专业英语阅读讲义
《旅游管理专业英语》(第二版) 讲义 Lesson11 Globalization
GlobalizationGlobalization is a term used to describe the changes in societies and the world economy that are the result of dramatically increased trade and cultural exchange. In specifically economic contexts, it refers almost exclusively to the effects of trade, particularly trade liberalization or "free trade".Between 1910 and 1950, a series of political and economic upheavals dramatically reduced the volume and importance of international trade flows. In the post-World War II environment, fostered by international economic institutions and rebuilding programs, international trade dramatically expanded. With the 1970s, the effects of this trade became increasingly visible, both in terms of the benefits and the disruptive effects.Meanings of Globalization"Globalization" can mean:•The formation of a global village— closer contact between different parts of the world, with increasing possibilities of personal exchange, mutual understanding and friendship between "world citizens", and creation of a global civilization,•Economic globalization —"free trade" and increasing relations among members of an industry in different parts of the world (globalization of an industry), with a corresponding erosion of National Sovereignty in the economic sphere.•The negative effects of for-profit multinational corporations— the use of substantial and sophisticated legal and financial means to circumvent the bounds of local laws and standards, in order to leverage the labor and services of unequally-developed regions against each other.•The spread of capitalism from developed to developing nations.It shares a number of characteristics with internationalization and is used interchangeably, although some prefer to use globalization to emphasize the erosion of the nation-state or national boundaries.Globalism, if the concept is reduced to its economic aspects, can be said to contrast with economic nationalism and protectionism. It is related to laissez-faire capitalism and neoliberalism.History of globalizationSince the word has both technical and political meanings, different groups will have differing histories of "globalization". In general use within the field of economics and political economy, is, however, a history of increasing trade between nations based on stable institutions that allow individuals and firms in different nations to exchange goods with minimal friction.The term "liberalization" came to mean the combination of laissez-faire economic theory with the removal of barriers to the movement of goods. This led to the increasing specialization of nations in exports, and the pressure to end protective tariffs and other barriers to trade. The period of the gold standard and liberalization of the 19th century is often called "The First Era of Globalization". Based on the Pax Britannica and the exchange of goods in currencies pegged to specie, this era grew along with industrialization. The theoretical basis was Ricardo's work on Comparative advantage and Say's Law of General equilibrium. In essence, it was argued that nations would trade effectively, and that any temporary disruptions in supply or demand would correct themselves automatically. The institution of the gold standard came in steps in major industrialized nations between approximately 1850 and 1880, though exactly when various nations were truly on the gold standard is a matter of a great deal of contentious debate.The "First Era of Globalization" is said to have broken down in stages beginning with the first World War, and then collapsing with the crisis of the gold standard in the late 1920's and early 1930's.Globalization in the era since World War II has been driven by Trade Negotiation Rounds, originally under the auspices of GATT, which led to a series of agreements to remove restrictions on "free trade". The Uruguay round led to a treaty to create the World Trade Organization or WTO, to mediate trade disputes. Other bilateral trade agreements, including sections of Europe's Maastricht Treaty and the North American Free Trade Agreement have also been signed in pursuit of the goal of reducing tariffs and barriers to trade.Signs of globalizationGlobalization has become identified with a number of trends, most of which may have developed since World War II. These include greater international movement of commodities, money, information, and people; and the development of technology, organizations, legal systems, and infrastructures to allow this movement. The actual existence of some of these trends are debated.•Increase in international trade at a faster rate than the growth in the world economy•Increase in international flow of capital including foreign direct investment•Greater transborder data flow, using such technologies such as the Internet, communication satellites and telephones•Greater international cultural exchange, for example through the export of Hollywood and Bollywood movies.•Some argue that even terrorism has undergone globalization. Terrorists now have attacked places all over the world.•Spreading of multiculturalism and better individual access to cultural diversity, with on the other hand, some reduction in diversity through assimilation, hybridization, Westernization, Americanization or Sinosization of cultures.•Erosion of national sovereignty and national borders through international agreements leading to organizations like the WTO and OPEC•Greater international travel and tourism•Greater immigration, including illegal immigration•Development of global telecommunications infrastructure•Development of a global financial systems•Increase in the share of the world economy controlled by multinational corporations•Increased role of international organizations such as WTO, WIPO, IMF that deal with international transactions•Increase in the number of standards applied globally; e.g. copyright lawsBarriers to international trade have been considerably lowered since World War II through international agreements such as the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). Particular initiatives carried out as a result of GATT and the WTO, for which GATT is the foundation, have included:•Promotion of free tradeo Of goods: reduction or elimination of tariffs; construction of free trade zones with small or no tariffso Of capital: reduction or elimination of capital controlso Reduction, elimination, or harmonization of subsidies for local businesses •Intellectual Property Restrictionso Harmonization of intellectual property laws across nations (generally speaking, with more restrictions)o Supranational recognition of intellectual property restrictions (e.g. patents granted by China would be recognized in the US)Anti-globalizationMain article: "Anti-globalization".Various aspects of globalization are seen as harmful by public-interest activists. This movement has no unified name. "Anti-globalization" is the media's preferred term. Activists themselves, for example Noam Chomsky, have said that this name is meaningless as the movement's aim is to globalize justice. Indeed, "the global justice movement" is a common name. Many activists also unite under the slogan "another world is possible", which has given rise to names such as altermondisme in French.There is a wide variety of different kinds of "anti-globalization". In general, critics claim that the results of globalization have not been what was predicted when the attempt to increase free trade began, and that many institutions involved in the system of globalization have not taken the interests of poorer nations and the working class into account.Economic arguments by fair trade theorists claim that unrestricted free trade benefits those with more financial leverage (i.e. the rich) at the expense of the poor.Many "anti-globalization" activists see globalization as the promotion of a corporatist agenda, which is intent on constricting the freedoms of individuals in the name of profit. They also claimthat increasing autonomy and strength of corporate entities increasingly shape the political policy of nation-states.Some "anti-globalization" groups argue that globalization is necessarily imperialistic, is one of the driving reasons behind the Iraq war and that it has forced savings to flow into the United States rather than developing nations.Some argue that globalization imposes credit-based economics, resulting in unsustainable growth of debt and debt crises.The main opposition is to unfettered globalization (neoliberal; laissez-faire capitalism), guided by governments and quasi-governments (such as the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank) that are not held responsible to the populations that they govern and instead respond mostly to the interests of corporations. Many conferences between trade and finance ministers of the core globalizing nations have been met with large, and occasionally violent, protests from opponents of "corporate globalism".The movement is very broad, including church groups, national liberation factions, left-wing parties, environmentalists, peasant unionists, anti-racism groups, libertarian socialists and others. Most are reformist (arguing for a more humane form of capitalism) and a strong minority is revolutionary (arguing for a more humane system than capitalism). Many have decried the lack of unity and direction in the movement, but some such as Noam Chomsky have claimed that this lack of centralization may in fact be a strength.Protests by the global justice movement have now forced high-level international meetings away from the major cities where they used to be held, and off into remote locations where protest is impractical.Pro-globalization (globalism)Supporters of democratic globalization can be labelled pro-globalists. They consider that the first phase of globalization, which was market-oriented, should be completed by a phase of building global political institutions representing the will of World citizens. The difference with other globalists is that they do not define in advance any ideology to orientate this will, which should be left to the free choice of those citizens via a democratic process.Supporters of free trade point out that economic theories such as comparative advantage suggests that free trade leads to a more efficient allocation of resources, with all those involved in the trade benefitting. In general, they claim that this leads to lower prices, more employment and better allocation of resources.Libertarians and other proponents of laissez-faire capitalism say higher degrees of political and economic freedom in the form of democracy and capitalism in the developed world produce higher levels of material wealth. They see globalization as the beneficial spread of democracy and capitalism.Critics argue that the anti-globalization movement uses anecdotal evidence to support their view and that worldwide statistics instead strongly support globalization. One effect being that the percentage of people in developing countries living below $1 (adjusted for inflation) per day have halved in only twenty years [1] (). Life expectancy has almost doubled in the developing world since WWII and is starting to close the gap to the developed world where the improvement has been smaller. Child mortality has decreased in every developing region of the world [2] (). Income inequality for the world as a whole is diminishing [3] ().Many pro-capitalists are also critical of the World Bank and the IMF, arguing that they are corrupt bureaucracies controlled and financed by states, not corporations. Many loans have been given to dictators who never did any reforms, instead leaving the common people to pay the debts later. They thus see too little capitalism, not too much. They also note that some of the resistance to globalization come from special interest groups with conflicting interests like Western world unions.Globalization in questionThere is much academic discussion about whether globalization is a real phenomenon or only a myth. Although the term is widespread, many authors argue that the characteristics of the phenomenon have already been seen at other moments in history. Also, many note that those features that make people believe we are in the process of globalization, including the increase in international trade and the greater role of multinational corporations, are not as deeply established as they may appear. Thus, many authors prefer the use of the term internationalization rather than globalization. To put it simply, the role of the state and the importance of nations are greater in internationalization, while globalization in its complete form eliminates nation states. So, these authors see that the frontiers of countries, in a broad sense, are far from being dissolved, and therefore this radical globalization process is not yet happening, and probably won't happen, considering that in world history, internationalization never turned into globalization —(the European Union and NAFTA are yet to prove their case.)However, the world increasingly shares problems and challenges that do not obey nation state borders, most notably pollution of the natural environment, and as such the movement previously known as the anti-globalisation movement has transmogrified into a movement of movements for globalisation from below; seeking, through experimentation, forms of social organisation that transcend the nation state and representative democracy. So, whereas the original arguments of anti-global critique can be refuted with stories of internationalisation, as above, the emergence of a global movement is indisputable and therefore we can speak of a real process towards a global human society of societies.。
专业型硕士研究生英语课文讲义unit-3
2021/8/6
7
Paragraph 2
• As for the landscape, it is enormously varied and spectacular. In the west there are the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada, with their snow-capped peaks, and in the east the wild, forestcovered Appalachians, whose highest summit is nearly 7000 feet. There is an abundance of waterfall, gentle rivers, lakes that are small and intimate or vast like the Great Lakes, Lake Superior is the20l2a1/r8/g6 est freshwater lake in the world16
2021/8/6
28
Paragraph 5
• Many Americans, young and old, prefer camping in vehicles, called campers. There are many different kinds, from the extremely luxurious to the convertible pick-up truck. There are monster campers with every imaginable luxury, from deep freezes and microwave ovens, to plush carpets and color television sets. They can accommodate four people comfortably, and they do not necessarily belong to rich people.
