trade occurs, export supply is equal to import demand, XS=MD. Thus, using theequations from Problems 1 and 2a, P= 1.50, and the volume of trade is 20.3. a. The new MD curve is 80 - 40 ⨯ (P+ t) where t is the specific tariff rate, equal to 0.5. (Note: Insolving these problems, you should be careful about whether a specific tariff or ad valorem tariff is imposed. With an ad valorem tariff, the MD equation would be expressed as MD= 80 - 40 ⨯(1 + t)P.) The equation for the export supply curve by the foreign country is unchanged. Solving,we find that the world price is $1.25, and thus the internal price at home is $1.75. The volume of trade has been reduced to 10, and the total demand for wheat at home has fallen to 65 (from thefree trade level of 70). The total demand for wheat in Foreign has gone up from 50 to 55.b. andc. The welfare of the home country is best studied using the combined numerical andgraphical solutions presented below in Figure 8.1.Figure 8.1Chapter 8 The Instruments of Trade Policy 35where the areas in the figure are:a.55(1.75 - 1.50) -0.5(55 - 50)(1.75 - 1.50) = 13.125b. 0.5(55 - 50)(1.75 - 1.50) = 0.625c. (65 - 55)(1.75 - 1.50) = 2.50d. 0.5(70 - 65)(1.75 - 1.50) = 0.625e. (65 - 55)(1.50 - 1.25) = 2.50Consumer surplus change: -(a+ b+ c+ d) =-16.875. Producer surplus change: a= 13.125.Government revenue change: c+ e= 5. Efficiency losses b+ d are exceeded by terms of tradegain e. (Note: In the calculations for the a, b, and d areas, a figure of 0.5 shows up. This isbecause we are measuring the area of a triangle, which is one-half of the area of the rectangledefined by the product of the horizontal and vertical sides.)4. Using the same solution methodology as in Problem 3, when the home country is very small relativeto the foreign country, its effects on the terms of trade are expected to be much less. The smallcountry is much more likely to be hurt by its imposition of a tariff. Indeed, this intuition is shown in this problem. The free trade equilibrium is now at the price $1.09 and the trade volume is now$36.40.With the imposition of a tariff of 0.5 by Home, the new world price is $1.045, the internal home price is $1.545, home demand is 69.10 units, home supply is 50.90, and the volume of trade is 18.20.When Home is relatively small, the effect of a tariff on world price is smaller than when Home is relatively large. When Foreign and Home were closer in size, a tariff of 0.5 by home lowered world price by 25 percent, whereas in this case the same tariff lowers world price by about 5 percent. The internal Home price is now closer to the free trade price plus t than when Home was relatively large.In this case, the government revenues from the tariff equal 9.10, the consumer surplus loss is 33.51, and the producer surplus gain is 21.089. The distortionary losses associated with the tariff (areas b+ d) sum to 4.14 and the terms of trade gain (e) is 0.819. Clearly, in this small country example, the distortionary losses from the tariff swamp the terms of trade gains. The general lesson is the smaller the economy, the larger the losses from a tariff since the terms of trade gains are smaller.5. ERP = (200 ⨯ 1.50 - 200)/100 = 100%6. The effective rate of protection takes into consideration the costs of imported intermediate goods.Here, 55% of the cost can be imported, suggesting with no distortion, home value added would be 45%. A 15% increase in the price of ethanol, though, means home value added could be as high as 60%. Effective rate of protection = (V t-V w)/V w, where V t is the value added in the presence of trade policies, and V w is the value added without trade distortions. In this case, we have (60 - 45)/45 = 33% effective rate of protection.7. We first use the foreign export supply and domestic import demand curves to determine the newworld price. The foreign supply of exports curve, with a foreign subsidy of 50 percent per unit,becomes XS=-40 + 40(1 + 0.5) ⨯P. The equilibrium world price is 1.2 and the internal foreign price is 1.8. The volume of trade is 32. The foreign demand and supply curves are used to determine the costs and benefits of the subsidy. Construct a diagram similar to that in the text and calculate the area of the various polygons. The government must provide (1.8 - 1.2)⨯ 32 = 19.2 units of output to support the subsidy. Foreign producers surplus rises due to the subsidy by the amount of 15.3 units of output. Foreign consumers surplus falls due to the higher price by 7.5 units of the good. Thus, the net loss to Foreign due to the subsidy is 7.5 + 19.2 - 15.3 = 11.4 units of output. Home consumers and producers face an internal price of 1.2 as a result of the subsidy. Home consumers surplus rises by 70 ⨯ 0.3 + 0.5 (6⨯ 0.3) = 21.9, while Home producers surplus falls by 44 ⨯ 0.3 + 0.5(6 ⨯ 0.3) =14.1, for a net gain of 7.8 units of output.36 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth Edition8. a. False, unemployment has more to do with labor market issues and the business cycle than withtariff policy.b. False, the opposite is true because tariffs by large countries can actually reduce world priceswhich helps offset their effects on consumers.c. This kind of policy might reduce automobile production and Mexico, but also would increase theprice of automobiles in the United States, and would result in the same welfare loss associatedwith any quota.9. At a price of $10 per bag of peanuts, Acirema imports 200 bags of peanuts. A quota limiting theimport of peanuts to 50 bags has the following effects:a. The price of peanuts rises to $20 per bag.b. The quota rents are ($20 - $10) ⨯ 50 = $500.c. The consumption distortion loss is 0.5 ⨯ 100 bags ⨯ $10 per bag = $500.d. The production distortion loss is 0.5 ⨯ 50 bags ⨯ $10 per bag = $250.10. The reason is largely that the benefits of these policies accrue to a small group of people and thecosts are spread out over many people. Thus, those that benefit care far more deeply about these policies. These typical political economy problems associated with trade policy are probably even more troublesome in agriculture, where there are long standing cultural reasons for farmers andfarming communities to want to hold onto their way of life, making the interests even moreentrenched than they would normally be.11. It would improve the income distribution within the economy since wages in manufacturing wouldincrease, and real incomes for others in the economy would decrease due to higher prices formanufactured goods. This is true only under the assumption that manufacturing wages are lower than all others in the economy. If they were higher than others in the economy, the tariff policies would worsen the income distribution.。

国际经济学英文版上册(第八版)章节练习第五章

精选文档International Economics, 8e (Krugman)Chapter 5The Standard Trade Model1)The concept "terms of trade" meansA)the amount of exports sold by a country.B)the price conditions bargained for in international markets.C)the price of a country's exports divided by the price of its imports.D)the quantities of imports received in free trade.E)None of the above.Answer: C2)A country cannot produce a mix of products with a higher value than whereA)the isovalue line intersects the production possibility frontier.B)the isovalue line is tangent to the production possibility frontier.C)the isovalue line is above the production possibility frontier.D)the isovalue line is below the production possibility frontier.E)the isovalue line is tangent with the indifference curve.Answer: B3)Tastes of individuals are represented byA)the production possibility frontier.B)the isovalue line.C)the indifference curve.D)the production function.E)None of the above.Answer: C4)If P C /P F were to increase in the international marketplace, thenA)all countries would be better off.B)the terms of trade of cloth exporters improve.C)the terms of trade of food exporters improve.D)the terms of trade of all countries improve.E)None of the above.Answer: B5)If P C /P F were to increase,A)the cloth exporter would increase the quantity of cloth exports.B)the cloth exporter would increase the quantity of cloth produced.C)the food exporter would increase the quantity of food exports.D)Both A and C.E)None of the above.Answer: B精选文档6)If a small country were to levy a tariff on its imports then this wouldA)have no effect on that country's economic welfare.B)increase the country's economic welfare.C)decrease the country's economic welfare.D)change the terms of trade.E)None of the above.Answer: C7)Suppose now that Home experiences growth strongly biased toward its export, cloth,A)this will tend to worsen Home's terms of trade.B)this will tend to improve Home's terms of trade.C)this will tend to worsen Foreign's terms of trade.D)this will have no effect on Foreign's terms of trade.E)None of the above.Answer: A8)Suppose that Home is a "small country," and it experiences growth strongly biased toward its export, clothA)this will tend to worsen Home's terms of tradeB)this will tend to improve Home's terms of tradeC)this will tend to worsen Foreign's terms of tradeD)this will have no effect on Foreign's terms of tradeE)None of the aboveAnswer: D9)When the production possibility frontier shifts out relatively more in one direction, we haveA)biased growth.B)unbiased growth.C)immiserizing growth.D)balanced growth.E)imbalanced growth.Answer:D10)Export -biased growth in Country H willA)improve the terms of trade of Country H.B) trigger anti -bias regulations of the WTO.C)worsen the terms of trade of Country F (the trade partner).D)improve the terms of trade of Country F.E)decrease economic welfare in Country H.Answer: D精选文档11) If the poor USAID recipient countries have a higher marginal propensity to consume each and every productthan does the United States, then such aid willA)worsen the U.S. terms of trade.B)improve the U.S. terms of trade.C)leave the world terms of trade unaffected.D)worsen the terms of trade of both donor and recipient countries.E)None of the above.Answer: B12)If, beginning from a free trade equilibrium, the (net barter) terms of trade improve for a country, then it willA)increase production of its import competing good.B)increase consumption of its export good.C)increase the quantity of its imports.D) experience an export -biased shift in its production possibility frontier.E)None of the above.Answer: C13) After WWI, Germany was forced to make large reparations-transfers of real income - to France. If themarginal propensity to consume was equal in both countries, and if France's demand was biasedtoward food (relative to Germany's demand pattern) then we would expect to findA)the world's relative price for food remains unchanged.B)the world's relative price for food increase.C)the world's relative price for food decrease.D) the world relative price for both food and non-food rise.E)None of the above.Answer: B14)During the 19th Century, economic growth of the major trading countries was biased towardmanufactures and away from food. The less developed countries of that time were net exporters of food.From this information, we would expect to have observedA)falling terms of trade for the less developed countries.B)improving (rising) terms of trade for the less developed countries.C)no change at all in the terms of trade of the less developed countries.D) a decrease in the relative price of food.E)None of the above.Answer: B15) Immiserizing growth could occur toA) a poor country experiencing export-biased economic growth.B)a poor country experiencing import-biased economic growth.C)a poor country experiencing growth in its non-traded sector.D) a poor country experiencing capital-intensive biased growth.E)None of the above.Answer: A精选文档16) A large country experiencing import-biased economic growth will tend to experienceA)positive terms of trade.B)deteriorating terms of trade.C)improving terms of trade.D)immiserizing terms of trade.E)None of the above.Answer: C17)If a there are no international loans or capital flows, then if a country's terms of trade improve, we wouldfind thatA)the value of its exports exceeds the value of its imports.B)the value of its exports becomes less than that of its imports.C)the value of its exports exactly equals that of its imports.D)the quantity of its exports equals that of its imports.E)None of the above.Answer: C18) If the U.S. Agency for International Development transfers funds to poor countries in Sub-Saharan Africa,the conventional assumption, following Keynes' analysis would presume that this would tend toA) worsen the U.S. terms of trade.B) improve the U.S. terms of trade.C) worsen the terms of trade of the African aid recipients.D) improve the terms of trade of the African aid recipients.E) None of the above.Answer: A19)If a country's growth is biased in favor of its import, this should unequivocally improve its terms oftrade and its economic welfare. Discuss.Answer: Suppose Japan experiences economic growth biased in favor of its import substitutes. For example, assume that Japan imports components and exports final goods, but that it experiences a majorgrowth in its components manufacture sector. Since Japan is internationally a large country in thesemarkets, this would tend to hurt its component supplier's terms of trade (and help Japan's). However,such a bias in economic growth may tend to lessen the volume of international trade. At an extreme,Japan may become an exporter of components and an importer of final goods. If the result is alessening of specialization and of the volume of trade, then this effect will lower Japan's welfareassociated with gains from trade. If an actual change in the pattern of comparative advantage occurs(a possibility) this may cause dynamic dislocations whose harm overpowers static gains for a relativelylong period of time.20)At the conclusion of World War I, Germany, as a punishment, was obliged to make a large transfer toFrance in the form of reparations. Is it possible that the actual reparations may have improved Germany'seconomic welfare?Answer: Such a result is not likely. However, theoretically, if France's income elasticity of demand forGermany's exports was higher than Germany's income elasticity of demand for its own exportable,then the real income transfer associated with these reparations may have improved Germany's termsof trade, and improved its balance of payments, thus helping Germany in manner unanticipated inthe Treaty of Verssaille. Explain.精选文档21) If the U.S. (a large country) imposes a tariff on its imported good, this will tend toA)have no effect on terms of trade.B)improve the terms of trade of all countries.C)improve the terms of trade of the United States.D)cause a deterioration of U.S. terms of trade.E)raise the world price of the good imported by the United States.Answer: C22)If Slovenia is a small country in world trade terms, then if it imposes a large series of tariffs on many of itsimports, this wouldA)have no effect on its terms of trade.B)improve its terms of trade.C)deteriorate its terms of trade.D)decrease its marginal propensity to consume.E)None of the above.Answer: A23) If Slovenia were a large country in world trade, then if it instituted a large set of subsidies for its exports, thismustA)have no effect on its terms of trade.B)improve its terms of trade.C)deteriorate its terms of trade.D)decrease its marginal propensity to consume.E)None of the above.Answer: C24) If Slovenia were a large country in world trade, then if it instituted a large set of subsidies for its exports, thismustA)cause retaliation on the part of its trade partners.B)harm Slovenia's real income.C)improve Slovenia's real income.D)improve the real income of its trade partners.E)None of the above.Answer: D25)An export subsidy has the opposite effect on terms of trade to the effect of an import tariff. Domestically atariff will raise the price of the import good, deteriorating the domestic terms of trade. A production subsidyfor the export product will lower the local price of the export good, lowering the domestic terms of trade forthe country. Hence the export subsidy and the import tariff have the same effect. This analysis seems tocontradict the first sentence in this paragraph. Discuss this paradox.Answer: While this (Lerner) equivalence may well occur domestically, internationally the tariff will improve a country's terms of trade. An export subsidy on the other hand will in fact lower the internationalprice of the (now readily available) export good, hence hurting a country's terms of trade.精选文档26) Suppose, as a result of various dynamic factors associated with exposure to international competition,Albania's economy grew, and is now represented by the rightmost production possibility frontier inthe figure above. If its point of production with trade was point c, would you consider this growth to beexport -biased or import biased? If Albania were a large country with respect to the world trade of A and B,how would this growth affect Albania's terms of trade? Its real income?Answer: If point c is the production point with trade, then Albania has a comparative advantage in good B.Therefore, from the shape of the new production possibility frontier (as compared to the original one),this is clearly an export-biased growth. This ceteris paribus would tend to worsen Albania's terms oftrade. The terms of trade effect would, again ceteris paribus , worsen its real income. However, the growth itself acts in the opposite direction.27)Suppose, as a result of various dynamic factors associated with exposure to international competition,Albania's economy grew, and is now represented by the rightmost production possibility frontier in thefigure above. If its point of production with trade was point b, would you consider this growth to beexport -biased or import biased? If Albania were a large country with respect to the world trade of A and B,how would this growth affect Albania's terms of trade? Its real income? What if Albania were a small country ?Answer: If the production with trade point was point b, then the observed growth is a case of import-biased growth, and would improve Albania's terms of trade. If Albania were a small country, the world'sterms of trade would not change at all. In such a case, economic growth (with no induced change inincome distributions) would always increase its real income.。

