自考现代语言学名词解释

自考现代语言学名词解释: an abbreviation is a shortened form of aword or phrase which represents the complete form. Forexample: TV (television), Dr (doctor), hr (hour), Jan(January): a process of adapting to the culture and value system of the second language community.: It studies the speech sounds by looking at the sound waves. It studies the physicalmeans by which speech sounds are transmitted throughthe air from one person to another.: According to Krashen, acquisition refers tothe gradual and subconscious development of ability inthe first language by using it naturally in dailycommunicative situations.: An acronym is a word created by combiningthe initials of a number of words. For example:UNESCO(United Nations Educational, Scientific andCultural Organization，CD-ROM （compact disk ofread-only-memory）: morphemes manifesting various grammaticalrelations or grammatical categories such as number,tense, degree and case. Affixes are of two types:inflectional and derivational. Inflectional affixes manifestvarious grammatical relations or grammatical categories,such as “-ing”, “-est”, while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word, such as “-ly”,“dis-“, “un-“.: The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are calledthe allophones of that phoneme. For example [l] and [l]: The angular gyrus lies behind Wernicke’ s area. The angular gyrus is the language centerresponsible for converting a visual stimulus into anauditory form and vice versa. This area is crucial for thematching of a spoken form with a perceived object, forthe naming of objects, and for the comprehension ofwritten language , all of which require connectionsbetween visual and speech regions.: Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness of meaning (on different dimensions).: the deletion of a word-final vowel segment.: In a narrow sense, appliedlinguistics refers to the application of linguisticprinciples and theories to language teaching andlearning, especially the teaching of foreign and secondlanguages. In a broad sense, it refers to the applicationof linguistic findings to the solution of practicalproblems such as the recovery of speech ability.: It is one of the design features of language. It means that there is no logical connectionbetween meanings and sounds. A good example is thefact that different sounds are used to refer to the sameobject in different languages.: It studies the speech sounds fromthe hearer’s point of view. It studies how the sounds areperceived by the hearer.: It is a process by which new words areformed by taking away the supposed suffix of an existingword. For example: typewrite (typewriter), edit (editor): a theory of psychology which, when applied to first language acquisition,suggests that the learner’s verbal behavior isconditioned or reinforced through association betweenstimulus and response.: ilingualism refers to a linguistic situation inwhich two standard languages are used either by anindividual or by a group of speakers, such as theinhabitants of a particular region or a nation.: a process of forming a new word by combiningparts of two words. For example: smog (smoke + fog),brunch (breakfast + lunch): Bound morphemes are themorphemes which cannot be used independently buthave to be combined with other morphemes, either freeor bound, to form a word. For example: “-er”, “dis-“,“-less” are all bound morphemes.: the localization of cognitive and perceptual functions in a particular hemisphere of thebrain.: the transcription with letter-symbols only, i.e. one letter-symbol for one sound. This is thetranscription normally used in dictionaries and teachingtextbooks.: It refers to the frontal lobe in the left cerebral hemisphere, which is vital to language. Thisarea is discovered by Paul Broca, a French surgeonand anatomist.: simple, modified speech used by parents, baby-sitter, etc. when they talk to youngchildren who are acquiring their native language.: the outside surface of the brain which receives messages from all the sensory organs andwhere human cognitive abilities reside.: According to Lenneberg, prior to the end of the critical period, both hemispheres areinvolved to some extent in language and one can takeover if the other is damaged. This neurological flexibilityis called cerebral plasticity .: clipping is a kind of abbreviation of otherwiselonger words or phrases. For example: gym(gymnasium), zoo (zoological garden), fridge(refrigerator), e-mail (electronic mail), hi-fi (highfidelity).: a word in one language which is similar in formand meaning to a word in another language becauseboth languages have descended from a commonsource.: When two words are identical inboth sound and spelling, they are called completehomonyms. e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n.: a complex sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated into theother. That is, the two clauses hold unequal status, onesubordinating the other. The incorporated, orsubordinate, clause is normally called an embeddedclause, and the clause into which it is embedded iscalled a matrix clause.: Componential analysis is a wayproposed by structural semanticists to analyze wordmeaning. This approach is based on the belief that themeaning of a word can be divided into meaningcomponents, which are called semantic features. Forexample: the word “man” is analyzed as comprising thefeatures of +HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE.: Compounding can be viewed as thecombination of two or sometimes more than two wordsto create new words.: It is a process of combining two or morethan two words into one lexical unit. For example:sailboat, big-mouth, three-year-old.: the sounds in the production of which thereis an obstruction of the air stream at some point of thevocal tract are called consonants.: Constatives were statements that either state or describe, and were verifiable;: The notion of context is essential to the pragmatic study of language. It consists of (It isgenerally considered as constituted by) the knowledgethat is shared by the speaker and the hearer. The sharedknowledge is of two types: the knowledge of thelanguage they use, and the knowledge about the world,including the general knowledge about the world and thespecific knowledge about the situation in which linguisticcommunication is taking place.: a comparative procedure used to establish linguistic differences