社会工作专业英语讲义
Chapter1Introduction to social work and social welfareWhat is Social work?Social work is the professional activity of help individuals, groups, or communities enhance or restore their capacity for social functioning and creating societal conditions favorable to this goal. Social work practice consists of the professional application of social work values, principles, and techniques to one or more of the following ends: Helping people obtain tangible services, Providing counseling and psychotherapy with individuals, families and groups, Helping communities or groups provide or improve social and health services, participating in relevant legislative processes.Five themes:Social work concerns helping individuals, groups, or communities.Social work entails a solid foundation of values and principles.A firm basis of techniques and skills provides directions.Social works need to link people to recourses or advocate for service development for clients. Social workers participate legislative process to promote positive social changes.What is social welfare?Social welfare is a nation's system of programs, benefits, and services that help people meet those social, economic, educational, and health needs that are fundamental to the maintenance of society. Two Dimensions:What people get from society (programs, benefits and services?)How well their needs (social, economic, educational, and health) are being metHow are social welfare and social work related?Debates on social welfare:Individual responsibility: you get you deserveSociety responsibilityWho should assume responsibility for people's social welfare?Residual, institutional, and developmental perspectives on social welfare.1. Residual ModelSocial welfare benefit and service should be supplied only when people fail to provide adequately for themselves.Blame the victim (fault and failure)For instance: social assistanceFamilies in need receive limited and temporary financial assistance until they can get back on their feet.2. Institutional modelPeople have a right to get benefit and service.For instance: public education, fire and police protectionEveryone can get these services.3. Developmental modelThis approach seeks to identify social interventions that have a positive impact on economic development.(1) Invest in education, nutrition and health care(2) Invest in physical facilities(3)Help people in need engage in productive employment and self-employment.Political ideology: conservatives, liberalism and radicalismConservatism is the philosophy that individuals are responsible for themselves, government should provide minimal interference in people's lives, and change is generally unnecessary.Liberalism is the philosophy that government should be involved in the social, political and economic structure so that all people's rights and privileges are protected in the name of social justice. Radicalism is the philosophy that the social and political system as it stands is not structurally capable of truly providing social justice. The fundamental changes are necessary in the basic social and political structure to achieve truly fair and equal treatment.Fields of practice in social work⏹Work with people in needs (children, youth, old people, the disable etc.)⏹Work with some occupationThe continuum of social work careers⏹Degree in social workBSW: prepare for the entry-level social workMSW: receive more specialized trainingDSW: teach at the college level or conduct researchSocial work builds on many disciplinesPsychology sociology political science economicsBiology psychiatry council cultural anthropology social workSocial workers demonstrate competenciesCompetencies are measurable practice behaviors that are comprised of sufficient knowledge, skills, and values" and have the goal of practicing effective social work.Competency 1: identification as a professional social workerCompetency 2: the application of social work ethical principles to guide practiceCompetency 3: the application of critical thinking to inform professional judgmentsCompetency 4: engagement of diversity in practiceCompetency 5: the advancement of human rights and social economic justice.Competency 6: engagement in research-informed practice Evidence-based practiceCompetency7: application of knowledge of human behavior and the social environment Competency8: engagement in policy proactive to advance social and economic well-being Competency 9: responsiveness to contexts that shape practiceCompetency 10:engagement, assessment, intervention, and evaluation with individuals, families, groups, organizations, and communities.Chapter 2social work values and ethics1. Value and ethics _Social worker is value-based profession.What is value? Value involves what you do and do not consider important and worthwhile, and also involve judgments and decisions about relative worth.What is Ethics? Ethics involve principles that specify what is good and what is bad. They clarify what should and should not be done•Difference between value and ethics:Value determine what beliefs are appropriate. Ethics address what to do with or how to apply those beliefs to do the right thing.2. Value and ethics for social workersSix core values for social workers:(1) Service (2) Social justice(3) Dignity and worth of the person(4) Importance of human relationships(5) Integrity(6) CompetenceSocial workers' ethical responsibilities to clients:Self-determinationPractitioners should nurture and support client self-extermination ：Each individual's right to make his or her own decisions.(2)Privacy and confidentiality(3) Conflict of interest and Dual relationshipsThe clients' best interests must be protected to the maximum extent possible.(4) Sexual relationshipSocial workers’ Ethical responsibilities to colleagues(1) Respect (2) Referral for servicesSocial Workers’ Ethical responsibilities in Practice settingsSocial workers' ethical responsibilities as professionalsCompetence against discrimination honestnot solicit clients for the purpose of personal gainsSocial workers' ethical responsibilities to the social work profession.Integrity Research EvaluationSocial workers' ethical responsibilities to the broader society(1) Advocate for people's welfare(2) Ensure fair and equal access to resources and opportunities.(3) Respect cultural diversity.(4) Prevent discrimination against or exploiting peopleChapter 3 Empowerment and Human DiversityStereotype•Women are too emotional to make good supervisors•Elderly people can't think well.•Gay and lesbian people really want to be opposite gender.•People with physical disabilities are unemployable.Discrimination, oppression, marginalization, alienation, stereotypes, and prejudice •Discrimination is the act of treating people differently based on the fact that they belong to some group rather than on merit.•Oppression involves putting extreme limitations and constraints on some person, group, or larger system.•Marginalization is the condition of having less power and being viewed as less important than others in the society because of belonging to some group or having some characteristic.•Alienation, related to marginalization, is the feeling that you don't fit in or aren't treated as well as others in the mainstream of society.• A stereotype is a fixed mental picture of member of some specified group based on some attribute or attributes that reflect an overly simplified view of that group, withoutconsideration or appreciation of individual differences.•Prejudice is an opinion or prejudgment about an individual, group, or issue that is not based on fact.• A major social work value involves the importance of people being treated fairly and equally. Populations-at-risk and social economic justice•Diversity emphasizes the similarity and dissimilarity between numerous groups in society that have distinguishing characteristics.•Populations-at-risk are people at greater risk of deprivation and unfair treatment because they share some identifiable characteristic that places them in diverse group.•Factors: gender, age, religion, culture, disability, class, immigration statusSocial and economic justiceEmpowerment and a Strengths perspectiveEmpowerment is the process of increasing personal, interpersonal, or political power so that individuals can take action to improve their life situations.• A strengths perspective:1. Every individual, group, family and community has strengths.2. Trauma and abuse, illness and struggle may be injurious but they may also be sources of challenge and opportunity.3. Social workers should assume that they do not know the upper limits of the capacity to grow and change and take individual, group, and community aspirations seriously.4. Social workers best serve clients by collaborating with when.5. Every environment is full of resources.Resiliency: seeking strength amid adversityThe ability of an individual, family, group, community, or organization to recover from adversity and resume functioning even when suffering serious trouble, confusion, or hardship.Resiliency involves two dimensions: risk factors and protective factors.Risk factors involve stressful life events or adverse environmental conditions that increase the vulnerability of individuals or other systems.Protective factors involve buffer, moderate, and protect against those vulnerabilities.Human Diversity•Race and EthnicityRace implies a greater genetic determinant, whereas ethnicity often relates to cultural or national heritage.•Culture and cultural competenceCulture is the sum total of life patterns passed on from generation to generation within a group of people and includes institutions, language, religious ideals, habits of thinking, and patterns of social and interpersonal relationships.Social workers need to have cultural competence to address the cultural needs of individuals, families, groups, and communities.National Origin and immigration statusFour experiences which newcomer faced:Social isolation Cultural shock Cultural change Goal-striving•class or social class•political ideology•gender, gender identity, and gender expression•Sexual orientationHomosexual or heterosexual (bisexual)Age Disability Religion and spiritualityChapter 4: Generalist practiceConcepts in the definition of generalist practice1. Acquiring an eclectic knowledge baseA. systems theoryB. ecological perspectiveC. Curriculum content areas1) Values and ethics 2) Diversity3) populations-at-risk and social and economic justice4) Human behavior and the social environment5) Social welfare policy and services 6) Social work practice7) Research 8) Field educationD. Fields of practice2. Emphasizing client empowerment3. Using professional valuesA. social works code of ethicsB. application of professional values to solve ethical dilemma4. Applying a wide range of skillsA. microB. mezzoC. macro5. Targeting any size systemA. microB. mezzoC. Marco6. Working in an organizational structure7. Using supervision appropriately8. Assuming a wide range of professional roles9. Following the principles of evidence-based practice10. Employing critical thinking skills11. Using a planned-change processA. engagementB. assessmentC. planningD. implementationE. evaluationF. terminationG. follow-upWorking in an organizational structure under supervision•What is organizational structure?Organizational structure is the formal or informal manner in which tasks and responsibilities, lines of authority, channels of communication, and dimensions of power are established and coordinated within an organization.•What is supervision?Supervision is the process by which a designated supervisor watches over a workers’ performance.A wide range of rolesCounselor educator broker case manager mobilize mediator facilitator Advocate supervisors managers3 skills (technical, people and conceptual)Evidence-based practiceEvidence-based practice is a process in which practitioners make practice decisions in light of the best research evidence available.Tools, models, methods and policies must be validated by research and consequence evaluation also should use scientific research methodsCritical thinking skillsAvoiding the fallacy trap1. Relying on case examples2. being vague3. Being biased or not objective4. Believing that if it’s written down it must be rightasking questions assessing fact asserting a conclusion Planned-change process Planned change and problem-solvingStep1 engagement Step2 assessment Step3 planning Step4 implementationStep5 evaluation Step6 termination•Engagement: social workers begin to establish communication and a relationship with others and orient themselves to the problems.•skillsVerbal communication and nonverbal communication (cultural variations)Conveying warmth, empathy, and genuinenessAlleviating initial client anxiety and introducing the worker's purpose and role•Assessment: gather and analyze information to provide a concise picture of the client and his or her needs and strengths.•skillsLooking beyond individual and examine other factors in their environmentFinding strengthsPaying attention human diversity•Planning: what should be done?Alternatives and consequences•implementation: following the plans to achieve the goals•Evaluation: determine whether a given change effort was worthwhile.•termination: the end of the professional social work-client relationship•types:Natural, forced, and unplanned•skillsAppropriate timingChapter 5: Practice SettingSetting in Social Work Practice: Organizations and Communities•Organizations are entities made up of people that have rules and structure to achieve specified goals.•Social services in the context of social agencies.Social services include the wide range of activities that social workers perform to help people solve problems and improve their personal well-being.A social agency is an organization providing social services that typically employs social workers in addition to office staff, and sometimes volunteers.Forms:Public or private;Nonprofit or proprietary (for profit)•Social work practice in the context of communitiesA community is “a number of people who have something in summon with one another that connects them in some way and that distinguishes them from others.Some mutual characteristic, such as "location, interest, identification, culture, and activities" Types:Locality-based community; Non geographic communityThe special circumstances of social work practice in rural communities.Low population densitySocial problems faced by rural residents:poverty, lack of transportation, inadequate child care, unemployment, substandard housing, and insufficient health care and so on.Four special issues for rural social workers:(1)true gene lists(work with different level case systems and use a wide of skills)(2) Interagency cooperation.(3) The importance of understanding the community, knowing its values and developing relationships with rural residents (informal relationship)(4) Emphasizing strengths inherent in rural communities. (Informal supporting system)Urban social workUrban social work is practice within the context of large cities, with their vast array of social problems, exceptional diversity, and potential range of resources.Five problems in urban areas:(1)Social problems occur with greater frequency and therefore are more visible in cities. (2) Widespread occurrence of discriminatory behavior.(3) Migration problems. (4) Financial shortfalls or unavailability of resources.(5)Greater amount of psychological stressSkills necessary for urban social work(1) Paying attention to human diversity (2) Understanding their agency environment(3) Seeking resources in the external urban environment (4) Using advocacyMicro practice: social work with individualsCounselor educator broker facilitator advocateMicro/mezzo practice: social work with families•The primary purpose of family social work is to help families learn to function more competently while meeting the development and emotional needs of all members.•The task of family social workers(1) Be responsive to the styles and values of families from other special populations.(2) Break complex tasks into smaller specific steps.(3) Assess the key skills needed for less stressful family interaction.(4) Explain and model appropriate skills.(5) Assess individual learning styles and ways to teach adults and children(6) Establish homework and other means of ensuring generalization of skills from one setting to another.(7) Promote and reward skill acquisition.