国际经济学英文版(第八版)章节练习第四章

International Economics, 8e (Krugman)Chapter 4 Resources, Comparative Advantage, and Income Distribution1) In the 2-factor, 2 good Heckscher-Ohlin model, an influx of workers from across the border wouldA) move the point of production along the production possibility curve.B) s hift the production possibility curve outward, and increase the production of both goods.C) s hift the production possibility curve outward and decrease the production of the labor-intensiveproduct.D) shift the production possibility curve outward and decrease the production of the capital-intensiveproduct.E) N one of the above.Answer: D2) In the 2-factor, 2 good Heckscher-Ohlin model, the two countries differ inA) tastes.B) m ilitary capabilities.C) s ize.D) relative availabilities of factors of production.E) l abor productivities.Answer: D3) The Heckscher-Ohlin model differs from the Ricardian model of Comparative Advantage in that the formerA) has only two countries.B) h as only two products.C) h as two factors of production.D) has two production possibility frontiers (one for each country).E) N one of the above.Answer: C4) "A good cannot be both land- and labor-intensive." Discuss.Answer: In a two good, two factor model, such as the original Heckscher-Ohlin framework, the factorintensities are relative intensities. Hence, the relevant statistic is either workers per acre (or acres perworker); or wage per rental unit (or rental per wage). In order to illustrate the logic of the statementabove, let us assume that the production of a broom requires 4 workers and 1 acre. Also, let us assumethat the production of one bushel of wheat requires 40 workers and 80 acres. In this case the acres perperson required to produce a broom is one quarter, whereas to produce a bushel of wheat requires 2acres per person. The wheat is therefore (relatively) land intensive, and the broom is (relatively) laborintensive.5) "No country is abundant in everything." Discuss.Answer: The concept of relative (country) factor abundance is (like factor intensities) a relative concept. When we identify a country as being capital intensive, we mean that it has more capital per worker than doesthe other country. If one country has more capital worker than another, it is an arithmeticimpossibility that it also has more workers per unit capital.6) Refer to above figure. Can you guess which group of producers in Country P might lobby against free trade?Answer:In Country P, the owners of the relatively scarce factor of production are the owners of capital. Their relative and real incomes will decrease, and so they may well attempt to lobby for protectionism, which may prevent the country from moving to a free trade equilibrium.An Economy can produce good 1 using labor and capital and good 2 using labor and land. The total supply of labor is 100units. Given the supply of capital, the outputs of the two goods depends on labor input as follows:7) Refer to the table above.(a) Graph the production functions for good 1 and good 2(b) Graph the production possibility frontier. Why is it curved?Answer: The production possibility frontier is curved because of the diminishing returns associated with the expansion of output in the short run in each of the two industries.8) In the 2-factor, 2 good Heckscher-Ohlin model, a change from autarky (no trade) to trade will benefit theowners ofA) capital.B) t he relatively abundant factor of production.C) t he relatively scarce factor of production.D) the relatively inelastic factor of production.E) t he factor of production with the largest elasticity of substitution.Answer: B9) According to the Heckscher-Ohlin model, the source of comparative advantage is a country'sA) technology.B) a dvertising.C) h uman capital.D) factor endowments.E) B oth A and B.Answer: D10) The Hechscher-Ohlin model states that a country will have a comparative advantage in the good or servicewhose production is relatively intensive in the ________ with which the country is relatively abundant.A) tastesB) t echnologyC) f actor of productionD) opportunity costE) s cale economyAnswer: C11) According to the Hecksher-Ohlin model,A) everyone automatically gains from trade.B) t he scarce factor necessarily gains from trade.C) t he gainers could compensate the losers and still retain gains.D) a country gains if its exports have a high value added.E) N one of the above.Answer: CAssume that only two countries, A and B, exist.12) Refer to the table above. If good S is capital intensive, then following the Heckscher-Ohlin Theory,A) country A will export good S.B) c ountry B will export good S.C) b oth countries will export good S.D) trade will not occur between these two countries.E) I nsufficient information is given.Answer: B13) In international-trade equilibrium in the Heckscher-Ohlin model,A) the capital rich country will charge less for the capital intensive good than the price paid by the capitalpoor country for the capital-intensive good.B) t he capital rich country will charge the same price for the capital intensive good as that paid for it bythe capital poor country.C) t he capital rich country will charge more for the capital intensive good than the price paid by the capitalpoor country for the capital-intensive good.D) the workers in the capital rich country will earn more than those in the poor country.E) t he workers in the capital rich country will earn less than those in the poor country.Answer: B14) The Heckscher-Ohlin model predicts all of the following exceptA) which country will export which product.B) w hich factor of production within each country will gain from trade.C) t he volume of trade.D) that wages will tend to become equal in both trading countries.E) N one of the above.Answe: C15) If Australia has relatively more land per worker, and Belgium has relatively more capital per worker, then iftrade were to open up between these two countries,A) the relative price of the capital-intensive product would rise in Australia.B) t he world price of the land-intensive product would be higher than it had been in Belgium.C) t he world price of the land intensive product would be higher than it had been in Australia.D) the relative price of the land intensive product would rise in Belgium.E) N one of the above.Answer: C16) If Australia has more land per worker, and Belgium has more capital per worker, then if trade were to openup between these two countries,A) the real income of capital owners in Australia would rise.B) t he real income of labor in Australia would clearly rise.C) t he real income of labor in Belgium would clearly rise.D) the real income of landowners in Belgium would fall.E) t he real incomes of capital owners in both countries would rise.Answer: D17) The reason trade clearly benefits a country is thatA) it raises the real income of the more productive elements in society.B) i t lowers the real income of the less productive elements in society.C) i t increases the levels of consumption of everyone.D) it increases society's consumption choices.E) N one of the above.Answer: D18) International trade leads to complete equalization of factor prices. Discuss.Answer: This statement is typically "true . . . but." Under a strict and limited set of assumptions, such as the original Heckscher-Ohlin model which excludes country specific technologies; non- homothetic tastes;factor intensity reversals; large country differences in (relative) factor abundances, more factors thangoods, and an equilibrium solution within the "cone of specialization"; then it may be demonstratedthat internal consistency demands that the above stated sentence is "true." However, the minute onerelaxes any of the above listed assumptions one may easily identify solutions, which contradict thefactor price equalization theorem.19) Starting from an autarky (no-trade) situation with Heckscher-Ohlin model, if Country H is relatively laborabundant, then once trade beginsA) wages and rents should rise in H.B) w ages and rents should fall in H.C) w ages should rise and rents should fall in H.D) wages should fall and rents should rise in H.E) N one of the above.Answer: C20) According to the Heckscher-Ohlin model, if the United States is richly endowed in human-capital relative toMexico, then as NAFTA increasingly leads to more bilateral free trade between the two countries,A) the United States will find its industrial base sucked into Mexico.B) M exico will find its relatively highly skilled workers drawn to the United States.C) t he wages of highly skilled U.S. workers will be drawn down to Mexican levels.D) the wages of highly skilled Mexican workers will rise to those in the United States.E) t he wages of highly skilled Mexican workers will fall to those in the United States.Answer: E21) International trade has strong effects on income distributions. Therefore, international tradeA) is beneficial to everyone in both trading countries.B) w ill tend to hurt one trading country.C) w ill tend to hurt some groups in each trading country.D) will tend to hurt everyone in both countries.E) w ill be beneficial to all those engaged in international trade.Answer: C22) Groups that lose from trade tend to lobby the government toA) shift the direction of comparative advantage.B) a bolish the Specific Factor model from practical application.C) p rovide public support for the relatively efficient sectors.D) provide protection for the relatively inefficient sectors.E) N one of the above.Answer: D23) The Leontieff ParadoxA) supported the validity of the Ricardian theory of comparative advantage.B) s upported the validity of the Heckscher-Ohlin model.C) f ailed to support the validity of the Ricardian theory.D) failed to support the validity of the Heckscher-Ohlin model.E) p roved that the U.S. economy is different from all others.Answer: D24) The Leontieff ParadoxA) refers to the finding that U.S. exports were more labor intensive than its imports.B) r efers to the finding that U.S. Exports were more capital intensive than its exports.C) r efers to the finding that the U.S. produces outside its Edgeworth Box.D) still accurately applies to today's pattern of U.S. international trade.E) r efers to the fact that Leontieff an American economist had a Russian name.Answer: AAnswers to TextbookProblems 2. a. The box diagram has 600 as the length of two sides (representing labor)and 60 as the length of the other two sides (representing land). There will be a ray fromeach of the two corners representing the origins. To find the slopes of these rays we usethe information from the question concerning the ratios of the production coefficients.The question states that a LC/a TC= 20 and a LF/a TF= 5.Since a LC/a TC= (L C/Q C)/(T C/Q C) =L C/T C we have L C= 20T C. Using the samereasoning, a LF/a TF= (L F/Q F)/(T F/Q F) =L F/T F and since this ratio equals 5, we have L F= 5T F. We can solve this algebraically since L=L C+ L F= 600 and T=T C+ T F= 60.The solution is L C= 400, T C= 20, L F= 200 and T F= 40.b. The dimensions of the box change with each increase in available labor, but theslopes of the rays from the origins remain the same. The solutions in the different casesare as follows.L= 800: T C= 33.33, L C= 666.67, T F= 26.67, L F= 133.33L= 1000: T C= 46.67, L C= 933.33, T F= 13.33, L F= 66.67L= 1200: T C= 60, L C= 1200, T F= 0, L F= 0. (completespecialization).c. At constant factor prices, some labor would be unused, so factor prices wouldhave to change, or there would be unemployment.。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)课后习题详解

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（第8版）课后习题详解克鲁格曼《国际经济学》(第8版)课后习题详解第1章绪论本章不是考试的重点章节，建议读者对本章内容只作大致了解即可，本章没有相关的课后习题。

第1篇国际贸易理论第2章世界贸易概览一、概念题1>(发展中国家(developing countries)答:发展中国家是与发达国家相对的经济上比较落后的国家，又称“欠发达国家”或“落后国家”。

通常指第三世界国家，包括亚洲、非洲、拉丁美洲及其他地区的130多个国家。

衡量一国是否为发展中国家的具体标准有很多种，如经济学家刘易斯和世界银行均提出过界定发展中国家的标准。

一般而言，凡人均收入低于美国人均收入的五分之一的国家就被定义为发展中国家。

比较贫困和落后是发展中国家的共同特点。

2>(服务外包(service outsourcing)答:服务外包是指企业将其非核心的业务外包出去，利用外部最优秀的专业化团队来承接其业务，从而使其专注于核心业务，达到降低成本、提高效率、增强企业核心竞争力和对环境应变能力的一种管理模式。

20世纪90年代以来，随着信息技术的迅速发展，特别是互联网的普遍存在及广泛应用，服务外包得到蓬勃发展。

从美国到英国，从欧洲到亚洲，无论是中小企业还是跨国公司，都把自己有限的资源集中于公司的核心能力上而将其余业务交给外部专业公司，服务外包成为“发达经济中不断成长的现象”。

3>(引力模型(gravity model)答:丁伯根和波伊赫能的引力模型基本表达式为:其中，是国与国的贸易额，为常量，是国的国内生产总值，是国的国内生产总值，是两国的距离。