between two languagesso as to predict learning difficulties caused byinterference from the learner’s first language andprepare the type of teaching materials that will reducethe affects of interference.: Most of the violations of thecooperative principles give rise to what Paul Grice calls“conversational implicatures.” When we violate any ofthese maxims, our language becomes indirect andimplies an extra meaning.: It is a principle advanced by Paul Grice. His idea is that in making conversations, theparticipants must first of all be willing to cooperate,otherwise it would not be possible for them to carry onthe talk. The content is: Make your conversationalcontribution such as required at the stage at which itoccurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talkexchange in which you are engaged.: A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinatingconjunction, such as “and”, “but”, “or”.: A creole language is originally a pidgin that hasbecome established as a native language in somespeech community.: an early period of one’s life extending the age of puberty, during which the human brain ismost ready to acquire language naturally andeffortlessly , a period that coincides with the period ofbrain lateralization for language functions.: While we are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of any language arenot genetically transmitted, but instead have to betaught and learned.: Derivation is a process of word formation bywhich derivative affixes are added to an existing form tocreate a word.: It is a process by which new words areformed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems orwords. For example: uglification（丑化），finalize.: Derivational morphology is thestudy of word-formation.: It refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animalsystem of communication: a term used instead of historical linguistics to refer to the study of language change atvarious points in time and at various historical stages.: The study of a language as it changes through time. A diachronic study of language is ahistorical study, which studies the historicaldevelopment of language over a period of time. e.g. astudy of the changes English has undergone sinceShakespeare’s time is a diachronic study.: is a set of symbols which can be added to the letter-symbols to make finer distinctions than the lettersalone make possible.: a research technique which has beenused to study how the brain controls hearing andlanguage, with which subjects wear earphones andsimultaneously receive different sounds in the right andleft ear, and are then asked to repeat what they hear.: a sociolinguistic situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speechcommunity, each serving a particular social functionand used for a particular situation: language can be used to refer to thingswhich are present or not present, real or imaginedmatters in the past, present, or future, or in far-awayplaces. In other words, language can be used to referto contexts removed from the immediate situations ofthe speaker.: D- structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place.Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon,generate sentences at the level of D-structure.: Language is a system, which consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds at thelower or basic level, and the other of meanings at thehigher level.: the insertion of the consonant or vowel sound to the middle of a word.: an approach to the study and analysis of the errors made by second language learners whichsuggests that many leaner errors are not due to thelearner’s mother tongue interference but reflectuniversal learning strategies such as overgeneralizationand simplification of rules.: Within a society, speech variation may come about because of different ethnic backgrounds.An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of alanguage, often cutting across regional differences. Anethnic dialect is spoken mainly by a less privilegedpopulation that has experienced some form of socialisolation, such as racial discrimination or segregation.: a word or expression that is thought to be mild, indirect, or less offensive and used as a politesubstitute for the supposedly harsh and unpleasantword or expression.（定式子句）: a clause that takes a subjectand a finite verb, and at the same time standsstructurally alone. (A simple sentence satisfies thestructural requirements of a finite clause.): a process that sometimes occurs in second language learning in which incorrect linguisticfeatures (such as the accent or a grammatical pattern)become a permanent part of the way a person speaksor writes in the target language.: Free morphemes are the morphemes which are independent units of meaning and can beused freely all by themselves or in combination with othermorp hemes. For example: “help”, “table”, “room” areall free morphemes.: The study of language as a whole iscalled general linguistics.: The grammatical meaning of asentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e., itsgrammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of asentence is governed by the grammatical rules of thelanguage.: The structural and logicalfunctional relations of constituents are calledgrammatical relations. The grammatical relations of asentence concern the way each noun phrase in thesentence relates to the verb. In many cases,grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what towhom.: a series of systematic sound change in the history of English that involved seven long vowelsand consequently led to one of the major discrepancies（差异） between English pronunciation and its spellingsystem.: It is a series of systematic sound change at the end of the Middle English periodapproximately between 1400 and 1600 in the history ofEnglish that involved seven long vowels andconsequently led to one of the major discrepanciesbetween English pronunciation and its spelling system.: It refers to the phenomenon of the loss of one of two phonetically similar syllables in sequence.（层次结构）: the sentence structurethat groups words into structural constituents and showsthe syntactic category of each structural constituent,such as NP and VP.: a subfield of linguistics that studies language change (or historical development oflanguage).: a single word that appears in children’searly speech and functions as a complex idea orsentence.: They are children’s one-wordutterances. They are called holophrastic sentences,because they can be used to express a concept orpredication that would be associated with an entiresentence in adult speech.