(8) Emphasize strategies that help develop the strengths of family members(9) Motivate the family to stay involved even when faced with challenges and setback.•The importance of social networks for families.Social network: the structure and number of people and groups with whom you have contact or consider yourself to be in contact.Emotional support, instrumental support, informational support and appraisal supportMezzo practice: social work with groupTreatment groupTask groupMacro practice: social work with organizations and communities•social action•social planning•locality developmentMacro skills(1) Agency or public social policies may require change.(2) Entail initiating and conducting projects within agency or community contexts(3) Planning and implementing new social service programs within an agency or community.Chapter 6: An overview of social welfare and social work historyEarly European Approaches to Social Welfare•FeudalismLands owner vs. landless serfMedieval hospital ChurchPeople have little mobility, free choice, potential for change.Judeo-Christian thought: "Good deeds, love of one's enemies, and entry into heaven through mercy and charity".•England after feudalism's demisePeople gained mobility and independence but lost much of the safety and security the old feudal system had provided.Government regains social control by passing some statute, such as:Keeping people from moving; Forbidding able-bodied people from begging.•The English Elizabethan Poor Law of 1601Recipients are categorized into:1. Dependent children2. Impotent poor3. The able-bodied poor1662 Law of settlement established a new principle of social welfare provision: residency requirement.•The Speenhamland SystemThe first Minimum income maintenance system•The English Poor Law reforms of 1834Government would not provide outdoor relief for able-bodied people.Blame the victimU. S. Social welfare History: Early Colonization to the mid-1800s•Services reflected a mix of public and private collaboration.Government assumed responsibility of administration aid but often called upon local churches for help.Residency requirement was established.•Focus on Mental Health and Mental illnessMoral treatment: humane treatment in structured institutional settingsThe Civil War Era•Freeman Bureau: the first federal welfare agency1870-1900•Two trends:Industrialization;Urbanization•Focus on children: early policiesInstitutional care: almshouse and orphanageFoster care•Settlement House, Charity Organization Societies, and Generalist social work•Settlement House were places where ministers, students, or humanitarians 'settle' to interact with poor slum dwellers with the purpose of alleviating the condition of capitalism.•Characters1. Settle house approach address the problems in the context of environment.2. Emphasize on advocacy3. Emphasize on empowerment of people•Charity Organization SocietiesFriendly visitorEstablish a base of scientific knowledge and apply it to the helping processFocus on curing individualThe Progressive period: 1900 to 1930The Great Depression and the 1930s•The Great Depression and New DealCash reliefShort-term work relief,Expansion of employment•The Social Security Act of 1935Social insurance (for old age, disability, death of a breadwinner, unemployment, and work-related injury and sickness)Public Assistance (old people, children and blind people)The 1960s and the War on Poverty•More people of color are in poverty than white people.•Public assistance roll were escalating even unemployment decreased.•the public welfare amendments of 1962Supportive social service to help welfare recipients to self-supporting.•War on povertyHead Start; Volunteers in Service to America• A Return to Conservatism in the 1970s•Conservative extremes in the 1980s and early 1990s.Chapter 7: Policy, Policy Analysis, Policy Practice, and Policy AdvocacySocial welfare policy•Policy: rules that govern people's lives and dictate expectations for behavior.•Social Welfare Policy: Laws and regulations that govern which social welfare programs exist, what categories of clients are served, and who qualifies for a given program.•Agency Policy: standards adopted by organizations and programs that provide services. Social Welfare Policy Development•Phase 1 Recognizing society's values about what is considered important or worthwhile.•Phase 2 Identifying problems and needs that require attention.•Phase 3 Identification of public opinion about an identified problem and people's related needs.Normative orientation•Phase 4 Legislators confronted with a problem or need and swamped with public opinion undertake the complicated formulation of social welfare policy to address the issues.•Phase 5 Implementation through a social welfare program.•Phase 6 Social services are delivered by social workers and other staff in the context of social services agencies.Structural components of social welfare programs1. What are people's needs and program goals?I.e. the food stamp program2. What kinds of benefits are provided?Cash and in-kind3. What are the eligibility criteria for the program?Means test4. Who pays for the programs?General tax, state lottery, social security tax; private agency; client5. How is the program administered and run?National, state, or local?Value perspectives and political ideology: effects on social responsibility and social welfare program development•The conservative-liberal continuum•radicalism•residual and institutional perspectives on social welfare policy and program development•universal versus selective service provisionFive-E Approach•How effective is the policy?•How efficient is the policy?•Is the policy ethically sound?•What does evaluation of potential alternative policies reveal?•What recommendations can be established for positive changes?Policy Practice and Policy AdvocacyChapter 8: Social work and services in health careHealth problemsFactors causing health problems:1. Unhealthful lifestyles2. Physical injured3. Environmental factors4. Poverty5. ContagiousSocial Work Roles in Health Care：Medical social workerSocial work roles in direct health care practice1. Hospital, medical clinics and so on(1) Help patients understand and interpret technical medical jargon(2) Offer emotional support(3) Help terminally ill people deal with their feelings and make end-of-life plans.(4) Help patient’s adjust their lives and lifestyles to accommodate to new conditions when they return home after medical treatment(5) Help parents of children who have serious illnesses or disabilities cope with these conditions and respond to children's needs.(6) Serve as brokers who link patients with necessary supportive resources and services after leaving the medical facility.(7) Help patients make financial arrangements to pay hospital and other medical bills.(8) Provide health education aimed at establishing a healthful lifestyle and preventing illness.2. Public Health Departments and other health care contexts(1) Preventing diseases(2) Prolonging life(3) Promoting health and efficiency through organized community effort3. Managed care settingsTraditional healthy insurance (fee-for-service basis)Assessment to determine whether patients are eligible for benefits and which are most appropriate. Macro Practice in Health care: seeking empowermentAdvocating for health coverage and health care legislation, policies and resourcesHealth Care policy and problems in the macro environmentThe escalating cost of health care1. The rapid acceleration of technological advances has increased the types of services, drugs, and testing available.2. The population is aging.Unequal access to health careNational health insurance vs. contribution-based health insuranceProblems in managed care Capitation Cost and health-care outcomeCultural competence API cultural: Filial piety Collective versus individual decision making Emphasis on Harmony versus conflict Nonverbal communicationsFatalism Shame at asking for helpInternational perspectives: AIDS-A Global CrisisAIDS: acquired immune deficiency syndromeHIV: human immunodeficiency virusEmpowerment for people living with AIDS victims vs. People living with AIDSSocial work roles and empowerment for people living with AIDSCounseling; Educator; Crisis intervention; Empowerment and reconnection (support system); Family counseling; Broker; Referral and support group; Case managementChapter 9: Social Work and Services in Mental HealthMental Health, Mental illness, and social work roles1. Mental Health is the state of relative psychological and emotional well-being in which an individual can make acceptably rational decisions, cope adequately with personal and external stresses, and maintain satisfactory adjustment to society2. Mental illness (mental disorder) is any of a wide range of psychological, emotional, or cognitive disorders that impair a person's ability to function effectively.Employment settings in mental health for social workersThe Least restrictive setting on a continuum of care: empowering clientsThe most restrictive setting vs. The least restrictive setting1. Inpatient mental and psychiatric hospitalsInpatient means that clients reside in the facility for some period.2. Residential treatment centers for children and adolescentsAn area in which child welfare and mental health overlap is residential treatment centers and group home for children.Technical: positive reinforcement, empathy, feedback, token and point system3. Group home smaller and less restrictive than RTC.4. Psychiatric units in general hospitals:Offer emergency psychiatric care on a temporary inpatient basis for people in crisis5. Outpatient treatment agencies:Provide individual, group, and family counseling for a wide range of mental health and substance abuse problems.Clinic social workers6. Employee assistance program (EAS):Service provided by organizations that focus on workers' mental health and on adjustment problems that interfere with their work performance.Occupational social work: can provide grief counseling, stress and time management, marital problems, child care need, financial issues, retirement planning, and crisis intervention.7. Community mental health centers: a macro response to individual needs。
专业型研究生英语课文讲义unit 1
Paragraph 4 Translation
• 然而，有时候作家（的预言）也会出错。 比如说，没有谁预测到个人电脑的出现。 尽管外星人早就是科幻小说的经典题材， 但同来自其他星球的外星人接触似乎仍然 是遥遥无期。
Paragraph 5
• Over the years, the time between the prediction of new technology in science fiction and its actual discovery has become shorter. It took 100 years before the moon landings predicted by the French writer Jules Verne actually took place. The idea of robots first emerged in the 1920s. The first robots were built in the 1970s.And in the 1940s, Arthur.C.Clarke predicted that communication satellites would circle the globe by the year 2000. These arrived 30 years before they were due.
Paragraph 3 Translation
• 科幻小说使得这两个相互对立的群体得以 相遇并交流思想。顾名思义，科幻小说是 预测未来技术以及它给人类社会所带来的 影响的文学形式。多年以来，他们的很多 构想竟然惊人的准确。在成为事实之前， 太空旅行、通讯卫星、核能、机器人、克 隆和移动通讯早已经出现在科幻小说中。
《旅游管理专业英语》(第二版) 讲义 Lesson09 Leverage
Leverage is related to torque; leverage is a factor by which lever multiplies a force. The useful work done is the energy applied, which is force times distance. Therefore a small force applied over a long distance is the same amount of work as a large force applied over a small distance. The trick is converting the one into the other.The simplest device for creating leverage is the lever. A lever is a stick which rests on a fulcrum () near one end. When you push the long end of the stick down a long ways, the short end moves a small distance up with great force. With this device a man can easily lift several times his own weight.Other common devices that achieve leverage include the wrench, various pulley arrangements, a jack, and hydraulic brakes.For instance, in finance people think of money as "force." Given a relatively small initial amount of force (money), you can use that as collateral for a much larger loan, which gives you a larger amount of money (force) to throw around. Therefore in finance it is common to call debt "leverage."In accounting and finance, the amount of long-term debt that a company has in relation to its equity. The higher the ratio, the greater is the leverage. Leverage is generally measured by a variation of the debt-to-equity ratio, which is calculated as follows: Long-term liabilities/Total stockholders’ equity. A company’s optimal leverage depends on the stability of its earnings. A company with consistently high earnings can be more leveraged than a company with variable earnings, because it will consistently be more likely to make the required interest and principal payments.BusinessA profitable business with good credit and cash flow may be able to borrow at rates well below the rate at which they can earn money in their core business or other projects by utilizing the borrowed capital. Several methods are used to look at what rate of return a corporation can earn money. See return on assets and return on equity. Any time a business can earn more money than what they can borrow at, the corporation will be more profitable over the period of time in which they can do so.FinanceIn finance leverage takes the form of borrowing money and reinvesting it with the hope to earn a greater rate of return than the cost of interest. Leverage allows greater potential return to the investor than otherwise would have been available. The potential for loss is greater because if the investment becomes worthless, not only is that money lost, but the loan still needs to be repaid. A margin account is a common way of utilizing the concept of leverage in investing.Another form of creating leverage using financial instruments is through the use of options. The purchase of a call option on a security gives the buyer the right to purchase the underlying security at a given price in the future. If the price of the underlying security rises, the value of the call option will rise at a rate much greater than the value of the underlying security. However if the rate of the call option falls or does not rise, the call option may be worthless, involving a much greater loss than if the same money had been invested in the underlying instrument.Leverage and riskUtilizing leverage amplifies the potential gain from an investment or project, but also increases the potential loss. This increased risk may be perfectly acceptable or even necessary to reach the goals of the entity or person making the investment. In fact, precisely managing risk utilizing strategies including leverage and securities purchases, is the subject of a discipline known as financial engineering"Slippage"In a rising market, the compounding associated with a leveraged portfolio leads to greater gains; in a declining market, the compounding of a leveraged portfolio may lead to larger losses. However, in a flat market with volatility, the compounding of a leveraged portfolio will cause the portfolio to under perform an identical unleveraged portfolio. Because the percentage increase in a leveraged portfolio is higher by the same ratio as the decrease is higher.ExampleA 100 index going to 110 is a 10% increase. A 110 index going to 100 is a % decrease. In a 200% leveraged index it's a 20% increase, to 120, and a 18.17% (9.09*2) decrease to 98.2.If a target index gains 10% on one day before returning to the original level the next day, a 2.0 beta portfolio will lose 1.8% of its value, and a 1.25 beta portfolio will lose 0.3% of its value.Real worldDuring the 1970s the stock market were "flat". On 31-Dec-79 the Dow Jones Industrial Average closed at 838.74, on 19-Nov-69 it closed at 839.96 ([1] (/q/hp?s=%5EDJI&a=00&b=15&c=1969&d= 00&e=15&f=1980&g=d)). An unleveraged portfolio of DJIA would have ended with the same price as it began the decade (and would have lost value through inflation). A 200% leveraged portfolio holding the DJIA during that period would have lost all of its value.。
《旅游管理专业英语》(第二版) 讲义 Lesson11 Option