、、三个参数是用来拟合实际的经济数据。

引力模型方程式表明:其他条件不变的情况下，两国间的贸易规模与两国的GDP成正比，与两国间的距离成反比。

把整个世界贸易看成整体，可利用引力模型来预测任意两国之间的贸易规模。

另外，引力模型也可以用来明确国际贸易中的异常现象。

4>(第三世界(third world)答:第三世界这个名词原本是指法国大革命中的Third Estate(第三阶级)。

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第八版课后答案（英文）-Ch06

克鲁格曼《国际经济学》第八版课后答案（英文）-Ch06Chapter 6Economies of Scale, Imperfect Competition, and International TradeChapter OrganizationEconomies of Scale and International Trade: An OverviewEconomies of Scale and Market StructureThe Theory of Imperfect CompetitionMonopoly: A Brief ReviewMonopolistic CompetitionLimitations of the Monopolistic Competition ModelMonopolistic Competition and TradeThe Effects of Increased Market SizeGains from an Integrated Market: A Numerical ExampleEconomies of Scale and Comparative AdvantageThe Significance of Intraindustry TradeWhy Intraindustry Trade MattersCase Study: Intraindustry Trade in Action: The North American Auto Pact DumpingThe Economics of DumpingCase Study: Anti-Dumping as ProtectionReciprocal DumpingThe Theory of External EconomiesSpecialized SuppliersLabor Market PoolingKnowledge SpilloversExternal Economies and Increasing Returns22 Krugman/Obstfeld ?International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth EditionExternal Economies and International TradeExternal Economies and the Pattern of TradeTrade and Welfare with External EconomiesBox: Tinseltown EconomicsDynamic Increasing ReturnsEconomic Geography and Interregional TradeSummaryAppendix: Determining Marginal RevenueChapter OverviewIn previous chapters, trade between nations was motivated by their differences in factor productivity or relative factor endowments. The type of trade which occurred, for example of food for manufactures, is based on comparative advantage and is called interindustry trade. This chapter introduces trade based on economies of scale in production. Such trade in similar productions is called intraindustry trade, and describes, for example, the trading of one type of manufactured good for another type of manufactured good. It is shown that trade can occur when there are no technological or endowment differences, but when there are economies of scale or increasing returns in production.Economies of scale can either take the form of (1) external economies, whereby the cost per unit depends on the size of the industry but not necessarily on the size of the firm; or as (2) internal economies, whereby the production cost per unit of output depends on the size of the individual firm but not necessarily on the size of the industry. Internal economies of scale give rise to imperfectly competitive markets, unlike the perfectly competitive market structures that were assumed to exist in earlier chapters. This motivatesthe review of models of imperfect competition, including monopoly and monopolistic competition. The instructor should spend some time making certain that students understand the equilibrium concepts of these models since they are important for the justification of intraindustry trade.In markets described by monopolistic competition, there are a number of firms in an industry, each of which produces a differentiated product. Demand for its good depends on the number of other similar products available and their prices. This type of model is useful for illustrating that trade improves the trade-off between scale and variety available to a country. In an industry described by monopolistic competition, a larger market—such as that which arises through international trade—lowers average price (by increasing production and lowering average costs) and makes available for consumption a greater range of goods. While an integrated market also supports the existence of a larger number of firms in an industry, the model presented in the text does not make predictions about where these industries will be located.It is also interesting to compare the distributional effects of trade when motivated by comparative advantage with those when trade is motivated by increasing returns to scale in production. When countries are similar in their factor endowments, and when scale economies and product differentiation are important, the income distributional effects of trade will be small. You should make clear to the students the sharp contrast between the predictions of the models of monopolistic competition and the specific factors and Heckscher-Ohlin theories of international trade. Without clarification, some students may find the contrasting predictionsof these models confusing.Another important issue related to imperfectly competitive markets is the practice of price discrimination, namely charging different customers different prices. One particularly controversial form of price discrimination is dumping, whereby a firm charges lower prices for exported goods than for goods sold domestically. This can occur only when domestic and foreign markets are segmented. The economicsChapter 6 Economies of Scale, Imperfect Competition, and International Trade 23 of dumping are illustrated in the text using the example of an industry which contains a single monopolistic firm selling in the domestic and foreign market. Reverse dumping can also occur, whereby a producer sells a product at lower prices in the domestic market than in the foreign market. While there is no good economic justification for the view that dumping is harmful, it is often viewed as an unfair trade practice.The other type of economies of scale, external economies, has very different economic implicationsthan internal economies. Since external economies of scale occur at the industry level rather than the firm level, it is possible for there to be many small competitors in an industry, in contrast to the structure which develops under internal economies of scale. Under external economies, trade may not be beneficial to all countries and there may be some justification for protectionism. Dynamic scale economies, which arise when unit production costs fall with cumulative production over time, rather than with current levels of production, also provide a potential justification for protectionism. External economies of scale can also be important for explaining interregional trade (trade within a country). While some industries need to belocated near a particular factor (e.g., a natural resource), for others, the factors (e.g., skilled labor) are fairly mobile. Historical accidents may help explain the patterns then. This study of the patterns of economic interactions across space—either within or across countries—is known as economic geography.Answers to Textbook Problems1. Cases a and d reflect external economies of scale since concentration of the production of an industryin a few locations reduces the industry’s costs even when the scale of operation of individual firms remains small. External economies need not lead to imperfect competition. The benefits of geographical concentration may include a greater variety of specialized services to support industry operations and larger labor markets or thicker input markets. Cases b and c reflect internal economies of scale and occur at the level of the individual firm. The larger the output of a product by a particular firm, the lower its average costs. This leads to imperfect competition as in petrochemicals, aircraft, and autos.2. The profit maximizing output level of a monopolist occurs where marginal revenue equals marginalcost. Unlike the case of perfectly competitive markets, under monopoly marginal revenue is not equal to price. Marginal revenue is always less than price under imperfectly competitive markets because to sell an extra unit of output, the firm must lower the price of all units, not just the marginal one.3. By concentrating the production of each good with economies of scale in one country rather thanspreading the production over several countries, the world economy will use the same amount of labor to produce more output. In the monopolistic competition model, such aconcentration of labor benefits the host country, which can also capture some monopoly rents, while it may hurt the rest of the world which could then face higher prices on its consumption goods. In the external economies case, such monopolistic pricing behavior is less likely since imperfectly competitive markets are less likely.4. Although this problem is a bit tricky and the numbers don’t work out nicely, a solution does exist.The first step in finding the solution is to determine the equilibrium number of firms in the industry.The equilibrium number of firms is that number, n, at which price equals average cost. We know that AC= F/X+c, where F represents fixed costs of production, X represents the level of sales by each firm, and c represents marginal costs. We also know that P= c+ (1/bn), where P and b represent price and the demand parameter. Also, if all firms follow the same pricing rule, then X= S/n where S equals total industry sales. So, set price equal to average cost, cancel out the c’s and replace X by S/n.Rearranging what is left yields the formula n2= S/Fb. Substitute in S= 900,000 + 1,600,000 +3,750,000 = 6,250,000, F= 750,000,000 and b= 1/30,000. The numerical answer is that n= 15.8 firms.However, since you will never see 0.8 firms, there will be 15 firms that enter the market, not 16 firms since the last firm knows that it can not make positive profits. The rest of the solution is straight-forward. Using X= S/n, output per firm is 41,666 units. Using the price equation, and the fact that c= 5,000, yields an equilibrium price of $7,000.24 Krugman/Obstfeld ?International Economics: Theory andPolicy, Eighth Edition5. a. 17,000 + 150/n= 5,000,000,000n/S+ 17,000. With S US= 300 million, the number of automakersequals three. With S E= 533 million, the number of automakers equals four.b. P US= 17,000 + 150/3, P US= $17,050. P E= 17,000 + 150/4, P US= $17,037.50.c. 17,000 + 150/n= 5,000,000,000n/S+ 17,000. With S US+E= 833 million, the number of totalautomakers now equals five. This helps to explain some of the consolidation that has happenedin the industry since trade has become more free in recent decades, e.g., Ford acquiring Jaguar,Daimler-Benz acquiring Chrysler, etc.d. Prices fall in the United States as well as Europe to $17,030. Also, variety increases in bothmarkets: in the United States, consumers were able to choose between three brands before freetrade; now they can choose between five. In Europe, consumers were able to choose betweenfour brands before free trade; now they can also choose between five brands.6. This is an open-ended question. Looking at the answer to Question 11 can provide some hints. Twoother examples would be: Biotechnology and Aircraft design. Biotechnology is an industry in which innovation fuels new products, but it is also one where learning how to successfully take an idea and create a profitable product is a skill set that may require some practice. Aircraft design requires both innovations to create new planes that are safer and or more cost efficient, butit is also an industry where new planes are often subtle alterations of previous models and where detailed experience with one model may be a huge help in creating a new one.7. a. The relatively few locations for production suggest external economies of scale in production.If these operations are large, there may also be large internal economies of scale in production.b. Since economies of scale are significant in airplane production, it tends to be done by a smallnumber of (imperfectly competitive) firms at a limited number of locations. One such locationis Seattle, where Boeing produces airplanes.c. Since external economies of scale are significant in semiconductor production, semiconductorindustries tend to be concentrated in certain geographic locations. If, for some historical reason, a semiconductor is established in a specific location, the export of semiconductors by that countryis due to economies of scale and not comparative advantage.d. “True” scotch whiskey can only come from Scotland. The production of scotch whiskey requiresa technique known to skilled distillers who are concentrated in the region. Also, soil and climacticconditions are favorable for grains used in local scotch production. This reflects comparativeadvantage.e. France has a particular blend of climactic conditions and land that is difficult to reproduceelsewhere. This generates a comparative advantage in wine production.8. The Japanese producers are price discriminating across United States and Japanese markets, so thatthe goods sold in the United States are much cheaper than those sold in Japan. It may be profitable for other Japanese to purchase these goods in the United States, incur any tariffs and transportation costs, and resell the goods in Japan. Clearly, the price differential across markets must be non-trivial for this to be profitable.Chapter 6 Economies of Scale, Imperfect Competition, and International Trade 25 9. a. Suppose two countries that can produce a good are subject to forward-falling supply curves and are identical countries with identical curves. If one country starts out as a producer of a good,i.e., it has a head start even as a matter of historical accident, then all production will occur in thatparticular country and it will export to the rest of the world.b. Consumers in both countries will pay a lower price for this good when external economies aremaximized through trade and all production is located in a single market. In the present example, no single country has a natural cost advantage or is worse off than it would be under autarky. 10. External economies are important for firms as technology changes rapidly and as the “cutting edge”moves quickly with frequent innovations. As this process slows, manufacturing becomes moreroutine and there is less advantage conferred by external economies. Instead, firms look for low cost production locations. Since external economies are no longer important, firms find little advantage in being clustered, and it is likely that locations other than the high-wage original locations are chosen.11. a. i. Very likely due to the need to have a common pool of labor with such skills.ii. Somewhat likely due to the need for continual innovation and learning.b. i. Unlikely since it is difficult to see how the costs of a single firm would fall if other firms arepresent in the asphalt industry.ii. Unlikely because they are industries in which technology is more stable than in other industries such as software services or cancer research.c. i. Highly likely because having a great number of support firms and an available pool of skilledlabor in filmmaking are critical to film production.ii. Highly likely because film making is an industry in which learning is important.d. i. Somewhat likely in that it may be advantageous to have other researchers nearby.ii. Highly likely because such research builds on itself through a learning-by-doing process.e. i. Unlikely because it is difficult to see how the existence of another timber firm with lowercosts to another timber firm.ii. Unlikely due to the relatively stable technology involved in timber harvesting.。