同形异义: When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. e.g. tear v. / tear n.（同音异义，同形异义）: Homonymy refers tothe phenomenon that words having different meaningshave the same form, i.e. , different words are identical insound or spelling, or in both.（同音异义）: When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones. e.g. rain/reign.（下义关系）: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive wordand a more specific word. The word which is moregeneral is called a superordinate（上坐标词）, and themore specific words are called its hyponyms.(Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponymsto each other.) e.g. superordinate: animal, hyponyms:dog, cat, lion, tiger.: An idiolect is a personal dialect of an individualspeaker that combines aspects of all the elementsregarding regional, social, and stylistic variation, in one form or another. In a narrower sense, what makes upone’s idiolect includes also such fac tors as voicequality, pitch and speech rhythm, which all contributeto the identifying features in an individual’ s speech.: An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the actperformed in saying something.: the manifestation of various grammaticalrelationships through the addition of inflectional affixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.: The inflectional morphologystudies the inflections: the language which a learner hears or receivesand from which he or she can learn.: the learner’s desire to learn asecond language because it is useful for somefunctional, “instrumental” goals, such as getting a job,passing an examination, or reading for information.（介入性学习动机）: the learner’sdesire to learn a second language in order tocommunicate with native speakers of the targetlanguage.: the use of one’s first language rule which leads to an error or inappropriate form in the targetlanguage.: the approximate language system that a second language learner constructs which representshis or her transitional competence in the targetlanguage.: the application of a rule from one part of the grammar to another part of the grammar byanalogy（类推，类似） to its earlier operation.alphabet [IPA]: It is a standardized and internationally accepted system ofphonetic transcription.: It means language usersuse language to convey information, thoughts andfeelings from one person to another, or to control eachother’ s behavior.: When pitch, stress and sound length are tiedto the sentence rather than the word inisolation, they arecollectively known as intonation. For example, Englishhas four basic types of intonation: the falling tone, therising tone, the fall-rise tone and the rise-fall tone.: the process of usinglanguage within the individual to facilitate one’s ownthought and aid the formulation and manipulation ofconcepts.: a group of historically (or genetically) related languages that have developed from a commonancestral language.: a general term used t refer to the development of a person’sfirst ,second , or foreignlanguage.: The ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language. Atransformational-generative grammar（转化生成语法）is a model of language competence.: performance is the actual realization of the ideal languageuser’s knowledge ofthe rules in linguistic communication.: language standardization is known as language planning. This means that certainauthorities, such as the government or governmentagency of a country, choose a particular speech varietyand spread the use of it, including its pronunciation andspelling systems, across regional boundaries.: the effect of the first language knowledge on the learning of a second language.: Language is a system of arbitrary vocalsymbols used for human communication.: Langue refers to the abstract linguistic systemshared by all the members of a speech community;Langue is the set of conventions and rules whichlanguage users all have to follow; Langue is relativelystable, it does not change frequently.: Learning, however, is defined by Krashen asa conscious process of accumulating knowledge of asecond language usually obtained in school settings.: a variety of language that serves as acommon speech for social contact among groups ofpeople who speak different native languages ordialects.: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rulescomprise the system of internalized linguisticknowledge of a language speaker known as linguisticcompetence.: a theory put forward by the American anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf,which states that the way people view the world isdetermined by the structure of their native language.: hemispheric specialization or dominance for language.: Whorf believed that speakers of different languages perceive and experience the worlddifferently, relative to their linguistic background, hencethe notion of linguistic relativism .: an obscene, profane, or swear word or expression that is prohibited from general use by theeducated and “polite” society.: It is generally defined as the scientific studyof language.: A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literalmeaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.: Sound change as a result of soundmovement is known as metathesis. It involves a reversalin position of two neighbouring sound segments.: a major period in the history of English development that began with the arrival of the NormanFrench invaders in England in 1100 and ended in 1500.: When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs inthe same place in the strings, the two words are said toform a minimal pair. For example: bin and pin.: a period in the history of English development that began roughly from 1500 to thepresent.: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language. For example: the word “boyish” consists of twomorpheme s: “boy” and “ish”.: Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules bywhich words are formed. It is divided into twosub-branches: inflectional morphology and lexical orderivational morphology.: a general movement rule accounting for thesyntactic behavior of any constituent movement.: is the transcription withletter-symbols together with the diacritics. This is thetranscription used by the phoneticians in their study ofspeech