OptionIt is a contract giving the holder the right but not the obligation to trade in a commodity, a share, or a currency on some future date at a pre-agreed price. A “put” option gives the holder the right to sell at a pre-agreed price. This can be used to reduce risk by somebody who has to hold the actual asset and is worried that its price may fall; it can equally be use to speculate on a price fall. A “call” option gives the holder the right to buy at a pre-agreed price. This can be used to reduce risk by people who expect to need the asset in the future and are worried that its price may rise before they buy; it can equally be used to speculate on a price rise. An options market is a market in which options are traded; these exist for many widely traded goods, shares, and currencies. Share options give a right to buy company shares at a future date at a pre-agreed price; they are used by companies as incentives for their executives. An option is contrasted with a futures contract, which carries the obligation as well as the right to trade.In finance, an option is a contract whereby the contract buyer has a right to exercise a feature of the contract (the option) on or before a future date (the exercise date). The 'writer' (seller) has the obligation to honour the specified feature of the contract. Since the option gives the buyer a right and the seller an obligation, the buyer has received something of value. The amount the buyer pays the seller for the option is called the option premium.Most often the term "options" refers to a derivative security, an option which gives the holder of the option the right to purchase or sell a security within a predefined time span in the future, for a predetermined amount. (Specific features of options on securities differ by the type of the underlying instrument involved.) However real options are another common type. A real option may be something as simple as the opportunity to buy or sell a house at a given price at some period in the future. The writer has the obligation to sell the house to the option buyer for the price agreed in the option while the option buyer does not have to purchase the house at all, so again the buyer has received something of value. Real options are an increasingly influential tool in corporate finance.The option contractFor the option purchaser (also called the holder or taker), the option:•offers the right (but imposes no obligation),•to buy (call option) or sell (put option)• a specific quantity (e.g. 100)•of a given financial underlying (e.g. shares)•at an agreed price(exercise or strike price), or calculable value (based on a reference rate)•either before maturity date(American option) or at a fixed maturity date(European option)•for a premium (option price).The counterparty (option writer / seller) has an obligation to fulfill the contract if the option holder exercises the option. In return, the option seller receives the option price or premium. Yeah.Option frameworks•The buyer assumes a long position, and the writer a corresponding short position. (Thus the writer of a call option, is "short a call" and has the obligation to sell to the holder, who is "long of a call option" and who has the right to buy. The writer of a put option is "on the short side of the position", and has the obligation to buy from the taker of the put option, who is "long a put".)•The option style will affect the terms and valuation. Generally the contract will either be American style- which allows exercise before the maturity date - or European style- where exercise is on a fixed maturity date. European contracts are easier to value and therefore to price. The contract can also be on an exotic option.•Buyers and sellers of options do not (usually) interact directly; the options exchange acts as intermediary and quotes the market price of the option. The seller guarantees the exchange that he can fulfill his obligation if the buyer chooses to execute.•The risk for the option holder is limited: he cannot lose more than the premium paid as he can "abandon the option". His potential gain is theoretically unlimited; see strike price.•The maximum loss for the writer of a put option is equal to the strike price. In general, the risk for the writer of a call option is unlimited. However, an option writer who owns the underlying instrument has created a covered position; he can always meet his obligations by using the actual underlying. Where the seller does not own the underlying on which he has written the option, he is called a "naked writer", and has created a "naked position".•Options can be in-the-money, at-the-money or out-of-the-money. The "in-the-money"option has a positive intrinsic value, options in "at-the-money" or "out-of-the-money"have an intrinsic value of zero. Additional to the intrinsic value an option has a time value, which decreases, the closer the option is to its expiry date (also see option time value).Option pricing modelsHistorically the pricing of options was entirely ad hoc. Traders with good intuition about how other traders would price options made money and those without it lost money. Then in 1973 Fischer Black and Myron Scholes published a paper proposing what became known as the Black-Scholes pricing model, and for which Scholes received the 1997 Nobel Prize(Black had died, and was therefore not eligible). The model gave a theoretical value for simple put and call options, given assumptions about the behavior of stock prices. The availability of a good estimate of an option's theoretical price contributed to the explosion of trading in options. Researchers have subsequently generalized Black-Scholes to the Black model, and have developed other methods of option valuation, including Monte Carlo methods and Binomial options models.Option usesOne can combine options and other derivatives in a process known as financial engineering to control the risk in a given transaction. The risk taken on can be anywhere from zero to infinite, depending on the combination of derivative features used.Note, by using options, one party transfers (buys or sells) risk to or from another. When using options for insurance, the option holder reduces the risk he bears by paying the option seller a premium to assume it.Because one can use options to assume risk, one can purchase options to create leverage. The payoff to purchasing an option can be much greater than by purchasing the underlying instrument directly. For example buying an at-the-money call option for 2 monetary units per share for a total of 200 units on a security priced at 20 units, will lead to a 100% return on premium if the option is exercised when the underlying security's price has risen by 2 units, whereas buying the security directly for 20 units per share, would have led to a 10% return. The greater leverage comes at the cost of greater risk of losing 100% of the option premium if the underlying security does not rise in price.Other instruments to manage risk or to assume it include:•Futures•Forwards•Swaps。
《旅游管理专业英语》(第二版) 讲义 Lesson10 Product Mix
Product MixThe combination of various products that a given company offers to the market. Product mixes differ in the number of product lines they contain. If a mix includes a large number of product lines (coffee, desserts, cereals, and so forth), it is called wide or broad. If it contains only a few product lines, it is considered narrow or limited. The width of the product mix is also known as the variety, and the depth of the mix is called the assortment.Product Mix refers to the range of products sold by a firm. For example, a supermarket sells food, but it may also sell clothes, electrical equipment, beauty products, and stationery; an electric appliance manufacturer may sell washing machines, dishwashers, refrigerators, televisions, and videos. A firm may expand its product mix by offering different products for sale; for example, a clothes shop may add underwear to its range. It may extend existing ranges; for example, a car manufacturer may bring out a special edition of an existing car model. It may change existing products; for example, a laundry detergent manufacturer may add more blue flakes to an existing brand and declare it to be new and improved, or a food company may repackage a product.Marketing Mix, factors that help a company or firm sell its products. Four elements are normally distinguished: getting the right product to the market; selling the product at the right price; ensuring that the promotion is right—that is, advertising and marketing for the product; and ensuring that the product is distributed to the most convenient place for customers to buy it.。
《旅游管理专业英语》(第二版) 讲义 Lesson11 Privatization
PrivatizationPrivatization (sometimes privatisation, denationalization, or, especially in India, disinvestment) is the process of transferring property, from public ownership to private ownership and/or transferring the management of a service or activity from the government to the private sector. The opposite process is nationalization or municipalization.OverviewPrivatization is frequently associated with industrial or service-oriented enterprises, such as mining, manufacturing or power generation, but it can also apply to any asset, such as land, roads, or even rights to water. In recent years, government services such as health, sanitation, and education have been particularly targeted for privatization in many countries.In theory, privatization helps establish a "free market", as well as fostering capitalist competition, which its supporters argue will give the public greater choice at a competitive price. Conversely, socialists view privatization negatively, arguing that entrusting private businesses with control of essential services reduces the public's control over them and leads to excessive cost cutting in order to achieve profit and a resulting poor quality service.In general, nationalization was common during the immediate post-World War 2period, but privatization became a more dominant economic trend (especially within the United States and the United Kingdom) during the 1980s and '90s. This trend of privatization has often been characterized as part of a "global wave" of neoliberal policies, and some observers argue that this was greatly influenced by the policies of Reagan and Thatcher. The term "privatization" was coined in 1948 and is thought to have been popularized by The Economist during the '80s.Arguments for and againstSee also: arguments for and against public ownership and the welfare stateForAdvocates of privatization argue that governments run businesses poorly for the following reasons:•Performance. The government may only be interested in improving a company in cases when the performance of the company becomes politically sensitive.•Improvements. Conversely, the government may put off improvements due to political sensitivity — even in cases of companies that are run well.•Corruption. The company may become prone to corruption; company employees may be selected for political reasons rather than business ones.•Goals. The government may seek to run a company for social goals rather than business ones (this is conversely seen as a negative effect by critics of privatization).•Capital. It is claimed by supporters of privatization, that privately-held companies can more easily raise capital in the financial markets than publicly-owned ones.•Unprofitable companies survive. Governments may "bail out" poorly run businesses with money when, economically, it may be better to let the business fold.•Unprofitable units survive. Parts of a business which persistently lose money are more likely to be shut down in a private business.•Political influence. Nationalized industries can be prone to interference from politicians for political or populist reasons. Such as, for example, making an industry buy supplies from local producers, when that may be more expensive than buying from abroad, forcing an industry to freeze its prices/fares to satisfy the electorate or control inflation, increasing its staffing to reduce unemployment, or moving its operations to marginal constituencies; it is argued that such measures can cause nationalized industries to become uneconomic and uncompetitive.In particular, the Performance, Goals, and Unprofitable companies survive reasons are held to be the most important because money is a scarce resource: if government-run companies are losing money, or if they are not as profitable as possible, this money is unavailable to other, more efficient firms. Thus, the efficient firms will have a harder time finding capital, which makes it difficult for them to raise production and create more employment.The basic argument given for privatization is that governments have few incentives to ensure that the enterprises they own are well run. On the other hand, private owners, it is said, do have such an incentive: they will lose money if businesses are poorly run. The theory holds that, not only will the enterprise's clients see benefits, but as the privatized enterprise becomes more efficient, the whole economy will benefit. Ideally, privatization propels the establishment of social, organizational and legal infrastructures and institutions that are essential for an effective market economy.Another argument for privatization is, that to privatize a company which was non-profitable (or even generated severe losses) when state-owned means taking the burden of financing it off the shoulders and pockets of taxpayers, as well as free some national budget resources which may be subsequently used for something else. Especially, proponents of the laissez-faire capitalism will argue, that it is both unethical and inefficient for the state to force taxpayers to fund the business that can't work for itself. Also, they hold that even if the privatized company happens to be worse off, it is due to the normal market process of penalizing businesses that fail to cope with the market reality or that simply are not preferred by the customers.Many privatization plans are organized as auctions where bidders compete to offer the state the highest price, creating monetary income that can be used by the state.AgainstOpponents of privatization dispute the claims made by proponents of privatization, especially the ones concerning the alleged lack of incentive for governments to ensure that the enterprises they own are well run, on the basis of the idea that governments must answer to the people. It is arguedthat a government which runs nationalized enterprises poorly will lose public support and votes, while a government which runs those enterprises well will gain public support and votes. Thus, democratic governments, under this argument, do have an incentive to maximize efficiency in nationalized companies, due to the pressure of future elections.Furthermore, opponents of privatization argue that it is undesirable to let private entrepreneurs own public institutions for the following reasons:•Profiteering. Private companies do not have any goal other than to maximize profit.•Corruption. Buyers of public property have often, most notably in Russia, used insider positions to enrich themselves - and civil servants in the selling positions - grossly.•No public accountability. The public does not have any control or oversight of private companies.•Cuts in essential services. If a government-owned company providing an essential service (such as water supply) to all citizens is privatized, its new owner(s) could stop providing this service to those who are too poor to pay, or to regions where this service is unprofitable.•Inefficiency. A centralized enterprise is generally more cost effective than multiple smaller ones. Therefore splitting up a public company into smaller private chunks will reduce efficiency.•Natural monopolies. Privatization will not result in true competition if a natural monopoly exists.•Concentration of wealth. Profits from successful enterprises end up in private pockets instead of being available for the common good.•Insecurity. Nationalized industries are usually guaranteed against bankruptcy by the state.They can therefore borrow money at a lower interest rate to reflect the lower risk of loan default to the lender. This does not apply to private industries.•Downsizing. In cases where public services or utilities are privatized, this can create a conflict of interest between profit and maintaining a sufficient service. A private company may be tempted to cut back on maintenance or staff training etc, to maximize profits.•Waste of risk capital. Public services are per definition low-risk ventures that don't need scarce risk capital that is needed better elsewhere.