国际经济学作业-第六章

Chapter 6 Economies of Scale, Imperfect Competition, and International TradeMultiple Choice Questions1. External economies of scale arise when the cost per unit(a) rises as the industry grows larger.(b) falls as the industry grows larger rises as the average firm grows larger.(c) falls as the average firm grows larger.(d) remains constant.(e) None of the above.Answer: B2. Internal economies of scale arise when the cost per unit(a) rises as the industry grows larger.(b) falls as the industry grows larger.(c) rises as the average firm grows larger.(d) falls as the average firm grows larger.(e) None of the above.Answer: D3. External economies of scale(a) may be associated with a perfectly competitive industry.(b) cannot be associated with a perfectly competitive industry.(c) tends to result in one huge monopoly.(d) tends to result in large profits for each firm.(e) None of the above.Answer: A4. Internal economies of scale(a) may be associated with a perfectly competitive industry.(b) cannot be associated with a perfectly competitive industry.(c) are associated only with sophisticated products such as aircraft.(d) cannot form the basis for international trade.(e) None of the above.Answer: B5. A monopolistic firm(a) can sell as much as it wants for any price it determines in the market.(b) cannot determine the price, which is determined by consumer demand.(c) will never sell a product whose demand is inelastic at the quantity sold.(d) cannot sell additional quantity unless it raises the price on each unit.(e) None of the above.Answer: C6. Monopolistic competition is associated with(a) cut-throat price competition.(b) product differentiation.(c) explicit consideration at firm level of the feedback effects of other firms’ pr icing decisions.(d) high profit margins.(e) None of the above.Answer: B7. The most common market structure is(a) perfect competition.(b) monopolistic competition.(c) small-group oligopoly.(d) perfectly vertical integration.(e) None of the above.Answer: C8. Modeling trade in monopolistic industries is problematic because(a) there is no one generally accepted model of oligopoly behavior.(b) there are no models of oligopoly behavior.(c) it is difficult to find an oligopoly in the real world.(d) collusion among oligopolists makes usable data rare.(e) None of the above.Answer: A9. Where there are economies of scale, the scale of production possible in a country is constrained by(a) the size of the country.(b) the size of the trading partner’s country.(c) the size of the domestic market.(d) the size of the domestic plus the foreign market.(e) None of the above.Answer: D10. Where there are economies of scale, an increase in the size of the market will(a) increase the number of firms and raise the price per unit.(b) decrease the number of firms and raise the price per unit.(c) increase the number of firms and lower the price per unit.(d) decrease the number of firms and lower the price per unit.(e) None of the above.Answer: C11. The simultaneous export and import of widgets by the United States is an example of(a) increasing returns to scale.(b) imperfect competition.(c) intra-industry trade.(d) inter-industry trade.(e) None of the above.Answer: C12. If output more than doubles when all inputs are doubled, production is said to occur underconditions of(a) increasing returns to scale.(b) imperfect competition.(c) intra-industry trade.(d) inter-industry trade.(e) None of the above.Answer: A13. Intra-industry trade can be explained in part by(a) transportation costs within and between countries.(b) problems of data aggregation and categorization.(c) increasing returns to scale.(d) All of the above.(e) None of the above.Answer: D14. If some industries exhibit internal (firm specific) increasing returns to scale in each country, weshould not expect to see(a) intra-industry trade between countries.(b) perfect competition in these industries.(c) inter-industry trade between countries.(d) high levels of specialization in both countries.(e) None of the above.Answer: B15. Intra-industry trade is most common in the trade patterns of(a) developing countries of Asia and Africa.(b) industrial countries of Western Europe.(c) all countries.(d) North-South trade.(e) None of the above.Answer: B16. International trade based on scale economies is likely to be associated with(a) Ricardian comparative advantage.(b) comparative advantage associated with Heckscher-Ohlin factor-proportions.(c) comparative advantage based on quality and service.(d) comparative advantage based on diminishing returns.(e) None of the above.Answer: E17. International trade based on external scale economies in both countries is likely to be carried outby a(a) relatively large number of price competing firms.(b) relatively small number of price competing firms.(c) relatively small number of competing oligopolists.(d) monopoly firms in each country/industry.(e) None of the above.Answer: A18. International trade based solely on internal scale economies in both countries is likely to be carriedout by a(a) relatively large number of price competing firms.(b) relatively small number of price competing firms.(c) relatively small number of competing oligopolists.(d) monopoly firms in each country/industry.(e) None of the above.Answer: D19. A monopoly firm engaged in international trade will(a) equate average to local costs.(b) equate marginal costs with foreign marginal revenues.(c) equate marginal costs with the highest price the market will bear.(d) equate marginal costs with marginal revenues in both domestic and in foreign markets.(e) None of the above.Answer: D20. A monopoly firm will maximize profits by(a) charging the same price in domestic and in foreign markets.(b) producing where the marginal revenue is higher in foreign markets.(c) producing where the marginal revenue is higher in the domestic market.(d) equating the marginal revenues in domestic and foreign markets.(e) None of the above.Answer: D21. A firm in monopolistic competition(a) earns positive monopoly profits because each sells a differentiated product.(b) earns positive oligopoly profits because each firm sells a differentiated product.(c) earns zero economic profits because it is in perfectly or pure competition.(d) earns zero economic profits because of free entry.(e) None of the above.Answer: D22. The larger the number of firms in a monopolistic competition situation,(a) the larger are that country’s exports.(b) the higher is the price charged.(c) the fewer varieties are sold.(d) the lower is the price charged.(e) None of the above.Answer: D23. The monopolistic competition model is one in which there is/are(a) a monopoly.(b) perfect competition.(c) economies of scale.(d) government intervention in the market.(e) None of the above.Answer: C24. In industries in which there are scale economies, the variety of goods that a country can produce isconstrained by(a) the size of the labor force.(b) anti-trust legislation.(c) the size of the market.(d) the fixed cost.(e) None of the above.Answer: C25. An industry is characterized by scale economies, and exists in two countries. Should these twocountries engage in trade such that the combined market is supplied by one country’s industry, then(a) consumers in both countries would suffer higher prices and fewer varieties.(b) consumers in the importing country would suffer higher prices and fewer varieties.(c) consumers in the exporting country would suffer higher prices and fewer varieties.(d) consumers in both countries would enjoy fewer varieties available but lower prices.(e) None of the above.Answer: E26. An industry is characterized by scale economies and exists in two countries. In order for consumersof its products to enjoy both lower prices and more variety of choice,(a) each country’s marginal cost must equal that of the other country.(b) the marginal cost of this industry must equal marginal revenue in the other.(c) the monopoly must lower prices in order to sell more.(d) the two countries must engage in international trade one with the other.(e) None of the above.Answer: D27. A product is produced in a monopolistically competitive industry with scale economies. If thisindustry exists in two countries, and these two countries engage in trade one with the other, then we would expect(a) the country in which the price of the product is lower will export the product.(b) the country with a relative abundance of the factor of production in which production of theproduct is intensive will export this product.(c) each of the countries will export different varieties of the product to the other.(d) neither country will export this product since there is no comparative advantage.(e) None of the above.Answer: C28. The reason why one country may export a product which is produced with positive scaleeconomies is(a) its labor productivity will tend to be higher.(b) it enjoys a relative abundance of the factor intensely used in the product’s production.(c) its demand is biased in favor of the product.(d) its demand is biased against the product.(e) None of the above.Answer: E29. Two countries engaged in trade in products with no scale economies, produced under conditions ofperfect competition, are likely to be engaged in(a) monopolistic competition.(b) inter-industry trade.(c) intra-industry trade.(d) Heckscher-Ohlin trade.(e) None of the above.Answer: B30. Two countries engaged in trade in products with scale economies, produced under conditions ofmonopolistic competition, are likely to be engaged in(a) price competition.(b) inter-industry trade.(c) intra-industry trade.(d) Heckscher-Ohlinean trade.(e) None of the above.Answer: C31. History and accident determine the details of trade involving(a) Ricardian and Classical comparative advantage.(b) Heckscher-Ohlin model consideration.(c) taste reversals.(d) scale economies.(e) None of the above.Answer: D32. We often observe intra-industry North-South trade in “computers and related devices.” This isdue to(a) classification and aggregation ambiguities.(b) monopolistic competition.(c) specific factors issues.(d) scale economies.(e) None of the above.Answer: A33. We often observe “pseudo-intra-industry trade” between the United States and Mexico. Actually,such trade is consistent with(a) oligopolistic markets.(b) comparative advantage associated with Heckscher-Ohlin model.(c) optimal tariff issues.(d) huge sucking sound.(e) None of the above.Answer: B34. Intra-industry trade will tend to dominate trade flows when which of the following exists?(a) Large differences between relative country factor availabilities(b) Small differences between relative country factor availabilities(c) Homogeneous products that cannot be differentiated(d) Constant cost industries(e) None of the above.Answer: B35. The most common form of price discrimination in international trade is(a) non-tariff barriers.(b) Voluntary Export Restraints.(c) dumping.(d) preferential trade arrangements.(e) None of the above.Answer: CEssay Questions1. Why is it that if an industry were operating under conditions of domestic internal scale economies(applies to firm in the country)—then the resultant equilibrium cannot be consistent with the pure competition model?Answer: Because once one firm became bigger than another, or if one firm began the industry, then no other firm would be able to match its per unit cost, so that they would be driven out ofthe industry.2. Is it possible that if positive scale economies characterize an industry, that its equilibrium may beconsistent with purely competitive conditions? Explain how this could happen.Answer: Yes. If the scale economies were external to the firm, then there is no reason why the firms may not be in perfect competition.3. If a scale economy is the dominant technological factor defining or establishing comparativeadvantage, then the underlying facts explaining why a particular country dominates world markets in some product may be pure chance, or historical accident. Explain, and compare this with the answer you would give for the Heckscher-Ohlin model of comparative advantage.Answer: This statement is true, since the reason the seller is a monopolist may be that it happened to have been the first to produce this product in this country. It may have no connection toany supply or demand related factors; nor to any natural or man-made availability. This isall exactly the opposite of the Heckscher-Ohlin Neo-Classical model’s explanation of thedeterminants of comparative advantage.4. It is possible that trade based on external scale economies may leave a country worse off than itwould have been without trade. Explain how this could happen.Answer: One answer is that the terms of trade effects may dominate any other factors.5. If scale economies were not only external to firms, but were also external to individual countries.That is, the larger the worldwide industry (regardless of where firms or plants are located), thecheaper would be the per-unit cost of production. Describe what world trade would look like in this case.Answer: Presumably each country would specialize in some component of the final product. This would result in much observed intra-industry trade.6. Why are increasing returns to scale and fixed costs important in models of international trade andmonopolistic competition?Answer: There are many answers. Three of these are(a) Increasing returns to scale, and high fixed costs may be inconsistent with perfectcompetition. In such a case, the initial autarkic state may be a suboptimal equilibrium.For example, relative prices may not equal marginal rates of transformation. It followsfrom this that a change in output compositions associated with trade may result in anational welfare for one or both trading countries that is inferior to that associatedwith the initial autarkic conditions. Hence no “gains from trade.”(b) In a case of increasing scale economies at the firm or plant level, the determination ofwhich product will be exported by which country is ex-ante indeterminate. Therefore,deriving clear implications concerning the effects of trade on income distributionssuch as may be derived from the Samuelson-Stolper Theorem is no longer generallypossible.(c) Market structures containing positive scale economies and imperfect competition mayallow for “two-way trade,” or intra-industry trade. As in b. above, the varioustheorems derivable from the Heckscher-Ohlin model concerning directions of tradeand income distributions are no longer generally applicable.7. Explain why it may be argued that the relative importance of the intra-industry component of worldtrade is likely to lessen economic strife or confrontation (a la Stolper-Samuelson) associated with commercial policy within countries in which overall trade is expanding?Answer: In the case of the Neo-Classical H-O model, the expansion of trade will tend to increase the incomes of those factors in which the exports are relatively intense. This may createsituations in which unskilled lab or’s already relatively low relative incomes would worsenin a country such as the U.S., hence heating up “class warfare.” In the case of intra-industry trade, the expanding exports will tend to be in relatively fragmented subsets ofproducts (“brands”). S uch export expansion will have no determinant or systematictendency to affect relative factor returns in any deterministic manner.8. Explain why positive economies of scale in one (of two) sectors may establish a comparativeadvantage for the large (as compared to the small) country in the production of the commoditywhich exhibits positive scale economies.Answer: In the case of the H-O model, the actual size of the country is irrelevant in thedetermination of the direction of trade (though it may affect the equilibrium terms oftrade). When positive scale economies apply to the production of one product, the countrythat can devote more resources (in absolute terms) will be able to sell that product cheaper,and therefore will be more likely to gain a “revealed” comparative advantage in thatproduct. This will be the country with more factors (both labor and capital)—the largercountry.Quantitative/Graphing Problems1. The figure above represents the demand and cost functions facing a Brazilian Steel producingmonopolist. If it were unable to export, and was constrained by its domestic market, what quantity would it sell at what price?Answer: It would sell 5 (million tons) at a price of $8/ton.2. Now the monopolist discovers that it can export as much as it likes of its steel at the world price of$5/ton. It will therefore expand for-export production up to the point where its marginal cost equals $5. How much steel will the monopolist sell, and at what price?Answer: It would sell 10 million tons at $5/ton.3. Given the opportunity to sell at world prices, the marginal (opportunity) cost of selling a tondomestically is what?Answer: $5/ton.4. While selling exports it would also maximize its domestic sales by equating its marginal(opportunity) cost to its marginal revenue of $5. How much steel would the firm sell domestically, and at what price?Answer: 4 million tons at $10/ton.5. The Brazilian firm is charging its foreign (U.S.) customers one half the price it is charging itsdomestic customers. Is this good or bad for the real income or economic welfare of theUnited States? Is the Brazilian firm engaged in dumping? Is this predatory behavior on the partof the Brazilian steel company?Answer: Good. Yes, if you define dumping as selling abroad at a price lower than domestically. No, if by dumping you mean selling below marginal cost. No—this is not being done in orderto capture market shares, but rather is “mere” static profit maximization behavior, as isexpected of any self-respecting monopolist.6. The following Table describes the labor-input coefficients needed to produce one Widget in Englandand Portugal. Both countries are identical in size, tastes, technology. This technology is described in the table below:To ProduceThis Many Widgets, Or This Many Apples Labor-Hour Requirements1 32 53 64 75 86 97 10Let us assume that each country has 10 labor-hours available. Further, consumers always consume an equal amount of apples and widgets.(a) How of each product will be produced in England under autarky? 2 widgets and 2 apples.(b) Judging from autarky conditions, which country has a comparative advantage in widgets?(c) If England (completely) specialized in widgets, how many widgets would be produced, and howmany apples?(d) If the world terms of trade were established at 3.5 widgets 3.5 Apples, which country wouldenjoy gains from trade (as compared to The autarky solution?)(e) If Portugal were to completely specialize in widgets, how would the answers to c and d change?(f) What would the production possibility curve look like in each country?Answers: (a) 2 widgets and 2 apples(b) None(c) 7 widgets in England and 7 apples in Portugal(d) both would gain from trade. Instead of consuming 2 widgets and 2 apples, they wouldeach consume 3.5 widgets and 3.5 apples.(e) Same numbers as c, except that the countries will each be assigned a different product.Exactly the same answer for d.(f) convex to the origin.。