sounds.: Language varieties other thanthe standard are called nonstandard languages: a major period in the history of English development that began in 449 and ended in 1100.: When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we mayregar d speech as “overt thought.”: Parole refers to the realization of langue inactual use; parole is the concrete use of theconventions and the application of the rules; parolevaries from person to person, and from situation tosituation.: performatives, on the other hand, were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state,and were not verifiable. Their function is to perform aparticular speech act.: A perlocutionary act is the actperformed by or resulting from saying something; it isthe consequence of, or the change brought about by theutterance; it is the act performed by saying something.: Phones can be simply defined as the speechsounds we use when speaking a language. A phone is aphonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarilydistinguish meaning.: a collection of abstract phonetic features, it is a basic unit in phonology. It is represented or realized asa certain phone by a certain phonetic context.: Phonemic contrast refers to therelation between two phonemes. If two phonemes canoccur in the same environment and distinguish meaning,they are in phonemic contrast.: Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all thesounds that occur in the world’ s language s: Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language;it aims to discover how speechsounds in a language form patterns and how thesesounds are used to convey meaning in linguisticcommunication.: a rewrite rule that allows for thepossible combinations of words to form phrases andsentences.: a marginal contact language with a limitedvocabulary and reduced grammatical structures, usedby native speakers of other languages as a means ofbusiness communication.: Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning.: the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.: It is an approach proposed byBritish linguist G. Leech for sentential meaning analysis. In semantic analysis of a sentence, predication is the basic unit which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. This applies to all forms of sentence,including statements, imperative and interrogative forms.A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate. An argument is a logical participant in a prediction, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence. A predicate is something said about an argument or itstates the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.: Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word.Prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but theyusually do not change the part of speech of the original word.: Language is productive or creative in that itmakes possible the construction and interpretation ofnew signals by its users.: the original (or ancestral) form of alanguage family which has ceased to exist.: the study of language in relation tothe mind, with focus on the processed of language production, comprehension and acquisition.: Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with therelationship between the linguistic element and thenon-linguistic world of experience.: a functional speech or language variety that involves degrees of formality depending on the speechsituation concerned.: The speech signals presented inthe right ear goes directly to the left brain, while thespeech signals in the left ear must first go to the righthemisphere, from where it is transferred to the left sideof the brain for processing. Since the speech signals inthe left ear takes a non-direct route and a longer timebefore processing than a linguistic signal receivedthrough the right ear, linguistic stimuli heard in the leftear are reported less accurately than those heard in theright ear. This phenomenon is called the right earadvantage.: A root is often seen as part of a word; it can neverstand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning;it must be combined with another root or an affix to forma word. For example: the root “geo-“combines withanother root “-ology”, we get the word “geology”.: a theory put forward by theAmerican anthropological linguists Sapir and Whorf(and also a belief held by some scholars) which statesthat the way people view the world is determined whollyor partly by the structure of their native language.: Second languageacquisition (SLA) is a general term which refers to theacquisition of a second language(L2) ,in contrast withfirst language acquisition (FLA). SLA is also used as ageneral term to refer to the acquisition of a foreign or subsequent language (such as a third or fourthlanguage). Thus, SLA is primarily the study of howlearners acquire or learn an additional language afterthey have acquired their first language (LI).: the process in which the meaningof a word becomes more general or inclusive than itshistorically earlier meaning.: Semantic narrowing is a process inwhich the meaning of a word becomes less general orinclusive than its historically earlier meaning.: Semantic shift is a process of semanticchange in which a word loses its former meaning andacquires a new, sometimes related, meaning.: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language.: Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning ofthe linguistic form. It is the collection of all the featuresof the linguistic form; it is abstract andde-contextualized.: The meaning of a sentence is oftenconsidered as the abstract, intrinsic property of thesentence itself in terms of a predication.: A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form acomplete statement, question or command. Normally, asentence consists of at least a subject and a predicatewhich contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.: a simple sentence consists of a singleclause which contains a subject and a predicate andstands alone as its own sentence.: Slang is a casual use of language that consists of expressive but non-standard vocabulary, typically ofarbitrary, flashy and often ephemeral coinages andfigures of speech characterized by spontaneity andsometimes by raciness.: a variety of language used by peoplebelonging to a particular social class.: the subdiscipline of linguistics that studies language variation and language use in social。