•Not all good things are profitable. A public service may provide public goods that, while important, are of little market value, such as the cultural goods produced by public television and radio.In practical terms, there are many pitfalls to privatization. Privatization has rarely worked out ideally because it is so intertwined with political concerns, especially in post-communist economies or in developing nations where corruption is endemic. Even in nations with advanced market economies like Britain, where privatization has been popular with governments (if not all of the public) since the Thatcher era, problems center on the fact that privatization programs are very politically sensitive, raising many legitimate political debates. Who decides how to set values on state enterprises? Does the state accept cash or for government-provided coupons? Should the state allow the workers or managers of the enterprise to gain control over their own workplace?Should the state allow foreigners to buy privatized enterprises? Which levels of government can privatize which assets and in what quantities?In the short-term, privatization can potentially cause tremendous social upheaval, as privatizations are often always accompanied by large layoffs. If a small firm is privatized in a large economy, the effect may be negligible. If a single large firm or many small firms are privatized at once and upheaval results, particularly if the state mishandles the privatization process, a whole nation's economy may plunge into despair. For example, in the Soviet Union, many state industries were not profitable under the new system, with the cost of inputs exceeding the cost of outputs. After privatization, sixteen percent of the workforce became unemployed in both East Germany and Poland. The social consequences of this process have been staggering, impoverishing millions, but to little social benefit in many post-Communist countries. In the process, Russia has gone from having one of the world's most equal distributions of wealth in the Soviet era to one of the least today. There has been a dearth of large-scale investment to modernize Soviet industries and businesses still trade with each other by means of barter.In speaking about the transformations in the post-communist countries, however, one must take into account the specifics of the communist and socialist regime which ruled those countries for decades. There are no easy answers regarding those issues. Some argue that it was the cumulation of mismanagement and inattention to the market realities that lead to such fatal consequences, given that most of the assets of those companies had not renovated for decades and their technology was outdated. Further, opening of the markets for import of the products which, in many cases, offered higher quality or lower prices, has given the consumers new array of choices to compete with the old national industries.Privatization in the absence of a transparent market system may lead to assets being held by a few very wealthy people, a so-called oligarchy, at the expense of the general population. This may discredit the process of economic reform in the opinion of the public and outside observers. This has occurred notably in Russia, Mexico, and Brazil.Moreover, where free-market economics are rapidly imposed, a country may not have the bureaucratic tools necessary to regulate it. This has been a pertinent problem in Russia and in many South American countries, although some other Eastern European countries, such as Poland and the Czech Republic, fared better in this respect, partly through the support of the European Union. Paradoxically, while Britain has long had a market economy, it also faced this issue after it privatized utilities in the Thatcher era; Britain's utilities regulator was often criticized as being ineffective.Most economists argue that if a privatized company is a natural monopoly, or exists in a market which is prone to serious market failures, consumers may be worse off when the company is in private hands. This seems to have been the case with rail privatization in the UK and in New Zealand; in both countries, public disaffection has led to government intervention. In cases where privatization has been successful, it is because genuine competition has arisen. A good example of this is long-distance telecommunications in Europe, where the former state-owned enterprises losttheir monopolies, competitors entered the market, and tariffs for international calls fell dramatically.British Rail is an example of privatization program that has been deemed a failure and largely abandoned. The track-owning company has been effectively repossessed by the British government, and many of the train-running companies are at risk of having their concession removed on the grounds that they fail to provide adequate services. One of them, Connex, actually had its franchise cut short in June 2003 by the government for what the Strategic Rail Authority called "poor financial management." However, in other cases, particularly in poor countries, privatized enterprises cannot be renationalized so easily. These governments do not have the political will to do it, and there is strong pressure exerted by international lending agencies to maintain the privatization.If the privatization does not fully transfer property rights to the newly private firm, there may be disincentives for the firm to make capital investments. This was a particular problem in the case of the privatized rail track-leasing company in the United Kingdom.Many have argued that the strategy of privatization in Russia differed from those seen in more successful post-communist economies such as Hungary and Poland. The defects of the process in Russia, combined with capital market liberalization and failure to establish institutional infrastructure, have led to incentives for capital flight, contributing to post-communist economic contraction in Russia.Likewise, countries such as Argentina, which embarked upon far-reaching privatization programs, selling off valuable, profitable industries such as energy companies, have seen the rapid impoverishment of their governments. Revenue streams which could previously be directed towards public spending suddenly dried up, resulting in a severe drop in government services.Privatization can also have a ripple effect on local economies. State-owned enterprises are often required by law to patronize national or local suppliers. Privatized companies, in general, do not have that restriction, and hence will shift purchasing elsewhere. Bolivia underwent a rigorous privatization program in the mid 1990s, with disastrous impact on the local economy.The Wall Street Journal has reported that the World Bank, historically a supporter of denationalization in developing countries, has also begun to voice concerns over privatization. It no longer believes that privatization should be recommended in all cases. Nobel Prize winner Joseph Stiglitz has written a book on the subject called Globalization and its Discontents. Mexico's President Vicente Fox has come under criticism for his plans to privatize Mexico's electrical power generating industry.Finally, it has been argued that the Chinese economic reform has illustrated that economic reform can take place in the absence of large-scale privatization.The above arguments have centered on whether or not it is practical to apply privatization in the real world, but some reject the profit incentive, the theoretical basis for privatization, itself. Someopponents of privatization argue that because the driving motive of a private company is profit, not public service, the public welfare may be sacrificed to the demands of profitability. There is no definitive answer, but it is very often argued that essential services, such as water, electricity, health, primary education, and so forth, should be left in public hands. This argument, of course, relies on the view on state one holds, regarding what it should or should not be obligated to do. What is seen as desirable by a socialist may not be by a supporter of capitalism, and vice versa.OutcomesAcademic studies show that in competitive industries with well-informed consumers, privatization consistently improves efficiency. Such efficiency gains mean a one-off increase in GDP, but through improved incentives to innovate and reduce costs also tend to raise the rate of economic growth. The type of industries to which this generally applies include manufacturing and retailing. Although typically there are social costs associated with these efficiency gains, these can be dealt with by appropriate government support through redistribution and perhaps retraining.In sectors that are natural monopolies or public services, the results of privatization are much more mixed. In general, if the performance of the existing public sector operation is sufficiently bad, privatization will tend to improve matters. However, much of this may be due to the imposition of related reforms such as improved accounting systems, regulatory systems, and increased financing, rather than privatization itself. Indeed, some studies show that the greatest gains from privatization are achieved in the pre-privatization period as reforms are made to prepare for the transfer to private hands. In economic theory, a private monopoly behaves much the same as a public one.Alternatives to privatizationCorporatizationMain article: corporatizationNew Zealand has experienced the privatization of its telecommunication industry, its railway system and part of its electricity market. The process of privatization was halted in 1999 when the New Zealand Labour Party won the election. Although most of the electricity generation and the electricity transmission system remain state owned, the government has corporatized this sector as well as New Zealand Post, the Airways Corporation and other smaller state-owned enterprises (SOEs).The effect of corporatization has been to convert the state departments into public companies and interpose commercial boards of directors between the shareholding ministers and the management of the enterprises. To some extent, this model has enabled efficiencies to be gained without ownership of strategic organizations being transferred. This has been the policy of the People's Republic of China.Notable privatizationsSee also: List of privatizationsPrivatization programmes have been undertaken in many countries across the world, falling into three major groups. The first is privatization programmes conducted by transition economies in eastern Europe after 1989in the process of instituting a market economy. The second is privatization programmes carried out in developing countries under the influence of international financial institutions such as the World Bank and IMF. The third is privatization programmes carried out by developed country governments, the most comprehensive probably being those of New Zealand and the United Kingdom in the 1980s and 1990s.Anti-privatization campaignsPrivatization proposals in key public service sectors such as water and electricity are in many cases strongly opposed by opposition political parties and civil society groups. Usually campaigns involve demonstrations and political means; sometimes they may become violent (eg Cochabamba Riots of 2000 in Bolivia; Arequipa, Peru, June 2002). Opposition is often strongly supported by trade unions. Opposition is usually strongest to water privatization- as well as Cochabamba (2000), recent examples include Ghana and Uruguay(2004). In the latter case a civil-society-initiated referendum banning water privatization was passed in October 2004.See also。
《旅游管理专业英语》(第二版) 讲义 Lesson05 Definition of power
Definition of power (sociology)Sociologists usually define power as the ability to impose one's will on others, even if those others resist in some way."By power is meant that opportunity existing within a social relationship which permitsone to carry out one's own will even against resistance and regardless of the basis onwhich this opportunity rests."Max Weber, Basic Concepts in SociologyThe imposition need not involve coercion (force or threat of force). Thus "power" in the sociological sense subsumes both physical power and political power, including many of the types listed at power. In some ways it more closely resembles what everyday English-speakers call "influence".More generally, one could define "power" as the more or less unilateral ability (real or perceived) or potential to bring about significant change, usua lly in people’s lives, through the actions of oneself or of others.The exercise of power seems endemic to humans as social and gregarious beings.Analysis and operation of powerPower manifests itself in a relational manner: one cannot meaningfully say (pace advocates of empowerment) that a particular social actor "has power" without also specifying the other parties to the social relationship.Power almost always operates reciprocally, but usually not equally reciprocally. To control others, one must have control over things that they desire or need, but one can rarely exercise that control without a measure of reverse control - larger, smaller or equal - also existing. For example, an employer usually wields considerable power over his workers because he has control over wages, working conditions, hiring and firing. The workers, however, hold some reciprocal power: they may leave, work more or less diligently, group together to form a union, and so on.Because power operates both relationally and reciprocally, sociologists speak of the balance of power between parties to a relationship: all parties to all relationships have some power: the sociological examination of power concerns itself with discovering and describing the relative strengths: equal or unequal, stable or subject to periodic change. Sociologists usually analyse relationships in which the parties have relatively equal or nearly equal power in terms of constraint rather than of power. Thus 'power' has a connotation of unilateralism. If this were not so, then all relationships could be described in terms of 'power', and its meaning would be lost.Even in structuralist social theory, power appears as a process, an aspect to an ongoing social relationship, not as a fixed part of social structure.One can sometimes distinguish primary power: the direct and personal use of force for coercion; and secondary power, which may involve the threat of force or social constraint, most likely involving third-party exercisers of delegated power.Types and sources of powerPower may be held through:•Delegated authority (for example in the democratic process)•Personal or group charisma•Ascribed power (acting on perceived or assumed abilities, whether these bear testing or not)•Expertise (Ability, Skills) (the power of medicine to bring about health, another famous example would be "in the land of the blind, the one-eyed man is king) •Persuasion•Knowledge (granted or withheld, shared or kept secret)•Money (financial influence, control of labour, control through ownership, etc)•Force (violence, military might, coercion).