国际经济学英文版上册(第八版)章节练习第八章

International Economics, 8e (Krugman)Chapter 8 The Instruments of Trade Policy1) Specific tariffs areA) import taxes stated in specific legal statutes.B) import taxes calculated as a fixed charge for each unit of imported goods.C) import taxes calculated as a fraction of the value of the imported goods.D) the same as import quotas.E) None of the above.Answer: B2) Ad valorem tariffs areA) import taxes stated in ads in industry publications.B) import taxes calculated as a fixed charge for each unit of imported goods.C) import taxes calculated as a fraction of the value of the imported goods.D) the same as import quotas.E) None of the above.Answer: C3) The excess supply curve of a product we (H) import from foreign countries (F) increases asA) excess demand of country H increases.B) excess demand of country F increases.C) excess supply of country H increases.D) excess supply of country F increases.E) None of the above.Answer: D4) Suppose the United States eliminates its tariff on ball bearings used in producing exports. Ball bearing pricesin the United States would be expected toA) increase, and the foreign demand for U.S. exports would increase.B) decrease, and the foreign demand for U.S. exports would increase.C) increase, and the foreign demand for U.S. exports would decrease.D) decrease, and the foreign demand for U.S. exports would decrease.E) None of the above.Answer: C5) A specific tariff provides home producers more protection whenA) the home market buys cheaper products rather than expensive products.B) it is applied to a commodity with many grade variations.C) the home demand for a good is elastic with respect to price changes.D) it is levied on manufactured goods rather than primary products.E) None of the above.Answer: A6) A lower tariff on imported steel would most likely benefitA) foreign producers at the expense of domestic consumers.B) domestic manufacturers of steel.C) domestic consumers of steel.D) workers in the steel industry.E) None of the above.Answer: C7) A problem encountered when implementing an "infant industry" tariff is thatA) domestic consumers will purchase the foreign good regardless of the tariff.B) the industry may never "mature."C) most industries require tariff protection when they are mature.D) the tariff may hurt the industry's domestic sales.E) None of the above.Answer: B8) Which of the following is a fixed percentage of the value of an imported product?A) specific tariffB) ad valorem tariffC) nominal tariffD) effective protection tariffE) None of the above.Answer: B9) A tax of 20 cents per unit of imported garlic is an example of a(n)A) specific tariff.B) ad valorem tariff.C) nominal tariff.D) effective protection tariff.E) None of the above.Answer: A10) A tax of 20 percent per unit of imported garlic is an example of a(n)A) specific tariff.B) ad valorem tariff.C) nominal tariff.D) effective protection tariff.E) None of the above.Answer: B11) Tariffs are not defended on the ground that theyA) improve the terms of trade of foreign nations.B) protect jobs and reduce unemployment.C) promote growth and development of young industries.D) prevent over-dependence of a country on only a few industries.E) None of the above.Answer: A12) The most vocal political pressure for tariffs is generally made byA) consumers lobbying for export tariffs.B) consumers lobbying for import tariffs.C) consumers lobbying for lower import tariffs.D) producers lobbying for export tariffs.E) producers lobbying for import tariffs.Answer: E13) What is a true statement concerning the imposition in the U.S. of a tariff on steel?A) It lowers the price of cheese domestically.B) It raises the price of cheese internationally.C) It raises revenue for the government.D) It will always result in retaliation from abroad.E) None of the above.Answer: C14) The tariff levied in a "large country" (Home), lowers the world price of the imported good. This causesC) domestic demand for imports to increase.D) foreign suppliers to produce less of the good on which was levied a tariff.E) None of the above.Answer: D15) In the country levying the tariff, the tariff willA) increase both consumer and producer surplus.B) decrease both the consumer and producer surplus.C) decrease consumer surplus and increase producer surplus.D) increase consumer surplus and decrease producer surplus.E) None of the above.Answer: C16) Refer to above figure. In the absence of trade, how many Widgets does this country produce and consume?Answer: 6017) Refer to above figure. In the absence of trade, what is the country's consumer plus producer surplus?Answer: $180, $18018) Refer to above figure. With free trade and no tariffs, what is the quantity of Widgets imported?Answer: 10019) Refer to above figure. With a specific tariff of $3 per unit, what is the quantity of Widget imports?Answer: 8020) Refer to above figure. The loss of Consumer Surplus due to the tariff equals ________.Answer: $23021) Refer to above figure. The lowest specific tariff which would be considered prohibitive is ________.Answer: $522) If a good is imported into (large) country H from country F, then the imposition of a tariff in country HA) raises the price of the good in both countries (the "Law of One Price").B) raises the price in country H and cannot affect its price in country F.C) lowers the price of the good in both countries.D) lowers the price of the good in H and could raise it in F.E) raises the price of the good in H and lowers it in F.Answer: E23) If a good is imported into (small) country H from country F, then the imposition of a tariff In country HA) raises the price of the good in both countries (the "Law of One Price").B) raises the price in country H and does not affect its price in country F.C) lowers the price of the good in both countries.Answer: B24) The effective rate of protection measuresA) the "true" ad valorum value of a tariff.B) the quota equivalent value of a tariff.C) the efficiency with which the tariff is collected at the customhouse.D) the protection given by the tariff to domestic value added.E) None of the above.Answer: D25) If the tariff on computers is not changed, but domestic computer producers shift from domestically producedsemiconductors to imported components, then the effective rate of protection in the computer industry willA) increase.B) decreaseC) remain the same.D) depend on whether computers are PCs or "Supercomputers."E) None of the above.Answer: A26) If a small country imposes a tariff, thenA) the producers must suffer a loss.B) the consumers must suffer a loss.C) the government revenue must suffer a loss.D) the demand curve must shift to the left.E) None of the above.Answer: B27) When a government allows raw materials and other intermediate products to enter a country duty free, thisgenerally results in a(an)A) effective tariff rate less than the nominal tariff rate.B) nominal tariff rate less than the effective tariff rate.C) rise in both nominal and effective tariff rates.D) fall in both nominal and effective tariff rates.E) None of the above.Answer: B28) Of the many arguments in favor of tariffs, the one that has enjoyed significant economic justification hasbeen theA) cheap foreign labor argument.B) infant industry argument.C) even playing field argument.D) balance of payments argumentE) domestic living standard argument.Answer: B29) The principle benefit of tariff protection goes toA) domestic consumers of the good produced.B) foreign consumers of the good produced.C) domestic producers of the good produced.D) foreign producers of the good produced.E) None of the above.Answer: C30) Should the home country be "large" relative to its trade partners, its imposition of a tariff on imports wouldlead to an increase in domestic welfare if the terms of the trade rectangle exceed the sum of theA) revenue effect plus redistribution effect.B) protective effect plus revenue effect.Answer: D31) The deadweight loss of a tariffA) is a social loss because it promotes inefficient use of national resources.B) is a social loss because it reduces the revenue of the government.C) is not a social loss because it merely redistributes revenue from one sector to another.D) is not a social loss because it is paid for by rich corporations.E) None of the above.Answer: A32) The fact that industrialized countries levy very low or no tariff on raw materials and semi processed goodsA) helps developing countries export manufactured products.B) has no effect on developing country exports.C) hurts developing country efforts to export manufactured goods.D) hurts developing country efforts to export raw materials.E) None of the above.Answer: C33) The change in the economic welfare of a country associated with an increase in a tariff equalsA) efficiency loss - terms of trade gain.B) efficiency gain - terms of trade loss.C) efficiency loss + tax revenue gain.D) efficiency loss + tax revenue gain + terms of trade gain.E) None of the above.Answer:34) The two deadweight triangles are the Consumption distortion and Production distortion losses. It is easy tounderstand why the Consumption distortion constitutes a loss for society. After all it raises the prices of goods to consumers, and even causes some consumers to drop out of the market altogether. It seems paradoxical that the Production distortion is considered an equivalent burden on society. After all, in this case, profitsincrease, and additional production (with its associated employment) comes on line. This would seem to be an offset rather than an addition to the burden or loss borne by society. Explain why the Production distortion is indeed a loss to society, and what is wrong with the logic that leads to the apparent paradox.Answer: The Production Distortion represents an inefficient shift of society's resources to produce a good, which it could not sell profitably at world prices. Since (with full employment assumed) these resources wereformerly used to produce export goods, which could compete profitably, the net result is a loss in realincome to the country.35) An important difference between tariffs and quotas is that tariffsA) raise the price of the good.B) generate tax revenue for the government.C) stimulate international trade.D) help domestic producers.E) None of the above.Answer: B36) Throughout the post-World War II era, the importance of tariffs as a trade barrier hasA) increased.B) decreased.C) remained the same.D) fluctuated wildly.E) demonstrated a classic random walk with a mean-reversion tendency.Answer: B37) In the exporting country, an export subsidy willD) help consumers but lower economic welfare of the exporting country.E) None of the aboveAnswer: C。

ch06 国际经济学课后答案与习题(萨尔瓦多)

*CHAPTER6Chapter) (Core NONTARIFF TRADE BARRIERS AND THE POLITICAL ECONOMY OF PROTETIONISM OUTLINE6.1 Introduction6.2 Import Quotas6.3 Other Nontariff Trade BarriersCase Study 6-1 Voluntary Export Restraints on Japanese Automobiles to the United States6.4 Dumping and Export SubsidiesCase Study 6-2 Antidumping Measures in Force in 2002Case Study 6-3 Agricultural Subsidies in Developed NationsCase Study 6-4 Pervasiveness of Nontariff Barriers6.5 The Political Economy of Protectionism6.6 Strategic Trade and Industrial PoliciesCase Study 6-5 Economic Effects on the U.S. Economy from Removing all Import Restraints6.7 History of U.S. Commercial Policy6.8 The Uruguay RoundCase Study 6-6 The Multilateral Rounds of Trade Negotiations6.9 Outstanding Trade Problems and the Doha RoundAppendix: Strategic Trade and Industrial Policies with Game TheoryKey Termsprinciple Most-favored-nationQuotaNontariff trade barriers (NTBs) Bilateral tradeprotectionism General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) NewVoluntary export restraints (VERs) Multilateral trade negotiationsTechnical, administrative, and other regulations Peril-point provisionsclausecartel EscapeInternationalclauseDumping NationalsecurityPersistent dumping Trade Expansion Act of 1962Trade adjustment assistance (TAP)Predatorydumpingdumping KennedyRoundSporadicTrigger-price mechanism Trade Reform Act of 1974RoundExportsubsidies TokyoExport-Import Bank Trade and Tariff Act of 1984Foreign Sales Corporations Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act of 1988UruguayRound(CVDs)dutiesCountervailingOrganization(WTO)TradeWorldScientifictariffpromotion authority or fast trackInfant-industryargument TradepolicyRoundDohatradeStrategicmovement policy AntiglobalizationIndustrialtheoryAct GameSmoot–HawleyTariffTrade Agreements Act of 1934-43-Lecture Guide:1. This is an important core chapter examining some of the most recent developments ininternational trade policy.2. I would cover sections 1-3 in lecture 1. I would pay particular attention to Figure 6-1,which examines the partial equilibrium effects of an import quota. I would also clearlyexplain the difference between a regular import quota and a voluntary export restraint.3. I would cover sections 4 and 5 in lecture 2. I would also clearly explain the meaningand importance of dumping and export subsidies, as well as the political economy ofprotectionism. The four case studies serve to highlight the theory and show the relevance of the theory in today's world.4. The rest of the chapter can be covered in lecture 3. Strategic trade and industrial policies, thehistory of U.S. commercial policy, and the outstaying trade problems and the collapse of the Doha Round of trade negotiations in September 2003 should not be difficult to explain and can lead to a great deal of interesting class discussion.Answer to Problems:1. a. An import quota will increase the price of the product to domestic consumers, reduce the domestic consumption of the good, increase domestic production, and result in a protection or deadweight loss to the economy.b. The effects of an import quota are identical to those of an equivalent import tariff, except that with a quota the government does not collect a tariff revenue (unless it auctions offimport quotas to the highest bidder). The import quota is also more restrictive than anequivalent import tariff because foreign producers cannot increase their exports bylowering their prices.2. By penciling in D”X in Figure 1, we can see that the effects of the import quota are:P x=$2.00 and consumption is 60X, of which 40X are produced domestically and 20X areimported; by auctioning off import licenses, the revenue effect would be $20.3. The effects of an export quota of 20X are identical to those of an import quota of 20X or a100 percent import tariff on commodity X, except that the revenue effect is collected by the exporters, rather than by the domestic importers or their government.4. a. An international cartel is an organization of suppliers of a commodity located in different nations (or it is a group of governments) that agrees to restrict output and the exports of the commodity with the aim of maximizing or increasing the total profits of its members.Although domestic cartels are illegal in the United States and are restricted in Europe, the power of international cartels cannot easily be countered because they do not fall under the jurisdiction of any one nation.b. The most notorious of present-day international cartels is OPEC (Organization ofPetroleum Exporting Countries), which, by restricting production and exports, succeeded in quadrupling the price of crude oil between 1973 and 1974. The economic power ofOPEC declined during the 1980s and 1990s when many other nations (such as Russia,Mexico, Norway, the United Kingdom) encouraged by the sharp increase in prices started to extract and export petroleum.5. a. Dumping refers to the export of a commodity at below cost or at a lower price than thecommodity is sold domestically.b. Dumping is classified as persistent, predatory, and sporadic. Persistent dumping, orinternational price discrimination, refers to the continuous sale of the commodity at ahigher price in the domestic market than internationally . The incentive for persistentdumping is the higher profits it provides to domestic producers.Predatory dumping is the temporary sale of a commodity at below cost or at a lower priceabroad than at home in order to drive foreign producers out of business, after which prices are raised to maximize profits. Sporadic dumping is the occasional sale of a commodity at below cost or at a lower price abroad than domestically in order to unload an unforeseenand temporary surplus of the commodity without having to reduce domestic prices.c. Dumping usually leads to trade restrictions as nations try to protect domestic producersfrom “unfair” foreign competition, even when the dumping is persistent and sporadic.6. a. One fallacious argument is that trade restrictions are needed to protect domestic laboragainst cheap foreign labor. This argument is not valid because even if domestic wagesare higher than wages abroad, domestic labor costs can still be lower if the productivity of labor is sufficiently higher domestically than abroad. If not, expensive-labor nations canstill specialize in the production and export capital- and technology-intensive commodities.b. Another fallacious argument for protection is the scientific tariff. This is the tariff rate that would make the price of imports equal to domestic prices and (so the argument goes) allow domestic producers to meet foreign competition. However, this would eliminate internatio- nal price differences and trade in commodities subject to such “scientific” tariffs.7. a. The infant-industry argument postulates that temporary protection may be justified in order to allow a developing nation to develop an industry in which it has a potential comparative advantage. Temporary trade protection is then justified to establish and protect the domestic industry during its “infancy” until it can grow and meet foreign competition. For thisargument to be valid, however, protection must be temporary and the return in the grown-up industry must be sufficiently high to also offset the higher prices paid by domesticconsumers of the commodity during the period of infancy.b. The infant-industry argument must be qualified in several important ways to be acceptable. First, this argument is more justified for developing nations (where capital markets maynot function properly) than for industrial nations. Second, it is usually difficult to identifywhich industry or potential industry qualifies for this treatment, and experience has shown that protection, once given, is difficult to remove. Third, and most important, what tradeprotection (say in the form of an import tariff) can do, an equivalent production subsidy to the infant industry can do better.8. a. According to strategic industrial trade policy a nation can create a comparative advantage(through temporary trade protection, subsidies, tax benefits, and cooperative government– industry programs) in a high-technology field deemed crucial to future growth in the nation.b. There are also serious difficulties in carrying strategic industrial and trade policies. First, itis extremely difficult to pick winners (i.e., choose the industries that will contribute significantly to growth in the future). Second, if most leading nations undertake strategic trade policies at the same time, their efforts are largely neutralized. Third, when a country does achieve substantial success with a strategic trade policy, this comes at the expense of other countries (i.e., it is a beggar-thy-neighbor policy), which are, therefore, likely to retaliate. Faced with all these practical difficulties, even supporters of strategic trade policy grudgingly acknowledge that free trade is still the best policy, after all.9. a. The main provisions of the Uruguay Round were the reduction of average tariffs onindustrial goods from 4.7 percent to 3 percent, for quotas to be replaced by tariffs, and for antidumping and safeguards to be tightened. The agreement also called for the reduction in agricultural export subsidies and industrial subsidies, and for the protection of intellectual property.b. When fully implemented by 2005, the Uruguay Round is estimated to increase world tradeby about 20 percent (with one quarter of the increase in trade in manufactures and the rest in agriculture) and generate total gains in world income of $349 billion ($164 billion from liberalizing trade in agriculture, $130 billion from manufactures and $55 billion fromservices), with developing countries receiving 42 percent of the total gains (mostly fromliberalization of trade in manufactures), which is roughly double their share of world GDP.10. a. The major trade problems facing the world today are (1) the serious trade disputes amongthe United States, the European Union, and Japan; (2) the high trade protectionism, especially in agriculture and textiles, which are of great importance to developing countries, and the abuse antidumping and safeguards; (3) the breaking up of the world into a few major trading blocks, and a serious anti-globalization movement that has come into existence.b. The Doha Round is needed to take up all of the above problems. However, as of the endof 2003 no negotiating agenda had been decided primarily because of disagreements on agricultural protectionism between developing and developed countries.-46-Multiple-choice Questions:1. An import quota:a. increases the domestic price of the imported commodityb. reduces domestic consumptionc. increases domestic production*d. all of the above2. An increase in the demand of the imported commodity subject to a given import quota:a. reduces the domestic quantity demanded of the commodity*b. increases the domestic production of the commodityc. reduces the domestic price of the commodityd. reduces the producers' surplus3. Adjustment to any shift in the domestic demand or supply of an importable commodityoccurs:a. in domestic price with an import quotab. in the quantity of imports with a tariffc. through the market mechanism with an import tariff but not with an import quota*d. all of the above4. An international cartel refers to:a. dumping*b. an organization of exportersc. an international commodity agreementd. voluntary export restraints5. The temporary sale of a commodity at below cost or at a lower price abroad in order todrive foreign producers out of business is called:*a. predatory dumpingb. sporadic dumpingc. continuous dumpingd. voluntary export restraints6. The type of dumping which would justify antidumping measures by the country subjectto the dumping is:*a. predatory dumpingb. sporadic dumpingc. continuous dumpingd. all of the above7. A fallacious argument for protection is:a. the infant industry argumentb. protection for national defense*c. the scientific tariffd. to correct domestic distortions8. Which of the following is true with respect to the infant-industry argument for protection:a. it refers to temporary protection to establish a domestic industryb. to be valid, the return to the grown-up industry must be sufficiently high also to repayfor the higher prices paid by domestic consumers of the commodity during the infancyperiodc. is inferior to an equivalent production subsidy to the infant industry*d. all of the above9. Which of the following is false with respect to strategic trade policy?a. it postulates that a nation can gain by an activist trade policy*b. it is practiced to some extent by most industrial nationsc. it can easily be carried outd. all of the above10. Industrial policy refers to:a. an activist policy by the government of an industrial country to stimulate thedevelopment of an industryb. the granting of a subsidy to a domestic industry to stimulate the development of anindustryc. the granting of a subsidy to a domestic industry to counter a foreign subsidy*d. all of the above11. Trade protection in the United States is usually provided to:a. low-wage workersb. well-organized industries with large employmentc. industries producing consumer products*d. all of the above12. The most-favored-nation principle refers to:*a. extension to all trade partners of any reciprocal tariff reduction negotiated by theU.S. with any of its trade partnersb. multilateral trade negotiationc. the General Agreement on Tariffs and Traded. the International Trade Organization13. On which of the following principles does GATT rest?a. nondiscriminationb. elimination of nontariff barriersc. consultation among nations in solving trade disputes*d. all of the above14. Which of the following was not negotiated under the Uruguay Round?a. reduction of tariffs on industrial goodsb. replacement of quotas with tariffsc. reduction of subsidies on industrial products and on agricultural exports *d. liberalization in trade in most services15. Game theory refers to:*a. a method of choosing the optimal strategy in conflict situationsb. the granting of a subsidy to correct a domestic distortionc. the theory of tariff protectiond. none of the aboveADDITIONAL ESSAYS AND PROBLEMS FOR PART TWO1. From the following figure, in which Dc and Sc refer, respectively to the domesticdemand and supply curves of cloth, and S F and S F+T refer, respectively, to the worldsupply curve of cloth under free trade and with a 50% import tariff imposed by the nation on the importation of cloth, determine:P CFig 6.1(a) the consumption, production effect, and the trade effect of the tariff.(b) the reduction in consumer surplus, the increase in producer surplus or rent, the tariff revenue, and the protection cost or deadweight loss to the economy as a result of the tariff.Answ. (a) The consumption effect is equal to BR=-20c;the production effect is equal to GN=20C;therefore, the trade effect is equal to -(BR+GN)=-40c.(b) The reduction in consumer surplus is FJHB=$90;the increase in producer surplus is FJMG=$30;the revenue effect is NMHR=$40;the protection cost or deadweight loss to the economy is equal to the sum of the area of triangles GMN and BHR or $20.2. (a) Explain why and under what conditions the infant-industry argument for an importtariff is valid.(b) How must this argument be qualified?Answ. (a) The infant-industry argument for tariffs is generally valid, especially for less developed countries (LDCs). It holds that an LDC may have a potential comparative advantage in a particular commodity, say textiles, but that because its initial production costs are too high (due to lack of know-how and the initial small level of output), this industry cannot be established or grow in the LDC in the face of foreign competition. An import tariff is then justified to help the LDC establish the industry and protect it during its "infancy," until the industry has grown in size and efficiency and is able to meet foreigncompetition. At that time, the tariff is to be removed.(b) In order for the infant-industry argument to be valid, not only must the tariff eventuallybe removed and the "grown up" industry be able to compete with foreign firms without protection, but the extra return in the industry (after the removal of the protection) must be high enough to justify the costs involved during the period of protection. These costs arise because the commodity is produced domestically rather than imported for less. It may also be difficult a priori to determine which industry or potential industry qualifies for this treatment, and to eventually remove the tariff once it is imposed. Economistsalso agree that what a tariff can do here, a direct subsidy to the infant industry can dobetter. This is because a subsidy can be varied so as to provide the infant industry with the same degree of protection as an equivalent import tariff but without distortingrelative prices and domestic consumption. However, a subsidy requires revenue, rather than generating it as the tariff does.-51-3. (a) How can strategic trade policy justify trade protection?(b) What difficulties arise in carrying out a strategic trade policy?Answ. (a) According to strategic trade policy, a nation can create a comparative advantage through temporary trade protection in such fields as semiconductors, computers, telecommunica- tions, and other industries that are deemed crucial to future growth in the nation. These high-technology industries are subject to high risks, require large-scale production toachieve economies of scale and give rise to extensive external economies whensuccessful. Strategic trade policy suggests that by encouraging such industries, thenation can enhance its future growth prospects. This is similar to the infant-industryargument in developing nations, except that it is advanced for industrial nations toacquire a comparative advantage in crucial high-technology industries. Most nationsdo some of this. Indeed, some economists would go so far as to say that a great dealof the postwar industrial and technological success of Japan is due to its strategicindustrial and trade policies.(b) There are three serious difficulties in carrying out strategic trade policy. First,it is extremely difficult to pick winners (i.e., choose the industries that will providelarge external economies in the future) and devise appropriate policies to successfullynurture them. Second, since most leading nations undertake strategic trade policies atthe same time, their efforts are largely neutralized so that the potential benefits to each may be small. Third, when a country does achieve substantial success with strategictrade policy, this comes at the expense of other countries (i.e., it is a beggar-thy-neighbor policy) and so other countries are likely to retaliate. Faced with all thesepractical difficulties, even supporters of strategic trade policy grudgingly acknowledge that free trade is still the best policy, after all.-52-。

国际经济学英文版上册(第八版)章节练习第十一章

International Economics, 8e (Krugman)Chapter 11 Controversies in Trade Policy1) The existence of positive externalities due to the impossibility of full appropriabilityA) supports the conclusions of the Heckscher-Ohlin model.B) rejects the usefulness of government protectionism.C) supports the concept that the government should support only high tech industries.D) provides support for government protectionism.E) None of the above.AnsweDr:2) The United StatesA) does not provide more support for R&D as compared to other forms of investment.B) provides support for R&D by imposing high tariffs on R&D intensive products.C) provides support for R&D by providing direct subsidies for such activities.D) provides support for R&D through tax legislation.E) None of the above.AnsweDr:3) The Brander-Spencer model identified market failure in certain industries due toA) unfair competition.B) wildcat destructive competition.C) environmental negative externalities associated with pollution.D) limited competition.E) None of the above.AnsweDr:4) In the Brander-Spencer model the subsidy raises profits by more than the subsidy becauseofA) the "multiplier" effect of government expenditures.B) the military-industrial complex.C) the forward and backward linkage effects of certain industries.E) None of the above.DAnswer:5) If firms in an industry are generating knowledge that other firms can use without paying for it, this industry is characterized byA) social costs that exceed private costs.B) social benefits that exceed private benefits.C) social costs that exceed social benefits.D) private benefits that exceed social benefits.E) None of the above.AnsweBr:6) It is argued that high-tech industries typically generate new technologies but cannot fully appropriate the commercial benefits associated with their inventions or discoveries. If this is true then in order to maximize a country's real income, the government shouldA) tax the high-tech firms.B) subsidize the high-tech firms.C) protect the high-tech firms.D) Both B and C.E) None of the above.AnsweBr:7) In effect, the U.S. does subsidize high-tech firms by subsidizing R&D. This is done throughA) the budget of the Department of Education.B) systematic protection through the levying of tariffs.C) systematic protection through the establishment of NTBs.D) relatively accelerated "depreciation" of R&D investment in the Federal tax codes.E) None of the above.DAnswer:8) Spencer and Brander's model highlights the existence ofA) aircraft industries.B) excess returns present in highly competitive markets.C) excess returns, or rents, available in non-competitive markets.D) the futility of government bureaucrats' attempts to build an airplane.E) None of the above.AnsweCr:9) The reason Airbus succeeded in the Brander Spencer example is thatdid not.B) Airbus' prices were better when adjusted for quality and warranty services.C) Boeing traditionally refused to undertake any exchange rate risk in its transactions.D) the U.S. acted in accordance with its ideological reliance on market solutions, whereasthe Europeans ignored market and technological factors.E) None of the above.AnsweAr:10) The invocation of beggar-thy-neighbor arguments with respect to industrial policiesA) strengthens the argument for subsidies.B) makes sense if the international Keynesian multipliers exceed unity.C) applies only to rich countries most of whose trade partners are very poor countries.D) weakens the argument for subsidies.E) None of the above.DAnswer:11) When one applies the Heckscher-Ohlin model of trade to the issue of trade-related incomeredistributions, one must conclude that North South trade, such as U.S.-Mexico trade,A) must help low skill workers on both sides of the border.B) is likely to hurt high-skilled workers in the U.S.C) is likely to hurt low-skilled workers in the U.S.D) is likely to hurt low-skilled workers in Mexico.E) None of the above.CAnswer:12) The proposal that trade agreements should include a system which monitors workerconditions and make the results available to consumers in the rich importing countryA) is consistent with the Invisible Hand paradigm.B) is consistent with the market failure approach.C) is consistent with the Ricardian theory of comparative advantage.D) is consistent with the scale economies approach to trade theory.E) None of the above.AnsweBr:13) Labor standards in trade are typically opposed by most developing countries who believethat they will be usedA) to further neo-imperialist colonial exploitation.B) to charge these countries with crimes against child-labor standards at the Hague.C) as a protectionist tool by import-competing producers in industrial countries.D) as a means of spreading U.S. Corporate Values and destroying local cultures.E) None of the above.C14) The WTO seems at times to be interfering in domestic policy sinceA) the line between domestic policies and de factor protectionism is often fuzzy.B) it is a supra-national organization with the power to overturn governments.C) it determines which nations may trade what with whom.D) it punishes naughty nations.E) None of the above.Answer:A15) It may be argued that Japan's explicit promotion of its microchip industry was an excellentexample of successful industrial policy. What criteria would you apply to determinewhether such a policy is or is not successful? Judging from your own stated criteria, wasJapan's exercise successful? Why or why not? What information would a governmentrequire in order to increase the probability that its industrial policy would promote longterm self-generated economic growth?Answe r: It is argued that Japan's subsidies to its nascient microchip industry was an important factor in putting Japan on the world map in this area. However, a minimal criteria for a successful industrial policy would be that the infant industry mature, and that it prove to be a profitable area of the country's comparative advantage. In this case, one might argue that the latter part of the above statement was not fulfilled, since the microchip industry was adopted by so many countries, that it became a "commodity." That is, it became a product with a very low profit margin, which was not really a good use of Japan's resources, given their alternative uses.16) Refer to the above table. Suppose Airbus is set to produce the aircraft before Boeing.Which company will enter the market?Answer:Airbus will produce and Boeing will not.17) Refer to the above table. Suppose both governments offer their respective company asubsidy of $4(million).Only Airbus will produce since it knows that the subsidy would not be sufficiently large to entice Boeing to also enter the market.18) Refer to the above table. Suppose both governments offer their respective company a $10million subsidy.Answe r: Both companies would enter the market, since each knows that regardless of the other's decision, it will make some profit here.19) Refer to the above table. Suppose the U.S. government (but not Europe) offers a $10million subsidy?Answe r: In this case Airbus would decide not to enter the market since it knows Boeing will, and that therefore its own production will entail a loss of $5 million.20) Refer to the above table. How could the U.S. government justify its decision to offer asubsidy to a profitable and successful business?Answe r: It could point out that this $10 million pump-priming expenditure results in a profit of $110 million. If Boeing paid a marginal income tax of 20%, this would net the government $55 million, which is more than 5 times the original subsidy, so that the decision may be justified not only in terms of benefit/cost considerations, but even in terms of pure budgetary terms.21) In today's world markets, poor developing countries tend to rely primarily on exports ofA) agricultural products.B) primary products.C) mineral products.D) manufactured products.E) None of the above.Answer:D22) Most developing countries oppose including labor standards in trade agreements becauseA) they believe this would involve a loss of their national sovereignty.B) they believe this would limit their ability to export to rich markets.C) they believe this would create an uneven playing field.D) multinational corporations control them.E) None of the above.Answer:A23) Low wages and poor working conditions in many U.S. trade partnersA) prove that the gains-from-trade arguments of the Ricardian model are false.B) may be a fact of life, but economists don't care.C) are facts emphasized by U.S. labor in its contract negotiations.E) None of the above.CAnswer:24) The fact that clothing sold in Wal-Mart are produced by very poorly paid workers inHonduras, is a fact that if taken into accountA) would prove to economists that the Ricardian model of comparative advantage isfalse.B) would prove to economists that the equal-value in trade concept summed up in thetrade triangles is incorrect.C) proves to economists that trade is a negative sum game.D) proves to the Anti-Globalization Movement that trade is a negative sum game.E) None of the above.DAnswer:25) Faced with the evidence of poor working conditions and low wages in the bordermaquiladoras, EconomistsA) shrug their shoulders and ignore the issue.B) agree that trade theory is thus proven hollow and internally inconsistent.C) argue that U.S. consumers should not consume lettuce.D) argue that the poor conditions and low wages are actually improvements for theMexican workers, and may be cited as gains-from-trade.E) None of the above.DAnswer:26) The Shipbreakers of Alang utilize much labor and little capital, thereby supporting theapplicability of theA) factor proportions explanation of the sources of comparative advantage.B) specific factor theory of comparative advantage.C) monopolistic competition theory of comparative advantage.D) scale economies theory of comparative advantage.E) None of the above.AnsweAr:27) The Shipbreakers of Alang represent a perfect example of how a developing country canapply the principles of the Heckscher-Ohlin model, sinceA) shipbreaking is generally considered to be a capital-intensive operation and India,being a large country has much capital.B) shipbreaking is a labor-intensive operation in India, and India has many workerssince it is such a large country.C) shipbreaking is a labor-intensive operation in India, and India's availability of capitalrepresents a case of a factor intensity reversal.E) None of the above.CAnswer:28) Free trade and globalization is generally arguedA) to cause a degradation in the world's environment.B) to improve the environment by correcting for distortions caused by import competingpolicies.C) to help spread the best of each country's culture, so as to uplift global culturalstandards.D) to help each country safeguard the best of its own culture.E) None of the above.AAnswer:。