•Moral suasion•Application of non-violence•Operation of group dynamics•Social influence of tradition (compare ascribed power)Theories of powerThe thought of Friedrich Nietzsche underlies much 20th century analysis of power. Nietzsche disseminated ideas on the "will to power," which he saw as the domination of other humans as much as the exercise of control over one's environment.Some schools of psychology, notably that associated with Alfred Adler, place power dynamics at the core of their theory (where orthodox Freudians might place sexuality).MarxismIn the Marxist tradition, Antonio Gramsci elaborated the role of cultural hegemony in ideology as a means of bolstering the power of capitalism and of the nation-state. Gramsci saw power as something exercised in a direct, overt manner, and the power of the bourgeois as keeping the proletariat in their place.FeminismFeminist analysis of the patriarchy often concentrates on issues of power: note the "Rape Mantra": Rape is about power, not sex.Some feminists distinguish "power-over" (influence on other people) from "power-to" (ability to perform).FoucaultOne of the broader modern views of the importance of power in human activity comes from the work of Michel Foucault, who has said, "Power is everywhere...because it comes from everywhere." (Aldrich, Robert and Wotherspoon, Gary (Eds.), 2001)Foucault's works analyze the link between power and knowledge. He outlines a form of covert power that works through people rather than only on them. Foucault claims belief systems gain momentum (and hence power) as more people come to accept the particular views associated with that belief system as common knowledge. Such belief systems define their figures of authority, such as medical doctors or priests in a church. Within such a belief system -- or discourse -- ideas crystallize as to what is right and what is wrong, what is normal and what is deviant. Within a particular belief system certain views, thoughts or actions become unthinkable. These ideas, being considered undeniable "truths", come to define a particular way of seeing the world, and the particular way of life associated with such "truths" becomes normalized. This subtle form of power lacks rigidity, and other discourses can contest it. Indeed, power itself lacks any concrete form, occurring as a locus of struggle. Resistance, through defiance, defines power and hence becomes possible through power. Without resistance, power is absent. This view 'grants' individuality to people and other agencies, even if it is assumed a given agency is part of what power works in or upon. Still, in practice Foucault often seems to deny individuals this agency, which is contrasted with sovereignty (the old model of power as efficacious and rigid).Deconstruction often works to reveal hidden power structures and relationships."One needs to be nominalistic, no doubt: power is not an institution, and not a structure; neither is it a certain strength we are endowed with; it is the name that one attributes to a complex strategical situation in a particular society." (History of Sexuality, p.93)"Domination" is not "that solid and global kind of domination that one person exercises over others, or one group over another, but the manifold forms of domination that can be exercised within society." (ibid, p.96)"One should try to locate power at the extreme of its exercise, where it is always less legal in character." (ibid, p.97)"The analysis [of power] should not attempt to consider power from its internal point of view and...should refrain from posing the labyrinthine and unanswerable question: 'Who then has power and what has he in mind? What is the aim of someone who possesses power?' Instead, it is a case of studying power at the point where its intention, if it has one, is completely invested in its real and effective practices." (ibid, p.97)"Let us ask...how things work at the level of on-going subjugation, at the level of those continous and uninterrupted processes which subject our bodies, govern our gestures, dictate our behaviours, etc....we should try to discover how it is that subjects are gradually, progressively, really and materially constituted through a multiplicity of organisms, forces, energies, materials, desires, thoughts, etc. We should try to grasp subjection in its material instance as a constitution of subjects." (ibid, p.97)TofflerAlvin Toffler's Powershift argues that the three main kinds of power are violence, wealth, and knowledge with other kinds of power being variations of these three (typically knowledge).Each successive kind of power represents a more flexible kind of power. Violence can only be used negatively, to punish. Wealth can be used both negatively (by withholding money) and positively (by advancing/spending money). Knowledge can be used in these ways but, additionally, can be used in a transformative way. For example, one can share knowledge on agriculture to ensure that everyone is capable of supplying himself and his family of food. Also, allied nations with a shared identity form with the spread of religious or political philosophies.Toffler argues that the very nature of power is currently shifting. Throughout history, power has often shifted from one group to another; however, at this time, the dominant form of power is changing. During the Industrial Revolution, power shifted from a nobility acting primarily through violence to industrialists and financiers acting through wealth. Of course, the nobility used wealth just as the industrial elite used violence, but the dominant form of power shifted from violence to wealth. Today, a Third Wave of shifting power is taking place with wealth being overtaken by knowledge.Unmarked CategoriesThe idea of unmarked categories originated in feminism. The theory analyses the culture of the powerful. The powerful comprise those people in society with easy access to resources, those who can exercise power without considering their actions. For the powerful, their culture seems obvious; for the powerless, on the other hand, it remains out of reach, élite and expensive.The unmarked category can form the identifying mark of the powerful. The unmarked category becomes the standard against which to measure everything else. For most American readers, it is posited that if a protagonist's race is not indicated, it will be assumed by the reader that the protagonist is Caucasian; if a sexual identity is not indicated, it will be assumed by the reader that the protagonist is heterosexual; if the gender of a body is not indicated, will be assumed by the reader that it is male; if a disability is not indicated, it will be assumed by the reader that the protagonist is able bodied, just as a set of examples.One can often overlook unmarked categories. Whiteness forms an unmarked category not commonly visible to the powerful, as they often fall within this category. The unmarked category becomes the norm, with the other categories relegated to deviant status. Social groups can applythis view of power to race, gender, and disability without modification: the able body is the neutral body; the man is the normal status.Representation/CounterpowerGilles Deleuze, a French theorist, compared voting for political representation with being taken hostage. A representational government assumes that people can be divided into categories with distinct shared interests. The representative is regarded as embodying the interests of the group. Many social movements have been successful in gaining access to governments: the working class, women, young people and ethnic minorities are part of the government in many nation-states. However, there is no government where the government represents the population along the characteristics of the categories.The problem of finding suitable representatives relates to an individual's membership of different categories at the same time. The only truly representative government for a population is the population itself. These ideas have become popular in social movements for global justice. The logic of government open to all underpins the social forums (such as the World Social Forum) that have developed in contradistinction to the forums of the powerful. These alternative forms are sometimes called counter-power.Participation/LiberationThis view appears in many projects of social change, but its founder Paulo Freire is largely unknown. Freire assumes that people carry archives of knowledge within them. In particular he rejects the idea that people remain ignorant unless they have learned to communicate using the culture of the powerful. The person is seen as part of a culture circle with its own view of reality, based on the circumstances of everyday living.Dialogue can bring about social change. Such dialogue directly opposes the monologue of the culture of the powerful. Dialogue expands the understanding of the world rather than teaching a correct understanding. The process of social change starts with action, on which the group then reflects. Commonly, more action of some kind then results...See also•authority•charisma and charismatic authority•domination•oppression and hierarchy of oppression•power (international)•social class•social statusSource•Aldrich, Robert and Wotherspoon, Gary (Eds.) (2001). Who's Who in Contemporary Gay & Lesbian History: From World War II to the Present Day. New York: Routledge. ISBN 041522974X.。
【精品】材料科学与工程(Materials Science and Engineering)专业英语讲义word版
材料科学与工程专业英语Materials Science and EngineeringUnit1Materials Science and EngineeringMaterials are properly more deep-seated in our culture than most of us realize. 材料可能比我们大部分人所意识到的更加深入地存在于我们的文化当中。
Transportation, housing, clothing, communication, recreation and food production－virtually every segment of our lives is influenced to one degree or another by materials.运输、住房、衣饰、通讯、娱乐，还有食品生产——实际上我们日常生活的每个部分都或多或少地受到材料的影响。
Historically, the development and advancement of societies have been int imately tied to the members’ abilities to produce and manipulate materials to fill their needs. 从历史上看，社会的发展和进步已经与社会成员生产和利用材料来满足自身需求的能力紧密地联系在一起。
In fact, early civilizations have been designated by the level of their materials development.事实上，早期文明是以当时材料的发展水平来命名的。
（也就是石器时代，青铜器时代）The earliest humans has access to only a very limited number of materials, those that occur naturally stone, wood, clay, skins, and so on. 最早的人类只能利用非常有限数量的材料，象那些自然界的石头，木头，黏土和毛皮等等。
《旅游管理专业英语》(第二版) 讲义 Lesson14 Positioning
Positioning (marketing)In marketing, positioning is the technique by which marketers try to create an image or identity for a product, brand, or organization. It is the 'place' a product occupies in a given market as perceived by the target market. Positioning is something that is done in the minds of the target market. A product's position is how potential buyers see the product. Positioning is expressed relative to the position of competitors. The term was coined in 1969 by Jack Trout in his paper, ""Positioning" is a game people play in today’s me-too market place" in the publication, Industrial Marketing.Re-positioning involves changing the identity of a product, relative to the identity of competing products, in the collective minds of the target market.Product positioning strategyThe ability to spot a positioning opportunity is a sure test of a person's marketing ability. Successful positioning strategies are usually rooted in a product's sustainable competitive advantage. The most common basis for constructing a product positioning strategy are:•positioning on specific product features•positioning on specific benefits, needs, or solutions•positioning on specific use categories•positioning on specific usage occasions•positioning against another product•positioning through product class dissociation•positioning by cultural symbolsProduct positioning processGenerally, the product positioning process involves:1.identifying competing products2.identifying the attributes (also called dimensions) that define the product 'space'3.collecting information from a sample of customers about their perceptions of eachproduct on the relevant attributes4.determine each products' share of mind5.determine each products' current location in the product space6.determine the target market's preferred combination of attributes (referred to as an idealvector)7.examine the fit between:a)the positions of competing productsb)the position of your productc)the position of the ideal vector8.select optimum positionThe process is similar for positioning your company's services. Services, however, don't have the physical attributes of products - that is, we can't feel them or touch them or show nice product pictures. So you need to ask first your customers and then yourself, what value do clients get from my services? How are they better off from doing business with me? Also ask: is there a characteristic that makes my services different?Write out the value customers derive and the attributes your services offer to create the first draft of your positioning. Test it on people who don't really know what you do or what you sell, watch their facial expressions and listen for their response. When they want to know more because you've piqued their interest and started a conversation, you'll know you're on the right track.For a free article on simple techniques for writing clearly about what you do and the products or services you sell, visit .Positioning conceptsMore generally, there are three types of positioning concepts:1.functional positionsa)solve problemsb)provide benefits to customers2.symbolic positionsa)self-image enhancementb)ego identificationc)belongingness and social meaningfulnessd)affective fulfillment3.experiential positionsa)provide sensory stimulationb)provide cognitive stimulationMeasuring the positioningPositioning is facilitated by a graphical technique called perceptual mapping, various survey techniques, and statistical techniques like multi dimensional scaling, factor analysis, conjoint analysis, and logit analysis.。
《旅游管理专业英语》(第二版) 讲义 Lesson10 Frequent flyer program
Frequent flyer programA Frequent Flyer Program is a service offered by many airlines to reward customer loyalty. Typically, airline customers enrolled in the program accrue points corresponding to the distance flown on that airline. Accrued points (also known as frequent flyer miles) can be redeemed for free air travel and other products or services, as well as allowing passengers to have increased benefits - such as airport lounge access, or priority bookings.With the introduction of airline alliances and code-share flights, frequent flyer programs are often extended to allow benefits to be used across partner airlines.Points accrualThe primary method of obtaining points in a frequent flyer program is to fly with the associated airline. Most systems reward travellers with a specific number of points based on the distance travelled (such as 1 point per mile flown), although systems vary. In Europe, for example, a number of airlines offer a fixed number of points per flight regardless of the distance. The calculation method can become complicated, with additional points given for flying first or business class, and often less points given when flying on discounted tickets.Many programs allow points to be obtained not just through flying, but by staying at participating hotels, or renting a vehicle from a participating company. Other methods include credit cards that offer points for charges made to the card, and systems which allow restaurant diners to earn miles by eating at participating restaurants.Programs differ on the expiry of points - some expire after a fixed time, and others expire if the account is inactive for an extended period (for example, three years.)Customer StatusMany frequent flyer programs identify travellers who fly more than a few times per year by awarding them different status levels, which in turn give a number of benefits that can not otherwise be purchased.Status levels vary from scheme to scheme, but benefits can include:•Access to business and first class lounges with an economy ticket•Access to other airline's lounges•Increased mileage accumulation (such as doubled or trebled)•Reserving an unoccupied adjacent seat•The ability to reserve specific seats, such as exit-row seats with more legroom•Free or discounted upgrades a higher travel class•Priority in waitlisting or flying standby•Preference in not being bumped if a flight is oversoldSome programs even permit élite members to reserve space on sold-out flights, giving members the ability of bumping regular passengers.Customer status is based on the number of miles actually flown with the airline, and points accrued through other methods such as credit cards purchase are not considered. Some airlines will recognise a customer's status with a competing airline, and grant them the same benefits.Some airlines offer accelerated admission to their élite programs through special promotions, such as flying 25,000 miles within one month and attains a top-tier membership normally reserved for passengers flying 100,000 miles per year.BankruptcyIn the wake of the September 11 attacks, some airlines have faced financial difficulties and there is concern frequent flyer's points could be wiped-out in a bankruptcy court proceeding. Historically, some programs have been bought out (such as TWA's acquisition by American Airlines), whilst others have lost all benefits and points with no compensation.See also•Loyalty card•Sales promotionExternal links•FlyerTalk () - an online travel community primarily focused on miles, points, and privileges•Airline Mile Guide ()•Travel4Miles () - a site comparing many Frequent Flyer Programs•WebFlyer () - a nire extensive comparison of FF programs。
汽车专业英语教材讲义讲稿 底盘 第4讲 Steering System(转向系统)
integral
integral. As the sector shaft teeth move back and forth, the sector shaft is also forced to turn back and forth.
整体的
This causes the pitman arm to move from side to side to actuate actuate the linkage.
aft
the steering gear converts the turning of the
前后
steering wheel to fore-and-aft movement of the pitman
arm, which is then converted to side-to-side linkage
linkage 转向杆系
steering knuckle 转向节
clamp 夹箍
relay rod 中继杆
idler arm 随动臂
pitman arm 转向摇臂
Manual Steering Linkage Components (1)
手动转向传动机构组成 (1)
Fig. 2-4-1
1- frame （车架） 2- idler arm support （空转轮臂支架） 3- idler arm （空转轮臂） 4sector and sector shaft （扇 形齿轮和齿轮轴） 5- steering shaft （转向轴） 6- worm gear and ball nut assembly （蜗轮和球螺母总成） 7pitman arm （转向摇臂） 8tie-rod (left side) （左转向 横拉杆） 9- relay rod （接力 杆） 10- tie-rod (right side) （右转向横拉杆） 11steering knuckle （转向节）
高考英语阅读理解五步法专项带练(22)讲义
【选材来源：2024年1月“七省联考”考前猜想卷英语试题】①The integration of artificial intelligence(AI)in educational technology (EdTech) has brought convenience and efficiency beyond parison to classrooms worldwide.However,despite these advancements,it is crucial to recognize the challenges these AIdriven tools pose to the autonomy and professional judgment of instructors.②One of its primary concerns is the depersonalization of instruction.These tools often rely on prepackaged digital content and standardized solutions,leaving insufficient room for instructors to tailor their teaching methods.Each student possesses unique characteristics.Instructors,armed with their wealth of experience and knowledge,are best positioned to tailor their approaches to these individual needs. However,AIdriven tools restrict their ability to do so effectively,resulting in a onesizefitsall approach that fails to inspire students to reach their maximum potential.③EdTech panies offer stepbystep solutions to textbook problems.These are intended to act as study aids.However,some students employ this feature as a means to merely copy solutions without prehending concepts.Consequently,instances of cheating on assignments and exams bee widespread.While these tools may offer convenience,students may use external resources or cooperate with others during quizzes,affecting the honesty of their learning outes.④The implications of this depersonalization and the increase in academic dishonesty are farreaching. By decreasing the role of instructors as facilitators of meaningful educational interactions,we run the risk of preventing the growth of critical thinking and problemsolving skills among cation should not only focus on knowledge acquisition,but should also develop the ability to analyze,evaluate,and apply that knowledge in realworld contexts.It should help one's mind grow,not simply memorize information.Through dynamic classroom discussions, cooperative projects, and handson activities, instructors play a crucial role in developing these essential skills.⑤While AIdriven EdTech tools undeniably have their virtues,we must not lose sight of the importance of preserving instructor autonomy experience.Instead of relying only on prepackaged content and standardized solutions,these tools should be designed to empower instructors to adapt and customize their approaches while taking full advantage of the benefits of technology.1.What can the underlined words "the depersonalization of instruction"in paragraph 2 be replaced?A.The onesizefitsall approach.B.Instructors’ dependence on Al.C.Insufficient resources of Aldriven tools.D.Tailored methods for individuals.2.What is paragraph 3 mainly about?A.A possible solution.B.A further problemC.A wellmeant intention.D.A suggested application3.In what aspect do students suffer most with Aldriven EdTech education?A.Thinking skillsB.Teamwork building.C.Interest development.D.Knowledge acquisition.4.What is conveyed about Aldriven EdTech tools in the last paragraph?A.They should be used widely.B.Their benefits deserve our attention.C.Their resources need enriching.D.They should support instructor autonomy.【练习分析】串联题干1.What can the underlined words "the depersonalization of instruction"in paragraph 2 be replaced?2.What is paragraph 3 mainly about?3.In what aspect do students suffer most with Aldriven EdTech education?4.What is conveyed about Aldriven EdTech tools in the last paragraph?3.In what aspect do students suffer most with Aldriven EdTech education?A.Thinking skills （内部的）B.Teamwork building.（外部的）C.Interest development. （外部的）D.Knowledge acquisition.（外部的）在做这道题之前，我想问问大家熟悉的素质教育是不是要注重德智体美劳全面发展，那么德育是不是爸妈从小就灌输给我们，这个过程不就是由外到内逐步转化，最终在内部形成道德观。
《旅游管理专业英语》(第二版) 讲义 Lesson03 Market research
Market researchmarket research is organized use of sample surveys, polls, focus groups, and other techniques to study market characteristics (e.g., ages and incomes of consumers; consumer attitudes) and improve the efficiency of sales and distribution. Development of new products, opening of new markets, measurement of advertising effectiveness, and knowledge of business competitors are among its basic aims. Developed in the United States in the early 20th cent., the field expanded rapidly after World War II, spreading to Europe and Japan.Marketing research techniques come in many forms, including:•test marketing - a small-scale product launch used to determine the likely acceptance of the product when it is introduced into a wider market•concept testing - to determine if consumers consider a concept useful•mystery shopping - An employee of the company conducting the research contacts a salesperson and indicates they are shopping for the product they sell. They then record the entire experience. This method is often used for quality control or for researchingcompetitors products.•store audits - to determine whether retail stores provide adequate service•demand estimation - to determine the approximate level of demand for the product•sales forecasting - to determine the expected level of sales given the level of demand•customer satisfaction studies - exit interviews or surveys that determine a customer's level of satisfaction with the quality of the transaction•distribution channel audits - to assess distributors’ and retailers’ attitudes toward a product, brand, or company•price elasticity testing - to determine how sensitive customers are to price changes•segmentation research - to determine the demographic, psychographic, and behavioural characteristics of potential buyers•consumer decision process research - to determine what motivates people to buy and what decision-making process they use•positioning research - how does the target market see the brand relative to competitors? - what does the brand stand for?•brand name testing - what do consumers feel about the names of the products?•brand equity research - how favourably do consumers view the brand?•advertising and promotion research - how effective are ads - do potential customers recall the ad, understand the message, and does the ad influence consumer purchasingbehaviour?All of these forms of marketing research can be classified as either problem-identification research or as problem-solving research.A similar distinction exists between exploratory research and conclusive research.Exploratory research provides insights into and comprehension of an issue or situation. It should draw definitive conclusions only with extreme caution.Conclusive research draws conclusions: the results of the study can be generalized to the whole population.Both exploratory and conclusive research exemplify primary research. A company collects primary research for its own purposes. This contrasts with secondary research: research published previously and usually by someone else. Secondary research costs far less than primary research, but seldom comes in a form that exactly meets the needs of the researcher.Types of marketing research methodsMethodologically, marketing research uses four types of research designs, namely:•Qualitative marketing research - generally used for exploratory purposes - small number of respondents - not generalizable to the whole population - statisticalsignificance and confidence not calculated - examples include focus groups, depthinterviews, and projective techniques•Quantitative marketing research - generally used to draw conclusions - tests a specific hypothesis - uses random sampling techniques so as to infer from the sample to thepopulation - involves a large number of resondents - examples include surveys andquestionnaires•Observational techniques - the researcher observes social phenomena in their natural setting - observations can occur cross-sectionally (observations made at one time) orlongitudinally (observations occur over several time-periods) - examples includeproduct-use analysis and computer cookie traces•Experimental techniques - the researcher creates a quasi-artificial environment to try to control spurious factors, then manipulates at least one of the variables - examples include purchase laboratories and test marketsResearchers often use more than one research design. They may start with secondary research to get background information, then conduct a focus group (qualitative research design) to explorethe issues. Finally they might do a full nation-wide survey (quantitative research design) in order to devise specific recommendations for the client.Some commonly used marketing research termsMany of these techniques resemble those used in political polling and social science research. Meta-analysis (also called the Schmidt-Hunter technique) refers to a statistical method of combining data from multiple studies or from several types of studies. Conceptualization means the process of converting vague mental images into definable concepts. Operationalization is the process of converting concepts into specific observable behaviours that a researcher can measure. Precision refers to the exactness of any given measure. Reliability refers to the likelihood that a given operationalized construct will yield the same results if re-measured. Validity refers to the extent to which a measure provides data that captures the meaning of the operationalized construct as defined in the study. It asks, “Are we measuring what we intended to measure?”Applied research sets out to prove a specific hypothesis of value to the clients paying for the research. For example, a cigarette company might commission research that attempts to show that cigarettes are good for one's health. Many researchers have ethical misgivings about doing applied research.Sugging forms a sales technique in which sales people pretend to conduct marketing research, but with the real purpose of obtaining buyer motivation and buyer decision-making information to be used in a subsequent sales call.Frugging comprises the practice of soliciting funds under the pretense of being a research organization.。