国际经济学练习题(英文版)

Chapter 7: Economies of Scale, Imperfect Competition, and International Trade1. External economies of scale arise when the cost per unitA. rises as the industry grows larger.B. falls as the industry grows larger rises as the average firm grows larger.C. falls as the average firm grows larger.D. remains constant.E. None of the above.2. Internal economies of scale arise when the cost per unitA. rises as the industry grows larger.B. falls as the industry grows larger.C. rises as the average firm grows larger.D. falls as the average firm grows larger.E. None of the above.3. External economies of scaleA. may be associated with a perfectly competitive industry.B. cannot be associated with a perfectly competitive industry.C. tends to result in one huge monopoly.D. tends to result in large profits for each firm.E. None of the above.4. Internal economies of scaleA. may be associated with a perfectly competitive industry.B. cannot be associated with a perfectly competitive industry.C. are associated only with sophisticated products such as aircraft.D. cannot form the basis for international trade .E. None of the above.5. A monopolistic firmA. can sell as much as it wants for any price it determines in the market.B. cannot determine the price, which is determined by consumer demand.C. will never sell a product whose demand is inelastic at the quantity sold.D. cannot sell additional quantity unless it raises the price on each unit.E. None of the above.6. Monopolistic competition is associated withA. cut-throat price competition.B. product differentiation.C. explicit consideration at firm level of the feedback effects of other firms' pricing decisions.D. high profit margins.E. None of the above.7. The most common market structure isA. perfect competition.B. monopolistic competition.C. small-group oligopoly.D. perfectly vertical integration.E. None of the above.8. Modeling trade in monopolistic industries is problematic becauseA. there is no one generally accepted model of oligopoly behavior.B. there are no models of oligopoly behavior.C. it is difficult to find an oligopoly in the real world.D. collusion among oligopolists makes usable data rare.E. None of the above.9. Where there are economies of scale, the scale of production possible in a country is constrained byA. the size of the country.B. the size of the trading partner's country.C. the size of the domestic market.D. the size of the domestic plus the foreign market.E. None of the above.10. Where there are economies of scale, an increase in the size of the market willA. increase the number of firms and raise the price per unit.B. decrease the number of firms and raise the price per unit.C. increase the number of firms and lower the price per unit.D. decrease the number of firms and lower the price per unit.E. None of the above.11. The simultaneous export and import of widgets by the United States is an example ofA. increasing returns to scale.B. imperfect competition.C. intra-industry trade.D. inter-industry trade.E. None of the above.12. If output more than doubles when all inputs are doubled, production is said to occur under conditions ofA. increasing returns to scale.B. imperfect competition.C. intra-industry trade.D. inter-industry trade.E. None of the above.13. Intra-industry trade can be explained in part byA. transportation costs within and between countries.B. problems of data aggregation and categorization.C. increasing returns to scale.D. All of the above.E. None of the above.14. If some industries exhibit internal (firm specific) increasing returns to scale in each country, we should not expect to seeA. intra-industry trade between countries.B. perfect competition in these industries.C. inter-industry trade between countries.D. high levels of specialization in both countries.E. None of the above.15. Intra-industry trade is most common in the trade patterns ofA. developing countries of Asia and Africa.B. industrial countries of Western Europe.C. all countries.D. North-South trade.E. None of the above.16. International trade based on scale economies is likely to be associated withA. Ricardian comparative advantage.B. comparative advantage associated with Heckscher-Ohlin factor-proportions.C. comparative advantage based on quality and service.D. comparative advantage based on diminishing returns.E. None of the above.17. International trade based on external scale economies in both countries is likely to be carried out by aA. relatively large number of price competing firms.B. relatively small number of price competing firms.C. relatively small number of competing oligopolists.D. monopoly firms in each country/industry.E. None of the above.18. International trade based solely on internal scale economies in both countries is likely to be carried out by aA. relatively large number of price competing firms.B. relatively small number of price competing firms.C. relatively small number of competing oligopolists.D. monopoly firms in each country/industry.E. None of the above.19. A monopoly firm engaged in international trade willA. equate average to local costs.B. equate marginal costs with foreign marginal revenues.C. equate marginal costs with the highest price the market will bear.D. equate marginal costs with marginal revenues in both domestic and in foreign markets.E. None of the above.20. A monopoly firm will maximize profits byA. charging the same price in domestic and in foreign markets.B. producing where the marginal revenue is higher in foreign markets.C. producing where the marginal revenue is higher in the domestic market.D. equating the marginal revenues in domestic and foreign markets.E. None of the above.21. A firm in monopolistic competitionA. earns positive monopoly profits because each sells a differentiated product.B. earns positive oligopoly profits because each firm sells a differentiated product.C. earns zero economic profits because it is in perfectly or pure competition.D. earns zero economic profits because of free entry.E. None of the above.22. The larger the number of firms in a monopolistic competition situation,A. the larger are that country's exports.B. the higher is the price charged.C. the fewer varieties are sold.D. the lower is the price charged.E. None of the above.23. The monopolistic competition model is one in which there is/areA. a monopoly.B. perfect competition.C. economies of scale.D. government intervention in the market.E. None of the above.24. In industries in which there are scale economies, the variety of goods that a country can produce is constrained byA. the size of the labor force.B. anti-trust legislationC. the size of the market.D. the fixed cost.25. An industry is characterized by scale economies, and exists in two countries. Should these two countries engage in trade such that the combined market is supplied by one country's industry, thenA. consumers in both countries would suffer higher prices and fewer varieties.B. consumers in the importing country would suffer higher prices and fewer varieties.C. consumers in the exporting country would suffer higher prices and fewer varieties.D. consumers in both countries would enjoy fewer varieties available but lower prices.E. None of the above.26. An industry is characterized by scale economies and exists in two countries. In order for consumers of its products to enjoy both lower prices and more variety of choice,A. each country's marginal cost must equal that of the other country.B. the marginal cost of this industry must equal marginal revenue in the other.C. the monopoly must lower prices in order to sell more.D. the two countries must engage in international trade one with the other.E. None of the above.27. A product is produced in a monopolistically competitive industry with scale economies. If this industry exists in two countries, and these two countries engage in trade one with the other, then we would expectA. the country in which the price of the product is lower will export the product.B. the country with a relative abundance of the factor of production in which production of the product is intensive will export this product.C. each of the countries will export different varieties of the product to the other.D. neither country will export this product since there is no comparative advantage.E. None of the above.28. The reason why one country may export a product which is produced with positive scale economies isA. its labor productivity will tend to be higher.B. it enjoys a relative abundance of the factor intensely used in the product's production.C. its demand is biased in favor of the product.D. its demand is biased against the product.E. None of the above.29. Two countries engaged in trade in products with no scale economies, produced under conditions of perfect competition, are likely to be engaged inA. monopolistic competition.B. inter-industry trade.C. intra-industry trade.D. Heckscher-Ohlin trade.30. Two countries engaged in trade in products with scale economies, produced under conditions of monopolistic competition, are likely to be engaged inA. price competition.B. inter-industry trade.C. intra-industry trade.D. Heckscher-Ohlinean trade.E. None of the above.31. History and accident determine the details of trade involvingA. Ricardian and Classical comparative advantage.B. Heckscher-Ohlin model consideration.C. taste reversals.D. scale economies.E. None of the above.32. We often observe intra-industry North-South trade in "computers and related devices." This is due toA. classification and aggregation ambiguities.B. monopolistic competition.C. specific factors issues.D. scale economies.E. None of the above.33. We often observe "pseudo-intra-industry trade" between the United States and Mexico. Actually, such trade is consistent withA. oligopolistic markets.B. comparative advantage associated with Heckscher-Ohlin model.C. optimal tariff issues.D. huge sucking sound.E. None of the above.34. Intra-industry trade will tend to dominate trade flows when which of the following exists?A. Large differences between relative country factor availabilitiesB. Small differences between relative country factor availabilitiesC. Homogeneous products that cannot be differentiatedD. Constant cost industriesE. None of the above.35. The most common form of price discrimination in international trade isA. non-tariff barriers.B. Voluntary Export Restraints.C. dumping.D. preferential trade arrangements.E. None of the above.Essay Questions1. Why is it that an industry is operating under conditions of domestic internal scale economies (applies to firm in the country) - then the resultant equilibrium cannot be consistent with the pure competition model?2. Is it possible that if positive scale economies characterize an industry, that its equilibrium may be consistent with purely competitive conditions ? Explain how this could happen.3. If a scale economy is the dominant technological factor defining or establishing comparative advantage, then the underlying facts explaining why a particular country dominates world markets in some product may be pure chance, or historical accident. Explain, and compare this with the answer you would give for the Heckscher-Ohlin model of comparative advantage.4. It is possible that trade based on external scale economies may leave a country worse off than it would have been without trade. Explain how this could happen.5. If scale economies were not only external to firms, but were also external to individual countries. That is, the larger the worldwide industry (regardless of where firms or plants are located), the cheaper would be the per-unit cost of production. Describe what world trade would look like in this case.Quantitative/Graphing Problems1. The figure above represents the demand and cost functions facing a Brazilian Steel producing monopolist. If it were unable to export, and was constrained by its domestic market, what quantity would it sell at what price?2. Now the monopolist discovers that it can export as much as it likes of its steel at the world price of $5/ton. It will therefore expand for- export production up to the point where its marginal cost equals $5. How much steel will the monopolist sell, and at what price?3. Given the opportunity to sell at world prices, the marginal (opportunity) cost of selling a ton domestically is what?4. While selling exports it would also maximize its domestic sales by equating its marginal (opportunity) cost to its marginal revenue of $5. How much steel would the firm sell domestically, and at what price?5. The Brazilian firm is charging its foreign (U.S.) customers one half the price it is charging its domestic customers. Is this good or bad for the real income or economic welfare of the United States? Is the Brazilian firm engaged in dumping? Is this predatory behavior on the part of the Brazilian steel company?。

国际经济学(上)-国际贸易部分第八版—第六章详解

分纵轴到需求曲线的任一条水平线
完全垄断市场
3、MR曲线在AR曲线之下 MR=A/B－2/B×Q=A/B－1/B×Q － 1/B×Q
P=A/B－1/B×Q=AR MR=P－1/B×Q=AR－1/B×Q MR曲线在AR曲线之下
完全垄断市场
3、MA曲线在AR曲线之下由MR=P－1/B×Q可知：
1.MR与P之间的差异取决于厂商销售量Q及需求曲线的斜率B
Q为销售量;P为单位产品价格;A, B为常数
完全垄断市场
2.MR与AR曲线有相同的纵轴截距且MR平分纵轴到需求曲线的任一条水平线
由①式可以得到反需求函数 P=A/B－1/B×Q=AR ②
则总收益: TR=PQ= (A/B)×Q－1/B×Q2 边际收益: MR=dTR(Q)/d(Q)=A/B－2/B×Q ③ 比较②、 ③式可知： MR与AR曲线有相同的纵轴截距且MR平
出点位于边际收益(多销售1单位产品的收益) 与边际成本(多生产1单位产品追加的成本)相等之处，即MC曲线与 MR曲线的交点。
完全垄断市场
完全垄断市场均衡
可以看到利润最大的产出点Q*对应的是价格P*
右图阴影部分为厂商获得的垄断利润
垄断竞争市场
垄断竞争市场的主要特征
1、同一类产品之间存在差异，这种差异主要来源于产品内在品质、外观形象以及消费者主观评价等。
2、厂商数目较多，可以忽视对手的反应，独立决策。
3、产业的进入壁垒比较少。
4、由于存在产品的异质性，厂商对产品价格具有一定的影响力。
垄断竞争市场
垄断竞争模型的假设 1、第一，每个厂商均能生产与竞争对手有差异的产
品，也就是说它的顾客不会由于微小的价格差别而去购买其他厂商的产品，产品的差异确保每家厂商在行业中对它所特有的产品拥有垄断地位，从而在某种程度上摆脱了竞争 2、第二，每个厂商都把竞争对手的价格作为既定价格。