专业英语教案、讲义
专业英语阅读教案土木建筑工程学院主讲：杜佳2007——2008学年度第二学期第一章CHAPTER FOUR: GARDEN CITY VS. URBAN VILLAGE&NEW URBANISMARTICLE: Garden City一：首先向同学们大略介绍田园城市理论的背景，创始人及其理论主要内容，对现代城市规划的深远意义，使学生对要面临的英文阅读材料有一个大致的背景认识和了解二：对文章正文进行正式阅读，将其拆分为段落进行讲授，该过程中，注意与学生的互动，在每一小段落首先进行词汇学习，让学生自己先阅读，老师再进行讲解和翻译。
过程中，一方面注重强化学生对英语词汇的学习语法语句的掌握，另一方面注重专业知识的学习、理解和掌握。
原文：In 1898, social reformer（改革家，改革运动者）Ebenezer Howard promulgated （发布、公布、传播） a scheme（安排、计划） to build new towns rather than（胜于）add population to the already（已经） large cities, called the garden city plan.译文：（本段讲述了田园城市的背景）在1898年，社会改革运动者埃比尼泽霍华德发布了一个建设新镇的计划，（这个计划）胜于在已经巨大的城市再增加人口，这个计划被称作田园城市计划。
原文：Garden cities were to be small, thoroughly（完全的） planned towns, each（各自、每个） encircled （环绕、包围）by an inalienable（不能剥夺的） rural（乡下的、田园的） estate（不动产、财产） and interconnected（使互相连接） by a rapid transit（高速交通） system of electric（电气的） railways（铁路）.译文：（本段讲述了田园城市的构想）田园城市是小型的，完全根据计划的城镇，它们各自被永久的农业带（田地）给包围起来，电气铁路的高速交通系统将它们彼此间联系起来。
《旅游管理专业英语》(第二版) 讲义 Lesson11 GlaxoSmithKline
GlaxoSmithKlineGlaxoSmithKline (GSK) plc is a pharmaceutical and healthcare company, one of the largest in the world, in fact the second largest pharmaceutical company. In 2002, the company had sales of £31.8 billion and made a profit of £6.5 billion. It employs around 100,000 people worldwide, including over 40,000 in sales and marketing. Its worldwide headquarters is in London, with dual US headquarters in Philadelphia and Research Triangle Park.The company is listed on the London and New York Stock Exchanges. It does most of its business in the United States, but has a presence in almost 70 countries. The company's CEO is Jean-Pierre Garnier (former COO of SmithKline Beecham) and the non-executive chairman is Sir Christopher Gent.GSK was formed in December2000by a merger between Glaxo Wellcome and SmithKline Beecham, both the product of mergers themselves, as recently as 1995 for Glaxo and Burroughs Wellcome. GSK was actually incorporated in December 1999as part of the lengthy merger process. As a result of the mergers, the company has certain minor businesses which are not strictly within its larger interests.In 2002, pharmaceutical sales accounted for £18 billion of GSK's total sales. Sales are largely based around a small number of successful products, the SSRI Paxil accounted for £2.1 billion in sales alone.Other key products include:•Seretide (a bronchodilator, £1.6 billion)•Augmentin (amoxicillin & clavulinic acid, an antibiotic, £1.2 billion)•Wellbutrin (an anti-depressant, £882 million) and•Avandia (rosiglitazone, a PPAR-gamma agonist, £809 million).The company works hard to protect the patents of its drug formulations and their respective trademarks. It recently went to court to enforce patents on Augmentin (2002) and Paxil (2003), but lost both trials.At their AGM on 19 May2003, GSK shareholders rejected a motion regarding a £22 million pay and benefits package for Jean-Pierre Garnier. This is the first time such a rebellion by shareholders against a major British company has occurred, but is regarded as a possible turning point against other so-called "fat cat" deals within executive pay structures.In June 2004 the company had court proceedings initiated against them on allegations of fraud. The allegation is that the company suppressed research that shows that Paxil/Seroxat is little moreeffective than a placebo and increases suicidal feelings in young people, side effects which have commonly been reported by users for some time.GSK is also the name of a well-known Active Worlds citizen. GSK, short for GameShowKid, is AW's prime game show emulator.DiversityGlaxoSmithKline was named one of the 100 Best Companies for Working Mothers in 2004 by Working Mothers magazine.External links•From the official siteo GlaxoSmithKline - Official site ()。
- 1、下载文档前请自行甄别文档内容的完整性，平台不提供额外的编辑、内容补充、找答案等附加服务。
- 2、"仅部分预览"的文档,不可在线预览部分如存在完整性等问题,可反馈申请退款(可完整预览的文档不适用该条件!)。
- 3、如文档侵犯您的权益，请联系客服反馈,我们会尽快为您处理(人工客服工作时间：9:00-18:30)。
Unit 8 Telecommunications第一次课在讲解精读文章之前，我想先讲一下阅读方法，（原因，可以联系做研究的调研，研究生新生不会调研看文献，而这需要专业英语的培养）（提问：大家一般怎么看文献，大学英语文章，四六级阅读文章，。
，联系到实际的文献阅读方法）我来总结一下我个人经常使用的专业阅读的方法，也是我这5、6年看专业英语论文的一些体会和经验，和大家分享一下，希望对大家以后阅读专业文献有所帮助。
这些方法和公共英语的阅读方法既有联系，也有区别，所以大家以后也可以结合自己阅读公共英语文章的方法，找出适合自己的专业英语阅读方法。
首先，讲解是专业英语文献的泛读。
泛读在专业英语中经常用到，它主要是为了抓取专业文献（或者是技术说明书等）的中心意思和核心内容，以及基本原理，基本方法等等。
如果是专业学术论文，泛读需要了解该论文所提出方法解决的问题，基本的原理和实验的结果。
如果是综述文章，我们一般需要通过泛读挑选需要精读的综述论文。
因为综述论文的内容都是一样的，我们只需要精度有价值的1到2篇同领域的综述文献。
第一个我觉得比较有用的泛读方法是问题式的阅读方法，带着问题阅读，找到自己需要的知识。
这让我想起四六级的阅读方法，就是先看后面的问题，再看文章。
这里也类似，就是说不是一上来就开始读，而是先想想你希望这篇文章帮你回答哪些问题，你希望从文献中看到什么概念，什么定义，或者什么原理，什么公式。
具体的技术问题每篇论文都不一样，但是有一些通用的问题。
专业学术论文我们就会问：1、该论文涉及的领域最先进的方法是什么？2、最先进的方法还存在什么问题，3、该论文通过什么方法和什么科学原理，利用哪些技术解决来该问题。
4、所提出的方法的实验结果在定性和定量方面与参考方法比提高多少？5、还有没有继续改进的空间，也就是所提出的方法还存不存在新的问题？综述性的论文我们就会问：所综述的技术是否可以根据某种原则继续分类？每个类别里的里程碑事件分别是什么？每个事件所提出的技术是什么时间、什么人所提出的？每个技术的基本原理是什么？每个技术的优缺点是什么？第二个我要讲的方法是分层次阅读。
就是自顶向下，由粗到细的阅读方式。
应该先读摘要，然后了解整体结构（可以通过分段、分节或者分模块），再读每个段落或者子模块的大致意思，可以结合一些略读，跳读，查读等普通阅读方法来掌握大意。
如果要精度再具体看数学公式的定义和推导等。
其实很多事情也是这样的，比如说写代码，写程序，我刚开始也不知道怎么写，就按照功能一个一个写，结果发现很慢，而且整理模块关系和变量关系有时候都理不清，后来就学着软件工程的样子，先做概要设计，详细设计，然后先写框架，模块的接口，子模块，再到细节。
写论文也是这个样子，先整体，再考虑细节。
第三，对文章结构的把握。
这也是做到分层次阅读的关键，就是知道到哪里去找需要读的内容，比如国外人喜欢开门见山的说话，所以都喜欢把重要的事情先讲，我们喜欢过程先讲，最后讲结果。
我记起一个老笑话，可能大家也听过，Tim早上路过河边把落水的Tom给救了，老师向Tim的家长打电话，如果美国老师，她会说恭喜你，Tim早上救了一个男孩.早上Tim上学路过河边，看到Tom 落水了，然后。
，如果是一个中国老师，她可能会说早上Tim上学路过河边，一个男孩落水了，然后Tim就脱了衣服，跳下水，游到河里，。
最后才说把Tim 救了。
估计家长听到跳下水的时候就已经冲到学校了。
这个说明一般英文文章会把重要的东西放在段落前面，大家看的时候就先看这里就行了。
其实，专业学术论文有特定的结构，杨洁洁老师说后面写作的时候会讲，那我这里就不多说了，第四，中心意思与核心内容的表述。
这有些类似于摘要的撰写，但还是要更细一些。
在平时我们看了文献之后，进行沟通交流，或者是过一段时间后再进行总结回顾都是非常有用的。
如果是专业论文，那么是传统方法是什么，存在什么问题，提出什么方法，该方法基本原理，实验结果。
如果是综述论文，那么是哪年什么提出什么方法，这个方法基本原理是什么，性能如何，还存在什么问题。
接下来哪年什么人又提出什么方法。
精读是泛读的扩展，文献是海量的，如果都精读肯定是不可能的，那么就要用泛读挑选精度的对象，对泛读的文章再进行仔细研读。
挑选精读文章的时候大家要注意几点：1、权威的文章。
期刊，作者的知名度，正式的论文2、精读综述3、精读里程碑文献精读特别是要对细节进行深入的分析，要了解具体的技术步骤和技术细节做法，包括公式的具体含义，推导过程等。
因为细节正是泛读是漏过去的。
有时对于文献中出现的不懂的概念、公式和工具还需要回溯文献查找越读。
对于一些难句，长句的还必须仔细分析。
因为我看文献时发现有些句子你看第一遍是一个意思，你仔细分析句子成分后却不是那个意思。
词语，词语的意思查词。
希望我的方法对大家以后读研或者工作时阅读专业文献都有帮助。
好了，今天我们来精读新的课文，电信网络的进展。
这是第8单元的第一篇文章，后面两篇大家有空可以作为泛读自己课后去看一下，专业词汇的积累，翻译与阅读能力提高都是在于大家平时的多看，多练，老师也只可以领进门，希望大家课后自己多看些专业文献。
这篇论文是什么类型的文章。
很明显是综述对不对。
我们先来看一下它的文章结构和组织方式。
这个文章很明显的一个组织方式或者分段分节方式是什么，谁来回答下。
综述要怎么获取信息啊。
我们知道，应该看什么时间，什么人提出了什么或者发明了什么方法，这个方法的基本原理，优缺点是什么。
那么我们就根据这个来看一下。
怎么看啊，就根据时间，大致过一下时间，人物和事件（如果有基本原理和优缺点就放到下一个层次阅读）看着后面译文总结一下。
（复印背后的译文）1844年，发明家塞谬尔。
莫尔斯发送了电报。
1876年亚历山大.格雷厄姆.贝尔发明电话1889年发明了第一个然后是词和句子对一些难的词，和难的句子做一些分析Evolution: n.进化, 发展, 进展, 演变Dominate:支配，主导，主宰Cover: 覆盖, 横跨Colleague：n.同事, 同僚Converge: 聚集，汇聚，收敛Iteration iterateSwitch boards:人工交换台Two-motion step-by-step：上升旋转式步进交换机Route: 路由routerWorkhorse：主要设备Crossbar:横纵交叉Marker:标志器Hierarchy:层次结构等级结构NOTES[1]Shortly after the invention of the telephone by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876, it was realized that telephone wires had to converge on central points where telephone-to-telephone connections could be made.在1876年亚历山大·格雷厄姆·贝尔发明电话后不久，人们就认识到电话线必须在进行电话与电话接续的中心点集中。
·句中“shortly after…in 1876，”为介词短语，作时间状语。
·“that…could be made”为主句从句，句中it为形式主语。
·“had to”为have to的过去式表示，意为“不得不”。
·在翻译after引导的时间状语时，应采用词类转换的翻译技巧，将介词短语译为时间状语从句，使译文符合汉语习惯。
把“the invention of the telephone”这种结构译为动宾结构，这里动作名词“invention”的后置定语中的“telephone”是行为或动作的对象，这种情况在科技英语中大量存在，一般都要译成汉语的动宾结构。
·翻译时，把“that”引导的主语从句译成宾语从句。
在科技英语中，常见到这种带形式主语“it”的句子，这种类型的主语从句可译成宾语从句。
[2]Crossbar switching was carried out by a special circuit called a marker, which provided common control of number entry and line selection for all calls.纵横制交换由一个称为标志器的特定电路控制，标志器提供整个号码的公共控制并选择所有呼叫的路由。
·“which provided…all calls”用逗号与主句隔开，为非限定性定语从句，修饰“marker”，对“marker”作补充说明。
本课中多次出现非限定性定语从句的使用。
·“carry out”短语意为“执行”，“实行”。
·翻译时，采用了主句和从句分译法，将非限定性定语从句译为并列句。
即采用顺序分译成并列句。
所谓顺序分译成并列句就是顺着原文语序把定语从句译在其先行词之后，译成和主句并列的一个分句。
[3]The principle of converting analog signals to digital signals became popular with the introduction of pulse code modulation (PCM); consequently, the known rate for telephone-quality speech(4 kHz bandwidth) is 64 kbps.随着脉冲编码调制(PCM)技术的出现，把模拟信号转换为数字信号的原理得到广泛应用对于电话质量的话音(4 kHz带宽)，公认的数字化速率为64kb/s。
·本句是一个并列复合句。
·在第一个分句中“converting”是convert的动名词。
动名词虽为名词，但仍保留着动词的某些特征，例如它仍可带有动词宾语。
本句中的“analog signals”就是“converting”的宾语。
本课中这种例子很多。
·翻译时，把名词短语“converting analog…signals”转译为动宾结构。
[4]As data networks advanced from terminal-oriented systems to packet-switched, computer-to-computer linkups, the protocols necessary to make networks function also grew more complex.由于数据网络从面向终端的系统向分组交换、计算机与计算机连接的方向发展，执行网络功能所必需的协议也变得愈来愈复杂。