国际经济学英文版上册(第八版)章节练习第七章

International Economics, 8e (Krugman)Chapter 7 International Factor Movements1) If the world attained a perfect Heckscher-Ohlin model equilibrium with trade, thenA) workers in the labor abundant country would migrate to the capital abundant country.B) workers in the labor abundant country would wish to migrate to the capital abundant country.C) workers in the labor abundant country would have no desire to migrate to the capital abundantcountry.D) workers in the capital abundant country would wish to migrate to the labor abundant country.E) workers in the capital abundant country would migrate to the labor abundant country.Answer: C2) During the mass migration period of late 19th-early 20th centuries,A) wages rose in the origin countries and fell in the destination countries.B) wages fell in the origin countries and rose in the destination countries.C) wages generally rose faster in the origin countries.D) wages generally rose faster in the destination countries.E) wages generally fell faster in the origin countries.Answer: C3) International labor mobilityA) leads to wage convergence by raising wages in destination country and lowering in source country.B) is in accordance with the specific factors model.C) is in accordance with the Heckscher-Ohlin factor proportions model.D) leads to wage convergence by raising wages in source and lowering them in destination country.E) is in accordance with scale economy model.Answer: D4) In theory, labor mobility isA) a complete complement to trade flows.B) a partial complement to trade flows.C) a complete substitute for trade flows.D) a partial substitute for trade flows.E) None of the above.Answer: C5) In practice, international labor mobility isA) a complete complement to trade flows.B) a partial complement to trade flows.C) a complete substitute for trade flows.D) a partial substitute for trade flows.E) None of the above.Answer: D6) In a typical short-run production function, as labor increasesA) the marginal product of capital decreases.B) the overall product of labor decreases.C) the average product of labor decreases.D) the marginal product of labor decreases.E) None of the above.Answer: D7) Using the production function model, the real wage is determined byA) the amount of migration.B) the marginal product of capital.C) the marginal product of labor.D) the rents.E) None of the above.Answer: C8) If initially wages are higher in Home than in Foreign, then a movement of workers from Foreign to HomewillA) lower the marginal product of labor in Foreign.B) raise total product in Foreign.C) raise the income of land owners in Foreign.D) raise the income of land owners in Home.E) None of the above.Answer: D9) A redistribution of workers from low to high real wage countries will eventually result inA) lead to equal real wages in all countries.B) lead to equal income distribution between land owners and workers.C) lower the world's output as a whole.D) a higher level of international investment and trade.E) None of the above.Answer: A10) It may be argued that international labor mobility and trade are substitutes one from the other. Explain.Answer: workers earning lower real wages will have an incentive to move to a higher-wage country. Using the Neo-Classical model framework, this means that countries with relative more labor per unit capitalmay be said to have a relative abundance of labor (or a comparative advantage in labor). They willtherefore export their labor. Turning to the Neo-Classical trade model, we know that a country that isrelatively labor abundant will export products (and enjoy comparative advantage) in products thatembody relatively more labor. Hence, trade exports labor indirectly embodied in products. This allowsthe workers to raise their real wage instead of doing it by physically moving to the capital rich country.11) It may be argued that, although theoretically international labor mobility and international trade may besubstitutes one for the other, inductive inferences drawn from real world observations suggest that the two are actually complementary. Give an example.Answer: One can easily observe that sales of Irish Whiskey are relatively robust in neighborhoods with large populations of Irish descent. Alternatively, one finds sales of imported Indian foods in specializedrestaurants in areas with relatively large populations of immigrants from India. Or Mexican beer inareas with large or rapidly expanding populations from Mexico. This may easily be explained by the"Home good" taste bias of populations. Along with international labor migrations come their tastes infoods as well as other products.12) One concomitant of international labor mobility is the phenomenon known as the "brain drain." This refers tothe immigration (or emigration) of the "best and brightest." Generally countries tend to encourage suchimmigration. Explain why. At times, countries actually encourage such "emigration." Explain why.Answer: The answer to the first question is easy. The highly skilled workers' marginal product is likely to be markedly higher than the average product in the host country. The host country reaps the benefits ofeducation expended by other countries' educational infrastructures. The answer to the secondquestion is more difficult. An example is that during 2000, the Prime Minister of India lobbied for achange in U.S. immigration laws so as to encourage the employment of more Indian engineers andcomputer programmers in the U.S. The answer to this seemingly paradoxical action may be related tothe observed complementarity of international labor mobility and international trade. The presence ofIndian engineers in the U.S. may actually encourage the importation of Indian products and servicesin the computer field.13) In Home and Foreign there are two factors of production, land and labor, used to produce only one good.The land supply in each country and the technology of production are exactly the same. The marginalproduct of labor in each country depends on employment as follows:Initially there are 11 workers employed in Home but only 3 workers in Foreign. Find the effect of freemovement of labor from the high wage to the low wage country. When such economic migration ceases, what will be the levels of production, real wages and the income of landowners in each country?Answer: The total production in the world will increase, since the addition to production (the marginal product of labor) in the target country is larger for each worker than the loss of production (also the marginalproduct of workers) in the emigration country. The real wages will rise in the emigration country andfall in the immigration country. Landlord incomes will rise in the immigration country and fall in theemigration country.14) Suppose Australia, a land (K)-abundant country and Sri-Lanka, a labor(L)-abundant country both producelabor and land intensive goods with the same technology. Following the logic of the Heckscher-Ohlin model from Chapter 4, what will be the incentive for migration once trade is established between these twocountries? Now, suppose that a tariff by one country creates an incentive for labor migration. From which country to which country will be the migration? Explain how you arrived at your answer.Answer: Once trade is established, there is no longer any incentive for (economic-based) immigration, since the real wages will be equalized in both. If a tariff is established in Australia, then the price of the laborintensive good will be higher in Australia, as will be the marginal product of labor and hence the realwage of workers there. Hence, workers will immigrate from Sri-Lanka to Australia until the twodomestic prices are equalized.15) International borrowing and lending may be interpreted as one form ofA) intermediate trade.B) inter-temporal trade.C) trade in services.D) unrequited international transfers.E) None of the above.Answer: B16) If one observes that Japan was traditionally a net foreign lender, one could conclude that relative to itsinternational trade and financial partnersA) Japan's inter-temporal production possibilities are biased toward future consumption.B) Japan's inter-temporal production possibilities are larger than that of the other countries.C) Japan's inter-temporal production possibilities are biased toward present consumption.D) Japan's inter-temporal production possibilities are not biased.E) None of the above.Answer: C17) Rapidly growing developing countries tend to be borrowers on the international capital markets. From thisinformation we may surmise that they have a comparative advantage inA) capital goods.B) future income.C) disposable income.D) consumer goods.E) present income.Answer: B18) International labor mobility is different from capital mobility in thatA) the first is a human and family decision, whereas the latter is not.B) the first is a real transfer from one country to the other, whereas the latter is a financial transaction.C) the first is motivated by the desire to receive a higher economic return, whereas the latter is merely aninter-bank transfer.D) The first results in equalization of real factor returns, whereas the latter does not.E) None of the above.Answer: B19) The relative price of future consumption isA) the interest rate.B) unknown at any given time.C) the real interest rate.D) the relative interest rate.E) None of the above.Answer: C20) A country that has a comparative advantage in future production of consumption goodsA) will tend to be an international borrower.B) will tend to have low real interest rates.C) will tend to be an international investor or lender.D) will tend to have good work ethics.E) None of the above.Answer: A21) A U.S. multinational corporationA) has a controlling share in a foreign subsidiary and is not itself foreign controlled.B) is foreign controlled and has no controlling share in a foreign company.C) has a controlling share in a foreign subsidiary and may itself be foreign controlled by a foreigncompany.D) is a U.S. company whose major markets are outside the United States.E) None of the above.Answer: C22) Why a good is produced in two different countries is known as the question ofA) internalization.B) vertical integration.C) exploitation.D) location.E) None of the above.Answer: D23) Most U.S. direct foreign investment occurs inA) communications.B) agriculture.C) petroleum.D) manufacturing.E) None of the above.Answer: D24) Most foreign direct investment in the United States occurs inA) communications.B) agriculture.C) petroleum.D) manufacturing.E) None of the above.Answer: D25) Direct foreign investment may take any of the following forms exceptA) investors buying bonds of an existing firm overseas.B) the creation of a wholly owned business overseas.C) the takeover of an existing company overseas.D) the construction of a manufacturing plant overseas.E) None of the above.Answer: A26) Multinational corporationsA) increase the transfer of technology between nations.B) make it harder for nations to foster activities of comparative advantage.C) always enjoy political harmony in host countries in which their subsidiaries operate.D) require governmental subsidies in order to conduct worldwide operations.E) None of the above.Answer: A27) American labor unions have recently maintained that U.S. multinational corporations have beenA) exporting American jobs by investing overseas.B) exporting American jobs by keeping investment in the United States.C) importing cheap foreign labor by shifting U.S. investment overseas.D) importing cheap foreign workers by keeping U.S. investment at home.E) None of the above.Answer: A28) The shift of labor-intensive assembly operations from the United States to Mexican maqiladora may be bestexplained in terms of a theory ofA) location.B) vertical integration.C) horizontal integration.D) internalization.E) None of the above.Answer: A。

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International Economics, 8e (Krugman)Chapter 6 Economies of Scale, Imperfect Competition, and International Trade6.1 Economies of Scale and International Trade: An Overview1) External economies of scale arise when the cost per unitA) rises as the industry grows larger.B) falls as the industry grows larger rises as the average firm grows larger.C) falls as the average firm grows larger.D) remains constant.E) None of the above.Answer: B2) Internal economies of scale arise when the cost per unitA) rises as the industry grows larger.B) falls as the industry grows larger.C) rises as the average firm grows larger.D) falls as the average firm grows larger.E) None of the above.Answer: D3) History and accident determine the details of trade involvingA) Ricardian and Classical comparative advantage.B) Heckscher-Ohlin model consideration.C) taste reversals.D) scale economies.E) None of the above.Answer: D4) Why are increasing returns to scale and fixed costs important in models of international trade andmonopolistic competition?Answer: There are many answers. Three of these are(a) Increasing returns to scale, and high fixed costs may be inconsistent with perfect competition.In such a case, the initial autarkic state may be a suboptimal equilibrium. For example, relative pricesmay not equal marginal rates of transformation. It follows from this that a change in outputcompositions associated with trade may result in a national welfare for one or both trading countriesthat is inferior to that associated with the initial autarkic conditions. Hence no "gains from trade."(b) In a case of increasing scale economies at the firm or plant level, the determination of whichproduct will be exported by which country is ex-ante indeterminate. Therefore, deriving clearimplications concerning the effects of trade on income distributions such as may be derived from theSamuelson-Stolper Theorem is no longer generally possible.(c) Market structures containing positive scale economies and imperfect competition may allowfor "two-way trade," or intra-industry trade. As in b. above, the various theorems derivable from theHeckscher-Ohlin model concerning directions of trade and income distributions are no longergenerally applicable.A) may be associated with a perfectly competitive industry.B) cannot be associated with a perfectly competitive industry.C) tends to result in one huge monopoly.D) tends to result in large profits for each firm.E) None of the above.Answer: A6) Internal economies of scaleA) may be associated with a perfectly competitive industry.B) cannot be associated with a perfectly competitive industry.C) are associated only with sophisticated products such as aircraft.D) cannot form the basis for international trade.E) None of the above.Answer: B7) Where there are economies of scale, an increase in the size of the market willA) increase the number of firms and raise the price per unit.B) decrease the number of firms and raise the price per unit.C) increase the number of firms and lower the price per unit.D) decrease the number of firms and lower the price per unit.E) None of the above.Answer: C8) If some industries exhibit internal (firm specific) increasing returns to scale in each country, we should notexpect to seeA) intra-industry trade between countries.B) perfect competition in these industries.C) inter-industry trade between countries.D) high levels of specialization in both countries.E) None of the above.Answer: B9) The simultaneous export and import of widgets by the United States is an example ofA) increasing returns to scale.B) imperfect competition.C) intra-industry trade.D) inter-industry trade.E) None of the above.Answer: C10) The larger the number of firms in a monopolistic competition situation,A) the larger are that country's exports.B) the higher is the price charged.C) the fewer varieties are sold.D) the lower is the price charged.E) None of the above.Answer: Dconstrained byA) the size of the labor force.B) anti-trust legislation.C) the size of the market.D) the fixed cost.E) None of the above.Answer: C12) Intra-industry trade is most common in the trade patterns ofA) developing countries of Asia and Africa.B) industrial countries of Western Europe.C) all countries.D) North-South trade.E) None of the above.Answer: B13) International trade based on external scale economies in both countries is likely to be carried out by aA) relatively large number of price competing firms.B) relatively small number of price competing firms.C) relatively small number of competing oligopolists.D) monopoly firms in each country/industry.E) None of the above.Answer: A14) International trade based solely on internal scale economies in both countries is likely to be carried out by aA) relatively large number of price competing firms.B) relatively small number of price competing firms.C) relatively small number of competing oligopolists.D) monopoly firms in each country/industry.E) None of the above.Answer: D15) A monopoly firm engaged in international trade willA) equate average to local costs.B) equate marginal costs with foreign marginal revenues.C) equate marginal costs with the highest price the market will bear.D) equate marginal costs with marginal revenues in both domestic and in foreign markets.E) None of the above.Answer: D16) An industry is characterized by scale economies and exists in two countries. In order for consumers of itsproducts to enjoy both lower prices and more variety of choice,A) each country's marginal cost must equal that of the other country.B) the marginal cost of this industry must equal marginal revenue in the other.C) the monopoly must lower prices in order to sell more.D) the two countries must engage in international trade one with the other.E) None of the above.Answer: Dexists in two countries, and these two countries engage in trade one with the other, then we would expectA) the country in which the price of the product is lower will export the product.B) the country with a relative abundance of the factor of production in which production of the product isintensive will export this product.C) each of the countries will export different varieties of the product to the other.D) neither country will export this product since there is no comparative advantage.E) None of the above.Answer: C18) Two countries engaged in trade in products with no scale economies, produced under conditions of perfectcompetition, are likely to be engaged inA) monopolistic competition.B) inter-industry trade.C) intra-industry trade.D) Heckscher-Ohlin trade.E) None of the above.Answer: B19) Two countries engaged in trade in products with scale economies, produced under conditions ofmonopolistic competition, are likely to be engaged inA) price competition.B) inter-industry trade.C) intra-industry trade.D) Heckscher-Ohlinean trade.E) None of the above.Answer: C20) Intra-industry trade will tend to dominate trade flows when which of the following exists?A) large differences between relative country factor availabilitiesB) small differences between relative country factor availabilitiesC) homogeneous products that cannot be differentiatedD) constant cost industriesE) None of the above.Answer: B21) Trade without serious income distribution effects, then, is most likely to happenA) in simple manufactures trade between developing countries.B) in sophisticated manufactures trade between rich and poor countries.C) in sophisticated manufactures trade between rich countries.D) in agricultural trade between rich countries.E) None of the above.Answer: C22) Refer to above figure. Now the monopolist discovers that it can export as much as it likes of its steel at theworld price of $5/ton. It will therefore expand for-export production up to the point where its marginal cost equals $5. How much steel will the monopolist sell, and at what price?Answer: It would sell 10 million tons at $5/ton.Refer to above figure. Given the opportunity to sell at world prices, the marginal (opportunity) cost of sellinga ton domestically is what?Answer: $5/ton.Refer to above figure. While selling exports it would also maximize its domestic sales by equating itsmarginal (opportunity) cost to its marginal revenue of $5. How much steel would the firm sell domestically, and at what price?Answer: 4 million tons at $10/ton.23) The most common form of price discrimination in international trade isA) non-tariff barriers.B) Voluntary Export Restraints.C) dumping.D) preferential trade arrangements.E) None of the above.Answer: C24) If an industry is imperfectly competitive, and markets are segmented thenA) a firm may find that it is profitable to engage in dumping.B) a firm may find that international trade is unprofitable.C) a firm may find that it should promote scale economies.D) a firm may find that it has lost its comparative advantage.E) None of the above.Answer: A25) Explain why it may be argued that the relative importance of the intra-industry component of world trade islikely to lessen economic strife or confrontation (a la Stolper-Samuelson) associated with commercial policy within countries in which overall trade is expanding?Answer: In the case of the Neo-Classical H-O model, the expansion of trade will tend to increase the incomes of those factors in which the exports are relatively intense. This may create situations in which unskilledlabor's already relatively low relative incomes would worsen in a country such as the U.S., henceheating up "class warfare." In the case of intra-industry trade, the expanding exports will tend to be inrelatively fragmented subsets of products ("brands"). Such export expansion will have no determinantor systematic tendency to affect relative factor returns in any deterministic manner.。